Chemistry Slides

DARRELL ER (COPYRIGHTED) ©
DARRELL ER (COPYRIGHTED)
TOPIC 1.1:
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
THE ABOUT
TIME
CHAPTER
ANALYSIS EXAM
WEIGHTAGE
KEY CONCEPT
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
APPARATUS FOR MEASUREMENT
GAS COLLECTION
MUST KNOW
APPARATUS FOR MEASUREMENT

Apparatus Smallest division Uncertainty Example of
(1/2 of smallest division) value
Burette 0.1cm3 0.05 cm3 27.00 cm3
28.85 cm3
Pipette fixed fixed 25.0 cm3
(fixed value)
Measuring cylinder 1 cm3 0.5 cm3 16.0 cm3
17.5 cm3
Digital stopwatch 0.01s 0.01s 26.46 s
1.5 mins
Thermometer 1oC 0.5 oC 21.0 oC
46.5 oC
Electronic balance 0.01g 0.01g 4.53 g
KEY CONCEPT
DISPLACEMENT OF WATER
This method for collecting gases which are

insoluble or slightly soluble in water.
As the gases does not dissolve in water, they

would rise to the top of the gas jar.
Some examples of gases collected via this

method includes H2, O2, CO and CO2.
KEY CONCEPT
UPWARDS DELIVERY
This method is used to collect gases which have a

lighter density as compared to air*.
NH3 & H2 are gases which can be collected using

this method.
* Mr of air is around 28.8. (78% N2 + 21% O2)

KEY CONCEPT
DOWNWARDS DELIVERY
This method is used to collect gases which have a

heavier density as compared to air*.
Some examples of gases collected using this

method includes Cl2, HCl and SO2.
* Mr of air is around 28.8. (78% N2 + 21% O2)

KEY CONCEPT
DRYING OF GAS
To dry a sample of gas, we can pass it through drying agents like:
- concentrated sulfuric acid

- quicklime (calcium oxide)
- fused calcium chloride (calcium chloride)
ADVANCED
Concentrated sulfuric acid
things Quicklime (Calcium Oxide)
to
note
Fused Calcium Chloride
Try it yourself! (TYS Question)
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 1.2:
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
1
THE ABOUT
• Relatively straight forward chapter
• 2 key concepts
• 4 advanced concepts
TIME
CHAPTER • Usually tested in MCQs
ANALYSIS EXAM
•
🡪 2009 (3), 2012 (1), 2013 (2), 2014 (2), 2015 (1)
Tested as add-on to other chapters
🡪 Salts, Fuels & Crude Oil
• Light overall weightage

• Constitute to 0.5% of marks for past 5 year papers
WEIGHTAGE
2
9 DIFFERENT
SEPARATION
TECHNIQUES
EVAPORATION SUBLIMATION
FILTRATION MAGNETIC
CRYSTALLISATION
3
DIFFERENT
SEPARATION
TECHNIQUES
FRACTIONAL
DISTILLATION
CHROMOTO
GRAPHY
9 IN TOTAL
DISTILLATION SEPARATING
FUNNEL
4
MUST KNOW
PURE SUBSTANCE VS IMPURE MIXTURE
Pure Substance Impure Mixture
Definition Only one type of Two or more substances

substance
Physical properties Fixed proportion Any ratio
Fixed M.P. & B.P. Have a range of M.P. &
B.P.
Single spot on Multiple spots on a
chromatogram chromatogram
5
MUST KNOW
COMPOUND VS MIXTURE
Compound Mixture
Formation Chemically combined Physically combined

Separation Can be separated using chemical Can be separated using physical
technique methods (Decomposition, methods (separation techniques)
electrolysis, reduction with carbon)
Composition Fixed ratio Any ratio
m.p/b.p Fixed mp & bp Have a range of M.P. & B.P.
6
Let’s get over the

3 simpler ones
first
FILTRATION MAGNETIC
SEPARATING
FUNNEL
7
MUST KNOW
FILTRATION
1) Put a filter paper onto the filter funnel.
2) Pour the mixture into the filter funnel.
3) The residue will remain in the filter funnel while the

filtrate will be collected in the beaker.
8
MUST KNOW
SEPARATING FUNNEL (IMMISCIBLE

LIQUIDS)
1) Oil and water are immiscible (do not dissolve with each other).
2) Oil which is less dense than water will float on top of water.
3) Open the tap and collect the water in a beaker.
4) Drain out the leftover water and some of the oil and throw the impure
mixture away.
5) Collect the remaining oil in a separate beaker.
9
MUST KNOW
MAGNETIC SEPARATION
Magnetic Materials
N ickel Magnetic separation is used to separate magnetic material from a mixture with
other non-magnetic materials. (Scrapeyard)
I ron
C obalt
S teel
St’ Nics girls are pretty right? Know a Nicholas that is handsome?
Are you attracted? That’s right, magnetic material.
10
Many students are confused when it comes to these 2 separation techniques:
KEY CONCEPT How exactly are they different and in which scenarios do we use them?
TWO METHODS
EVAPORATION TO DRYNESS
CRYSTALLISATION
11
MUST KNOW
EVAPORATION TO DRYNESS
For this method, the solution is heated until all the water is
evaporated completely, leaving behind only the solid.
However, a limitation to this method is that it cannot be used for

solids that decompose on heating.
For example, sugar decomposes upon heating, salt however does not.
12
*A saturated solution contains the

maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolved in the solvent at a particular
temperature.
MUST KNOW
CRYSTALLISATION
Crystallisation is different from evaporation to dryness.
The aim of crystallisation aim is not to evaporate ALL of the water, but rather it focuses on heating it
till saturation. After which, it is left to cool in order to obtain the crystals.
This is used for crystals that decompose upon heating to be collected. (ie: sugar)
Steps:
1) Heat the solution till saturation.

2) Allow the saturated solution to cool and pure solid crystals will form slowly.
3) Filter to collect the crystals.
4) Wash the crystals with cold distilled water and dry between sheets of filter paper.
13
Ultimately, what it boils down to the nature of the salt.
The critical question to ask is:
Will the solute decompose under heating?
If yes, use crystallisation.
If not, use evaporation to dryness.
Example:
Sugar decomposes under heat, crystallisation is the correct
choice.
Salt has high melting & boiling point, evaporation to dryness
will get the job done.
EVAPORATION TO
DRYNESS
VS
14
CRYSTALLISATION
MUST KNOW
SUBLIMATION
1) Heat the mixture (iodine+ sand) and the volatile compound

(iodine) will start to sublime (solid to gas).
2) Place a cool funnel over the evaporating dish. The gaseous iodine
will condense on the cool funnel and form pure iodine in solid state.
3) Collect the iodine crystals.
15
When do we do simple distillation and when do we do fractional distillation?
KEY CONCEPT Is one method better than the other?
FATHER & SON

SIMPLE DISTILLATION &
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
16
KEY CONCEPT
SIMPLE DISTILLATION
1) Heat the solution in a round-bottomed flask

for even heat distribution. Boiling chips are
added to prevent vigorous movement of liquid
which ensure smooth boiling.
2) The water boils and water vapour rises and

enters the condenser. The water vapour cools
down in the condenser and is collected as a
distillate.
3) The distillate is collected in a conical flask to

prevent spillage.
17
KEY CONCEPT
1) Heat the mixture. The liquid with the lowest

boiling point will be the first to be vaporised.
2) Its vapour will rise up to the top of the

fractionating column, cooled as it passes through
the condenser and be collected as the distillate.
Ensure the temperature remains the same until
all of first vapour has condensed.
3) Collect the distillate in the conical flask.
4) Repeat the process and collect the different

substances that were in the mixture.
18
ADVANCED
Difference in boiling points

The rationale behind fractional distillation is the miscible liquids in the solution having
a minimum of at least 10°C difference in boiling point.
By boiling the liquids at their respective boiling point, it allows us to separate them.
things Purpose of fractionating column
to A fractionating column contains a large number of glass beads, creating a larger

surface area for condensation of vapours for substances that have yet to reach
note their boiling point. This would only allow the intended vapour to escape.
Understanding the science behind fractional distillation
Purpose of thermometer
The thermometer is placed at the tip of the fractionating column, right before the gas
enters the condenser.
By doing so, we can monitor the temperature of the gas that is escaping
accurately, allowing us to adjust the intensity of the heat accordingly.
19
KEY CONCEPT So in which situations is simple distillation

used and which situations do we use
fractional distillation?
FATHER & SON

SIMPLE DISTILLATION &
20
*Key concept from Fuel and Crude Oil chapter in Organic Chemistry.
ADVANCED
APPLICATION: OIL REFINERY
See you
again soon!
21
MUST KNOW
CHROMATOGRAPHY
23
CHROMATOGRAPHY
Factors affecting the differences in Rf values
- Solubility of the substances in the solvent used (The more soluble it is, the easier it is
for the substance to travel further and faster.)
- Molecular masses of the substances (The lower the molecular mass, the faster a
substance travels. Refer to periodic table!)
24
ADVANCED
Substance solubility in solvent

A substance’s solubility in a particular solvent is commonly the main reason which
results in differing Rf values.
things Locating Agent
to For colourless substances, a locating agent is required to make the colourless

solution visible.
note Knowing the names of specific locating agents is not needed. Yay!
Chromatography is a method used to separate and identify

small amounts of solutes that are dissolved in solvents.
Precaution
Starting line should be drawn with pencil instead of ink as the ink may dissolve in
the solute, causing the results to be inaccurate. Commonly tested!
25
Answer:
26
Answer:
27
TOPIC 1.3:
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
1
THE ABOUT
• Heavy memorising
• 3 key concepts
TIME
CHAPTER • Always tested
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Typical format is a flowchart question which
involves backtracking to identify ions
• Medium overall weightage

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
TEST FOR CATIONS
TEST FOR ANIONS
TEST FOR GASES
3
KEY CONCEPT
TEST FOR CATIONS
Cation Reaction with NaOH (aq) Reaction with NH3 (aq)
(strong alkaline) (weak alkaline)
BLUE Copper(II)
Cu2+
Forming blue precipitate of Cu(OH)2
Precipitate is insoluble in excess NaOH
Forming blue precipitate of Cu(OH)2
Precipitate dissolves in excess NH3 to give dark blue complex
ion
Iron(II) Forming green precipitate of Fe(OH)2 Forming green precipitate of Fe(OH)2

GREEN Fe2+ Precipitate is insoluble in excess NaOH Precipitate is insoluble in excess NH3
Iron(III) Forming reddish-brown precipitate of Fe(OH)3 Forming reddish-brown precipitate of Fe(OH)3

REDDISH Fe3+ Precipitate is insoluble in excess NaOH Precipitate is insoluble in excess NH3
BROWN
Calcium Forming white precipitate of Ca(OH)2 No observable reaction
WHITE Ca2+ Precipitate is insoluble in excess NaOH
Aluminium Forming white precipitate of Al(OH)3 Forming white precipitate of Al(OH)3 Gives exactly same
Al3+ Precipitate dissolves in excess NaOH to give colourless solution Precipitate is insoluble in excess NH3 result for both
reaction.
PPT formed is Lead(II) Forming white precipitate of Pb(OH)2 Forming white precipitate of Pb(OH)2 Add potassium iodide,
amphoteric oxide Pb2+ Precipitate dissolves in excess NaOH to give colourless solution Precipitate is insoluble in excess NH3 lead (II) ions will give a
and is able to react yellow ppt (insoluble
with alkaline to lead iodide).
produce soluble salt. Zinc Forming white precipitate of Zn(OH)2 Forming white precipitate of Zn(OH)2
Zn2+ Precipitate dissolves in excess NaOH to give colourless solution Precipitate dissolves in excess NH3 to give colourless solution
Ammonium No precipitate formed No observable reaction

NH4+ Warming the solution produces pungent ammonia gas which turns
4 moist red litmus blue
KEY CONCEPT
TEST FOR ANIONS
Anions Test Observation
Carbonate Add dilute H2SO4 and bubble gas produced through limewater. Bubbles of CO2 gas produced which gives a white precipitate of
CO32- (Any other suitable dilute acid can be used.) CaCO3 in limewater.
2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)  CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Sulfate Add dilute HNO3, followed by adding Ba(NO3)2 solution. A white precipitate of BaSO4 is formed.
SO42-
We are adding Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)  BaSO4 (s)
reagents with cations
that can form an Chloride Add dilute HNO3, followed by adding AgNO3 solution. A white precipitate of AgCl is formed.
insoluble salt with the Cl-
anion.
Ag+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)  AgCl (s) For alternative test:
The insoluble salt is
the coloured ppt we Alternative test: Add dilute HNO3, followed by adding Pb(NO3)2 A white precipitate of PbCl2 is formed.
observe. solution.
Dilute HNO3 is first Pb2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)  PbCl2 (s)

added to remove
other possible anions Iodide Add dilute HNO3, followed by adding Pb(NO3)2 solution. A yellow precipitate of PbI2 is formed.
present such as I-
carbonates Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq)  PbI2 (s) For alternative test:
and hydroxides. A yellow precipitate of AgI is formed.
Alternative test: Add dilute HNO3, then add AgNO3 solution.
As presence of these
anions might also
Ag2+ (aq) + I- (aq)  AgI (s)
produce precipitates
with silver or lead. Nitrate Add dilute NaOH, followed by adding a little aluminium powder. Pungent NH3 gas is produced which turns moist red litmus
NO3- Warm the mixture. blue.
Nitric acid is not
needed if there is only
one anion. Aluminium reduces NO3- to NH4+ ions:
5 NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  NH3 (aq) + H2O (l)

KEY CONCEPT
TEST FOR GASES
Gas Smell Test Observation
Ammonia, NH3 colourless, Test with a moist piece of red litmus paper Moist red litmus paper turns blue
pungent
Carbon dioxide, colourless, Bubble the gas through limewater, Ca(OH)2 A white precipitate (CaCO3) is formed
CO2 odourless
Chlorine, Cl2 greenish- Test with a moist piece of blue litmus paper Blue litmus paper first turns red and then
yellow, bleached
pungent
Hydrogen, H2 colourless, Place a lighted splint near the gas Gas extinguishes lighted splint with a “pop”
odourless sound
Oxygen, O2 colourless, Place a glowing splint near the gas Gas reignites glowing splint
odourless
Sulfur dioxide, colourless, Bubble the gas through a solution of acidified potassium Acidified potassium dichromate (VI)
SO2 pungent dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7. turns from orange to green
Alternative: Bubble the gas through a solution of acidified Acidified potassium manganate (VII)
potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4. turns from purple to colourless
Recall:
SO2 is a reducing agent! Redox reaction occurs.
6
Answer:
7
Answer:
8
TOPIC 2.1:
KINETIC PARTICLE
THEORY
1
THE ABOUT
• Straight forward chapter
• 2 key concepts
TIME
ANALYSIS EXAM
🡪 2009 (2), 2010(1), 2011 (2), 2012 (1), 2014 (1),
2016 (1), 2017 (1)
• Structured
🡪 2010 (6 marks)

• Less commonly tested in recent years
WEIGHTAGE
2
MUST KNOW
BASICS
Solid Liquid Gas
• Fixed volume • Fixed volume • No fixed volume

• Fixed shape • No fixed shape • No fixed shape
• Cannot be • Cannot be • Can be compressed
compressed compressed easily
• Does not flow • Flows easily • Flows in all direction
3
MUST KNOW
KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY OF

MATTER
The theory states that:
• all matter consist of particles that are too small to be directly visible,
• the particles are always in a constant state of random motion at varying

speeds.
4
KEY CONCEPT
KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY OF MATTER

Physical Properties Solid Liquid Gas
Particulate model of
matter
Arrangement Closely packed in an orderly Loosely packed in a Far apart & random
arrangement disorderly arrangement arrangement
Forces of attraction Very strong attractive force Strong attractive force Weak attractive force
Density Very high density High density Low density
Movement Vibrate about its fixed Particles sliding over one Move about at high speeds
position another freely randomly
Energy Increasing energy
5
CHANGE IN STATE
6
MELTING (SOLID TO LIQUID)

Temperature / °C
• During melting, the particles gain energy from the

surroundings and vibrate vigorously about their
fixed positions until they have sufficient energy to
overcome and break free from the attractive
forces.
Melting Melting
starts ends
Melting
• The temperature remains constant during the
point melting process as the heat energy absorbed is
used to overcome the forces of attraction.
solid + liquid liquid

solid • A mixture of solid and liquid is present during
this stage.
Time/min
The temperature of the matter (solid) is a measure

7 of the average kinetic energy the matter possesses.
FREEZING (LIQUID TO SOLID)

Temperature / °C • At A, the particles have lost enough kinetic energy
and freezing starts.
• The particles after losing most of their kinetic

energy, no longer have enough energy to
overcome the forces of attraction between
themselves and would return to their fixed
Freezing Freezing position.
Freezing point starts ends
=
Melting point
• Between A and B, the freezing process is ongoing.
The temperature remains constant because
heat energy is being released to the
liquid liquid + solid solid surroundings. The release of heat energy negates
the cooling effect resulting in the temperature
remaining is constant.
A B
Time/min
• A mixture of solid and liquid is present during this
stage.
8
BOILING (LIQUID TO GAS)

Temperature / °C
• At A, sufficient heat energy has been absorbed to
reach its boiling point.
• During boiling, the particles have gains the

required amount of energy to overcome the
forces of attraction between them to move even
Boiling Boiling further apart.
starts ends
boiling
point • Between A and B, the boiling process is ongoing.
The temperature remains constant as heat
energy gained was used to overcome the forces of
liquid liquid + gas gas attraction between particles rather than used to
increase the particles’ kinetic energy/temperature.
A B
Time/min • A mixture of gas and liquid is present at this stage.
9
CONDENSATION (GAS TO LIQUID)

Temperature / °C
• At A, the particles lost much of its kinetic energy

and condensation starts.
• During condensation, the particles loses most of

its energy to that was used to overcome the
forces of attraction between themselves
Condensation
Condensation Condensation resulting in them coming closer together.
starts ends
point
=
Boiling point • Heat energy is released to the surroundings as
particles slow down and become more closely
packed. The release of heat energy negates the
gas + liquid liquid
gas cooling effect resulting in the temperature
remaining constant.
A B
Time/min • A mixture of gas and liquid is present during this
stage.
10
ADVANCED
SOLID TO GAS
SUBLIMATION
DEPOSITION
11
ADVANCED
SUBLIMATION & DEPOSITION

Common Substances
Iodine is a dark purple solid at room temperature. When low heat is applied, it undergoes
sublimation and becomes a violet gas.
Dry ice is frequently used as a cooling agent to keep temperatures low. It is used instead of
normal ice as it sublimes to form gaseous carbon dioxide, rather than water.
12
KEY CONCEPT
GAS/LIQUID PARTICLES
DIFFUSION
MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES
13
MUST KNOW
DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration.
During diffusion, gas or liquid particles would move to available spaces in a

container through random motion, mixing thoroughly in the process.
Diffusion in liquid Diffusion in gas
14
KEY CONCEPT
Higher temperature, faster rate of diffusion

With more kinetic energy, particles vibrate and move quicker at higher temperatures.
The higher the temperature, the greater the average kinetic energy, hence the the
particles move faster.
This leads to a faster rate of diffusion.
things
to Mass of particles
note
The lower the mass of the particles (Mr), the faster the rate of diffusion.
State of matter
As the particles in a liquid are packed closer together than in a gas, the same particles
has a slower rate of diffusion in a liquid as compared to a gaseous state.
Particles in gaseous state has a faster rate of diffusion than liquid state.
Concentration gradient
Heavier molecules moves slower. Hence, white precipitate forms nearer to the The greater the difference between concentration levels, it leads to a steeper
hydrochloric acid side. concentration gradient, which has a faster the rate of diffusion.
15
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 2.2:
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1
THE ABOUT
• 2 key concepts
• 1 advanced concept
TIME
CHAPTER • Usually tested in MCQs or Section A
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Tested as add-on to other chapters
🡪 Chemical Bonding, Periodic Table

• Constitute to 1% of marks for past 5 year papers
WEIGHTAGE
2
BASICS
BASICS
Subatomic particle Charge Relative mass Symbol Location
Proton +1 1 p Nucleus
Neutron 0 1 n Nucleus
Electron -1 1 / 1836 e Electron shell

(negligible mass)
3
BASICS
BASICS
Ar atom:
18- protons
22 - neutrons
First shell: Maximum of 2 electrons
Second shell: Maximum of 8 electrons
Third shell: Maximum of 8 electrons
Must know: 2,8,8 electronic configuration
*For elements after calcium, the third shell is able to hold a maximum of 18
4 electrons.  transition metals
BASICS
BASICS
Nucleon number
40
Ca
(protons + neutrons)
Symbol of element
Proton number / atomic number 20
Proton number: The total number of protons in an atom (number of electrons as well)
Nucleon number: The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Identity of an element is dependent on its proton number, not its nucleon number.
 To review later: Isotopes
5
‘plus’ sign
FORMATION OF POSITIVE IONS

When atoms that lose electrons, there are now more protons than electrons,
hence they become positively charged. They would become a cation.
The sodium atom achieves a stable electronic configuration by losing one electron.
It becomes a sodium cation with a charge of +1 and is written as Na+.
6
FORMATION OF NEGATIVE IONS

When atoms gain electrons, there are more electrons than protons now, they
become negative ions, called an anion.
Negative
The chlorine atom fully completes its valence shell by gaining one electron. It is
now a chlorine anion with a charge of -1 and is also written as Cl-.
7
WHY Let’s explore the WHY.

We will explore why atoms turn into ions and subsequently into compounds.
ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL  ATOM

ELECTRICALLY STABLE  ION
CHEMICALLY STABLE  COMPOUND
8
WHY
ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL
ATOM protons = electrons
Electrically neutral = normal person
ION IONIC FORM

octet structure
But everyone wants to be attractive, especially to an
opposite gender. Turn into an ion and seeking a partner.
CHEMICALLY STABLE
COMPOUND Ionic bond formation
The end goal is to be in a relationship=)
Compound.
9
KEY CONCEPT Let’s delve deeper into the understanding of isotopes, a common killer question at ‘O’ levels.
ISOTOPES
SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS
DIFFERENT NUMBER OF NEUTRONS
10
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the

same amount of protons and electrons but different
amount of neutrons.
Isotopes of an element have same chemical properties, as

they have the same amount of electrons. Hence, they will
undergo the same chemical reactions to form compounds with
the same chemical formula. (Recall electronic configuration)
However, isotopes will have differences in physical

properties as having different amount of neutrons means
that they have slightly different masses. This would also affect
other physical properties like their density.
SAME CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES
DIFFERENT PHYSICAL
11 PROPERTIES
Case Study: Chlorine mass: 35.5

Chlorine mass on the periodic table is 35.5.
Does it mean it has 35.5 proton + neutron?
The answer? No.
Chlorine exists as chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 atoms. There

are more chlorine-35 atoms however.
The final atomic mass seen on the periodic table is the sum
of atomic mass/percentage abundance of all the
Isotopes Percentage isotopes of chlorine.
Abundance
35Cl
Represented by calculation:
75%
37Cl 25% 35 x 75% + 37 x 25% = 35.5 (average mass)
🡪 Hence, chlorine’s Ar is 35.5.
12
KEY CONCEPT
Different number of neutrons

This causes differences in physical properties such as density.
things Same number of protons/electrons
to Isotopes have similar chemical properties as atoms would undergo the same
chemical reactions to form compounds with same chemical formula.
note
Understanding isotopes
Atomic mass is an average mass of the element’s isotopes

By taking into account the percentage composition of the different isotopes and
their respective masses, the periodic table displays that calculated average atomic
mass.
Case study: Chlorine’s Ar is 35.5
13
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 3:
MOLE CONCEPT & CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
1
THE ABOUT
• Need to practice a lot
• 5 key concepts
TIME
CHAPTER • Heavily tested
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Tested as add-on to other chapters
 Acid & Bases, Electrolysis etc…
• Heavy overall weightage

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
CHEMICAL EQUATION
CHEMICAL FORMULA
BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION
IONIC EQUATION
3
CHEMICAL IONIC COMPOUNDS
FORMULA
Some common anions:
Carbonate CO32-
Cation: Nitrate NO3-
Phosphate PO43-
Sulfate SO42-
Chloride Cl-
Forming of ionic compounds:
For example,
Cation: Ca2+
Anion: NO3-
To balance out charges,

Anion:
1 x Ca2+ & 2 x NO3-
Compound:
Ca(NO3)2
4
CHEMICAL
FORMULA COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Prefixes are generally used to name compounds.
Prefix:
Mono – 1
Di – 2
Tri – 3
Tetra – 4
Chlorine molecule Pent – 5
For example,
Nitrogen monoxide – NO
Nitrogen dioxide – NO2
Methane compound Water compound
5
STATE SYMBOLS
Solid (s)
Liquid (l)
Gaseous (g)
Aqueous (aq) – exist as ions in a solution, water was added.
BALANCING EQUATIONS
Check that the number of atoms for each element is equal on

both sides of the equation (reactants & products).
CHEMICAL To balance the chemical equation, you will need to add a

coefficient in front of the compounds that are not balanced.
EQUATION For example,
MgCl2 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq)  MgCO3 (s) + 2 NaCl (aq)
MgCO3 (s) + 2 HCl (aq)  MgCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Fe2O3 (s) + 3 CO (g)  2 Fe (s) + 3 CO2 (g)
Practice makes perfect!

6
IONIC
EQUATION Step 1
Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
CaCl2 (aq) + CuSO4 (aq)  CaSO4 (s) + CuCl2 (aq)
Step 2
An ionic equation is a chemical equation which only shows ions of Ionic compounds that are in aqueous state should be written as ions.
the aqueous compounds that took part in the chemical reaction.
Ca2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + Cu2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)  CaSO4 (s) + Cu2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
Only ionic compounds that are in aqueous state should be written as
ions.
Step 3
Remove all the spectator ions.
Ca2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + Cu2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)  CaSO4 (s) + Cu2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
Step 4
Obtain the final ionic equation.
Ca2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)  CaSO4 (s)
7
KEY CONCEPT
MOLE CONCEPT
Ar, Mr
MOLE
CONCENTRATION
8
RELATIVE MASS Relative atomic mass (Ar)
Ar of an element is defined as the average mass of its atom compared to 1/12

of the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
Relative molecular mass (Mr)

The term ‘relative mass’ is used when the mass of an atom is decided in Mr is defined as the average mass of a molecule of a substance compared to
‘relative’ to the mass of a carbon-12 atom. 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
In order words, an atom’s mass is defined by comparing it to the mass
of a carbon-12 atom. *Carbon–12 is used as a basis of comparison because it is the most commonly
available element on Earth.
1 unit of mass is 1/12 of carbon-12 atom.
‘Average mass’ is also used as elements has isotopes, hence we need to

use the element’s average mass!
Percentage by mass of an element present in a compound:
Ar x (no. of atoms)
X 100%
Mr of compound
9
MOLE WHAT IS MOLE?
One mole of any substance would contain 6.02 × 1023 particles.
The value 6.02 × 1023 is referred to as the Avogadro’s constant.
No. of particles = mole x 6.02 × 1023
Mass (in g)
No. of moles =
Mr
MOLAR VOLUME OF GASES
At room temperature and conditions, one mole of gas has a volume of 24 dm3
or 24 000 cm3.
Any type of gas, regardless of their chemical formula & Mr, all have the same
volume.
1 mole of gas = 24dm3
10
Concentration CONCENTRATION
Concentration of a solution refers to the amount of solute in a solution.
There are two ways to measure concentration:
1) The mass (in grams) of solute in 1 dm3 of a solution (gdm-3).

Mole / mass 2) The number of moles of solute in 1 dm3 of solution (moldm-3).
Concentration =
volume
Example:
Calculate the mass of solute in 600 cm3 of 0.4 moldm-3 copper(II) sulfate solution.
Volume of solution = 600 cm3 = 0.60 dm3
Number of moles of CuSO4

= Concentration (moldm-3) × Volume of solution (dm3)
= 0.4 × 0.60
No. of moles = Concentration x volume = 0.24 mol
Mass of CuSO4
= Number of moles (mol) × Molar mass (gmol-1)
= 0.24 × [64 + 32 + 4(16)]
= 38.4 g
11
KEY CONCEPT
STOICHIOMETRY
LIMITING REAGENT
PERCENTAGE YIELD & PERCENTAGE
PURITY
EMPIRICAL/MOLECULAR FORMULA
12
CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
CHEMICAL Example:
Find the mass of hydrogen gas formed when 80g of calcium metal is reacted
CALCULATIONS with excess hydrochloric acid.
Step 1: Write out the balanced equation.
STOICHIOMETRY FOR GAS Ca (s) + 2 HCl (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Since one mole of all gases share the same volume (1 mol = 24dm3),
assuming temperature and pressure are constant, volume of a gas is Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of Mg reacted.
directly proportional to the number of moles.
Number of moles of Ca reacted = mass / Mr
Hence, the mole ratio of gases in a chemical equation can also let us = 80 / 40
know the ratio of the volumes of gases in the chemical reaction. =2
Step 3: Determine the molar ratio.

N2 (g) + 2 O2 (g)  2 NO2 (g)
Number of moles of Ca reacted : Number of moles of H2 produced
10 cm3 of N2 will react with 20 cm3 of O2 to produce 20 cm3 of NO2. 1 : 1

2 : 2
Step 4: Calculate the mass of H2 produced.
Mass of H2 produced = Mole x Mr

=2x2
= 4.0 g
13
LIMITING REAGENT
LIMITING AND EXCESS REACTANTS
Not all the reactants are always fully used up in a chemical reaction.
The reaction will stop when one reactant is fully used up, even if the other
reactants are still available.
VISUALISE THIS The limiting reactant is the reactant that is completely used up first. It limits
the amount of product that can be formed.
For a car to be assembled, each car body must be assembled with 4
wheels. The excess reactant is the reactant that would still remain in excess even
when the limiting reactant has been completely reacted.
1 car body + 4 wheels  1 full car

Example:
How many full cars can I assemble if I have 10 car bodies & 12 car Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 KCl (aq)  CuCl2 (s) + 2 KNO3 (aq)
wheels?
Answer: 3 full cars Hypothetically, let’s say there is 1 mole of Cu(NO3)2 & 5 moles of KCl.
Hence, the wheels are the limiting reagent as it ‘limits’ further As there is only 1 mole of Cu(NO3)2, so even if there are 5 moles of KCl, only
reaction to assemble more cars even though there is an ‘excess’ of car 2 moles of KCl will react.
bodies.
Cu(NO3)2 is the limiting reactant while KCl is the excess reactant.
14
PERCENTAGE YIELD
Actual yield
Percentage yield = X 100%
PERCENTAGE Theoretical yield
YIELD Actual yield refers to the actual amount of product obtained.
Theoretical yield refers to the maximum amount of products formed based on chemical
&
calculation.
PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE PURITY
PURITY Percentage purity =

Mass of pure substance
X 100%
Mass of sample
15
Example (by mass):
EMPIRICAL
Calcium metal of mass 1.6g was burnt in oxygen to form calcium oxide.
When the calcium was completely burnt, the oxide produced had a mass of 2.24
g.
FORMULA Determine the empirical formula & molecular formula of this oxide.
(Mr is 102)
EMPIRICAL FORMULA Mass of calcium = 1.60 g

Mass of calcium oxide produced = 2.24 g
The empirical formula is the simplest ratio of the constituent Mass of oxygen reacted = 2.24 – 1.60 = 0.64 g
elements of a compound.
Calcium (Ca) Oxygen (O)
If values of Mr is given, the molecular formula can be determined.
 Just multiply by appropriate ratio to increase empirical formula to Mass in sample/g 1.6 0.64
match the Mr.
Molar mass/g mol-1 40 16
Number of moles 1.6 / 40 = 0.04 0.64 / 16 = 0.04
Simplest ratio 1 1
Hence, the empirical formula of the oxide is CaO.
Since Mr of oxide is 102,

n(40+16) = 102
16 Hence, molecular formula is Ca2O2.

Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 4:
ELECTROLYSIS
1
THE ABOUT
• Very difficult chapter
• 4 electrolytic cell set-up
• 1 simple electric cell set-up
TIME
CHAPTER • Usually tested in both MCQ & Paper 2
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Will need prior knowledge from other chapters:
Oxidation & Reduction, Chemical Equations

WEIGHTAGE
2
Chapter Overview USING REACTIVE

This is probably one of the most difficult chapter in ‘O’ Level Chemistry.
ELECTRODE
- 4 ions present
So let’s break down the chapter first before proceeding. - Selectively discharged
- Electroplating can occur if object is placed at cathode
as metal cations would deposit itself onto the object
ELECTROLYSIS & ELECTRIC CELL
MOLTEN DILUTE CONCENTRATEDSIMPLE ELECTRIC

- Only 2 ions present
- Both ions will definitely be
CELL
- 4 ions present - 4 ions present
- Selectively discharge based - Cation follows normal ease of discharge
discharged on ease of discharge - Anion follows ‘concentrated’ ease of discharge - Use chemical reaction to produce electricity
- Require 2 metals of differing reactivity
3 - Does not require electric source
KEY CONCEPT All of the 4 scenarios falls under

electrolytic cell.
Let’s aim to get our basics right!
ELECTROLYTIC CELL
MOLTEN IONIC COMPOUND
AQUEOUS IONIC COMPOUND
CONCENTRATED IONIC COMPOUND
ELECTROPLATING
4
ELECTROLYTIC CELL
ELECTROLYTIC CELL
An electrolytic cell is the set-up used for electrolysis.
Key components:
Electrolyte is the ionic compound, either in its molten or aqueous state,

that would dissociate into ions when a current is passed through it.
Electrodes are made of a conductive material. For inert electrodes, it is

usually made of lead or platinum.
Anode is the positively-charged electrode that is connected to the

positive terminal of the electrical source.
(Anode is positively charged & attracts anions, hence its called ‘anode’.)
Cathode is the negatively-charged electrode that is connected to the

negative terminal of the electrical source.
(Cathode is negatively charged & attracts cations, hence its called

‘cathode’.)
Battery/power source causes electrons to always flow from the anode

to the cathode.
(For those who take physics, under ‘electricity’, recall that electron flow is
from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the battery.)
5
ELECTROLYTIC CELL
ELECTROLYTIC CELL Anode is the positively-charged electrode, as it is connected

to the positive terminal of the battery.
During electrolysis, anions are attracted to the positively

charged anode.
Anions are negatively charged and are looking to lose

electrons to become neutral.
Hence, as anions lose electrons at the anode, they undergo

oxidation.
Cathode is the negatively-charged electrode, as it is

connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
During electrolysis, cations are attracted to the negatively

charged anode.
Cations are positively charged and are looking to gain

electrons to become neutral.
I advise all students to try and understand this concept rather than memorising.
Hence, as cations gain electrons at the cathode, they undergo
Try and understand the logic. Opposite charges attract, so ions move to the reduction.
respective electrodes that attract them. At the electrodes, they either gain or lose
electrons, in order to become neutral again.
It is a logical process that once you understand the ‘why’, you no longer need to
memorise.
6 AOCR ANODE OXIDATION
CATHODE REDUCTION
3 variations
DILUTE
All 3 variations of electrolytic cell follows the same
concept you have learnt in the previous 2 slides.
Let’s run through how the concept applies and what’s

the difference between the 3 set-ups.
MOLTEN
CONCENTRATED
7
Electrolysis of molten ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN SODIUM CHLORIDE
ionic compound Component
Ions present
Explanation
Na+ , Cl-
Observation Tiny globules of molten sodium, a silvery liquid, would begin to form at
the cathode and float to the surface.
Yellow-green chlorine gas is produced at the anode which would turn

moist blue litmus paper red and bleaches it.
At the anode
(positive 2Cl- (l)  Cl2 (g) + 2e-
terminal)
Chloride ions are attracted to the anode and are oxidised to chlorine gas
which will turn damp blue litmus paper red, and bleach it white.
At the
cathode Na+(l) + e-  Na (l)
(negative
terminal) Sodium ions are attracted to the cathode and are reduced to globules of
liquid sodium metal.
This is the most simple set up. There are only 2 ions present: Na+ and Cl-.
Overall 2NaCl (l)  2Na (l) + Cl2 (g)
Cl- goes to anode and gets oxidised to Cl2 (g). change (redox reaction)
Na+ goes to cathode and gets reduced to Na (l).
8 AOCR
EASE OF DISCHARGE EASE OF DISCHARGE
Before we move on to the electrolysis of dilute aqueous

solution, we need to understand ease of discharge.
Cations (goes to cathode & Anions (goes to anode & undergo oxidation)
undergo reduction) As there are usually the presence of 2 cations and 2 anions in a
K+
DILUTE CONCENTRATED dilute aqueous solution, ease of discharge helps us identify
which cation & anion gets selectively discharged.
Na+ SO42- SO42-
Ca2+ NO3- NO3-
Mg2+ F- OH-
For cations, the less reactive is it on the reactivity series, the
Al3+ Cl- F- more easily it can get discharged.
Zn2+ Br- Cl-
Fe2+ l- Br- For anions, OH- is the easiest to discharge, followed by
Pb2+ OH- l- halogens, then the common anions.
H+
(Group VII, reactivity decreases down the group. The less reactive, the
Cu2+
more easily it will get discharged.)
Ag+ Ease of discharge increases down
Au+ the series However, when it is a concentrated solution/the solution becomes
concentrated, concentration effect will result in the halogens to be
preferentially discharged over OH- ions.
9 *Quick tip: For a normal aqueous ionic compound (excluding copper), H + & OH- is usually
the ones who get discharged.
ELECTROLYSIS OF DILUTE SODIUM CHLORIDE
Electrolysis of dilute Component Explanation
ionic compound Ions present
Observation
Na+, Cl- , H+, OH-
When current is switched on, colourless hydrogen gas bubbles and is

formed at the cathode while colourless oxygen gas bubbles and is
formed at the anode.
At the anode
(positive 4OH- (aq)  O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e-
terminal)
Both Cl- and OH- ions are attracted to the anode, but OH- is preferentially
discharged and is oxidised.
Oxygen gas is formed, which will relight a glowing splint.
At the
cathode 2H+ (aq) + 2e-  H2 (g)
(negative
terminal) Both Na+ and H+ ions are attracted to the cathode, but H+ is preferentially
discharged and is reduced.
Hydrogen gas is formed, which will extinguish a lighted splint

with a ‘pop’ sound.
This is the most common set up. There are 4 ions present: Na+ H+, Cl- , OH-
Therefore, we have to use the ease of discharge table to decide which ions get Overall
change 2H2O (l)  O2 (g) + 2H2 (g)
preferentially discharged.
(redox reaction)
AOCR still applies. Anode Oxidise, Cathode Reduce. Since only H+ and OH- ions are discharged and the pH of the solution
AOCR
remains the same.
However, the solution becomes more concentrated.

10
ELECTROLYSIS OF CONCENTRATED SODIUM CHLORIDE
Electrolysis of Component Explanation
concentrated ionic Ions present Na+, Cl- , H+, OH-
compound
Observation When current is switched on, bubbling of colourless hydrogen
gas forms at the cathode, yellowish-green chlorine gas appear at the
anode.
At the anode
Anions (goes to anode & (positive 2Cl- (aq)  Cl2 (g) + 2e-
undergo oxidation) terminal)
Both Cl- and OH- ions are attracted to the anode, but Cl- is selectively
DILUTE CONCENTR
discharged due to concentration effect, and being oxidised to chlorine
ATED
gas.
SO42- SO42-
Bubbling of chlorine gas is formed, which will turn damp blue litmus
NO3- NO3-
paper red and bleaches it white.
F- OH-
Cl- F- At the
Br- Cl-
cathode 2H+ (aq) + 2e-  H2 (g)
(negative
l- Br- terminal) Both Na+ and H+ ions are attracted to the cathode, but H+ is preferentially
OH- l- discharged and undergoes reduction.
Bubbling of hydrogen gas is formed, which will extinguish a lighted splint

with a ‘pop’ sound.
Since this is a concentrated solution, so the ease of
discharge for anions will be different. Overall
change 2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l)  2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)
Halogens will be preferentially discharged over OH- ions.
AOCR
(redox reaction)
No change for cations. Still H+. Since Na+ and OH- ions remain in the solution, the solution becomes
more alkaline.
AOCR still applies. Anode Oxidise, Cathode Reduce.
11
Quick Recap
All 3 variations of electrolytic cell will result in slightly different
DILUTE
outcomes, however, the application of electrolytic cell remains the
same.
AOCR
So far, our electrodes has been inert (unreactive).
MOLTEN Next, let’s explore what happens when we use reactive electrodes.
CONCENTRATED
12
ELECTROPLATING
Electroplating using Component Explanation
silver electrodes Ions present
Observation
Ag+, NO3- , H+, OH-
When the current is switched on, silver metal forms at the cathode
while bubbles of colourless hydrogen gas appear at the anode.
At the anode
(positive Ag (s)  Ag+ (aq) + e-
terminal)
Both NO3- and OH- ions are attracted to the anode, but neither of them
gets discharged.
Instead, the silver anode is oxidised to silver ions flowing into the
solution.
At the
cathode Ag+ (aq) + e-  Ag (s)
(negative
terminal) As silver is below hydrogen in the reactivity series, Ag+ ions are selectively
discharged. They undergo reduction to become silver metal which is
deposited onto the surface of the object.
AOCR still applies. Anode Oxidise, Cathode Reduce. The object becomes silver-plated.
The difference is that instead of anions from the solution getting oxidised, the Overall The object becomes silver plated and increasing in mass while the silver
silver anode (reactive) gets oxidised to form Ag+ ions instead. change anode loses mass and reduce in size.
At the cathode, Ag+ ions are selectively discharged and reduced back to silver The silver ions discharged at the cathode are continuously replaced by
metal, which causes the silver metal to be electroplated onto the spoon. the oxidation of silver metal at the anode, resulting in the amount of
AOCR
silver ions in the solution remaining the same.
13
KEY CONCEPT
ELECTRIC CELL
SIMPLE ELECTRIC CELL
14
SIMPLE ELECTRIC CELL
Simple Electric Cells Electric cells uses chemical energy to produce electricity, unlike electrolysis, which
uses electricity to cause chemical changes.
A simple, typical electric cell contains two different electrodes placed in an

electrolyte.
More reactive metal (Zinc)

electron flow
The more reactive metal gives up electrons more readily and is the negative electrode.
The metal is oxidised here, hence this is the anode.
Zn (s)  Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
Less reactive metal (Copper)
The less reactive metal would be the positive electrode. As reduction occurs here, this
is the cathode.
2H+ (aq) + 2e-  H2 (g)
Overall
AOCR still applies. Anode Oxidise, Cathode Reduce.
The more reactive metal’s electrons would flow to the less reactive metal.
The more reactive metal undergoes oxidation and gives up electrons.
The voltmeter will detect a potential difference between the two metals.
The electrons then goes to the less reactive metal where reduction occurs. (electricity produced)
The further apart the two metals are in the reactivity series, the greater the voltage
AOCR
shown on the voltmeter or the brighter the light bulb.
15
AOCR
The one and only constant through the chapter, electrolytic cell or electric cell.
ADVANCED
If you cannot remember anything from this chapter, the minimum is:
Anode Oxidise, Cathode Reduce.
Selective discharge and Concentration effect

Take notice of which ions gets discharged for different scenarios.
word Most of the time:
of
ANODE: 4OH- (aq)  O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e-
CATHODE: 2H+ (aq) + 2e-  H2 (g)
advice But if there is Cu 2+ or if its molten/ concentrated, we need to apply selective

discharge or concentration effect.
Learning the basics is one thing, being able to apply and

Leftover ions
solve questions is way more important.
After the respective discharge at the anode and cathode, there will be the leftover
Please be diligent and do some practices and see if you are ions in the solution that did not discharge.
able to apply the concepts!
These ions can cause a difference to the solution.
For example, for a CuSO4 solution, Cu2+ & OH- gets discharged while H+ & SO42-
remains.
The solution turns less blue as Cu2+ is discharged and more acidic as H2SO4 remains.
16
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 5:
ENERGY CHANGES
1
THE ABOUT

• Understand big idea: ‘system’ & ‘surroundings’
TIME
CHAPTER • Learn how to calculate bond energy
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Learn how to sketch energy profile diagram
• Light-medium overall weightage

WEIGHTAGE
2
Pay special attention to your understanding of ‘system’ & surrounding.

It is the foundation of this chapter.
KEY CONCEPT
ENERGY FROM CHEMICALS

EXOTHERMIC
ENDOTHERMIC
ENERGY PROFILE DIAGRAM
3
ENERGY FROM
CHEMICAL ENERGY FROM CHEMICAL REACTION
REACTIONS During chemical reactions, chemical bonds within the

reactants are broken and new bonds are formed, creating new
products.
The reactants and products make up the system and when it

releases or absorbs heat energy, the surrounding would
experience a change in temperature.
For an exothermic reaction, the chemical reactions causes

the system to release heat energy to the surroundings. The
overall energy level of the system would hence decrease.
For an endothermic reaction, the chemical reactions causes

the system to gain heat energy from the surroundings. The
overall energy level of the system would hence increase.
4
EXOTHERMIC
REACTION EXOTHERMIC REACTION
An exothermic reaction occurs where energy is expelled out to

the surroundings.
Exothermic reaction
Examples of exothermic processes would include
Energy level condensation and freezing as heat is expelled out to the
surroundings to lower the units’ temperature.
- Combustion reactions are also exothermic. Burning a

C2H4 (g) + AE hydrocarbon in the presence of oxygen will produce heat and
3 O2 (g) raise the temperature of the surroundings.
ΔH
2 CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) C2H4 (g) + 3 O2 (g)  2 CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) + heat
Progress of reaction - Neutralisation reactions are also exothermic. Heat is

produced when H+ ions undergo bond forming with OH– ions
to form water.
H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)  H2O (l) + heat
5
ENDOTHERMIC
REACTION ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
An endothermic reaction occurs when energy is absorbed

from the surroundings.
Endothermic reaction
Examples of endothermic process are melting and boiling
Energy level where heat energy is absorbed to change states.
- Dissolving ionic salts in water is endothermic. For example,

dissolving sodium chloride in water causes the temperature of
the solution to decrease.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
AE NaCl (s) + heat  NaCl (aq)
ΔH
2H2O (l)
- Thermal decomposition is an endothermic process as heat
is required for most compounds to be decomposed.
Progress of reaction
PbCO3 (s) + heat  PbO (s) + CO2 (g)
- Electrolysis is an endothermic reaction which occurs without

absorbing heat energy. Instead, electrolysis occurs by
absorbing in electrical energy for a reaction.
6
ENERGY PROFILE ENTHALPY CHANGE
DIAGRAM Enthalpy change is the total amount of energy given out or

absorbed during a chemical reaction in the form of heat
energy.
Endothermic reaction Exothermic reaction

Enthalpy change (ΔH) would be positive for endothermic
Energy level Energy level reactions and be negative for exothermic reactions.
C2H4 (g) + 3 O2 (g)  2CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)

C2H4 (g) + AE
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 3 O2 (g)
ΔH = −1411 kJ (Exothermic)
AE
ΔH ΔH
2 CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
2H2O (l)
This is an exothermic reaction.

Progress of reaction Progress of reaction
Energy level diagrams 2H2O (l)  2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
In exothermic reactions, reactants lose energy to the surroundings to ΔH = + 262 kJ (Endothermic)

form resultant products. Hence, the energy level of the products is lower
than the energy level of the initial reactants.
This is an endothermic reaction.
In endothermic reactions, reactants gain energy from the surroundings to
form resultant products. Thus, the energy level of the products is higher
than the energy level of the initial reactants.
7
KEY CONCEPT
BOND BREAKING & BOND FORMING

ACTIVATION ENERGY
COMMON FUELS & HYDROGEN FUEL
CELL
8
BOND BREAKING &

BOND FORMING BOND BREAKING AND BOND FORMATION
Bond energy is defined as the amount of energy that is

released when the bond is formed or the amount of energy
that is required to be absorbed to break the bond.
ΔH,
Remember:
= Energy absorbed to break bonds + Energy released to
“Your bb (bae) is more important than your bf (best friend)” form bonds
BB – BF
(Bond breaking – Bond forming) For an exothermic reaction,
Energy absorbed for bond breaking < Energy released from

bond forming
For an endothermic reaction,
Energy absorbed for bond breaking > Energy released from

bond forming
9
ACTIVATION
ENERGY
ACTIVATION ENERGY
Activation energy is defined as the minimum energy required

to start a reaction.
The symbol, Ea, is used to represent activation energy.
For a reaction to occur, it has to possess at least the amount

of energy that is equivalent to its activation energy.
This is the same level of energy required to be absorbed in

order to break the bonds in the reactants.
*Recall 2 conditions for reactions from “Rate of Reaction”
1) Sufficient energy (activation energy)

2) Collide in correct orientation
10
HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

COMMON FUELS
Fuels are sources of energy. When they undergo combustion,

it releases energy as it is an exothermic reaction.
Fuels + oxygen  Energy released
During complete combustion, methane undergoes

combustion in presence of sufficient oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide and water.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g) + heat energy
There is always a readily available supply of hydrogen that can be derived either
from water or hydrocarbons, making it a renewable resource.
During incomplete combustion, methane undergoes
The product formed from its reaction is only water, which is a non-pollutant, combustion in presence of insufficient oxygen to produce
making it environmentally-friendly. carbon monoxide and water.
The overall equation for the reaction is: 4CH4 (g) + 6O2 (g)  4CO (g) + 8H2O (g) + heat energy
2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l)
11
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 6.1:
RATE OF REACTION
1
• Relatively okay chapter

• 5 key concepts
THE ABOUT
- Size of reactant particles
- Concentration of reactants
- Pressure applied
TIME
- Temperature of mixture
- Use of catalysts
CHAPTER
ANALYSIS
• Very much interlinked with Energy Changes
• Energy profile diagram is commonly tested
EXAM

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
MEASURING RATE OF REACTION

VOLUME OF GAS COLLECTED
CHANGE IN MASS
CHANGE IN PRESSURE
3
VOLUME OF GAS FORMED
The rate of reaction graph measures the volume of gas

produced as time passes.
Set up:
As the reaction progresses, the gradient of the graph becomes

gentler, showing that the volume of gas produced per unit
time is decreasing.
This shows that the rate of reaction is falling.
At the end of the reaction, the gradient of the graph reaches

zero and no more gas is produced.
CALCULATING This shows that the reaction is complete and no further

reaction is occurring.
RATE OF REACTION
4
CHANGE IN MASS
As the reaction progresses, reactants are used up and
Set up: hydrogen gas produced escapes from the flask, the mass of
the set-up decreases over time.
Comparing the product-time graph observed earlier and this

graph, the variation in the gradient of the graphs are similar.
The gradient of the graph is the steepest at the start of the

reaction and gradually becomes gentler before finally
decreasing to zero when the reaction is complete.
CALCULATING
RATE OF REACTION
5
KEY CONCEPT
CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL

REACTION
RATE OF REACTION FACTORS
- Size of reactant particles
- Concentration of reactants
- Pressure applied
- Temperature of mixture
- Use of catalysts
6
2 CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE COLLISION
1) SUFFICIENT ENERGY
2) RIGHT ORIENTATION
Reactions occur when there are effective collisions between reacting

particles.
In an effective collision, reactants would need to collide with sufficient

energy and in the right orientation to form products.
Both conditions have to be fulfilled before an effective collision

takes place and products can be formed.
2 CONDITIONS
SUFFICIENT ENERGY
RIGHT ORIENTATION
7
5 FACTORS THAT
AFFECT RATE OF
REACTION
CONCENTRATION TEMPERATURE
OF REACTANTS OF MIXTURE
SIZE OF USE OF
REACTANT CATALYSTS
PARTICLES PRESSURE
8
APPLIED
SIZE OF REACTANT PARTICLES
The smaller the size of the particles, the faster the rate of
reaction.
The reason is that having a smaller particle size means that the
total surface area for interaction between reacting particles is
greater.
The frequency of effective collisions in Reaction 1 is higher

than 2 because of the greater total surface area that is
SIZE OF REACTANT exposed for interaction between reactants.
9 PARTICLES
CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS
A higher concentration means that within the same volume

of reactants, there is a higher number of reacting particles.
For the reaction with 2 moldm-3, the initial gradient of the

graph is steeper compared to the rest, indicating a higher
reaction rate.
CONCENTRATION
However, the volume of CO2 produced for three reactions are
the same. If the number of moles of the limiting reagent used
in the reactions is the same, volume of CO2 produced from the
OF REACTANTS
reactions will be the same.
10
PRESSURE APPLIED
The higher the pressure, the higher the rate of reaction.
At a higher pressure, the reactants are brought closer together

due to the decrease in volume.
This means there are more reactants per unit volume. This
would result in the rate of reaction to increase.
For the set-up at higher pressure, as there are more reactant

particles per unit volume compared to the set-up at lower
pressure, the reacting particles are closer together as well.
As a result, there would be more collisions between reactants

and thus leading to a higher frequency of effective collisions.
PRESSURE
11 APPLIED
TEMPERATURE OF SYSTEM
When the temperature of a system is increased, the average

kinetic energy of the particles in the system increases too.
A higher temperature of a system means that:
1) Reactant particles have higher kinetic energy and move

faster
2) The fraction of reactant particles in the system that have

energy more than or equal to the activation energy
is higher
These two factors would increase the frequency of effective

collisions and resulting in an increase in the rate of reaction.
TEMPERATURE
12 OF SYSTEM
USE OF CATALYSTS
A catalyst provides an alternative reaction pathway that

allows a lower activation energy barrier.
As less activation energy is required, a higher number of

reacting particles will have sufficient kinetic energy to
overcome the activation energy barrier for reaction. Hence, it
is more likely to be an effective collision.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CATALYSTS
1) A catalyst changes the rate of reaction without being

chemically altered.
2) The yield from the reaction is not altered by catalyst.
3) The purpose of catalysts are to speed up the rates of

reactions and only a small amount of the catalyst is
required.
4) Many catalysts are transition metals due to variable
USE OF
oxidation states.
13 CATALYSTS
ENZYMES
Living organisms contain enzymes which are biological

catalysts. They help to speed up the rate of chemical
reactions in living organisms.
Many important biological processes are driven by chemical

reactions that utilise enzymes, examples are respiration and
photosynthesis.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES
1. Enzymes are highly specific as each enzyme has a unique

structure
2. Enzymes are highly selective and is only has able to bind a

particular substance
3. Enzymes being catalysts, lower the activation energy of a

reaction
BIOLOGICAL 4. Enzymes are also highly sensitive to temperature and pH

changes
CATALYST -
14 ENZYMES Easy game here if you take bio~
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 6.2:
REDOX REACTION
1
THE ABOUT
• Closely linked to chapters like Metals (Displacement
reactions) & Periodic Table & Acid Bases
TIME
CHAPTER
ANALYSIS
• Usually tested in MCQs
Tested as add-on to other chapters
EXAM 🡪 Chemical Equations

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
REDOX REACTION
OXIDATION
REDUCTION
IONIC HALF EQUATIONS
3
REDOX REACTION REDOX REACTION
A redox reaction refers to the chemical reaction where one

In fact, the best way to identify if a substance had undergone oxidation or reduction is to substance undergoes reduction, while another substance
check its oxidation state. undergoes oxidation. Both processes always occur together.
Gaining of oxygen, loss of hydrogen, loss of electrons will lead to the increase in
oxidation state. Hence, they can be considered a subset of increase in oxidation state.
Oxidation happens when:
Similarly, losing oxygen, gain in hydrogen, gain in electrons will lead to the decrease in
oxidation state. Once again, they can be considered a subset of decrease in oxidation
state. - Gaining of oxygen
- Loss of hydrogen
Hence, by identifying the change in oxidation state is the most accurate way of - Loss of electrons
deducing whether the substance had undergone oxidation or reduction. - Increase in oxidation state
Reduction happens when:

INCREASE DECREASE
OXIDATION STATE OXIDATION STATE - Loss of oxygen
- Gaining of hydrogen
- Gaining of electrons
- Decrease in oxidation state
Loss of electrons
Gain of oxygen Gain of electrons
Loss of oxygen
Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen
4
IONIC HALF-EQUATIONS
Steps:
1) Write out the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
Mg (s) + CuSO4 (aq)  MgSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
2) Convert the chemical equation to its ionic equation.
Mg (s) + Cu2+ (aq)  Mg2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
3) Identify the substance that undergoes oxidation and

reduction respectively.
Oxidation: Mg (s)  Mg2+ (aq)

Reduction: Cu2+ (aq)  Cu (s)
4) Balance the number of charges on both sides of each half-

equation using electrons.
Oxidation: Mg (s)  Mg2+ (aq) + 2e-

Reduction: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-  Cu (s)
IONIC HALF
5 EQUATIONS
KEY CONCEPT
OXIDISING & REDUCING AGENTS
6
OXIDISING AGENTS
An oxidising agent refers to a reagent that causes another

substance to be oxidised.
An oxidising agent itself would undergo reduction instead.
*The job of an oxidising agent is to oxidise another

substance. 1) Acidified potassium manganate (VII), KMnO4 is an oxidizing
agent. Hence, it will undergo reduction in the reaction.
In the process, the agent itself would undergo reduction.
MnO4– (aq) + 8 H+ (aq) + 5e–  Mn2+ (aq) + 4 H2O (l)
The best way to check if a substance is an oxidising agent
is to check whether the substance has undergone
reduction. The oxidation state of manganese decreases from +7 in the
manganite (VII) ion to +2 in the manganese (II) ion.
The colour of the solution will turn from purple to colourless.
2) Acidified potassium dichromate (VI), K2Cr2O7 is an oxidizing

agent. Hence, it will undergo reduction in the reaction.
Cr2O72- (aq) + 14 H+ (aq) + 6e-  2 Cr3+ (aq) + 7 H2O (l)
OXIDISING The oxidation state of chromium decreases from +6 in the
AGENTS dichromate (VI) ion to +3 in the chromium (III) ion.
The colour of potassium dichromate (VI) solution will turn from

orange to green.
7
REDUCING AGENT
*The job of an reducing agent is to reduce another A reducing agent refers to a reagent that causes another substance to
substance. be reduced.
In the process, the agent itself undergoes oxidation. A reducing agent itself would undergo oxidation instead.
The best way to check if a substance is an reducing 1) Potassium iodide, KI is an reducing agent. It will undergo oxidation
agent is to check whether the substance has in the reaction.
undergone oxidation.
2I– (aq)  I2 (aq) + 2e–
The oxidation state of iodine has increased from -1 in iodide to 0 in

iodine.
The colour of the solution will turn from colourless to brown.
REDUCING
AGENTS
8
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 7.1:
ACID & BASES
1
THE ABOUT
• Very important chapter that is needed for Salts & QA
• 4 key concepts: Acids, Bases, pH & indicators
• 2 advanced concepts:
TIME
Strength/Concentration/Basicity & Base vs Alkaline
CHAPTER • Commonly tested every year
ANALYSIS EXAM
Need to know relevant chemical and ionic
equations (not going through in detail here, will
focus on equations for “Chemical Equations”
chapter instead)

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPTS
ACIDIC PROPERTIES
ACID’S CHEMICAL REACTIONS
STRENGTH, CONCENTRATION, BASICITY
3
ACIDS What makes a compound/substance an ‘acid’?
Physical properties of A compound is considered as an ‘acid’ due to the ability to

acids dissociate H+ ions when they are dissolved in water.
1) Acids tastes sour. For example,
2) Dilute acids are irritants HCl(l) in liquid state is called hydrogen chloride. (not acid yet)
and will result in rashes and HCl(aq) in aqueous state is called hydrochloric acid.
blisters.
3) Acids has the ability to

change the colour of
indicators, turning blue H+
litmus paper to red. Cl H Cl-
Cl Cl-
H+
H
Hydrogen Chloride Hydrochloric Acid
Examples of acids: This is because when HCl dissolves in water, it dissociates to

produce H+ ions which classifies it as an acid.
Hydrochloric acid, HCl
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 HCl (aq)  H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Nitric acid, HNO3
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4
Hydrofluoric acid, HF In other words, an acid is only considered as an acid after it
Hydrobromic acid, HBr has been dissolved in water!
4
*Aqueous refers to a compound being in a solution. In other words, water is added.
1) ACID + METAL  SALT + HYDROGEN GAS
3 CHEMICAL REACTIONS For example,

H2SO4 + Mg  MgSO4 + H2
1) ACID + METAL  SALT + HYDROGEN GAS

2) ACID + BASE  SALT + WATER In order to test for hydrogen gas, use a lighted splint, it should extinguish
3) ACID + CARBONATE  SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE GAS with ‘pop’ sound.
2) ACID + BASE  SALT + WATER
ACID + BASE
For example,
H2SO4 + MgO  MgSO4 + H2O
This is also known as a neutralisation reaction.
3) ACID + CARBONATE  SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE
ACID + METAL For example,

H2SO4 + MgCO3  MgSO4 + H2O + CO2
In order to test for carbon dioxide gas, bubble the carbon dioxide gas into
limewater, Ca(OH)2, a white precipitate will be formed.
ACID +
5
CARBONATE
ADVANCED CONCEPT
CONCENTRATION What is the

relationship
between the 3?
Let’s understand how all 3 are distinct yet related.
Let’s run through each of them individually and keep it

simple.
STRENGTH
BASICITY
6
Strength of acid
Strength of acid depends on the nature of the acid.
Strong acids have the ability to dissociate fully in water to produce a high concentration of H+ ions.
Examples: nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid
Weak acids only have the ability to dissociate partially in water to produce a low concentration of H+ ions.
Examples: citric acid, hydrofluoric acid, organic acid such as ethanoic acid
STRENGTH Hydrochloric acid fully dissociate in water to produce a high concentration of H + ions.
While for hydrofluoric acid, not all of them have dissociated, so there are much lesser H+ ions.
So if you were to compare the strength of the acid, hydrochloric acid is the stronger acid, since it produces more H+ ions.
7
Concentration of acid
Concentration of an acid is dependent on the dilution factor of the solution, or put in simple terms, the amount of water added.
Concentration refers to the number of acid molecules present per water molecule.
Concentration is usually expressed in moldm-3. (Learn in detail in chapter “Mole Concept”.)
Visualise this:
A strong acid like nitric acid can be very corrosive and dangerous at high concentrations.
However, students use nitric acid on a regular basis in the school laboratories .
To make it safer, the lab staff adds a large amount of water to dilute the nitric acid.
Dilute nitric acid will then be able to be used in the chemical experiments, also being safe to use for the students as it is diluted.
Another example:
We buy ribena syrup from NTUC. Do we drink it straight? No, that will be too sweet because it is so concentrated.
So, what we do is to dilute the syrup by adding water. This is exactly the same for acid!
8
Basicity of acid
The basicity of an acid depends the acid’s chemical formula.
Basicity refers to the number of H+ ions produced per molecule.
Acid Chemical Formula Basicity
Hydrochloric acid HCl monobasic
Nitric acid HNO3 monobasic
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 dibasic
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 tribasic
BASICITY 1 H+ ion produced: monobasic

2 H+ ions produced: dibasic
3 H+ ions produced: tribasic
9
What is the
relationship
between the 3?
Strength of acid depends on the nature of the acid.
Concentration of an acid depends on the dilution factor.
Basicity of an acid depends the acid’s chemical formula.
CONCENTRATION
Can a strong acid have a low concentration of H+ ions?
Yes, use a strong acid like nitric acid and add a large amounts of water to
it.
If we were to compare nitric acid & sulfuric acid, both strong acids,
which one will produce a higher concentration of H+ ions?
Even though both strong acids will dissociate fully in water, sulfuric acid
would produce a higher concentration of H+ ions .
STRENGTH Sulfuric acid is dibasic and has a formula of H 2SO4, producing 2 H+ ions
per molecule.
BASICITY Nitric acid is monobasic and has a formula of HNO 3, producing 1 H+ ions
per molecule.
10
KEY CONCEPTS
DIFFERENTIATING BASE vs ALKALINE

ALKALINE PROPERTIES
ALKALINE’S CHEMICAL REACTIONS
11
BASE vs ALKALINE
A base is defined as a substance which reacts with an acid to
form a salt and water only.
BASE ACID + BASE  SALT + WATER

H2SO4 + MgO  MgSO4 + H2O
Bases are usually the oxides and hydroxides of metals.
Alkaline are a special group of bases that are soluble in water.
Hence, alkaline have the ability to dissociate fully in water to

produce OH- ions, giving rise to its alkaline properties.
In other words, alkaline is a subset of base.
WHY?
ALKALINE
All metal oxides and hydroxides are bases, but not all of them are
soluble in water. Only those that are soluble are known as alkaline.
Group I metals, such as potassium and sodium, always form

alkaline as their oxides and hydroxides are highly soluble.
Group II metals, such as calcium, are slightly soluble, and can be

an alkaline as well.
12
ALKALINE What makes a compound/substance an ‘alkali’?
(Exactly the same as acid)
A compound is considered as an ‘alkali’ due to the ability to dissociate

Physical properties of alkaline OH- ions when the bases dissolve in water.
1) Alkaline tastes bitter. For example,

water
2) Dilute alkalis feel slippery and NaOH(s)  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
soapy to touch.
3) Concentrated alkalis are caustic,

causing chemical burns.
Uses of alkaline 4) Alkalis change red litmus paper

blue.
1) Found in toothpaste to
Sodium Hydroxide
neutralise acid on teeth
1) Calcium hydroxide used to Weak Alkaline

neutralise acidity in soil reversible
NH3 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
1) Magnesium hydroxide in
indigestion tablets, also Examples of alkaline:
known as antacid pills Aqueous ammonia is a commonly used weak alkaline that can only
sodium hydroxide, NaOH dissociate partially in water to produce a low concentration of OH-
2) Sodium hydroxide in floor & potassium hydroxide, KOH ions.
cleaners calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
aqueous ammonia, NH3 ⇌ means the reaction is reversible. So some of the NH4+ turns back
to NH3, resulting in a low concentration of OH- ions produced.
13
1) BASE + ACID  SALT + WATER
2 CHEMICAL REACTIONS For example,

MgO (s) + 2HCl (aq)  MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
1) BASE + ACID  SALT + WATER
2) ALKALINE + AMMONIUM SALT  SALT + WATER + AMMONIA GAS This is also known as a neutralisation reaction.
2) ALKALINE + AMMONIUM SALT  SALT + WATER + AMMONIA GAS

*Ammonium = NH4+
For example,
2KOH (aq) + (NH4)2SO4 (s)  K2SO4 (aq) + 2NH3 (g) + 2H2O (l)
In order to test for ammonia gas, place a strip of moist red litmus paper at
the mouth of the test tube where the reaction is taking place.
The moist red litmus paper will turn blue.
BASE + ACID TAKE NOTE
Moist litmus paper must be used in order for the ammonia gas to dissolve
in water and dissociate to form OH- ions.
Remember that a base is only considered as an ‘alkali’ after it has
ALKALINE dissociated in water!
14 + AMMONIUM
KEY CONCEPT
pH SCALE
INDICATORS
15
KEY CONCEPT
pH scale
The pH of a solution is a quantitative measure of the extent of acidity or alkalinity. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
pH actually stands for,
pH = − log [H+]
To simplify, means that if pH values change by a factor of 1, the

concentration is changed by a factor of 10.
pH 1 is 10 times more acidic than pH 2.
16
KEY CONCEPT
Importance of pH
Food preservatives
Food decompose when it is attacked by bacteria.
Edible acids added and are used as preservatives as bacteria cannot grow well in acidic solutions.
For example,
ethanoic acid (vinegar): to preserve vegetables like kimchi
pH levels in soil
If the soil is too acidic, limestone, also known as calcium carbonate CaCO3, can be added to neutralise the acidity.
Quick lime (CaO) or slaked lime, Ca(OH)2, can be used too.
pH in human body
Gastric juices in the stomach are acidic due to hydrochloric acid, with a pH of 1.5-2.0.
Fluids in the small intestine are alkaline with a pH of 8+.
Blood is slightly alkaline with a pH in the range of above 7.
(Easy to understand if you take Biology, ‘Digestive System’.)
17
KEY CONCEPT
Indicators
Indicator Acidic Equivalence Point Alkaline
Litmus Red Purple Blue
Methyl orange Red Orange Yellow
Screened methyl Purple Grey Green

orange
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pale pink Pink
Bromothymol blue Yellow Green Blue
Also, universal indicator.
18
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 7.2:
SALTS
1
THE ABOUT
• Complex chapter
• Salt preparation requires high level of mastery
TIME
CHAPTER • Requires strong knowledge from Acid & Bases
ANALYSIS
• Very important chapter for Qualitative Analysis
EXAM
• Light-Medium overall weightage

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
OXIDES
NEUTRALISATION
APPLICATION OF NEUTRALISATION
3
4 TYPES OF
OXIDES
BASIC AMPHOTERIC
OXIDE OXIDE
ACIDIC NEUTRAL
OXIDE OXIDE
4
SUMMARY TABLE
OXIDES
Oxides Basic Oxides Acidic Oxides Amphoteric Oxides Neutral Oxides
Element type Metal oxides Non-metal oxides Some metal oxides Some non-metal oxides
Chemical properties Behaves like an alkali, Behaves like an acid, neutralise Can behave like an acid or an Does not react
neutralise with acid with alkali alkali, can react with both
acid and alkali
Examples - Sodium oxide - Carbon dioxide - Aluminium oxide, Al2O3 - Water, H2O
- Potassium oxide - Sulfur dioxide - Lead (II) oxide, PbO - Carbon monoxide, CO
- Calcium oxide - Phosphorus (V) oxide - Zinc oxide, ZnO - Nitrogen monoxide, NO
5
NEUTRALISATION
Neutralisation is the process where acid reacts with a base to produce salt
& water.
ACID + BASE  SALT + WATER
REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS
- Regulating the pH of soil
Farmers will add bases like slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or quicklime
(calcium oxide) to ensure the soil maintains the optimal pH for growth
of plants.
- Treating indigestion
Overeating can result in the overproduction of hydrochloric acid by our

stomach, causing indigestion. In order to neutralise the excess
hydrochloric acid, we would need to intake antacid (a type of base).
- Toothpaste
Bacteria on our teeth produce acids which can result in tooth decay.
Toothpastes contain magnesium hydroxide help to remove bacteria &

neutralise the acids in our mouth.
NEUTRALISATION
6
KEY CONCEPT
SALT SOLUBILITY TABLE

ACID + EXCESS INSOLUBLE SUBSTANCE
TITRATION
PRECIPITATION
7
SUMMARY TABLE
SALT SOLUBILITY TABLE
Soluble salts Insoluble salts
SPA SPA ALL NONE

Anything with sodium, - Sodium
potassium & - Potassium
ammonium are
- Ammonium
definitely soluble.
Nitrates ALL NONE
Chlorides ALL except Lead(II) chloride, PbCl2

Silver chloride, AgCl
Sulfates ALL except

Lead(II) sulfate, PbSO4
Barium sulfate, BaSO4
Calcium sulfate, CaSO4
Carbonates SPA salts ALL except
Oxides & Group I & some Group II elements ALL except

Hydroxides
All Group I metals form Ba, Ca (oxide / hydroxide)

soluble salts. are slightly soluble.
(Sodium, Potassium…)
8
*Find your own method for memorising. Make your life easier by finding a methodology that works for you!
*If you find the next

couple of slides too
complicated, feel free to
skip to SLIDE 20.
Due to the seemingly complex nature of salt preparation, many

students opt to memorise the procedure for salt preparation and
attempt regurgitate the content in exams.
While that might work to an extent, they will not be able to solve
application questions and might remember some parts wrongly.
In this upcoming section, I will attempt to break down the logic

behind salt preparation and show you why you do not need to
memorise anything once you have understood salt preparation.
UNDERSTANDING
SALT PREPARATION
VS
9 MEMORISING
NAME REACTION
PRECIPITATION SOLUBLE + SOLUBLE  INSOLUBLE SALT
ACID + INSOLUBLE SOLUBLE + INSOLUBLE  SOLUBLE SALT

SUBSTANCE
TITRATION SOLUBLE + SOLUBLE  SOLUBLE SALT
TITRATION
3 methods
PRECIPITATION
There are only 3 ways to prepare a salt.
Choosing which method to use depends on the solubility of

the salt and the solubility of the reagents.
Use the table above to see how each preparation method is
ACID + different!
INSOUBLE
10
SUBSTANCE
SUMMARY TABLE
SALT PREPARATION
PREPARATION METHOD PRECIPITATION TITRATION ACID + INSOLUBLE SUBSTANCE
SOLUBILITY OF SALT INSOLUBLE SOLUBLE SOLUBLE

(Product in reaction)
Common elements’ salt ALL INSOLUBLE SALTS Group I salts / SPA salts - Group II salts
- Group III salts
- Transition metal salts
- Unreactive metal salts
EXAMPLE OF SALTS -All carbonates except SPA - Sodium nitrate - Magnesium sulfate
- Silver Chloride - Potassium chloride - Aluminium nitrate
- Lead Chloride - Sodium sulfate - Zinc chloride
- Barium Sulfate - Potassium carbonate - Iron sulfate
- Calcium Sulfate - Lead nitrate
- Lead Sulfate - Copper chloride
- Group II oxides/ hydroxides
REASONING Mix 2 soluble reactants that contain the Reactants are soluble. So is the product. Use excess of the insoluble to is ensure
(MOST IMPORTANT) correct ions. that all the acid is fully reacted.
The only way to get a pure substance is to
Get an insoluble salt as the only solid in find the exact volume to react through The only liquid in the resultant solution is
the reacting solution and collect using titration. the soluble salt.
filtration.
CHEMICAL EQUATION barium nitrate + sodium sulfate  barium sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid  sodium acid + carbonate  salt + water + carbon
(Example) sulfate (insoluble) + sodium nitrate sulfate (soluble) + water dioxide gas
(water removed through crystallisation)
(salt collected using filtration) (neutralisation reaction)
(water removed through crystallisation) acid + base  salt + water
(water removed through crystallisation)
SOLUBLE + SOLUBLE  INSOLUBLE SALT acid + metal  salt + hydrogen gas

SOLUBLE + SOLUBLE  SOLUBLE SALT
SOLUBLE + INSOLUBLE  SOLUBLE SALT
11
PRECIPITATION
The aqueous solutions of two soluble salts should be mixed; one

salt must contain the cation while the other must contain the
anion.
When the two salt solutions are mixed, a resultant insoluble salt
will form.
The insoluble salt can be filtered out and washed with distilled
water and dried with filter paper.
Steps:
1) Mix the 2 reactants.
2) Filter and collect residue.
3) Wash & dry with filter paper.
12
PRECIPITATION
ACID + INSOLUBLE SUBSTANCE
React excess of insoluble substance (metal, carbonate,

oxide/hydroxide) with an appropriate acid.
Add excess insoluble substance so that all the acid will be fully
reacted. This ensures that the filtrate collected is the pure soluble
salt.
Steps:
1) Mix the 2 reactants.
2) Filter and collect filtrate.
3) Heat till saturation & allow to cool. Crystals will form.
4) Filter to collect crystals.
5) Wash & dry with filter paper.
ACID + INSOLUBLE
13
SUBSTANCE
TITRATION
Soluble salts can also be prepared by reacting an acid with an

alkali. However, we will need to know the exact amount of alkali
needed to react with a fixed amount of acid.
Steps:
1. Using a pipette, add 25.0 cm3 of dilute acid into a conical flask.
2. Add a few drops of indicator to the acid.
3. Fill a burette with dilute alkali. Record the initial burette reading.
Slowly release the dilute alkali into the conical flask and swirl
the flask until a change in colour is observed.
4. Record the final burette reading. The initial and final reading
gives the volume of alkali needed to completely neutralise the
acid.
5. Repeat the experiment with the same exact amount of acid &
alkali, but without the indicator. The flask now contains only the
soluble salt and water.
6. Pour the solution into an evaporating dish. Heat till saturation.
7. Allow the solution to cool and crystals will form. Filter and dry
between sheets of filter paper.
14 TITRATION
TITRATION
3 methods
PRECIPITATION
There are only 3 ways to prepare a salt.
Choosing which method to use depends on the solubility of

the salt and the solubility of the reagents.
Is everything clearer now? Hopefully lel.
ACID +
INSOUBLE
15
SUBSTANCE
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 7.3:
AMMONIA
1
THE ABOUT

• 1 key concept
TIME
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Tested together with chapters like Rate of Reaction
& Energy Changes

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
AMMONIA
RAW MATERIALS (H2 & N2)
HABER PROCESS
3
AMMONIA AMMONIA
Ammonia (NH3) is a weak alkali when it is in its aqueous state,

as it partially dissociates in water to produce low concentration
of OH– ions.
NH3 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Raw materials
Nitrogen and hydrogen are the raw materials that are used in the ⇌ reversible reactions will never be fully completed.
manufacturing of ammonia, via the Haber process.
Nitrogen is obtained through the process of fractional distillation of

liquid air. Displacement of ammonia from its salts
Hydrogen is obtained through the cracking of crude oil. An alkali has the ability to displace the ammonia from an
ammonium salt.
Iron would act as a catalyst to increase the rate of reaction.
For example, potassium hydroxide displaces ammonia from
ammonium carbonate when the solution is gently heated:
2KOH (aq) + (NH4)2CO3 (aq)  K2CO3 (aq) + NH3 (g) + 2H2O (l)
*Chemical reaction for alkali (acid & bases)!
4
HABER PROCESS HABER PROCESS
Haber process Analysis:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) As seen from the graph, the yield of ammonia increases when
pressures are higher and temperatures are lower.
In the process, nitrogen and hydrogen gases are mixed together in the Hence, to maximise the yield of ammonia, theoretically, the pressure
ratio of 1:3. levels should be increased and the temperature should be
decreased.
Conditions
However in reality, optimal conditions are kept at 450°C and
The Haber process is usually carried out at a temperature of 450°C, at a pressure of 200 atm.
pressure of 200 atm and with finely divided iron catalyst.
This is because:
- At pressures higher than 200 atm, the machines would be more

costly and outweigh the benefits of that incremental yield. Also,
there will be greater safety risks at higher pressures.
- At temperatures lower than 450°C, the rates of reaction would

be slowed down too much. It would be more cost efficient to use a
higher temperature to increases the rate despite lowering the
percentage yield.
- Due to the recycling of reactants, 98% of the reactants are

eventually converted into ammonia.
5
HABER PROCESS
HABER PROCESS
• Nitrogen and hydrogen gases are mixed in a ratio of 1:3.
• The mixture would be passed through a compressor, where a

pressure of 200 atm is applied to the gas mixture and then
passed through the converter containing iron catalyst at 450°C
to increase the rate of reaction.
• The ammonia gas formed would be directed into a cooler,

condensing it into a liquid, while unreacted nitrogen and
hydrogen gases are recycled.
• The Haber process is efficient and relatively cheap, as the

starting materials required (nitrogen, hydrogen and iron) are
Haber process readily available at a low cost.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) • Heat is produced during the reaction (exothermic). It
maintains the temperature of the catalyst chamber.
In the process, nitrogen and hydrogen gases are mixed together in the
ratio of 1:3.
Conditions
The Haber process is usually carried out at a temperature of 450°C, at a

pressure
6 of 200 atm and with finely divided iron catalyst.
ADVANCED
Rate of reaction is more important than yield
Temperatures lower than 450°C will result in very slow rates of reaction. It is more
cost efficient to use a higher temperature that increases the rate of reaction.
Only 15% of the reactants are converted into ammonia. But that is okay because 98%
of the reactants are eventually reacted to form ammonia.
things Recall how ‘pressure’ increases rate of reaction
to At a higher pressure, the reactants are brought closer together. There are more
reactants per unit volume.
note As a result, there are more collisions between reactants and thus a higher frequency
of effective collisions. This causes the rate of reaction to increase.
Understanding Haber Process
Recall how ‘temperature’ increases rate of reaction
A higher temperature of a system means that:
1) Reactants have higher kinetic energy and move faster

2) The fraction of reactant particles in the system that have energy more than or
equal to the activation energy is higher
These two factors increase the frequency of effective collisions and essentially
result in an increase in the rate of reaction.
7
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 8:
PERIODIC TABLE
1
THE ABOUT
• Content heavy chapter

• 3 key concepts
TIME
CHAPTER • Usually tested along with ‘Atomic Structure’ &
ANALYSIS EXAM
•
‘Chemical Bonding’
Highly tested on specifically ‘alkali metals’,
‘halogens’ & ‘noble gases’.

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
PERIODIC TABLE & TRANSITION METALS

ALKALI METALS
HALOGENS
NOBLE GASES
3
PERIODIC TABLE
Trend across a period (left to right)
- Number of protons increases

- Atomic radius decreases
- Metallic properties decreases
Trends down a group (top to bottom)

Horizontal rows are known as periods. (Represent number of electron
shells.) - Number of protons increases
- Number of electron shells increases
Vertical rows are known as groups. (Represent number of valence - Atomic radius increases
electrons.) - Metallic properties remain constant
The block of elements between Group II and Group III are called
transition metals and they tend to have variable oxidation states.
4
ION FORMATION
Metallic elements will form cations as they lose their
PERIODIC TABLE
valence electrons to form positively charged ions.
For example, Group I elements like Sodium (Na) will form Na+
with charge +1.
Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Valence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electro
ns
Period Li Be B C N O F Ne
II
Ion Li+ Be2+ B3+ - N3- O2- F- -

Non-metallic elements will form anions as they gain
Period Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar electrons to form negatively charged ions.
III
For example, Group VII elements like chlorine (CI) will form CI -
with charge of –1.
Ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ - P3- S2- Cl- -
5
TRANSITION
METALS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION METALS
Transition metals has high melting points and high densities

due to the strong metallic bonds.
They are good electrical and thermal conductors.
Transition metals also form coloured compounds.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION METALS
Transition metals has the ability to exhibit multiple oxidation

states.
Hence, they are frequently used as catalysts.
For example, iron is used in the Haber process to produce

TRANSITION METALS ammonia, and nickel is used in making margarine through the
process of adding hydrogen to vegetable oil (hydrogenation).
Transition metals are found in between the Group II and Group III
elements in the periodic table.
6
ALKALI METALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALI METALS
Name of element Melting points / °C Density / gcm-3
- Low melting points
Lithium (Li) 180 0.534 - Low densities, lithium, sodium and potassium can float on water
Sodium (Na) 98 0.971 - Good conductor of electricity & heat
Potassium (K) 63 0.862
Rubidium (Rb) 39 1.532 Densities of alkali metals generally increase down the group while
Caesium (Cs) 28 1.873
melting points decrease down the group.
Francium (Fr) 27 -
This is due to the increase in atomic radius down the group.
(decreases down the (increases down the
group) group)
GROUP I: ALKALI METALS Chemical properties of alkali metals
Group I elements are called alkali metals as they react with water to give As they have only one valence electron in their outermost shell, they
alkaline solutions. form ionic compounds, with their resulting ions of +1 charge.
Reactivity of alkali metals increases down the group due to the

extra electron shells and the nucleus is further away, which increases
Metal Chloride Nitrate Carbon Sulfate Oxide Hydroxid
the ease of losing the valence electron.
ate e
Lithium LiCl LiNO3 Li2CO3 Li2SO4 Li2O LiOH

Sodium NaCl NaNO3 Na2CO3 Na2SO4 Na2O NaOH
Potassium KCl KNO3 K2CO3 K2SO4 K2O KOH
7
HALOGENS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS
- Low melting and boiling points that has an increasing trend

down the group
Name of element State Colour - Densities of the halogens increase down the group
- Dissolve sparingly in water (chlorine, bromine and iodine) generally,
but soluble in organic solvents.
- Does not conduct electricity due to a lack of mobile charge carriers
Fluorine (F2) Gas Pale Yellow
Chlorine (Cl2) Gas Green Yellow
Bromine (Br2) Liquid Reddish brown CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HALOGENS
Iodine (I2) Solid Black
Astatine (At2) Solid Black Reactivity decreases down the group. The ease of gaining a
valence electron decreases as the valence shell is further away from
(increases down (increasing colour intensity) the nucleus, making it more difficult to attract an electron.
the group)
DISPLACEMENT REACTION
A more reactive halogen is able to displace a less reactive halogen

GROUP VII: THE HALOGENS from an aqueous solution of its ions.
Halogens usually exist as diatomic molecules. Cl2 (aq) + 2KBr (aq)  2KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
The solution will turn reddish brown due to the aqueous bromine
produced.
8
NOBLE GAS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NOBLE GASES
Name of Melting points / °C Boiling points / °C State - Do not conduct electricity (lack of charge carriers)
element - Very low melting and boiling points
- Increasing melting and boiling points going down the group
Helium (He) - -269 Gas - Increasing densities of noble gases going down the group
Neon (Ne) -248 -246 Gas
Argon (Ar) -189 -186 Gas
USE OF NOBLE GASES
Krypton (Kr) -157 -153 Gas
Xenon (Xe) -111 -108 Gas
Element Application Reason
Radon (Rn) -71 -62 Gas
(increases down the (increases down the Helium (He) Fill airships & hot air balloons Low density comparative
group) group) to air
GROUP 0: THE NOBLE GASES

Neon (Ne) Fill interior of neon light tubes Unreactive gas
All noble gases have a fully filled valence shell.
Noble gases are unreactive and inert since they have a stable electronic
configuration. Argon (Ar) Fill light bulbs Unreactive gas
They exist as mono-atomic particles (single atoms).
9
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 9:
METALS
1
THE ABOUT
• Heavy content chapter
• 5 key concepts
TIME
CHAPTER • Always tested in exams, MCQ and FRQ
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Require knowledge from chapters like:
 Periodic Table, Oxidation & Reduction
• Heavy-Medium overall weightage

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
METALS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL
ALLOYS
3
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL
1) Metals are ductile (able to be stretched into wires without

losing toughness).
2) Metals are malleable (able to be bent into different shapes

without breaking).
3) Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat.
PHYSICAL
4) Metals have high melting and boiling points and generally
are solids at room temperature.
PROPERTIES
5) Metals have high density.
6) Metals are generally strong and shiny.
OF METAL Exceptions:
- Mercury has a low melting point (–39 ºC) and exists as a liquid
at room temperature.
- Group I metals such as lithium, sodium and potassium have

low densities and float on water.
4
PURE METAL
Pure metals are soft and as the layers of metal atoms would slide over one
ALLOYS
another easily when an external force is applied to them.
ALLOYS
Alloys are a mixtures of metals with other elements.
In alloys, since the atoms have different size, the orderly arrangement of
the metal atoms would be disrupted, making it tougher to slide over as
easily. Hence, alloys are much stronger and harder.
Examples:
Steel: Iron, carbon (bodies of cars)

Stainless Steel: iron, carbon, chromium, nickel (medical instruments)
Brass: Copper, zinc (electrical plugs)
Bronze: Copper, tin (trophies)
5
STEEL
Steel is a good example of an alloy that is a mixture of iron with carbon or
ALLOYS:
other metals.
By controlling the percentage of carbon in steel, it will form high carbon

steels or low carbon steels.
STEEL Category
Carbon Steels
e.g. chemical plants;
Type of Steel
are softer and more easily shaped
(c) state the uses ofMild
mildSteel
Uses
steel, e.g. car bodies; machinery,

Car bodies
machinery
and and
Special Properties
stainless
Hard, strongsteel,
malleable
and
cutlery; surgical instruments

0.25% Carbon
High Carbon Steel Cutting and boring Strong but brittle

Mild steel will rust faster than high carbon steel
tools, e.g.due to higher
knives, ironcarbon atoms
(more
composition 0.45 – 1.5% Carbon hammers to prevent sliding)
- Only iron (and alloys containing iron) will rust. Magnesium corrodes
Alloy Steels Stainless Steel Equipments in Extremely durable,

chemical plants, resistant to rust
Alloy of iron, cutlery, surgical and corrosion even
chromium, nickel & instruments when heated
carbon.
Qn: Explain how the properties of low carbon and high carbon steel differ.
Low carbon steel is softer as it is more malleable.
High carbon steel contains more carbon atoms which prevent sliding of the iron atoms.
Hence, high carbon steel is harder but brittle.
6
KEY CONCEPT
REACTIVITY SERIES
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF METALS
DISPLACEMENT, DECOMPOSITION,
RUSTING
7
MUST KNOW
Complete Summary Table
Acroymn Metal Periodic Table Stability Reaction with water Reaction with acid
Please Potassium (K)

Group I
Stop Sodium (Na) Can react with cold water to
form metal hydroxide
Compound broken down by
Calling Calcium (Ca)
electrolysis
Group II
Me Magnesium (Mg)
A Aluminium (Al) Group III

React with acid
Can react with steam to
Cute Carbon (C) --- ---
form metal oxide
Zombie Zinc (Zn)
I Iron (Fe) Transition Metals Compound broken down by

reduction with carbon
Like Lead (Pb)
Hwa Hydrogen (H) --- --- ---
Chong Copper (Cu) Does not react with steam

or cold water
Sexy Silver (Ag) Unreactive Metals Compound broken down by
thermal decomposition Does not react with acid
Guys Gold (Au)
8
REACTIVITY OF METALS
Reactivity increases going down the group and from right to

left in the periodic table.
This means that Group I metals have the best reactivity.
Going down the group, the metal has more valence shells,
allowing it to lose its valence electrons more readily, hence
it is more reactive.
(from chapter ‘Periodic Table’.)
9
CHEMICAL
REACTIONS OF
METALS
THERMAL
ACID DECOMPOSITION
WATER RUSTING
DISPLACEMENT
10
METAL + WATER
Metal Speed of Observation Chemical Equation

Reaction
Potassium explosively burns with lilac 2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
(K) in cold water flame
METAL + WATER Sodium (Na) violently in

cold water
burns with
yellow flame
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Calcium readily in vigorous Ca (s) + 2H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

METAL + WATER 🡪 METAL OXIDE / HYDROXIDE + HYDROGEN GAS (Ca) cold water effervescence
When metals react with water/steam, metal oxide or hydroxide is Magnesium very slowly little Mg (s) + H2O (g) → MgO (s) + H2 (g)
formed, along with hydrogen gas*. (Mg) in cold water effervescence
violently
with steam burns with white
Reactive metals (Group I and Ca) are able to react with cold H2O. glow
Less reactive metals (Mg, Al and Zn) would only able to react with steam. Aluminium readily in 2Al (s) + 3H2O (g) → Al2O3 (s) + 3 H2 (g)
(Al) steam
Unreactive metals (after Fe) are unable to react with water at all.
Zinc (Zn) readily in ZnO is yellow Zn (s) + H2O (g) → ZnO (s) + H2 (g)
steam when hot
*Test for hydrogen gas using lighted splint, it should extinguish with ‘pop sound.
white when
cooled
Iron (Fe) slowly in requires 3Fe (s) + 4H2O (g) → Fe3O4 (s) + 4H2 (g)
steam constant
11 heating
METAL + ACID
Metal Speed of Reaction Chemical Equation
Potassium (K) Explosively in acid 2 K(s) + 2 HCl (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + H2 (g)
METAL + ACID Sodium (Na) Explosively in acid 2 Na(s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
METAL + ACID 🡪 SALT + HYDROGEN GAS Calcium (Ca) Violently in acid Ca(s) + 2HCl (aq) →CaCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
When metals react with acid, salt and hydrogen gas* is produced. Magnesium Rapidly in acid Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
(Mg)
More reactive metals (Group I and Ca) will result in a more vigorous/explosive
reaction. Aluminium (Al) Readily in acid 4 Al (s) + 6HCl (aq) → 2 Al2Cl3 (s) + 3 H2 (g)
Less reactive metals (Zn, Fe) will have less effervescence of hydrogen gas from
the reaction. Zinc (Zn) Moderately in acid Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Less reactive metals (Pb) can only react with warm dilute hydrochloric acid.
Iron (Fe) Slowly in acid Fe(s) + 2 HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
*Test for hydrogen gas using lighted splint, it should extinguish with ‘pop sound.
Lead (Pb) Slowly in acid Pb(s) + 2 HCl (aq) → PbCl2 (s) + H2 (g)
heating
12
DISPLACEMENT REACTION
When a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its
solution or oxide, it is known as displacement reaction.
This is because the more reactive metal is able to lose its electrons
more readily to form cations.
DISPLACEMENT
We can use the result from displacement reaction to deduce the
relative reactivity of two metals.
If a metal precipitates when another metal is added to the solution,

then the metal that was added would be more reactive one.
If no change is observed (i.e. no reaction), it means that the metal

added is less reactive as it wasn’t able to displace the metal in the
solution.
13
THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF METAL CARBONATES
Metal carbonates would decompose when heated strongly, producing a

metal oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
THERMAL Example:
CaCO3 (s)  CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
DECOMPOSITION Explanation:
The greater the reactivity a metal has, the more heat-stable its
carbonate.
More reactive metals’ carbonates (Group I, Ca, Al) would require

electrolysis to extract the metal while the less reactive metals’
carbonates can be broken down by reduction with carbon or by
heating.
14
PREVENTING RUSTING
RUSTING
Surface Protection
Paint, oil, plastic and metal plating are some commonly used
protective layers that would prevent air and water from coming into
contact with iron (or steel) under the protective layer.
The corrosion of iron and steel is called rusting. This occurs when iron corrodes
due to a chemical reaction with oxygen in air and water.
Sacrificial Metals
After rusting occurs, iron becomes hydrated iron(III) oxide, a brown solid with If iron is in contact with a more reactive metal like magnesium or zinc,
the chemical formula: then the rusting of iron is greatly minimised. These reactive metals
would be diminished in place of iron.
Fe2O3 . xH2O
Iron must be in contact with both air (oxygen) and water in order for it to
rust. Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is an iron alloy that consists of iron and chromium or

Seawater will cause rusting faster due to the presence of ions in seawater that nickel.
act as a charge carrier.
It does not rust easily, as these metals would react with the oxygen in
the air to produce a stable metal oxide layer.
15
KEY CONCEPT
EXTRACTION OF METALS
ELECTROLYSIS, REDUCTION,
HYDROGEN
BLAST FURNACE
16
EXTRACTION OF REDUCTION BY ELECTROLYSIS
METALS Electrolysis is the most powerful extraction method. Due to the high usage of
electricity, it is a highly expensive process.
Hence, electrolysis would only be utilised for the most reactive metals like
The method chosen to extract a given metal from its ore depends on the potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium.
reactivity of the metal and the stability of the metal oxides.
In general, very reactive metals can only be extracted using electrolysis, while
less reactive metals would be extracted by reduction with carbon/hydrogen.
Metal Extraction method Reduction by hydrogen

Potassium (K)
Sodium (Na)
REDUCTION BY CARBON
Calcium (Ca) Electrolysis
Cannot be reduced by Metals that can be extracted by this method are zinc, iron, tin and lead.
Magnesium (Mg) hydrogen
Aluminium (Al) Lead(II) oxide is reduced by carbon to become pure lead metal.
Carbon (C) --- PbO (s) + C (s)  Pb (s) + CO (g)
Zinc (Zn)
Displacement / reduction REDUCTION BY HYDROGEN
Iron (Fe)
with carbon
Lead (Pb) Metals that can be extracted by this method from their oxides are iron,
Hydrogen (H) --- copper and lead.
Reduced by hydrogen
Copper (Cu) Heating in air CuO (s) + H2 (g)  Cu (s) + H2O (g)
Silver (Ag)
Exist naturally as metal
Gold (Au)
17
BLAST FURNACE
EXTRACTION OF Production of carbon dioxide
IRON Carbon in coke reacts with oxygen in air to produce carbon dioxide.
C (s) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g)
Limestone thermally decompose to form carbon dioxide and calcium oxide.
CaCO3 (s)  CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Production of carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide reacts with more carbon in coke to form carbon monoxide.
CO2 (g) + C (s)  2 CO (g) The first 2 steps

are meant to
Reduction of haematite to iron produce CO that
will reduce the
Carbon monoxide reduces iron(III) oxide in haematite to form molten iron. iron (III) oxide!
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g)  2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
Molten iron would sink to the bottom due to its high density and it exits through the
bottom of the blast furnace.
Removal of impurities
Impurities such as silicon(IV) oxide are removed by reacting with calcium oxide.
CaO (s) + SiO2 (l)  CaSiO3 (l)
CaSiO3 is called calcium silicate or slag, would float on top of molten iron due to it being
18 less dense, is removed separately.
RECYCLING
Upside Downside
Economic
Cost savings from extraction of Recycling is very expensive,
new metals from their ores. such as costs from collection,
RECYCLING OF METALS transportation and separation
Fewer landfills required. of the scrap metals.
Metals are finite resources and would need to be conserved.
As the amount of metal ores in the Earth is limited, if metal extraction continues Social
at the current rate, the supplies of many metals will run out in the future. Conservation of the limited If done wrongly, separation of
non-renewable metals on metal waste uses more effort
Earth. and resources.
More land will be available for Time and manpower to do

other uses. recycling.
Environmental
Reduce greenhouse gas like The recycling process may
CO2 from combustion of fossil cause additional pollution if not
fuels to power extraction handled properly.
factories.
Reduces production of waste

gases like CO.
19
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 10:
AIR & ATMOSPHERE
1
THE ABOUT
• Simple but content heavy chapter

• Requires revision before test/exams
TIME
CHAPTER • Straight forward questions
ANALYSIS EXAM
•
Require knowledge of pollutants & effects
Will always link to other chapters:
•  Chemical Equations, Redox Reaction

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
AIR & ATMOSPHERE

COMPOSITION OF AIR
POLLUTANTS
3
COMPOSITION OF AIR
Air is a mixture of gases that largely made up of

nitrogen and oxygen.
The other gases are noble gases (like argon),

carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Percentage:
Nitrogen - 78%
Oxygen – 21%
Carbon Dioxide – 0.03%
COMPOSITION
OF
4 AIR
6 COMMON
AIR POLLUTANTS
OZONE
METHANE (O3)
NITROGEN (CH4)
OXIDES
SULFUR UNBURNT
CARBON HYDROCARBONS
DIOXIDE MONOXIDE
5
MUST KNOW
Summary Table
Gas Sources Effects
Sulfur that are present in fossil fuels (crude oil) undergoes combustion
Sulfur Dioxide
Volcanic eruptions Breathing difficulties
Acid rain
NO and NO2 are formed in car engines or chemical factories under very high
Nitrogen
temperature and pressure 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)  2H2SO4 (aq)
Monoxide / 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)  4HNO3 (aq)
Nitrogen
Dioxide Heat energy released by lightning during thunderstorms allows both nitrogen and
oxygen in air reacts with each other
CO binds to haemoglobin that is present in red blood cells, which

Carbon
CO is produced from incomplete combustion of petroleum in vehicle engines would reduce its ability to transport oxygen, hence causing
Monoxide
respiratory problems
Sheep and cows’ fart/burps

Methane Greenhouse gas that causes global warming
Decomposition of plant and animal matter
Unburnt
Incomplete combustion of fuel in car engines and chemical plants Causes cancer
Hydrocarbons
Breathing difficulties
Form from photochemical smog as a by-product from reaction between nitrogen
Ozone
dioxide and unburnt hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight
Damage crops
6
SULFUR DIOXIDE
Sulfur is a type of impurity present in fossil fuels. When

fossil fuels undergo combustion, sulfur would react with the
oxygen in air to form sulfur dioxide.
S (s) + O2 (g)  SO2 (g)
SULFUR DIOXIDE Large volumes of sulfur dioxide can also produced during
volcano eruptions.
Harmful Effects:
- Causes respiratory difficulties

- Causes formation of acid rain, which results in erosion of
buildings and environmental damages.
7
NITROGENOUS OXIDES
Under very high temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen in air

reacts to form nitrogen monoxide (NO).
N2 (g) + O2 (g)  2NO (g)
Nitrogen monoxide can continue reacting with oxygen in air to

form nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
NITROGEN
2NO (g) + O2 (g)  2NO2 (g)
OXIDES
NOX is usually produced in vehicle engines, power stations,
factories and incinerators which are high temperature
environments.
NOX is can also be produced during thunderstorms and

forest fires as well.
Harmful Effects:
- Causes irritation to our lungs

- Causes the formation of acid rain, which results in erosion of
buildings and environmental damages
- NO2 may react to produce harmful ozone in the presence of
sunlight
8
CARBON MONOXIDE
When carbon undergoes incomplete combustion due to the

lack of oxygen, it produces carbon monoxide (CO).
2C (s) + O2 (g)  2CO (g)
CARBON Incomplete combustion commonly occurs in vehicle engines.
Carbon monoxide (CO) binds to haemoglobin that is present
MONOXIDE in red blood cells, which would reduce its ability to transport
oxygen, hence causing respiratory problems.
Harmful Effects:
- Poisonous gas causing respiratory problems by reducing

the body’s ability to transport oxygen effectively (by binding
with haemoglobin in red blood cell).
When you leave your car engine on while stationary, the air your engine takes in
stagnant and after a while, incomplete combustion will cause the production of
carbon monoxide!
9
So try and turn off your engine if the car is going to stationary for a while!
METHANE
Methane is a type of greenhouse gas that traps heat on Earth.
Produced due to activities such as cattle farming (rearing of

cows, sheeps etc…).
These livestock produce methane in their digestive systems

and release it in their farts and burps.
METHANE Methane is also produced from bacteria decay process.
The increase in the amount of methane produced causes

enhanced greenhouse effect which in turn traps more heat
on Earth, resulting in global warming.
Harmful Effects:
- Huge and increasing amounts of methane produced leads to

enhanced greenhouse effect which causes global warming
10
UNBURNT HYDROCARBONS
Due to incomplete combustion of fuels when there is a lack

of oxygen, unburnt hydrocarbons are formed.
UNBURNT Harmful Effects:
HYDROCARBONS
- Can be cancerous
- Reacts in the presence of sunlight and other pollutants to
form harmful ozone
11
Ozone
Ozone (O3) exists as a colourless gas.
Ozone, in the presence UV radiation or sunlight, is formed

from photochemical smog, which contains a mixture of gases
OZONE
such as nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and volatile
organic compounds (VOCs).
Ozone that is present at ground level would irritate the eyes,

nose, throat and is an air pollutant.
Harmful Effects:
- Irritation to the eyes, nose and throat

- Causes respiratory problems such as asthma
12
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS
CFCs are released when using propellants in aerosols and

are present in coolants in air conditioners and
refrigerators.
CFCs causes depletion of the ozone layer as CFC molecules
CHLOROFLUOROCARBON decompose in the UV light into highly reactive chlorine atoms

that will react with ozone molecules in the atmosphere.
S 2Cl (g) + 2O3 (g)  2ClO (g) + 2O2 (g)
(CFCs) ClO (g) + O3 (g)  Cl (g) + 2O2 (g)
Harmful Effects:
- Depletion of ozone layer, which would allow harmful UV rays

to enter the earth’s atmosphere
- Exposure to harmful UV rays can cause skin cancer
13
KEY CONCEPT
AIR & ATMOSPHERE

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
DESULFURISATION & CATALYTIC
CONVERTER
14
ACID RAIN
Acid rain is formed when acidic oxides (e.g. sulfur dioxide
ACID RAIN
and nitrogen dioxide) react with oxygen and water in the
atmosphere to form acid.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)  2H2SO4 (aq)

4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)  4HNO3 (aq)
Harmful Effects:
• Acid rain causes corrosion to buildings and statues that

are built using materials containing limestone, cement or
metallic structures as acids react with metal.
• Acid rain disrupts the pH balance of the soil, making it
acidic, making it less optimal for the growth of plants and
trees.
• Acid rain decreases the pH of lake water, causing it to be
unsuitable for aquatic organisms to survive.
Ways to reduce harmful effects of acid rain:
• Refrain from using fuels containing sulfur, like coal or oil.

• Cleansing the air that contains pollutants like sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide before releasing it.
• Neutralise the high acidity in soils by using slaked lime
(calcium hydroxide) or limestone (calcium carbonate).
15
GLOBAL WARMING GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming refers to the Earth heating up and experiencing an

increase in temperature.
Methane, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases trap heat

from the Sun, resulting in the increase in temperature on Earth,
which leads to global warming.
Harmful Effects:
• Melting of polar ice caps causes rising sea levels which

causes flooding of low-lying lands.
• Higher rainfall in equatorial climates, while countries in the
Northern hemisphere (United States and Europe) are likely to
experience more droughts.
• Food shortages will happen as certain crops will struggle to
grow in such bad conditions.
How to reduce the effect of global warming:
• Switch from using non-renewable sources of energy (e.g.

fossil fuels) to using renewable sources of energy (e.g. wind
and solar energy)
• Switch to electric or hydrogen powered vehicles
The carbon cycle describes the movement of carbon dioxide in our environment.
Carbon dioxide is continuously flowing. It is taken out of the atmosphere by green

plants through photosynthesis, and returns back into the atmosphere through
various processes such as respiration, combustion and decay.
16
WASTE GAS DESULFURISATION
Sulfur dioxide can be removed from waste gas through its
REDUCING SULFUR
reaction with powdered limestone (calcium carbonate).
Sulfur dioxide in waste gas reacts with calcium carbonate &
DIOXIDE EMISSION
calcium oxide to produce solid calcium sulfite.
CaCO3 (s) + SO2 (g)  CaSO3 (g) + CO2 (g)
FROM POWER
CaO (s) + SO2 (g)  CaSO3 (s)
The resultant calcium sulfite is then further oxidised, forming
STATIONS an insoluble solid calcium sulfate.
2CaSO3 (s) + O2 (g)  2CaSO4 (s)
17
REDUCING HARMFUL GASES EMISSION FROM VEHICLES
Through the use of catalytic converters, pollutants are

converted into non-polluting gases.
Hot exhaust gases from vehicle engines that contains carbon

monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and unburnt hydrocarbons
are passed through the platinum catalyst in a catalytic
FITTING CARS
converter.
Carbon monoxide would be oxidised to form carbon dioxide:
WITH CATALYTIC 2 CO (g) + O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g)
CONVERTORS
Oxides of nitrogen would be reduced to nitrogen gas:
2 NO (g) + 2 CO (g) → N2 (g) + 2 CO2 (g)

(redox reaction)
Unburnt hydrocarbons like hexane would be oxidised to form

carbon dioxide and water:
2 C6H14 (s) + 19 O2 (g) → 12 CO2 (g) + 14 H2O (g)
In Singapore, all cars are required to be installed with catalytic converters!
18
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 11.1:
FUELS & CRUDE OIL
1
THE ABOUT
• Straight forward topic

• Some memorising to be done
MASTERY
CHAPTER • Tested in MCQ mainly
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Linked to ‘fractional distillation’ from Chapter 1.2
‘Separation Techniques’

• Constitute to around 1.5% of marks for past 5 year
papers
WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
FUELS & CRUDE OIL

METHANE & PETROLEUM
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF
PETROLEUM
3
Fossil Fuels and Crude Oil
Fossil fuels are created due to compaction and heat from

the remains of aquatic plants and animals.
Upon extraction, it is known as crude oil or petroleum,

which is a thick black liquid. In order to be used as fuel for
Fuels & Crude Oil planes, cars and cooking, it has to undergo fractional
distillation first.
Natural gas is a colourless gas found near fossil fuels in the

earth’s crust.
Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only hydrogen

and carbon atoms. Petroleum and natural gas are
examples of the hydrocarbons.
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons that has differing

numbers of carbon atoms while natural gas comprises
mainly methane CH4 (up to 90%).
COMPETING USE
Petroleum, however, is a non-renewable and limited

resource.
There is a large demand from the petrochemical industry

as naphtha is used as a chemical feedstock.
Production of substances such as plastics and drugs will be

affected when petroleum eventually runs out.
4
Recall from ‘Chapter 1.2 – Separation Techniques’, fractional

distillation is used to separation solutions with different
boiling points.
A similar concept is used to separate the hydrocarbons into

the different components!
FRACTIONAL
DISTILLATION
DEPENDS ON
DIFFERENT
BOILING POINTS
5
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF PETROLEUM
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons that has different

number of carbon atoms. The different no. of carbon
Fractional Distillation atoms result in them having different boiling points.
Petroleum needs to undergo fractional distillation to be

Fraction Boiling Point Carbon Uses separated into useful fractions.
atoms
Petroleum Gas < 25°C 1- 4 Fuel for cooking
Petrol / 25°C - 60°C 5 - 10 Fuel for car vehicles

Gasoline
Naphtha 60°C - 180°C 8 – 12 chemical feedstock
Paraffin 180°C - 220°C 10 – 16 Aircraft fuel, heating & cooking
Diesel 220°C - 250°C 15 – 25 Fuel for diesel engines like buses &
lorries
Lubricating Oil 300°C - 350°C 19 - 35 Machine lubricants; polishes & waxes
Bitumen >580°C >70 Surfacing roads
6
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
A homologous series is defined as a family of organic compounds that has

:
• Same general formula
• Same functional group
• Similar chemical properties (undergo similar chemical reactions)
• Gradual change in physical properties
• Each member differs from the next by -CH2
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms that is responsible for the chemical
properties of the molecule:
• C=C bond in alkenes

• -OH group in alcohols
• -COOH group in carboxylic acids
• -COO- group in esters
7
NAMING OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Prefix Number Suffix Homologous series Example
Meth- 1 -ane Alkanes Propane C3H8
Eth- 2
-ene Alkenes Butene C4H8
Prop- 3
-ol Alcohol Ethanol C2H5OH
But- 4
-oic acid Carboxylic Acid Pentanoic acid C4H9COOH
Pent- 5
Hex- 6
Hep- 7
Oct- 8
Non- 9
Dec- 10
8
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 11.2:
ALKANES
1
THE ABOUT
• Important topic
• Take note of ‘isomerism’
MASTERY
CHAPTER • Alkanes are tested lightly
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Explanation for physical properties is applicable to
all other hydrocarbon compounds as well*

• Entire Organic Chemistry portion accounts for 15-
20% of each year’s Chemistry paper
WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
ALKANES
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
GENERAL FORMULA
3
Name Carbon Molecular Full Structural Formula Condensed

atoms Formula structural
formula
Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons with the general formula

Methane 1 CH4 CH4 CnH2n+2.
Alkanes contain only C-C single bonds and C-H single bonds .
Alkanes are ‘saturated’ as each carbon atom is covalently

bonded to a maximum of four other atoms.
C2H6
Ethane 2 CH3CH3
Functional group
Alkanes have no functional group.
(Take note that C-C single bond is not a functional group as it

C3H8 CH3CH2CH3 does not have any chemical properties!)
Propane 3
Butane 4 C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3
*Need
4 to know how to draw full structural formula and name the alkane.
KEY CONCEPT
ALKANES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
ISOMERISM
5
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical property Reasoning
As the number of carbon atoms in the alkane increases, the melting and boiling points of alkanes increases as
well.
When the number of carbon atoms in an alkane increases, the molecules are bigger and have stronger
Melting and boiling points
intermolecular forces of attraction between the alkane molecules. As such, more heat energy is needed to
overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction between the alkane molecules. Hence, larger alkanes containing more
carbon atoms will have higher melting and boiling points.
When the number of carbon atoms in an alkane increases, the alkane becomes less volatile it is. (similar to m.p. &
b.p.)
With a higher relative molecular mass, there would be stronger intermolecular forces of attraction between
Volatility the alkane molecules. As such, more energy is needed to overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction between
the alkane molecules.
Hence, larger alkane molecules are less likely to evaporate.
When the number of carbon atoms in an alkane increases, the density will increase.
Density
When the number of carbon atoms in an alkane increases, the viscosity will increase. (more difficult to flow)
Viscosity
Alkanes with longer hydrocarbon chains flow less smoothly as they tend to get stuck together.
The higher the relative molecular mass of an alkane, the lower the flammability. (more difficult to burn)
Flammability The larger alkanes contain a higher percentage by mass of carbon atoms and undergo incomplete combustion to
produce a smokier flame.
Alkanes are insoluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents like ethanol.
Solubility
6
SUBSTITUTION (Free Radical Substitution)
During substitution, alkanes can react with halogens In the presence of

ultraviolet (UV) light.
For example,
CHEMICAL REACTIONS CH4 (g) + Br2 (g)  CH3Br (g) + HBr (g)
It is also possible for Br atoms to replace all the H atoms to

SUBSTITUTION become CBr4.
COMBUSTION
During complete combustion, an alkane burns in excess oxygen to

produce carbon dioxide and water.
For instance, methane undergoes complete combustion in excess

COMBUSTION oxygen:
2 C2H6 (g) + 7 O2 (g)  4 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l)
Incomplete combustion of the alkane occurs when there is an

insufficient oxygen.
In this case, water and carbon monoxide are produced.
2 C2H6 (g) + 5 O2 (g)  4 CO (g) + 6 H2O (l)
If there is even lesser amounts of oxygen, there could only be just

carbon (soot) and water that are produced.
7
ISOMERISM (ALKANE)
ISOMERISM
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula.
In order to display isomerism, alkanes would have to contain at least four carbon atoms.
Isomers have similar chemical properties but slightly different physical properties such as different melting and boiling points & density.
Alkane Isomers Structural formula
Butane 2
Pentane 3
Dimethylpropane
8
Condensation
POLYMER
Polymerisation
(elimination of water)
LONG CHAIN
ALKANE
SUGAR
H2 gas Addition C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2
(For Haber process) Polymerisation
Catalytic Cracking (High temp &
pressure) Fermentation
(Al2O3 & SiO2, 600 °C)
(37°C, yeast & no O2)
Oxidation O
Hydration (acidified aqueous potassium

(300 °C & 60 atm, Phosphoric(V) acid) manganate(VII) / exposed to air)
ALKANE Hydrogenation
ALKENE ALCOHOL CARBOXYLIC ACID
C-C (200 °C & nickel) C=C -OH -COOH
Substitution Bromination
(UV light) (Test for C=C bonds)
Esterification
Prefix (warm, sulfuric acid)
CH4 (g) + Br2 (g) → CH3Br (g) + HBr (g)
C2H4 (g) + Br2 (aq) → C2H4Br2 (aq)
Meth- 1
Eth- 2
Prop- 3
But- 4
ESTER + H2O
Pent- 5 -COO- ALL ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Hex- 6 Complete Combustion
Hep- 7 X + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Oct- 8
Non- 9 Incomplete Combustion
Dec- 10 X + O2 (g) → CO (g) + 2H2O (l)
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 11.3:
ALKENES
1
THE ABOUT
• Important topic
• Take note of alkene’s various chemical reactions
MASTERY
CHAPTER • Alkenes are always tested
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Understand the difference between ‘saturated’ &
‘unsaturated’ compounds

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
ALKENES
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
GENERAL FORMULA
3

formula
Alkenes
Ethene 2 C 2 H4 CH2CH2 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a general

formula of CnH2n.
As the carbon atoms are not bonded to the maximum of

four atoms, alkenes are considered to be ‘unsaturated’.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that contain

one or more C=C double bond. (For eg: Vegetable oil)
Propene 3 C 3 H6 CH2CHCH3
Functional group
Alkenes contain C=C double covalent bonds.
Butene 4 C 4 H8 CH3CH2CHCH2
4
KEY CONCEPT
ALKENES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
CRACKING
5
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
As the number of carbon atoms in the alkene increases, the melting and boiling points of alkenes increases as
well.
As the number of carbon atoms in an alkene increases, the size of the molecules are bigger and have stronger
intermolecular forces of attraction between each other. As such, more heat energy is needed to overcome the
intermolecular forces of attraction between the alkene molecules. Hence, larger alkenes containing more carbon
atoms will have higher melting and boiling points.
As the number of carbon atoms in the alkene increases, the volatility of alkenes decreases. (similar to m.p. &
b.p.)
Volatility With a higher relative molecular mass, there would be stronger intermolecular forces of attraction between
the alkene molecules. As such, more energy is needed to overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction between
the alkene molecules.
Hence, larger alkene molecules are less likely to evaporate in room temperature.
Density As the number of carbon atoms in the alkene increases, the density of alkenes increases.
As the number of carbon atoms in the alkene increases, the viscosity of alkenes decreases. (more difficult to
flow)
Viscosity
Alkenes with longer hydrocarbon chains flow less easily as they tend to get stuck together.
As the number of carbon atoms in the alkene increases, the flammability of alkenes decreases. (more difficult
to burn)
Flammability
The larger alkenes contain a higher percentage mass of carbon atoms and would undergo incomplete combustion
which results in a smokier flame.
All alkenes are insoluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents like ethanol.
6 Solubility
1) COMBUSTION
In the presence of excess oxygen, an alkene would undergo

complete combustion, producing carbon dioxide and water.
2 C3H6 + 9 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O
CHEMICAL REACTIONS If there is insufficient oxygen for complete combustion, the alkene
would undergo incomplete combustion, producing water and
carbon monoxide. (similar to alkanes)
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALKENES C3H6 + 3 O2  3 CO + 3 H2O
1) Combustion
2) HYDROGENATION (addition of hydrogen)
1) Hydrogenation (add hydrogen gas)
1) Bromination (add aqueous bromine) Addition reactions

1) Hydration (add water)
1) Polymerisation (combined alkenes to form long chain)
Condition: 200°C and nickel catalyst.
Through the process of hydrogenation, alkenes are converted to

alkanes. (E.g. vegetable oils can be converted to margarine.)
Margarine is considered a saturated compound as it undergoes

hydrogenation process and contains no C=C bonds.
7
3) BROMINATION (addition of aqueous bromine)
Conditions: Aqueous bromine, room temperature
When aqueous bromine reacts with alkenes occurs, the

reddish-brown solution decolourises to become
colourless.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS Aqueous bromine is used as a test to distinguish alkanes

and alkenes as only alkenes would react with aqueous
bromine in the absence of ultraviolet light.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALKENES
C2H4 (g) + Br2 (aq)  C2H4Br2 (l)
1) Combustion
1) Hydrogenation (add hydrogen gas) 4) HYDRATION (addition of steam)
1) Bromination (add aqueous bromine) Addition reactions Addition of steam under the right conditions can cause a
reaction with the C=C double bond to produce an alcohol
1) Hydration (add water) containing the −OH functional group.
Conditions:
Temperature of 300°C and at a pressure of 60 atm,

Phosphoric(V) acid as a catalyst.
8
5) POLYMERISATION
Polymers are formed when multiple identical alkene
CHEMICAL REACTIONS molecules (monomers) are joined together to form a

large molecule.
For example, ethene molecules can be joined together

CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALKENES through polymerisation to form the polymer: poly(ethene).
1) Combustion
1) Hydrogenation (add hydrogen gas)
1) Bromination (add aqueous bromine) Addition reactions

1) Hydration (add water)
9
CRACKING
Catalytic cracking
Catalytic cracking is a process where a long-chain hydrocarbons from petroleum are broken down into shorter-chain hydrocarbons in a presence of
a catalyst.
The process is used for producing fuels for vehicles, production of alkenes & production of hydrogen. Smaller chain alkanes and alkenes are
more useful than longer chain alkanes as they are in higher demand.
Conditions: Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) as catalyst and silicon (IV) oxide (SiO2) at a temperature of 600°C.
At least one of the products formed will be an alkene. Alkanes, hydrogen and even carbon can be produced from the cracking process as well.
Examples:
Long chain alkane → shorter chain alkane + alkene
C10H22 → C5H12 + C5H10
Long chain alkane → shorter chain alkene + shorter chain alkene + hydrogen
10
C10H22 → C6H12 + C4H8 + H2
Condensation
POLYMER
Polymerisation
LONG CHAIN
ALKANE
SUGAR
(Al2O3 & SiO2, 600 °C)
Oxidation O

Esterification
C2H4 (g) + Br2 (aq) → C2H4Br2 (aq)
Meth- 1
Eth- 2
Prop- 3
But- 4
ESTER + H2O
Hep- 7 X + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Oct- 8
Dec- 10 X + O2 (g) → CO (g) + 2H2O (l)
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 11.4:
ALCOHOLS
1
THE ABOUT
• Important topic
• Take note of alcohol’s chemical reactions
MASTERY
CHAPTER • Alcohols are commonly tested
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Understand how fermentation works and the
conditions needed

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
ALCOHOLS
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
GENERAL FORMULA
3

formula
Alcohols
Methanol 1 CH3OH
Alcohols have the general formula CnH2n+1OH and can be
CH3-OH
identified by the hydroxyl -OH functional group.
Functional group
CH3CH2-OH Alcohols have the hydroxyl -OH functional group.
Isomers
Ethanol 2 C2H5OH
Isomerism can occur in alcohols that contain at least three

carbon atoms.
Isomers have the same molecular formula and similar

chemical properties.
Propanol 3 C3H7OH CH3CH2CH2-OH
However, isomers have different physical properties such
as different melting and boiling points and densities.
Butanol 4 C4H9OH CH3 CH2CH2CH2-

OH
4
KEY CONCEPT
ALCOHOLS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
5
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
As the number of carbon atoms in the alcohols increases, the melting and boiling points of alcohols increases
as well.
As the number of carbon atoms in an alcohol increases, the size of the molecules are bigger and have stronger
Melting and boiling points intermolecular forces of attraction between each other. As such, more heat energy is needed to overcome the
intermolecular forces of attraction between the alcohol molecules. Hence, larger alcohol containing more carbon
atoms will have higher melting and boiling points.
As the number of carbon atoms in the alcohol increases, the volatility of alcohol decreases. (similar to m.p. &
b.p.)
the alcohol molecules. As such, more energy is needed to overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction between
the alcohol molecules.
Hence, larger alcohol molecules are less likely to evaporate in room temperature.
Density As the number of carbon atoms in the alcohols increases, the density of alcohols increases.
As the number of carbon atoms in the alcohols increases, the viscosity of alcohols decreases. (more difficult to
flow)
Viscosity
Alcohols with longer hydrocarbon chains flow less easily as they tend to get stuck together.
As the number of carbon atoms in the alcohols increases, the flammability of alcohols decreases. (more
Flammability difficult to burn)
Solubility Alcohols are soluble in water, but as the number of carbon atoms increases, solubility in water decreases.
6
1) Fermentation
Fermentation is a chemical reaction where glucose/sugar are
broken down by micro-organisms into smaller molecules
MAKING ALCOHOL such as alcohol and carbon dioxide.
For instance, yeast contains enzymes that are used as

catalyst for the breakdown of glucose C6H12O6 into ethanol
PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOLS C2H5OH and carbon dioxide.
1) Fermentation glucose  ethanol + carbon dioxide

(in the presence of yeast)
1) Manufacture of ethanol from ethene
C6H12O6  2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2
7
2) Manufacture of ethanol from ethene (Hydration)
To produce alcohol, alkene and steam are reacted together

at a temperature of 300°C and at 60 atm.
MAKING ALCOHOL Phosphoric(V) acid is used as a catalyst for the reaction.
The following equation below shows the reaction between

PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOLS ethene and steam.
1) Fermentation
1) Manufacture of ethanol from ethene
Uses of ethanol
Ethanol is used in alcoholic drinks such as beer and wine.
Ethanol is used as a organic solvent for many organic

compounds.
Ethanol has high volatility and it is an ideal solvent for

perfume and deodorants.
As it can undergo complete combustion to form carbon

dioxide and water, ethanol is used as a clean fuel.
8
1) Combustion
In the presence of excess oxygen, an alcohol would undergo

complete combustion, producing carbon dioxide and
water.
If there is insufficient oxygen present for complete

CHEMICAL REACTIONS combustion, the alkene undergoes incomplete combustion
to produce water and carbon monoxide instead.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALCOHOLS Soot (carbon) could also be produced as a by-product during
incomplete combustion.
1) Combustion
1) Oxidation 2) Oxidation
1) Esterification Alcohols will be oxidised to form carboxylic acids in the

presence of a strong oxidising agent.
Oxidising agents:
KMnO4 (purple to colourless)
K2Cr2O7 (orange to green)
For example, ethanol can be oxidised to ethanoic acid:
9
3) Esterification
In the presence of a catalyst, alcohols will react with
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
carboxylic acids to form esters.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALCOHOLS
1) Combustion
1) Oxidation
1) Esterification
Conditions: Concentrated H2SO4, heating under reflux
10
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 11.5:
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
1
THE ABOUT
• Key component of Organic Chemistry

• Important build up to ‘Macromolecules’
MASTERY
CHAPTER • Know how to draw your –COOH functional group
ANALYSIS EXAM
• Understand how esterification works and the
conditions needed

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
GENERAL FORMULA
3

atoms Formula structural formula
HCOOH
Methanoic 1 HCOOH CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
acid
Carboxylic acids have a general formula: CnH2n+1COOH.
Functional group
Ethanoic acid 2 CH3COOH CH3COOH
Carboxylic acids contain the -COOH functional group
(carboxyl group).
Isomerism
Propanoic acid 3 C2H5COOH
Carboxylic acid molecules that contain at least four carbon
atoms will display isomerism.
CH3CH2COOH
Isomers have the same molecular formula and similar
chemical properties.
However, isomers have different physical properties such

as different melting and boiling points and densities.
CH3 CH2CH2COOH
Butanoic acid 4 C3H7COOH
4
KEY CONCEPT
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
PRODUCTION OF ETHANOIC ACID
ESTERIFICATION
5
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
As the number of carbon atoms in the carboxylic acids increases, the melting and boiling points of carboxylic
acids increases as well.
As the number of carbon atoms in a carboxylic acid increases, the size of the molecules are bigger and have
stronger intermolecular forces of attraction between each other. As such, more heat energy is needed to
overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction between the carboxylic acid molecules. Hence, larger carboxylic acid
containing more carbon atoms will have higher melting and boiling points.
As the number of carbon atoms in the carboxylic acid increases, the volatility of carboxylic acid decreases.
(similar to m.p. & b.p.)
the carboxylic acid molecules. As such, more heat energy is needed to overcome the intermolecular forces of
attraction between the carboxylic acid molecules.
As the number of carbon atoms in the carboxylic acid increases, the density of carboxylic acid increases.
Density
As the number of carbon atoms in the carboxylic acid increases, the viscosity of carboxylic acid decreases.
(more difficult to flow)
Viscosity
Carboxylic acids with longer hydrocarbon chains flow less easily as they tend to get stuck together.
As the number of carbon atoms in the carboxylic acid increases, the flammability of alcohols decreases. (more
Flammability difficult to burn)
6
Carboxylic acids are soluble in water, but as the number of carbon atoms increases, solubility in water decreases.
Solubility
PRODUCTION OF CARBOXYLIC ACID
MAKING ETHANOIC ACID 1) Oxidation of alcohol
Ethanol C2H5OH can be converted to ethanoic acid C2H5COOH using

PRODUCTION OF ETHANOIC ACID oxidising agents.
1) Oxidation of alcohol
C2H5OH (aq) + O2 (g)  CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l)
7
NAME OF SALT FORMED
WEAK ACID Carboxylic acids are weak acids and will be able to react with reactive
metals, bases and carbonates.
The name of the salt formed would be based on the carboxylic acid
Carboxylic acids are weak acids as they only partially dissociate in that is used and ends with ‘-ate’.
water to release a low concentration of H+ ions.
Reaction Products formed

CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)
Potassium hydroxide + propanoic acid Potassium propanoate + water

(base + acid) (salt + water)
Calcium Carbonate + pentanoic acid Calcium pentanoate + carbon dioxide gas

(carbonate + acid) (salt + CO2)
Magnesium + ethanoic acid Magnesium ethanoate + hydrogen gas

(metal + acid) (salt + hydrogen gas)
8
CARBOXYLIC ACID & ALCOHOL REACTION (ESTERIFICATION)
Carboxylic acids and alcohols can react to form esters.
carboxylic acid + alcohol ⇌ ester + water

CHEMICAL REACTIONS (sulfuric acid & warming)
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
1) Esterification
Real-life applications for esters

The first half of the ester’s name comes from the alcohol.
- Used as artificial fruity flavourings to soft drinks and ice
creams.
The second half of the ester’s name comes from the carboxylic
acid and ends with ‘-oate’.
- Used as solvents for organic compounds
- Used as as solvents for glues and perfumes
Organic compounds used to form the ester
Alcohol Acid Name of ester
Ethanol Propanoic acid Ethyl propanoate
Propanol Butanoic acid Propyl butanoate

9
Condensation
POLYMER
Polymerisation
LONG CHAIN
ALKANE
SUGAR
(Al2O3 & SiO2, 600 °C)
Oxidation O

Esterification
C2H4 (g) + Br2 (aq) → C2H4Br2 (aq)
Meth- 1
Eth- 2
Prop- 3
But- 4
ESTER + H2O
Hep- 7 X + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Oct- 8
Dec- 10 X + O2 (g) → CO (g) + 2H2O (l)
Answer:
Answer:
TOPIC 11.6:
MACROMOLECULES
1
THE ABOUT
• Key component of Organic Chemistry

• Commonly tested, especially Section A & B
MASTERY
CHAPTER • Know how the difference between ‘Addition
ANALYSIS EXAM
•
Polymerisation’ & ‘Condensation Polymerisation’
Know your ester linkage & amide linkage

WEIGHTAGE
2
KEY CONCEPT
MACROMOLECULES
POLYMERISATION
ADDITION POLYMERISATION
CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION
3
POLYMERISATION
When polymerisation occurs, small molecules known as

monomers are linked together to form a long-chain
macromolecule known as a polymer.
Polymerisation is defined as the process where small

MACROMOLECULES
molecules (monomers) chemically combined together to
form one large chainlike molecule (polymer).
A macromolecule is a large molecule that is formed from
many smaller molecules.
Different macromolecules usually contains different smaller

units and linkages.
The repeating unit of a polymer is the smallest portion of the

polymer, that when repeated multiple times, would form the
entire polymer.
4
POLY(ETHENE)
Poly(ethene) is an example of a polymer that is formed using

addition polymerisation of ethene monomers.
During addition polymerisation, the C=C double bond is broken.
Addition polymerisation is the process where small molecules

(monomers) are linked together to form a polymer without any
other by-products.
APPLICATION
Poly(ethene) is the most widely used plastic because of its resistance

to many different chemicals, and that it is not soluble in water at room The equation for the addition polymerisation of ethene monomers
temperature. to form poly(ethene) is:
It is present in plastic products such as plastic bags, plastic bottles and n(CH2 = CH2) → -(- CH2 - CH2 -)-n
used as water pipes.
The repeating unit of poly(ethene) is:
5
NYLON
Nylon is a synthetic polymer formed through condensation

polymerisation of dicarboxylic acid and diamine, one containing
the carboxylic acid functional group and the other containing the
amine functional group.
CONDENSATION
POLYMERISATION
Condensation polymerisation is the process where two different

monomers are chemically combined to form a polymer. The
process produces by-products such as water.
The repeat unit of nylon contains the -CONH- amide linkage. The
polymer is made up of monomers linked by the amide linkages, hence
During the condensation reaction process, water molecules are
it’s called polyamide.
formed as by-products and removed:
Nylon is light, strong, and has high stretchable. Hence, this man-
made fibre is used to make clothing, fishing lines, parachutes and
sleeping bags.
6
TERYLENE
Terylene is a polymer formed through condensation polymerisation

of dicarboxylic acid and diol, one containing the carboxylic acid
functional group and the other containing the alcohol functional
group.
CONDENSATION
POLYMERISATION
Condensation polymerisation is the process where two different

monomers are chemically combined to form a polymer. The O
process produces by-products such as water.
The repeat unit of terylene contains the -COO- ester linkage. The
During the condensation reaction process, water molecules are
polymer is made up of monomers linked by the ester linkages, hence
formed as by-products and removed:
it’s called polyester.
Man-made fibres like terylene lasts longer, would not decompose,

and has the ability to maintain their shape under humid conditions.
Some uses of terylene are also used to make sails of boats and
7
clothes.
SUMMARY
Addition polymerisation Condensation polymerisation
Monomers must contain a double bond Monomers must have two functional
(e.g. alkenes) groups at the two ends
No by-products is produced By-products like water are produced
Example: polyethene Example: nylon & terylene
8
Condensation
POLYMER
Polymerisation
LONG CHAIN
ALKANE
SUGAR
(Al2O3 & SiO2, 600 °C)
Oxidation O

Esterification
C2H4 (g) + Br2 (aq) → C2H4Br2 (aq)
Meth- 1
Eth- 2
Prop- 3
But- 4
ESTER + H2O
Hep- 7 X + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Oct- 8
Dec- 10 X + O2 (g) → CO (g) + 2H2O (l)
Answer:
Answer:
About Us Notes prepared by:
OVERMUGGED is a learning platform created by tutors, for students.
Our team of specialist tutors offer 1-to-1 private tuition, group tuitions
and crash courses.
Follow us on IG and join our Telegram channel to get the latest updates
on our free online revision sessions, webinars and giveaways!
If you would want to join Darrell's group tuition, contact him at:
Whatsapp: 8777 0921
Telegram: @DarrellEr
Website: https://www.overmugged.com/darrell
Darrell Er
For more free notes & learning materials, visit: www.overmugged.com 'O' Levels Chemistry & Physics
OVERMUGGED's Curated
Notes
Lower Sec 'A' levels

$30 $40
Found the free notes useful? We got something better!
OVERMUGGED's curated notes is a highly condensed booklet that covers

all content within the MOE syllabus.
This booklet consist of key concept breakdowns, worked examples and

exam tips/ techniques to required to ace your exams.
Get an upgraded version of the free notes and supercharge your revision!
Purchase here.
'O' levels
$40/$50
Crash
courses
Check out our upcoming crash courses at:
https://www.overmugged.com/crashcours
es
'O' levels subject available:

- Pure Chemistry
- Pure Physics
- Pure Biology
- Combined Science
- E-Math
-A-Math
-English
- History
- Geography
- Combined Humanities
- Principles of Accounts (POA)

Chemistry Slides

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chemistry Slides

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DARRELL ER (COPYRIGHTED) ©

APPARATUS FOR MEASUREMENT

Burette 0.1cm3 0.05 cm3 27.00 cm3

This method for collecting gases which are

As the gases does not dissolve in water, they

Some examples of gases collected via this

This method is used to collect gases which have a

NH3 & H2 are gases which can be collected using

* Mr of air is around 28.8. (78% N2 + 21% O2)

This method is used to collect gases which have a

Some examples of gases collected using this

* Mr of air is around 28.8. (78% N2 + 21% O2)

- concentrated sulfuric acid

Concentrated sulfuric acid

things Quicklime (Calcium Oxide)

CHAPTER • Usually tested in MCQs

• Light overall weightage

PURE SUBSTANCE VS IMPURE MIXTURE

Pure Substance Impure Mixture

Definition Only one type of Two or more substances

Formation Chemically combined Physically combined

Let’s get over the

1) Put a filter paper onto the filter funnel.

2) Pour the mixture into the filter funnel.

3) The residue will remain in the filter funnel while the

SEPARATING FUNNEL (IMMISCIBLE

3) Open the tap and collect the water in a beaker.

5) Collect the remaining oil in a separate beaker.

Many students are confused when it comes to these 2 separation techniques:

However, a limitation to this method is that it cannot be used for

*A saturated solution contains the

1) Heat the solution till saturation.

Ultimately, what it boils down to the nature of the salt.

The critical question to ask is:

Will the solute decompose under heating?

If yes, use crystallisation.

If not, use evaporation to dryness.

1) Heat the mixture (iodine+ sand) and the volatile compound

3) Collect the iodine crystals.

When do we do simple distillation and when do we do fractional distillation?

KEY CONCEPT Is one method better than the other?

FATHER & SON

1) Heat the solution in a round-bottomed flask

2) The water boils and water vapour rises and

3) The distillate is collected in a conical flask to

1) Heat the mixture. The liquid with the lowest

2) Its vapour will rise up to the top of the

3) Collect the distillate in the conical flask.

4) Repeat the process and collect the different

Difference in boiling points

things Purpose of fractionating column

to A fractionating column contains a large number of glass beads, creating a larger

Understanding the science behind fractional distillation

KEY CONCEPT So in which situations is simple distillation

FATHER & SON

Factors affecting the differences in Rf values

Substance solubility in solvent

things Locating Agent

to For colourless substances, a locating agent is required to make the colourless

Chromatography is a method used to separate and identify

CHAPTER • Always tested

• Medium overall weightage

Iron(II) Forming green precipitate of Fe(OH)2 Forming green precipitate of Fe(OH)2