P ro duction Tec hnology

PRODUCTION & FIELD MEASURMENTS

First Year
 The General Plan of (Production Technology) / First Year
120 hrs. ( 30 weeks)(4 hrs./week)

Ref. Page Duration

Chapter Name
no. no. (hours)no.
0 Introduction 1- 4 2

1 Characteristic of Oil and Gas 5 -13 4

2 Exploration and drilling 14- 42 14
3 Principles of Well completion operation 43- 77 12
4 Principles of oil recovery 78-99 12
5 Hydrocarbons Processes 100-118 12

6 Degassing station 119-180 32

7 Overview of Utilities Systems 181-199 12

8 Outline of Downstream Activities 200-209 6

Transportation and Marketing of Oil
9 210-222 6
Products
Exams 8

Total 120
 Chapter One

Characteristics of Oil and Gas

 Chapter One
Table of Contents Duration (hours):4

1.Introduction
1.1 Hydrocarbons

1.2 Non-Hydrocarbon Compounds

1.3 Components Of Crude Oil.

1.3.1Types of Crude Oil .

1.4 Composition of Natural Gas.

1.4.1 Types of Natural Gas.
1.5 Characteristics of Oil and Gas
- API Gravity
- Density
- Relative density
- Viscosity
- Compressibility
- Heating Value
- Boiling Point
- Volatility
- Dew Point temperature
-Bubble point pressure
 1.0-INTRODUCTION

1.1 - Hydrocarbons

Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most

commonly found molecules are alkanes (paraffin’s), cycloalkanes (naphthenes),
aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenesas shown in
the Figure (1.1) .

Figure (1.1) Types of Hydrocarbons .

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen. A
unique property of carbon atoms is their ability to bond to each other forming long
chains. Crude oil contains molecules that have more than 80 carbon atoms bonded to
each other.

1.2 - NON-HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS

1-Mercaptans are organic compounds derived from alkanes by replacing one

hydrogen atom with SH. They form salts with sodium, potassium and mercury.

2- Nitrogen (N2) .
3- Oxygen(O2) .
4- Metallic.
5- Radioactive Compounds.
 1.3 COMPONENTS OF CRUDE OIL
The composition of crude oil differs from one field to another. In general, it contains:

 Associated natural gas (C1 – C4).

 Alkanes (C5 – C80).
 Cyclic hydrocarbons.
 Alkenes.
 Sulphides mainly hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
 Nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2). These
are non-flammable inorganic gases.
 Water, salt and sand. These are
considered to be impurities.

Natural gas, inorganic gases and impurities are separated from crude oil in early stage
processing using an oil-gas separator.

1.4 - Types of Crude Oil :

 Light crude oil

 Heavy crude oil

Another way to classify crude oil is based on the amount of sulphur compounds. From
this point of view, crude oil is classified as sweet or sour.

 Sweet crude oil contains low concentration of sulphurcompounds, mainly hydrogen

sulphide (H2S).
 Sour crude oil contains high concentration of sulphur compounds.

Classification according water content :

 Dry crude oil contains a little amount or no water.

 Wet crude oil contains a large amount of water.

1.5 - Composition of Natural Gas.
Table ( 1.1 ) : Composition of natural gas

Component Associated Non-Associated

Gas Gas
Methane C1 62.2% 89.4% volatile

Ethane C2 15.1% 6.0%

Propane C3 6.6% 2.2%

Butane C4 2.4% 1.0% less volatile
gasoline C5+ 1.1% 0.7%
vapours

1.6- Types of Natural Gas:

 Dry NG: the concentration of C3+ is less than 100 gal/MMCF.

 Lean NG: the concentration of C3+ is 100-300 gal/MMCF.

 Wet NG: the concentration of C3+ is more than 300 gal/MMCF.

(gal/MMCF gallons per million cubic feet).

From the usage point of view, natural gas is classified as sweet or sour.

 Sweet NG: contains low concentration of hydrogen sulphide (H2S).

 Sour NG: contains high concentration of hydrogen sulphide (H2S).

1.7- Characteristics of Oil and Gas

 API Gravity

The API gravity is an oil field measurement used for crude oil and liquid products that
are stored at atmospheric pressure. This standard measurement was established by
the American Petroleum Institute as a substitute to specific gravity. The API gravity of a
liquid is inversely related to specific gravity. Table(1.2 ) SG.and API. Gravity for some
Petroleum Products.

Table (1.2 ) shows that heavy liquids have high specific gravity and low API gravity

PRODUCT SPECIFIC GRAVITY API GRAVITY

Asphalts 0.99 110
Heavy Crude 0.95 170
Medium Crude 0.89 270
Light Crude 0.84 370
Gasoline 0.74 600

It is also shows that the difference between the values of API gravity for two liquids is
more than the difference between the values of specific gravity. A difference of 0.06 in
specific gravity gives a difference of 100 in API gravity.

141.5
0API =  131.5
specific gravity

Example 4-1 The measured specific gravity of a liquid is 0.8 at 600F. What is its
API gravity?

141.5
Solution 0API =  131.5
specific gravity

141.5
=  131.5 = 450
0.8

 Density
The density is defined as a mediums mass per unit volume mass is property. The usual
units are kg/m3 or lbm/ft3. Density varies with pressure and temperature. Standard of
reference density usually is reported at standard atmospheric pressure and some
temperature like 25°C and 60°F.
1 kg/m3 = 0.001 g/cm3 = 0.0624 lb/ft3
1 lb/ft3 = 16.02 kg=/m3 = 0.016 g/cm3
1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3 = 1.0 kg/L = 62.4 lb/ft3
 Relative density is the density of the system divided by that of reference
substance at specified conditions. Relative density is the new SI metric terms replacing
specific gravity. The reference for liquid is water; for gas it is air.
уL= (ρ liquid)/ (ρ water)
уg= (ρ gas)/ (ρ air) = (M gas)/ (M air)
where: M = relative molecular weight

 Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
The poise was the original unit; 1 poise= 1 (dyne -sec)/cm2. For petroleum systems the
centipoises (cp) is the most convenient unit. It may be expressed in force units or
equivalent mass units. In SI metric the Pa s is the preferred unit.

1cSt = 1.0 mm2/s = 1.08 (E-05) ft2 /s

 Compressibility
The compressibility of a gas defined by
pVm
z
RT
If the gas behaves ideally, then Z= 1 at all pressures and temperatures.
For real gases, however, Z varies with pressure, and deviates from its ideal value.

 Heating Value
Heating Value is defined as the amount of energy released when a fuel is burned
completely in a steady-flow process and the products are returned to the state of the
reactants.

 Boiling Point
The definition of boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid
is equal to the external pressure. The normal boiling point is the temperature at which
the liquid boils when the external pressure is one atmosphere (760 torr = 760 mm Hg =
1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi).

 Volatility
describes how easily a substance will vaporize (turn into a gas or vapour). A volatile
substance can be defined as (1) a substance that evaporates readily at normal
temperatures and/or (2) one that has a measurable vapour pressure.
The vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its vapour when the liquid
and vapour are in dynamic equilibrium.

 Dew Point temperature

The condensation temperature of heavy hydrocarbon components in gas - commonly
known as the hydrocarbon dew point, as shown in the Figure (1.2) .

 Bubble point pressure

The Pressure at which a first gas bubble is released from reservoir oil at reservoir
temperature is known a Bubble point pressure (Pb), as shown in the Figure (1.2) .

Figure (1.2) Dew Point temperature and Bubble point pressure

Note : The physical and chemical properties of reservoir fluid differ from the properties
of surface fluids in tank because of the differences in temperature and pressure).
 As shown in figure (1.3) , Oil density and viscosity at the reservoir less than its density
and viscosity at the surface (tank) because:

1- The dissolved gas in oil release at the surface (the pressure is low).

2- Reservoir temperature is high (oil viscosity is reduced at high temperature

because of the increase in the movement of Molecules .

Figure (1.3) reservoir fluid properties

 Chapter Two

Exploration & Well Drilling

 Chapter two

Table of Contents Duration(hours): 14

2.0 Introduction
2.1 The Organic Matter And Its Transformation In Hydrocarbons
2.2 Geology
2.2.1 Types Of Rocks
2.3 Migration Of Hydrocarbons
2.3.1 Kinds Of Traps
2.3.2 Reservoir rock properties
- Porosity
-Permeability
- saturation
2.4 Origin of crude oil and natural gas
2.5 Oil And Gas Well Life Cycle
2.5.1 Hydrocarbon Exploration

2.5.2 Drilling

2.6 Well And Well Types

2.6.1 normal drilling operation
2.6.2 casing
2.7 methods of well drilling
2.8 Bits
2.9 Drilling Fluids
2.9.1 Main Function of Drilling Mud
2.9.2 Drilling Fluid Circulating System
2.10 cementing
2.11 Well Coring
2.11.1 Coring methods
2.11.2 Core Measurements
 Chapter two

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Most hydrocarbons are in liquid form under normal conditions, and their mixtures, in
various proportions, form petroleum; hydrocarbons with heavier and more complex
molecules are solid.
The Oil / Gas Industry finds and produces reserves of naturally occurring
hydrocarbons in a liquid or gaseous state which are generally agreed to be the
remains of ancient plant and animal life which have been trapped in a reservoir
under specific conditions. These are known as fossil fuel. These reserves can be
exploited using drilling techniques.

2.1 The Organic Matter and its Transformation in Hydrocarbons

hydrocarbons are generated by thermal degradation of organic material that can be
subdivided into three stages:
a) diagenesis, b)catagenesis and c) metagenesis and they take place as follows:
a) The first stage (diagenesis) begins immediately after deposition; the organic
material begins to undergo transformation, due to the effect of aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria (that live without oxygen), whose action tends to break up the natural
organic into smaller fragments.. The final product of these processes is kerogen,
b) The second stage (catagenesis) is characterised by the transformation of
kerogen into hydrocarbons. This process occurs through the mechanism of thermal
cracking. Generally, that is at low temperatures, there occurs the production of heavy
liquid hydrocarbons
c) The third stage (metagenesis) leads to the formation of natural gas and graphite,
and begins when the temperature has exceeded 180 °C. In this stage the formation of
dry gas takes place.

2.2 Geology
 Geology is a science that deals with the study of the earth.
The earth can be subdivided into four parts called:
C
Crust, Mantle, Outer core, Inner core R
U
S
T

Fig .(2.1): parts of the earth

 Chapter two

The outermost part of the earth (2,900 Km deep) is subdivided into 3 zones:
 Lithosphere: it is the outermost layer, 50-150 Km deep. It is like a rigid body
in its upper part (crust); in its lower part (upper mantle) it consists in semi
plastic rock.
 Astheno-sphere: it extends from the base of the lithosphere down to
approximately 700 Km, and consists of plastic material that has physical
properties similar to a fluid.
 Mesosphere: it extends from the base of the astheno-sphere down to
2,900 Km (base of the mantle) and acts like a rigid body.

 Under the continents there is a granite-like mass which extends down to an

average depth of about 40 Km and is called Continental Crust;
 Under the oceans there is a basalt-like material whose thickness is somewhat
reduced (around 7 Km) and is called Oceanic Crust .as shown in Fig .(2.1).

2.2.1 Types of Rocks

The term rocks refer to any aggregate or mass of minerals.
Types of Rocks, as follows:
1-Sedimentary rocks: these are rocks which are formed in water or on the
surface and come from the weathering of pre-existing rocks.
2-Igneous rocks: these rocks originate from the solidification of magma within
or outside the earth’s crust.
3-Metamorphic rocks: these are the product of a partial or complete re-
crystallization of pre-existing rocks which have been subjected to heat, pressure
and hydrothermal solution. as shown in Fig .(2.2).

Figure 2.2 rocks types

The Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks are :

Anhydrite ,Sandstone, Shale ,Limestone, Conglomerate, Dolomite,
Gypsum,Gravel,Sand,Salt,Silt,andSiltstone. Fig .(2.3).
 Chapter two

Anhydrite Sandstone Shale rock

Limestone rock Conglomerate rock Dolomite rock

Gypsum rock Gravel rock Marl rock

Sand Salt rock Silt Siltstone

Figure 2.3 Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks

2.3 Migration Of Hydrocarbons

hydrocarbons migrate from the source rock( refers to rocks from which
hydrocarbons have been generated or are capable of being generated into a
reservoir formation where they can be stored and produced. Fig.(2.4).
There are two types of Migration according to the flow stages of hydrocarbons;

 Primary Migration: The movement of newly generated

hydrocarbons out of their source rock, also called expulsion.
 Secondary Migration: The further movement of the
hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other
area of accumulation is secondary migration.
 Chapter two

Fig.(2.4)Migration Of Hydrocarbons

2.3.1 Kinds of Traps

1-Structural traps: these are related to tectonic phenomena which have deformed
the original position of the sediments. The most common is the anticline (see Figure
2.5 a): or stratigraphic traps, where the trapping is not due to the bending of porous
and permeable level underlaying an impermeable cup rock assuring seal, or to other
geological factors, as said below.
Other types of structural traps are in fact connected to faults which can place
permeable and porous sediments on contact with impermeable sediments (see
Figure 2.5 b-c-d).

a b

c d
a) Anticline traps
b) Traps with a fault line
c) Traps with a fault line
d) Traps with a fault line
e) Trap with a salt dome
e

Figure 2.5 – Examples of Structural Traps

2-Stratigraphic traps: these are due to the particular arrangement, within the
stratigraphic sequence, of sediments with different physical properties. Sand lenses,
for example, may be closed off inside shaly sediments (see Figure 2.6 a).
3-combined traps: these are the result of the combination of the preceding two
types. Thus they may be generated by the combination of folds and variations in
porosity, or by a combination of faults and variations in porosity.
 Chapter two

a b

c
Figure 2.6 : Examples of Stratigraphic Traps
.

2.3.2 Reservoir rock properties

1-Porosity the void space inside the rocks. It is also defined as a measure of
the capacity of reservoir rocks to contain or store fluids

Ф = Vp /Vb×100

Ф: porosity % (volume Friction)

Vp: pore volume.
Vb: bulk volume.

Vb =Vp +Vg
Vg: grain volume.

Porosity classification:

a-Absolute porosity:
The interconnected and unconnected (dead end) pores in the
rocks. As shown in Fig. (2-7).

Figure.(2-7) Absolute porosity

Фa= (Vb –Vg) / Vb × 100

 Chapter two

Ф a: absolute porosity (%).

b-Effective porosity: it is the interconnected pores only. Fig. (2-8).

Ф e: effective porosity (%) = Vp /Vb×100

Figure.(2-8) Effective
porosity

2-Permeability: The percentage of interconnected pores. Permeability is a measure

of the ability of a fluid to pass through its porous medium. Permeability is one of
important to determine the effective reservoir.The unit of measuring the permeability
is (Darcy or Millidarcy).

The permeability depends on:

1-Viscosity of liquid (µ).
2-Flow rate (Q)
3-Pressure gradient (Δ p)
Darcy`s Law:
A rock with a permeability of ( 1 Darcy) permits a flow of (1 cm3/s )of
a fluid with viscosity
(1 c.p) under a pressure drop of (1 atm /cm).

K = QµL/AΔP………………… Darcy`s Law. Fig. (2-9)& Fig (2-10).

K: permeability / (Darcy or millidarcy)

Q: flow rate/ (cm3/s) (in the lab.) Or bbl/day (in the field)
µ: viscosity/ (c.p) centipoise
L: Distance/ (cm) (in the lab) or (ft) (in the field)
A: Area / (cm2) or ft2
ΔP: pressure drop (p2 –p1 ) /

Note: Since most reservoirs have permeability that are much less than a Darcy,
 Chapter two

the millidarcy (one thousandth of a Darcy) is commonly used for measurement

Fig (2-10).Darcy law

3-Saturation:
A mount of the fluids in pores spaces of the rock.

S = volume of fluid /v pore space ×100

For oil  So = Vo/Vp ×100
For gas Sg = Vg/Vp×100
For waterSw =Vw/Vp×100

So + Sw +Sg = 100% (if there are three fluids in pore spaces).

So + Sw =100% (if there are two fluids in pores. For example

If So =30%. Sw will be70%.

The saturation ratio is very useful (why):

1-To calculate oil and gas reserve before and after production.
2-To estimate the proved reserves.
Note: The porosity and initial water saturation are determined from the logs and core
samples obtained from the exploratory wells.

2.4 Origin of Crude Oil and Natural Gas

There are two generally accepted theories to explain the origin of oil, the organic
and inorganic theories. The inorganic theory holds that hydrogen and carbon were
brought together under great pressure and temperature deep in the earth to form oil
and gas, which then found its way through porous rocks to collect in natural trap in
the underground formation of the earth.

The organic theory, on the other hand presumes that both the hydrogen and the
carbon that make up petroleum came from plants and animals living on land and in
the sea, It is thought that this organic material probably was mostly former sea and
 Chapter two

swamp life rather than true land life. Also, it possibly was mostly the very small,
rather than the larger forms of life.

Reservoir Contents
The principle reservoir fluids are oil, water and gas. Oil and water are liquids,
natural gas is a gas, but all three are fluids because they flow. Most reservoirs that
contain liquids also contain gases. Conversely, some reservoirs that contain gases
also contain some liquids.

2.5 Oil And Gas Well Life Cycle

The creation and life cycle of a well can be divided up into five segments:
 Exploration
 Drilling
 Completion
 Production
 Abandonment.
Exploration and well drilling operations have been discussed in this
chapter Completion , production and abandonment will be explained in
the next chapters.

2.5.1 Hydrocarbon Exploration

Exploration project steps includes:

1. Identification of new research targets (prospects) in a defined area

2. Definition of their technical value (reserves), the associated geological
(POS=probability of success) and economic (EMV=Expected Monetary Value)
risks.
3. The operative phase (drilling of exploratory and development wells)

Prospect Prospect Evaluation Drilling

Identification (Reserves Estimates)

FIGURE 2.11 Exploration Project Steps

Geophysics: The science combines the physical measurement and

geological data to predict the physical characteristics of various
geological structures.
 Chapter two

The geophysical survey involves the following

 Magnetic survey.
 Gravitational survey.
 Seismic method (reflection and refraction).

Figure 2-12 Seismic operations

 Geologists are the ones who are responsible for finding oil. Their task is to
find the right conditions for an oil trap - the right source rock, reservoir rock
and entrapment.
 Many years ago, geologists interpreted surface features, surface rock and
soil types, and perhaps some small core samples obtained by shallow
drilling.
 Modern oil geologists examine surface rocks and terrain, with the additional
help of satellite images.
 However, they also use a variety of other methods to find oil. They use
sensitive gravity meters to measure tiny changes in the Earth's gravitational
 Chapter two

field that could indicate flowing oil, as well as sensitive magnetometers to

measure tiny changes in the Earth's magnetic field caused by flowing oil.
 They even detect the smell of hydrocarbons using sensitive electronic noses
called sniffers.
 Finally, and most commonly, they use seismology, creating shock waves
that pass through hidden rock layers and interpreting those waves that are
reflected back to the surface.
 Seismologists interpret the readings for signs of oil and gas traps. Once
geologists find a prospective oil strike, they mark the location using GPS
coordinates on land or by marker
buoys on water.
 Once the site has been selected, scientists survey the area to determine its
boundaries,
and conduct environmental impact studies if necessary.
After all the legal issues are settled, the crew goes about preparing the land for
drilling.

2.5.2 DRILLING

The purpose of the drill hole is to tap an oil or gas reservoir often thousands of feet
or hundreds of metres below the surface of the earth. The drill hole is usually less
than one foot (30 centimetres) in diameter at final depth. The purpose of a drilling rig
is only to drill a hole in the ground. Although the rig is big, the hole it drills is relatively
small.

1. Mud tank
2. Shale shakers
3. Suction line (mud pump)
4. Mud pump
5. Motor or power source
6. hose
7. Draw-works
8. Standpipe
9. Kelly hose
10. Goose-neck
11. Traveling block
12. Drill line
13. Crown block
14. Derrick
15. Racking Board
16. Stand (of drill pipe)
17. Setback (floor)
18. Swivel
19. Kelly drive
20. Rotary table
21. Drill floor
22. Bell nipple
23. Blowout preventer (BOP) Annular type Figure 2.13 – Drilling Rig
24. Blowout preventer (BOP) Pipe ram & blind ram
25. Drill string
 Chapter two

26. Drill bit

27. Casing head or Wellhead
28. Flow line

Types of drilling rigs as follows:

Figure 2.14 Rigs

(Dynamic positioning)
Drilling ship
 Chapter two

2.6 Well & Well Types

A well is a hole drilled in the earth from which petroleum flows or is pumped.
Fossil-fuel wells come in many varieties. There are wells that produce oil, wells that
produce oil and natural gas or wells that only produce natural gas
Another obvious way to classify oil wells is by location; i.e. onshore and offshore
wells.
Another way to classify oil wells is by their purpose in contributing to the
development of a resource. They can be characterized as:

 Exploration wells are drilled purely for exploratory (information gathering)

purposes in a new area.
 Appraisal wells are used to assess characteristics (such as flow rate) of a
proven hydrocarbon accumulation.
 Wildcat wells are those drilled outside of and not in the vicinity of known oil or
gas fields.
 Production wells are drilled primarily for producing oil or gas, once the
producing structure and characteristics are determined.

At a producing well site, active wells may be further categorised as:

 Oil producers: The well producing predominantly liquid hydrocarbons, but

mostly with some associated gas.
 Gas producers: The well producing almost entirely gaseous hydrocarbons.
 Water injectors: These well are used for injecting water into the formation to
maintain reservoir pressure or simply to dispose of water produced. Water
injection into the producing zone frequently has an element of reservoir
management; however, often produced water is disposed into shallower
zones safely beneath any fresh water zones.
 Gas injectors: These well are used for injecting gas into the reservoir often as
a means of disposal or to maintain reservoir pressure.
 Aquifer producers: These well are used for intentionally producing water for
re-injection to manage reservoir pressure. Using aquifer produced water
rather than water from other sources is to preclude chemical incompatibility
that might lead to reservoir-plugging precipitates. A typical well schematic
drawing is given below.
 Chapter two

Figure 2-15 Well Schematic

A well consists of Conductor casing, Surface casing, Intermediate casing and

Production casing. Production tubing is the inner most component of the well through
which oil and gas flows from well bottom to the surface facility.

2.6.1 Normal drilling operations

Normal drilling operations include drilling the hole and adding a new joint of pipe as
the hole deepens. It also involves tripping the drill string out the hole to put on a new
bit and then running it back to the bottom (making a round trip). Other key steps
include running and cementing the large-diameter steel casing used to seal selected
intervals of the hole.

2.6.2 Casing

Casing is metallic pipe that is lowered into a well to cover the open hole, isolating it
from the drilled formations.
Once positioned at the desired depth, casing is cemented in place by pumping slurry
inside it. The slurry goes out of the casing’s bottom, which is called “shoe”, and rises
in the casing/open hole annulus.
 Chapter two

The functions of casing are:

 To support the wellhead and the BOPs (blowout preventers).

 To allow mud circulation to the surface;
 To isolate formations having different pore pressure or fracture gradients;
 To exclude formations that can cause problems to drilling activities
because of their geological characteristics.

Casings can be divided into:

Stove Pipes

Such as marine conductors or foundation pile for offshore rigs. These casings:
 Run to prevent wash out of unconsolidated surface,

 Run to provide a circulation system for drilling fluids and to ensure the
stability of the ground under the rig,

 Does not carry wellhead equipment,

 Can be driven into ground with a pile driver (26 in to 42 in per pile).

Conductor Pipes

 Run from surface to some shallow depth to protect near surface

unconsolidated formation,

 Provide a circulation for the drilling mud to protect foundation of the

platform,

 May be connecting of BOP or cut at surface or diverter connection,

 Sizes range from 18 5/8 in to 20 in.see fig. 2.16 a &b.

Surface Casings

 Run to prevent caving of weak formation encountered at shallow depths,

 Should be set in competent rock like limestone: to ensure that the

formation will not fractured at the casing shoe by high mud weight used
later in the next hole,

 Protect against shallow blow-out, thus BOPs are connected to top.

Intermediate Casings

 Usually set in the transition zone below or above pressured formation (salt
and/or caving shale),
 Chapter two

 Need good cementing to prevent communication behind the casing

between zones; multistage cementing may be used for long strings.

Production Casings

 Isolate production zones,

 Provide reservoir fluid control,

 Permit selective production in multi zones production.

Linear Casings

 A string of casing that does not reach to the surface,

 Hang on the intermediate casing, by use of suitable packer and slips

called liner hanger.

Figure 2.16 a- Casings

 Chapter two

Figure 2.16 a & b – Casings

Figure 2.16 b - Casings

2.7 Methods of well drilling:

1- Cable tool drilling
The earliest drilling system was cable drilling, where a bit is raised by a cable and
allowed to fall to the bottom of the hole under its own weight. The hole was not
cased, and therefore could not be shut in or controlled in the event of encountering
high pressures. Cable tool rigs are still used in some parts of the world for drilling
shallow water wells.

Figure 2.17 A Cable – Tool rig

 Chapter two

2- Rotary drilling
Rotary drilling provided many improvements to drilling applications. The rotary
drill rig consists of a prime mover, hoisting equipment, rotating equipment and
circulation equipment, all of which perform tasks crucial to drilling a well or hole.
Although this was a basic system, it was also a complex one. Previously, the
system was powered by steam engines. After World War II, they were powered by
gas, and eventually, diesel engines.

Figure 2-18 Rotary Drilling Rig

3- Directional Drilling

No well is ever perfectly. vertical. Even wells meant to be drilled vertically will wander
few degrees from vertical and move in different directions. Routine measurements
are taken during drilling to determine if a well is deviating from vertical by more than
the allowed amount (normally less than 5 degrees).
 Chapter two

Environmental Problems

Logistic Problems

Multi-Target Wells

Relief Wells

Rese
rvoir

Figure 2.17 directional well

 Chapter two

4- Horizontal Well drilling

Horizontal wells have wider drainage areas than vertical ones.

Long
Radius Medium
Radius Short
Radius

Fig.(2.18)Different Types of Horizontal Wells

2.8 Bits
There are several types of bits, which we shall discuss in turn:

 Drag Bits
 Rolling Cutter Bits
 Diamond Bits
 Special Purpose Bits

Figure 2.19 - bits

 Chapter two

2.9 Drilling Fluids

Drilling fluid is used to aid the drilling of boreholes into the earth. Often
used while drilling oil and natural gas wells and on exploration drilling rigs,
drilling fluids are also used for much simpler boreholes, such as water
wells. Liquid drilling fluid is often called Drilling Mud.

2.9 .1 Main Function of Drilling Mud:

A drilling mud is used to carry out the following functions:

 Cool the drill bit and lubricate its teeth;
 Lubricate and cool the drill string;
 Control formation pressure;
 Carry cuttings out of the hole;
 Stabilize the well bore to prevent it from caving in; and
 Help in the evaluation and interpretation of well logs.
2.9.2 Drilling Fluid Circulating System
On a drilling rig, mud is pumped from the mud pits through the drill string where it
sprays out of nozzles on the drill bit, cleaning and cooling the drill bit in the process.
The mud then carries the crushed rock ("cuttings") up the annular space ("annulus")
between the drill string and the sides of the hole being drilled, up through the surface
casing, and emerges back at the surface. Cuttings are then filtered out at the shale
shakers and the mud returns to the mud pit. See fig.(2.20)

Mud chemicals
store

Mixing
hopper
Shale
shaker

Fig.(2.20) Drilling Fluid Circulating System

 Chapter two

2.10 Cementing

Oil well cementing is the process of mixing and displacing a cement slurry down the
casing and up the annular space behind the casing where it is allowed to set, thus
bonding the pipe to the formation. Cementing procedures are classified as primary or
secondary. Primary cementing is
performed immediately after the casing is run into the borehole. Its objective is to
obtain an effective zonal separation and help protect the casing. Cementing also
helps in the following ways:
• Bonds the casing to the formation
• Protects the producing formations
• Helps in the control of blowouts from high-pressure zones
• Seals off troublesome zones (i.e. lost circulation zones)
• Provides support for the casing
• Prevents casing corrosion
• Forms a seal in the event of a kick during drilling
 Chapter two

Fig.(2.21)cementing operation

2.11 WELL CORING

A way of measuring well conditions downhole by studying samples of

reservoir rocks, core analysis gives the most accurate insight into the
porosity and permeability, among other characteristics, of the well.

A core is a sample of rock in the shape of a cylinder. Taken from the side of
a drilled oil or gas well, a core is then dissected into multiple core plugs, or
small cylindrical samples measuring about 1 inch in diameter and 3 inches
long. These core plugs are then dried and measured.

In order to complete a core sample, drilling must be halted at the top of the
subsurface of the reservoir. The drill string is removed from the wellbore, the
drill bit removed and a rotary coring bit is attached in its place. Similar to a
drill bit, the rotary coring bit consists of solid metal with diamonds or tungsten
 Chapter two

for cutting at the reservoir rock; but unlike a drill bit, a rotary coring bit has a
hollow center.

Figure 2.22 Rotary Coring

On a rotary coring bit, the cutting apparatus surrounds a hollow center,

called the Core Barrel, where the core sample is stored.

2.11.1 Coring methods

1- Conventional Coring

The complete core-barrel assembly, made up on the bottom of the drill

string, consists of a cutter head, an outer barrel, a floating inner barrel, and a
finger type “catcher” which retains the core in the barrel when the assembly
is retrieved from the hole. Mud circulates from the drill pipe between the two
barrels to the cutter head. Either drag-type or roller type bits may be used,
depending on the character of the formation. Ordinarily, the conventional
barrel will accommodate a 20-ft. core, though sometimes cores of shorter
lengths are cut because of special conditions or requirements. Weight on the
bit, rotary speed, and circulation rate depend on local situations. To recover
a core with the conventional barrel, the entire drill string must be hoisted.

Advantages of this type of coring include:

 Obtaining a large diameter core
 Maximum percentage of recovery of formation cored
 Adaptability to all except the most abrasive types of formations
 Usual requirements of no additional surface drilling equipment.
 Chapter two

Disadvantages include:

 Limitation of cutting only a 20 ft. core during a run, and

 Necessity of pulling the drill pipe from the hole after cutting the core

2- Diamond Coring

Fig.(2.23)diamond bit

Advantages of diamond coring include:

 In areas where formations are abrasive and sufficiently hard, coring
may sometimes be more
economical than drilling.
 Usually longer bit life
 Possibility of cutting up to 90 feet of core at one run
 High percentage of recovery

Disadvantages of diamond coring are:

 High initial expense for barrels and bits

 Requirements of proper operating conditions
 Necessity for strict supervision by one specializing in diamond-core
operations
 Generally higher cost compared to other types of coring

3- Wireline Coring

Advantages of wireline coring include:

 Consecutive cores may be cut until the core bit has been dulled,
without pulling the drill pipe
from the hole to recover each core.
 Chapter two

 Coring and drilling may be done intermittently until the bit is dulled,
without making a round
Trip with the drill pipe.
 Lower coring cost.

Disadvantages include:

 Requirement of additional surface equipment

 Limited to coring relatively soft formation
 Cores are relatively smaller than conventional and diamond-cut cores
 Usually lower core recovery than in conventional and diamond coring

Fig.( 2. 24) wireline coring

4-Side-Wall Coring

. Core tubes (barrels) are generally driven into the formation by an

electrically detonated powder charge. The barrel containing the core is
retrieved with cables attached to the barrel and to the body of the core gun.
See figure(2.25).
 Chapter two

figure(2.25) side-well core gun

Advantages of side-wall sampling techniques are:

 Samples are obtained from any desired depth interval of a

previously drilled hole
 The method can be a valuable aid in confirming electric-log
interpretations

Disadvantages are:

 Samples are usually too small for ordinary laboratory core analysis
 Samples have been subjected to considerable flushing action of
drilling mud filtrate.
 Chapter two

2.11.2 Core Measurements

Core analysis is used to define not only the porosity and permeability of the
reservoir rock, but also to unearth the fluid saturation and grain density. All of
these measurements help geologists, engineers and drillers better understand
the conditions of the well and its potential productivity.

Figure 2.26 Examining Core Samples

 Chapter Three

Principles of well completion operation

&
Workover
 Chapter Three

Chapter Three
Table of Contents Duration (hours):12

3.0 Principles of Well completion operation and workover

3.1 Well Operation

3.2 Well Completion

3.2.1 Types of Completion

3..2.2 Completion Equipment

-Tubular Equipment

-Wellhead

- Christ mas tree

3.2.3 Completion Fluids

3.3 Production Optimization

3.3.1 Introduction

3.3.2 Reservoir Stimulation

- Matrix Acidizing

- Hydraulic Fracturing

3.3.3 production operation problems

-Sand Control

-Asphaltenes and Paraffin Control

- Water (corrosion )

3.3.4 Workover

3.4 Artificial Lift Systems

3.5 Perforation

3.5.1 perforating mechanisms

3.5.2 Factors Affecting Perforations &Well Productivity

 Chapter Three

3 Principles of Well completion operation and workover

3.1 Well operations

The term completion is used to define all post-drilling operations that are
necessary to hydrocarbon production. Completion planning involves
choosing and organizing the equipment to be used, selecting materials,
establishing production line tubing dimensions, production intervals, and
finally defining the mode of formation fluid production. This evaluation must
take into account the evolution of the productive characteristics of the well,
according to the production forecast.

3.2 Well Completion

The phases in well construction can be subdivided into:

 a drilling phase,

 a completion phase (process that prepares the well for production; the
fluids used at this stage are called completions fluids),

 an optional stimulation phase.

In petroleum production, completion is the process of making a well ready for

production. This principally involves preparing the bottom of the hole to the
required specifications, running in the production tubing,perforating and
stimulating as required.

3.2.1 Types of Completion

Oil and gas well completions can be divided into two main categories: open
hole well completions, and the cased-hole completions.

 In open hole completions, the productive formation is kept as it is, as

shown in fig.(3.1),and no cemented casing columns are needed. This type
of completion is used when the formation is self-supporting or, when, on
the contrary, it is too severely fractured to guarantee successful
cementation. It is the optimal solution since the entire drainage surface is
available for production, and pressure drops are limited. Moreover, the
absence of casing makes well stimulation easy. On the other hand, in
open hole completions it is impossible to control the entrance of sand and
water in the hole, and it is therefore very difficult to isolate the levels of
water.
 Chapter Three

Fig.(3.1) open hole well completion

 Cased-hole completions are more widely used due to the stability of the
hole. In this case the well to be completed is one that has been cased and
cemented throughout its entire development. In order to make production
possible, it is necessary to re-establish hydraulic communication between
the productive formation and the hole. This operation involves drilling the
lining, the cementation and the productive formation by perforating
operation which will be explained at the end of this chapter. See fig.(3.2).

Figure( 3.2): Case Hole Completion Well.

 Chapter Three

There are four possible solutions to establish communication between the

productive formation and the surface:
a) Tubingless completion;

b) Packerless completion (with a tubing string and without isolation between

casing and tubing);

c) single string with hydraulic isolation completion;

d) multiple string completion.

The tubingless completion method is used in wells where the pay rock
pressure is low and high flow rates are required.

In this case production must take place directly through the final lining of the
well, with no support from production strings or isolation systems.see
Fig.(3.3).

Packerless Completion is a more financially advantageous system. Here,

only the production tubing is placed in the well, and it is possible to produce
both through it and through the annulus (Fig. 3.3). The production tubing can
be used for injecting inhibitors or killing fluid.

This method is somewhat limited in terms of flow conditions and the

protection of the tubing materials. Moreover, it is difficult to detect leaks in
the tubing or the casing, and to gather bottom hole pressure data.

The Single String Completion using hydraulic isolation and just one string
is convenient when the production layer appears to be homogeneous and a
selective-zone production is not necessary. It consists in the use of a single
tubing string that is lowered into the well together with an isolation device for
the formation section to be produced, called the packer (Fig. 3.3)&(3.4).

Where there are several production layers for one fluid, a single selective
completion is used. This system has only one tubing string and several
packers that isolate the various production levels.

The Multiple Tubing String Completion uses, at the most, two or three
tubing, isolated by packers and producing on different levels at the same
time.

This solution is useful when the reservoir presents different layers of

mineralization, for example gas and oil, or different types of oil, because it
allows us to produce selectively according to necessity, while keeping
production active on various levels at the same time.
 Chapter Three

For the single tubing strings, it is always possible to adopt a solution similar
to the single selective completion, thus obtaining a multiple selective
completion. This system’s drawback is the limited diameter of the tubing
which in turn reduces the flow capacity of each tubing string.

Fig.(3.3) Types Of Cased Well Completion

 Chapter Three

Fig.(3.4)Single & Multiple Tubing String Completion

 Chapter Three

3.2.2 Completion Equipment

1-Tubular Equipment

The main element in completion is the tubing that is the pipes which connect
the area of the reservoir selected for production to the surface.

The pipes are made of non-welded stainless steel, and are classified
according to length, diameter, type of steel, weight, thickness, and according
to the type of thread and joint. An alternative to the use of strings of pipes
connected by joints is the use of so-called coiled tubing, which consists in a
steel pipe coil around a drum that is introduced into the well by means of a
special tool.

This method is economically convenient because it allows us to get a

completion working in very little time, and to dismantle it very rapidly. Coiled
tubing can also be re-used in other completion plants. It is generally used in
temporary completions to carry out long-term well tests, or where the use of
a jointed tubing system would present serious problems.

Circulation devices are used to put the inside of the production string in
communication with the annulus tubing-casing. This communication is
required to circulate a fluid in the well, to treat the well with chemical
products or to inject fluids into the tubing through the annulus. There are two
different devices for doing this: sliding sleeves and side pocket mandrels.

A sliding sleeve is a cylindrical device with an internal sliding mechanism, or

sleeve. Both the sleeve and the outer cylinder are perforated so as to
provide coupled openings, and the sleeve is moved up and down by a wire-
line tool. When the sleeve is brought into the open position, the relative
opening is in line with the opening in the outer cylinder, and allows
communication between the tubing and the casing.

The sliding sleeves are usually positioned either above the uppermost
packer in order to carry out circulation and pressure-balancing operations in
the well, or between two packers to allow for selective production on
multilevel reservoirs.

The side pocket mandrels are special devices that present a chamber
parallel to the flow chamber, in which it is possible to fix devices and connect
the annulus to the inside of the string without occupying the flow diameter.
 Chapter Three

2-Wellhead

The production string is connected to the wellhead by means of a series of

elements that form the wellhead completion. These are the tubing spool, the
tubing hanger, and the Christmas tree (see figure 3.5).

The Tubing Spool serves to hold up the production string and to connect, at
the bottom, the casing heads and, at the top, the Christmas tree. The tubing
spool includes two lateral openings that allow annulus control between
production tubing and production casing.

The Tubing Hanger is needed to support the tubing and to establish the
annulus seal. The annulus is positioned in the tubing spool, and the
production tubing is screwed on to it. An external gasket guarantees the seal
between the production casing and the tubing.

The Christmas Tree is located above the tubing spool. Its function is to
consent production regulation, and to create safe conditions for workover
operations inside the well. The Christmas tree is composed of two main gate
valves, called the master valves, which enable the well to be closed. Above
these a crossover connection is installed.

Wing valves, which are fixed to the lateral flanges, are used both for
production and for possible workover jobs in the well. On the upper flange
there is yet another valve, similar to a master valve, and a crowning flange
that is used to install the workover equipment without having to stop the flow.

The absolute pressure gauge is installed on the crowning flange in

correspondence with the wellhead.
 Chapter Three

Figure 3.3.5 : Example of Wellhead & Christmas Tree

A wellhead is the component at the surface of an oil or gas well that provides
the structural and pressure-containing interface for the drilling and production
equipment. The primary purpose of a wellhead is to provide the suspension
point and pressure seals for the casing strings that run from the bottom of the
whole sections to the surface pressure control equipment.

The prime and most important functions of a well head facility are:

 Carryout the remote operation of the wells from remote areas such as
Remote Manifold Stations (RMS) or Control Room.
 Measure the flow rate of the various product streams such as, gas, oil,
water etc. by means of Multi phase flow measuring instruments.
 Protect the well and the flow lines from breaking by means of
safeguarding systems in case of plant abnormal operation or shutdown.
 Facilitate the depressurizing of the system for maintenance.

 Provide control mechanism between subsurface and surface equipment.

 Providing containment by sealing.

While drilling the oil well, surface pressure control is provided by a blowout
preventer (BOP). If the pressure is not contained during drilling operations by
the column of drilling fluid, a well blowout could occur.
Once the well has been drilled, it is completed to provide an interface with the
reservoir rock and a tubular conduit for the well fluids. The surface pressure
 Chapter Three

control is provided by a Christmas tree. The Christmas tree is installed on top

of the wellhead with isolation valves and choke to control the flow of well fluids
during production.

The standard well head ratings are as follows:

Ps kP
1000
i 7,000
a
2000 14,000
3000 21,000
5000 34,000
10,00 69,000
15,00
0 103,00
20,00
0 130,00
0
0 0
Further as part of safeguarding system, each wellhead may have:

 Well head control panel and hydraulic oil system.

 Choke valve and a high integrity pressure protection system(HIPPS)

 Surface Controlled Surface Safety Valve(SC-SSV).

 Fusible plug system

 Manual vent.

Wellhead and Christmas tree are used for well drilling and oil or gas
production, water injection and downhole operation. Wellhead and Christmas
tree are installed on the top of a well to seal the annular space between casing
and tubing, can control wellhead pressure and adjust well flow rate and
transport oil from well to flowline.

The Wellhead is made up of components that support and seal the downhole
tubing at the surface. Downhole tubing consists of the casing strings and the
tubing strings. The wellhead is built up as the well is drilled. First there is the
surface casing, then the intermediate casing strings. Lastly the production
casing which goes down through the producing formation. The production
tubing strings are then run inside the production casing strings. The production
tubing strings are hung either in tension (stretched) or in compression. This is
calculated from the expected well flowing conditions.

Surface casing prevents the well hole from caving in where the walls are soft
and crumbling and keeps the water from running into the hole. It provides a
base to secure the blowout preventer and a connection for the other casings
which follow later.
 Chapter Three

Normally a well is having three casings: the surface one, the intermediate and
the oil or producing casing, as it is sometimes called. The diameter of the
casing decreases with increase in depth. They are all secured to the wellhead
on the surface and are cemented in place by filling the space between the
casing and walls. All other casings other than the surface casing and the
production casing are referred to as “Intermediate casings”. Also each casing
does not fit tightly into the next one and there is a space which is referred to as
the“Annulus”.

Normally wellheads consist of the following components: Figure 3.6

 Casing Head

 Tubing Head

 Christmas Tree

Figure 3.6 - Typical wellhead

 Chapter Three

Casing Head

When a well drilling is completed, its casing appearance will be as fig.(3.7) below:

Figure 3.7(types of casing)

In oil well, a casing head is a simple metal flange welded or screwed on to the
top of the conductor pipe or the casing and forms part of the wellhead system.

This is the primary interface for the surface pressure control equipment, for
example blowout preventers (for well drilling) or the Christmas tree (for well
production).

Casing head is heavy, flanged steel fitting connected to the first string of
casing.
It provides housing for slips and packing assemblies, allows suspension of
intermediate and production strings of casing and supplies the means for the
annulus to be sealed off.
Casing heads with its details are shown in fig (3.8) below:
 Chapter Three

Figure 3.8 - Casing Heads

Tubing Head

The tubing head, as shown in Figure 3.9, is comparatively smaller but of similar
design to the casing head and is located above it. It provides support to the
tubing string below it and seals off pressures between the casing and the
tubing. Further, it supports the valves through which the hydrocarbons are
flowing. Christmas tree is fitted above the Tubing head.
 Chapter Three

Figure 3.9 - Tubing head

3- Christmas Tree

The name is given as Christmas tree, as its shape looks like that of a
Christmas tree. Its size, shape and construction depend on the facility. It
consists of set of valves and fittings to control the pressure/flow of fluids
from the well. If required, it will shut off the flow from the well and provide
backpressure to the well. It may be designed with single or double wings
and its main fittings are the master valve (gate valve), one cross between
the two flow valves, chokes and other fittings. See fig.(3.10)&(3.11).
 Figure 3.10: Xmas Tree
The Christmas tree allows a number of operations to be performed on the well.

 Flow of gas or oil during normal production.

 Injection of gas, steam or other media under pressure to stimulate

production.
 Pumping in substances, such as mud, water or oil for "killing" the well.

Figure 3.11 Typical "Xmas tree"

The primary function of Christmas tree is to control the flow, usually oil or gas,
out of the well. (A tree may also be used to control the injection of gas or water
into a non-producing well in order to enhance production rates of oil from other
wells.) When the well and facilities are ready to produce and receive oil or gas,
tree valves are opened and the formation fluids are allowed to go through a
flow line. This leads to a processing facility, storage depot and/or other pipeline
eventually leading to a refinery or distribution center (for gas).

A tree often provides numerous additional functions including chemical

injection points, well intervention means, pressure relief means, monitoring
points (such as pressure, temperature, corrosion, erosion, sand detection, flow
rate, flow composition, valve and choke position feedback), and connection
points for devices such as down hole pressure and temperature transducers
(DHPT). On producing wells, chemicals or alcohols or oil distillates may be
injected to reduce production problems such as blockages.

A typical Christmas tree normally consists of the following components:

see fig.( 3.12).

 Manually operated Lower Master Valve(LMV)

 Hydraulically operated Upper Master Valve or Surface Safety Valve(SSV)
 Manually operated Swab or Crown valve(SWAB)
 Manually operated Wing Valve(WV)
 Hydraulically or manually operated choke valve

Figure 3.12 - Christmas Tree

In addition to this another hydraulic operated Surface Controlled Surface
Safety Shutdown Valve (SC-SSSV) is also installed in the production tubing
few meters below the surface.

Master valve
The two lower valves are called the master valves (upper and lower
respectively). Master valves are normally in the fully open position and are
never opened or closed when the well is flowing (except in an emergency) to
prevent erosion of the valve sealing surfaces. The lower master valve is
normally manually operated, while the upper master valve is often hydraulically
actuated, allowing it to be used as a means of remotely shutting in the well in
the event of emergency.
Wing valve

Normally there are two wing valves. The right hand valve is often called the
flow wing valve or the production wing valve, because it is in the flow path the
hydrocarbons take to production facilities (or the path water or gas will take
from production to the well in the case of injection wells).
The left hand valve is often called the kill wing valve. It is primarily used for
injection of fluids such as corrosion inhibitors or methanol to prevent hydrate
formation. In the North Sea area, it is called the non-active side arm (NASA)
and it is typically manually operated.

An actuated wing valve is normally used to shut in the well when flowing, thus
preserving the master valves for positive shut off for maintenance purposes.
Hydraulic operated wing valves are usually built to be failsafe closed, meaning
they require active hydraulic pressure to stay open. This feature means that if
control fluid fails the well automatically shuts itself in without operator action.

Swab valve

The valve at the top is called the swab valve and lies in the path used for well
interventions like wireline and coiled tubing. It is also called as Crown valve.
For such operations, a lubricator is rigged up onto the top of the tree and the
wire or coil is lowered through the lubricator, past the swab valve and into the
well.

This valve is typically manually operated. Some trees have a second swab
valve; the two arranged one on top of the other. The intention is to allow rigging
 down equipment from the top of the tree with the well flowing while still
preserving the Two-barrier rule. With only a single swab valve, the upper
master valve is usually closed to act as the second barrier, forcing the well to
be shut in for a day during rig down operations.

Choke valve:
Choke valve is a type of control valves, mostly used in oil and gas production
wells to control the flow of well fluids being produced. Another purpose that
the choke valves serve is to kill the pressure from reservoir and to regulate the
downstream pressure in the flow line.
Typically oil and gas producing wells have two choke valves in series, one non-
regulating choke valve and one regulating choke valve downstream to the non-
regulating choke valve.

Regulating/Adjustable choke can be manual ,as shown in fig.( 3.13) or

automatic valve. The valve opening can be controlled manually or via electric,
pneumatic, hydraulic signal from the control panel to regulate the flow in
downstream flow line.

Figure 3.13 - Manual choke

The hydraulic choke valve includes a hydraulic driving unit comprising at least two
hydraulic cylinders placed on either side of the valve housing. Basically a Choke valve is
a type of control valve used for controlling fluid pressure/flow from the well. See
fig.(3.14). more details about chokes will explained in chapter six.
 Figure 3.14 - Various Types of Power Chokes

Surface Controlled Surface Safety Shutdown Valve (SC-SSSV)

SC-SSSV is provided for the well protection. If there is any problem with the
hydraulic system, loss of oil pressure shut downs the SC-SSSV. Even if the
well head is knocked out, the SC-SSSV shutdown and protect the formation.
Normally SC-SSSV is located few hundreds of feet below the surface. see
fig.(3.15).

Sub surface safety valve provides emergency fail safe closure to stop fluid flow
from a well bore if surface safety valve or well head itself is inoperable. The
more recent design of SSSCV is normally closed valve, with the spring force
acting to push the piston upward and release the flapper or ball to close the
valve. Control pressures transmitted from surface through a hydraulic control
line acts against the spring to keep the ball or flapper valve open during normal
production.
 Figure 3.10 - Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Shutdown Valve (SC-
SSSV)

An SSSCV is operated remotely through a control line that hydraulically

connects the safety valve, up and through the well head, to an emergency
shutdown system with hydraulic pressure supply. The design is fail safe;
through the control line, hydraulic pressure is applied to keep the valve open
during production. If the hydraulic pressure is lost, the safety valve closes
automatically through the action of an internal power spring system-a normally
closed fail safe design.

Wellhead Control System

It is very common practice at oil & gas plant to control its oil or gas well through
a wellhead. Each well is equipped with a Surface Controlled Subsea Safety
Valves (SCSSV) or usually called as Down Hole Valve (DHV) and wellhead
with a Surface Safety Valve (SSV) or Upper Master Valve (UMV) and a Wing
Valve (WV). Flow through well is controlled by Choke valve using Wellhead
Control Panel (WHCP).see fig.(3.11).

As part of the wellhead system, each wellhead has the following protective
components:

• Surface Controlled Surface Safety Valve (SC-SSSV) - A safety device

installed in the upper wellbore to provide emergency closure of pipeline
from the oil/gas field in the event of an emergency.
 • Upper Master Valve (UMV) or Surface Safety Valve (SSV) - SSV
provided on the Christmas (Xmas) tree just above the Lower Master
Valve (LMV) is designed to automatically provide a positive means of
shutting off the well fluid flow in case the flow line rupture, freeze-up or
any other condition which may cause pressure variations in the flow line
above or below safe or practical limits.
• Wing valve (WV) - A valve located on the side of an Xmas tree. The left
hand valve is often called the kill wing valve. The right hand valve is
often called the production wing valve.
• Choke control valve - Production on wells is controlled by throttling the
flow through the well head choke valve.

The reservoir fluid flows through the flow lines from the respective wellheads to
the production manifold. The flow rate from each wellhead is regulated by the
Choke Valve, which can be operated both from WHCP and remotely from the
CCR.

The operator sets the choke valve in order to achieve the required flowrate
from each wellhead. The normal operating pressure downstream of the choke
valve will vary based on the downstream degassing facility operating
conditions.

All the valves and other equipment used in wellhead control are hydraulically
operated. The advantages of using hydraulic force are the ease of control and
the ability to generate and transmit large forces and power through small units.
Hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors when started are quickly able to
operate at maximum power.

Figure 3.11 Wellhead Control System

 3.2.3 Completion Fluids

In the past, no distinction was made between drilling fluids and completion
fluids. According to the definition, completion fluids come somewhere
between drilling fluids and stimulation fluids.

A strict definition of completion fluids considers them to be saline solutions or

brines, which are used in completion operations such as casing perforation
or gravel-pack setting. In a broader sense, completion fluids are all those
fluids that come into contact with the reservoir; in fact, this definition does not
refer to the type of fluid, but to the function it serves.

Perforation fluids used in the drilling of the mineralised formation can be

considered completion fluids. This perspective led to the development of the
so-called drill-in-fluid, which can be used both as perforation fluid and
completion fluid. As such, a completion fluid comes into contact with the
mineralised formation, and its main function is to avoid damaging the
producing capacity of the reservoir.

The brines are formed by a watery base with a salt content that is
established according to the required density, and chemical and physical
compatibility regarding the formation with which they come into contact.

The density of the fluid is established so as to have control over the

pressures in formation. Having defined the depth and the overbalance
pressure, generally 15-20 bar, the density of the fluid is determined. This will
have to be modified according to the temperature, to take into account the
expansion that these fluids experience undergo when temperatures
increase. Their expansion factor depends on the total saline concentration
and on the salts dissolved in them. Another factor to be considered in
preventing overbalance pressure is the compressibility of the fluid, although
this has a less important influence.

The salts most commonly used are the chlorides of sodium (NaCl),
ammonium (NH4Cl), potassium (KCl), and calcium (CaCl2
The densities can reach a maximum of 1,100 to around 2,500 kg/m 3 at 20°C.
In terms of costs, the most economical brines are the chlorides .

3.3 PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION

3.3.1 Introduction

At a certain point in the life of a well, recovery may not satisfy physical or
economic constraints and the well will be shut. At this stage, a remediation
action or workover would be performed if the preliminary analysis predicts
additional economic value creation. The objectives of production optimization
(Fig. 3.12) may be to enhance reservoir inflow performance or to reduce
 outflow performance. The results could be more production with less
pressure drawdown.

Usually, sand production, high water and low oil rates will indicate the need
to revitalize the downhole well environment. Cement squeezing, fracturing
and acidizing are the most common tasks performed.

Reservoir stimulation and/or well intervention are necessary to improve the

well-reservoir connectivity (increase perforation density, reduce mechanical
damage, increase fracture length) and/or boost vertical lift system
performance (change tubing size, change artificial lift, remove bottlenecks).

Figure 3.3.12 – Production Optimization via Outflow Enhancement.

There exist many possible solutions to mitigate the observed problems in the
petroleum production system. The smarter production engineer would
balance an optimum combination of analysis time effort and engineering
design calculation to decide proper actions as to maintain the petroleum
production system at an optimum point.

The understanding of reservoir inflow, well-bore vertical lift and surface

facilities pressure constraint is necessary to optimize the field production
performance. Production optimization refers to the various activities of
measuring, analysing, modelling, prioritizing and implementing actions to
enhance productivity of a field.

3.3.2 Reservoir Stimulation

The general common objective of well stimulation via matrix acidizing or

hydraulic fracturing is to reduce pressure restrictions around well-bore and
the increase flow rate.

1-Matrix Acidizing

The purpose of matrix acidizing is to dissolve rock material and remove

drilling mud and clay creating new flow paths and increasing permeability in
near well-bore area. Acid is used to remove damage from carbonate and
sandstone formations and to stimulate production and injectivity in
carbonates. Acid is used for both matrix and fracture treatments in
carbonates.

Matrix acid candidates have permeability greater than 10 md in oil wells and
1 md in gas wells. Acid fracture candidates have permeability less than 10
md in oil wells and 1 md in gas wells. Matrix acidizing is performed below the
fracturing rate and pressure of the formation, where acid travels through
existing pores and natural fractures. Fracture acidizing is performed above
the fracturing rate and pressure of the formation, where the rock is cracked
and an etched fracture is created.

Matrix acid treatments are commonly used to increase injectivity in disposal

and injection wells. If acidizing injection and disposal wells is needed on a
regular basis to maintain injection rates, water quality should be examined.
Carbonate rocks, mainly conformed by limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite
(CaMg(CO3)2), rapidly dissolve in HCl and create reaction products, calcium
chloride (CaCl2), magnesium chloride (MgCl2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O), that occur under the following balanced equations:

limestone: CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

dolomite: CaMg(CO3)2 + 4HCl → CaCl2 + MgCl2 + CO2 + H2O
In carbonates, the rate of dissolution is limited mainly by the speed with
which acid can be delivered to the rock surface. This results in rapid
generation of irregularly shaped channels, called wormholes. The acid
increases production by creating bypasses around the damage rather than
directly removing it.

Silicate matrix acidizing is different from carbonates. Sandstone, mainly

conformed by silicon dioxide (SiO2), reacts with hydrofluoric acid (HF) to
produce silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4). As a secondary reaction, silicon
tetrafluoride (SiF4) will react with more hydrofluoric acid (HF) to produce
silicon hexafluoride (SiF62 ¯). Hydrochloric acid does not react with silicate
materials. SiO2 and HF reactions occur under the following balanced
equation:

4HF + SiO2 → SiF4 + 2H2O

SiF4 + 2F¯ → SiF62¯

By comparison, the reaction rate between HF and sandstones is much

slower than HCl.
Mud acidizing seeks to unblock existing pathways for production by
dissolving wellbore damage and minerals filling the interstitial pore space,
rather than creating new pathways.
As acid is pumped, it flows preferentially along the most permeable path into
the formation. The acid opens these paths up even more, and less
permeable, damage zones are almost guaranteed not to receive adequate
treatment.
2-Hydraulic Fracturing

Hydraulic fracturing is used to create high permeability flow conduit in tight

rocks, increasing the area of flow to wellbore. It is also used in highly
permeable rocks as sand control, liquid dropout prevention or turbulent flow
control technique by decreasing pressure drop around the wellbore. The
initiation of a hydraulic fracture in a well is the tensile failure, or breakdown,
of the surrounding rock caused by the injection of fluid.
Fracture propagation from the well into the reservoir is extended as fluid at
high rate continues to be injected. The pressure needed to initiate the
fracture is often considerably greater than the pressure required to
propagate the fracture. Commonly, at an appropriate instant during injection,
proppantis added to the fracturing fluid to keep the fracture open.

Thus, a conductive pathway is created for fluid flow from the reservoir to the
wellbore. In the past, hydraulic fracturing has been used almost entirely to
stimulate the production or injection of wells in low-permeability reservoirs.

Such a hydraulic fracture invariably results in a high-conductivity pathway,

and thus, for low-permeability reservoirs the intention has always been to
generate a long fracture allowing considerable penetration of the reservoir by
such a high conductivity path. This goal is conveniently accomplished in
unrestricted fracturing.

However, in high-permeability reservoirs, the incremental conductivity

obtained under normal circumstances from a traditional fracture treatment
would be very small, leading to a low-conductivity fracture. Low conductivity
would also lead to a large pressure drop along the fracture during
production. This would mean wasteful over-treatment because much of the
fracture length would not contribute effectively to well production.

3.3.3 Production operation problems

1- Sand Control

One of the major issues associated with oil and gas wells is the production of
formation particles, often referred to (and at times incorrectly) as sand. If the
problem is not addressed properly, it can cause a wide range of costly and
potentially hazardous problems.

Sand production accumulating in the tubular will reduce oil and/or gas
production from the well. If the well has enough energy to carry the sand to
the surface, it can cause severe pipe erosion. Once on the surface, it can
play havoc on the surface equipment.
Premature failure of downhole equipment, such as electric submersible
pumps, can prove very costly and failure of subsurface safety valves can be
extremely dangerous. In addition to the problems it can cause on the
mechanical aspects of the well, sand production can also cause significant
formation damage, which can reduce well performance dramatically.
It is important that the potential of sand production is identified before
completing the well and steps are taken to prevent it. If sand control
measures are not taken early enough, serious formation damage can take
place, which will limit the amount of options and diminish the productivity of
the well.

2- Asphaltenes and Paraffin Control

One of the most common causes of arterial blockage in the petroleum

production systems is due to the deposition of heavy organics from
petroleum fluids (see figure 3.13). Heavy organics such as paraffin/wax,
resin, asphaltenes, diamondoid, mercaptans, and organometallic
compounds may exist in crude oil in various quantities and forms.

Figure 3.3.13 – Asphaltenes Deposition on Tubing Walls.

3-water(corrosion)

The production of gas and oil is often accompanied by water, either from the
formation, from condensation, or from water injected as lift assist. Acid
gases, such as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2), are often
present in produced fluids, and oxygen is sometimes a contaminant in the
water used for injection.

These acid gases increase the corrosivity of the waters to steel, and can
significantly reduce the safe operating life of production tubular and
equipment, production vessels, and transportation systems.

The presence or absence of multiple phases (gas, water, and oil or

condensate) in the same system can complicate the problem of controlling
corrosion. The flow regime or pattern of fluids in a tubing string, vessel, or
pipeline can have a significant impact on corrosivity.

Corrosion-inhibitors formulations have been developed to address specific

and wide applicability corrosion problems. Applications include controlling
corrosion in all types of oilfield operations, including oil and gas production,
processing, and transportation systems.

3.3.4 Workover

After operating for some time, a well may become less productive or faulty
due to residue build up, sand erosion, corrosion or reservoir clogging.

Well workover is the process of performing major maintenance on an oil or

gas well. This might include replacement of the tubing, a cleanup or new
completions, new perforations and various other maintenance works such as
the installation of gas lift mandrels, new packing etc.
Through-tubing workover operation is work performed with special tools that
do not require the time-consuming full workover procedure including
replacement or removal of tubing. Well maintenance without killing the well
and performing full workover is time-saving and often called well
intervention. Various operations that are performed by lowering instruments
or tools on a wire into the well are called wireline operations.

Work on the reservoir such as chemical injection, acid treatment,and heating

,referred to as reservoir stimulation. Stimulation serves to correct various
forms of structure damage and improve flow. Damage is a generic term for
accumulation of particles and fluids that block fractures and pores and limit
reservoir permeability.
Flexible coiled tubing can be wound around a large diameter drum and
inserted or removed much quicker than tubing installed from rigid pipe
segments (see Figure 3.14). Well workover equipment including coiled
tubing is often mounted on well workover rigs.

Mechanical integrity tests can be determined by pressure testing or casing

inspection logs. In some instances, a fluid level shot assists in locating
casing leak. Pressure testing is required on injection and disposal wells by
certain regulatory agencies.

The majorities of leaks occur where there is no cement behind the casing. It
is necessary to use compatible fluid with producing formation, otherwise it
can cause further damage in bad casing.
Remedial actions include cement squeeze, polymer squeeze, combination
squeeze and liner/casing patches.
 Figure 3.14 – Example of Work Over – Coiled Tubing.

3.4 Artificial Lift Systems

The need to use an artificial lift is an important aspect to be considered when

designing a completion plant. It must be evaluated in the light of the
operative life span and working conditions of the well.

There are numerous artificial lift systems, each of which has an optimal
application field. The main types of lifts are:

 Sucker Rod Pumps; See figure ( 3.15 ) below

 Hydraulic Lifts;

 Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESP);

 Gas Lifts;

 Progressive Cavity Pumps (PCP).

.
 Figure 3.3.11 – Artificial Lift Systems.

3.5 perforation
A perforation refers to a hole punched in the casing or liner of an oil well to connect
it to the reservoir. In cased hole completions, the well is drilled down past the
section of the formation desired for production and has casing or a liner run in
separating the formation from the well bore. The final stage of the completion
involves running in perforating guns, a string of shaped charges, down to the desired
depth and firing them to perforate the casing or liner .see fig.(3.16).
A typical perforating gun can carry many dozens of charges.
Common perforation guns are run on E-line as it is traditional to use electrical signals
from the surface to fire the guns. In more highly deviated wells, coiled tubing may be
used. Newer technologies allow the guns to be run on slick line.
 Fig.(3.16):Perforation

3.5.1 perforating mechanisms

There are three principle perforating mechanisms available:

1- Bullet Perforating

This was one of the earliest perforating techniques developed. It involved lowering a
Special gun loaded with bullets into the well on an electrical conductor cable. At the
appropriate depth the gun was fired using an electrical signal from the surface.
On firing, the bullets were shot perpendicularly into the casing. The bullets then
penetrated the casing and cement sheath and lodged in the formation. This
technique is little used nowadays, although in certain circumstances it may be
appropriate, i.e. where the compressive strength of the reservoir rock is low. See
fig.(3.17).
 Fig.(3.17) : Bullet Perforating

2-Hydraulic Perforating

In hydraulic perforating, a of jet of high velocity abrasive fluid is directed at the

casing.
This erodes a hole through the casing, cement sheath and into the formation to
provide the communication channel. Hydraulic perforating tends to be a much slower
process than others and is also less widely applied
3-Jet Perforating

This method is also called shaped charge perforating. The technique was originally
developed for use in armour piercing shells during the second world war.
The process involves the detonation of an explosive charge. The force of the
explosion
produces a confined jet of metal which hits the casing at extremely high velocity and
pressure. The jet penetrates the casing and cement sheath and creates a tunnel in
the reservoir. This type of perforating process is by far the most common technique
used in the oil industry. We will therefore concentrate on perforating with . charges
for the rest of this unit. See fig.(3.18)

Fig.(3.18) Shaped Charge Perforator

Shaped Charge Perforator consists of the following components.
• Charge case
• Detonating cord groove
• Primer charge
• Main explosive charge
• Conical liner

The process by which a shaped charge penetrates the target (in a well the target is
the casing and cement sheath) can be divided into three stages.

1 - Detonation
2 - Formation of Jet
3 - Jet impact and penetration

3.5.2 Factors Affecting Perforations &Well Productivity

These factors can be broadly classified in two main categories:

1- Perforation length (depth of penetration)

Perforation lengths can vary from less than 2” to approximately 20

2- Perforation diameter

This has less of an effect than perforation length on well productivity. It normally
varies from 1/4” to more than 1/2” It also is affected by the type of charge and
clearance.

3- Cleanliness of perforation ( freedom from plugging)

4-Length of perforated interval(s)

5- Shot phasing

you imagine looking down at the casing with a bird’s eye view, shots can
orientated North, East, South or West, or any direction in between. The actual
pattern which the perforations or shots make is called the shot phasing. Common
shot phasing are illustrated in the figure (3.19). This perforation pattern can have
an influence on the well productivity.
Reservoir fluids are converging on the bore hole from all round (radial flow). Having
perforated casing restricts the entry into the borehole. Having the shots in line (0°
phasing) means that the flow has to converge to one direction.
Shooting in several directions however, (90°phasing) allows the inflow to be more
like radial flow.

figure (3.19)Shot phasing

6-shot density

Quite simply, shot density defines the number of perforations to be made into
each foot length of casing. Shot densities vary from one shot per foot to as many
as fifteen or sixteen shots per foot. It should be clear that the higher the shot
density, the greater the productivity. However, the shot density may be limited by
the strength of the casing. Too high a density may weaken the casing or cause
the casing to split.
 Chapter Four

Chapter Four

Principles of Oil Recovery

 Chapter Four

Table of Contents

4 .0 PRINCIPLES OF OIL RECOVERY

4.1Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

4.2 Improved Oil Recovery (IOR)

4.3 EOR /IOR Definitions

4.4 Subsurface Pressure types

 Over burden pressure

 Formation pressure
 Fracture pressure
 Hydrostatic pressure

4.5 Formation (subsurface) temperature

 Chapter Four

PRINCIPLES OF OIL RECOVERY

4.1Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

There are several ways in which oil can be naturally displaced and produced from a
reservoir, and these may be termed mechanisms or "drives". Where one mechanism is
dominant, the reservoir may be said to be operating under a particular "drive". Possible
energy sources for expulsion of the reservoir fluids are:
1- Expansion of the under saturated oil above the bubble point.
2- Compaction of the rock and expansion of connate water.
3- Expansion of gas released from solution in the oil below the bubble point.
4- Invasion of the original oil bearing reservoir by the expansion of the gas from a
free gas cap.
5- Invasion of the original oil bearing reservoir by the expansion of the water from an
adjacent or underlying aquifer.
All of the above displacement processes are related to some form of expansion or
compaction: in other words, some form of compressibility is the driving force (energy)
for expulsion of oil from the reservoir rock.
The pressure drop in the reservoir, due to oil production, may be small if gas caps and
aquifers are large and permeable; under favourable circumstances pressures may
stabilize at constant or declining reservoir production rates.
On the other hand, the compressibility of under saturated oil, rock, and connate water
are so small that pressures in undersaturated reservoirs will fall rapidly to the bubble
point if there is no aquifer to provide water drive. So these expansion mechanisms are
not usually considered separately, and the three principal categories of reservoirs are:
1- Solution gas drive (or depletion drive) reservoirs.
2- Gas cap drive reservoirs.
3- Water drive reservoirs

1. Solution Gas Drive Reservoirs

Fig.(4.1A)&(4.1B) show oil production, gas-oil pressure behaviour in a solution gas drive
reservoir. If a reservoir at its bubble point is put on production, the pressure will fall
below the bubble point pressure and gas will come out of solution initially this gas may
be a dispersed, discontinuous phase, any will be- essentially immobile until some
minimum saturation - the critical gas saturation – is attained. The actual order of values
for critical gas but there is considerable evidence to saturation are in some doubt,
support the view that values may be very low, about 1 % to 2 % . Once the critical gas
saturation has been established gas will be mobile, and will flow to the producing wells if
the pressure gradient is dominant.
 Chapter Four

( Fig. 4.1A ) Solution gas drive reservoir.

( Fig. 4.1B ) Solution gas drive reservoir.

 Chapter Four

The effective permeability to oil will be lower than at initial conditions, and there will be a
finite effective permeability to gas so that the producing GDR, Rp, at surface will rise. As
more gas comes out of solution, and gas saturation increases, effective permeability to
gas increases, that to oil diminishes, and this trend accelerates (see Fig 4.1B).
Ultimately, as reservoir pressure declines towards abandonment pressure, the change
in gas formation volume factor offsets the increasing mobility of gas over that of oil and
the gas-oil ratio trend is reversed; i.e. while the ratio of the gas to oil volumes at
reservoir conditions may continue to increase, in terms of standard volumes, the ratio of
the produced gas to oil may decline.(see Fig 4.2).

Fig. (4.2)Producing gas-oil ratio under various drives.

In truly stratigraphic traps there is an absence of extensive lateral continuity, and

relatively moderate structural dip. These factors imply reservoir communication with an
aquifer of limited volumetric extent, if any, and little possibility for gravity segregation of
 Chapter Four

reservoir fluids (i.e. no secondary gas cap formation). Therefore the most common drive
mechanism in stratigraphic traps is depletion drive.
This mechanism gives oil recoveries of 5-30% of the original oil in place.

2. Gas Cap Expansion Drive Reservoirs:

Fig. (4.3A): Gas cap drive reservoir

 Chapter Four

Fig. (4.3B): Gas cap drive reservoir.

On many occasion soil accumulations occurred in nature in which there were greater
volumes of light components than would dissolve in the oil at reservoir temperature and
pressure. When this occurred the light materials formed a free gas phase at the top of
the reservoir (see Fig4.3A ).
As shown in Fig. (4.3B ), the presence of this free gas phase retards the decline in
reservoir pressure. At the higher reservoir pressure, the rate of release of gas from
solution is decreased and so too is the build up gas saturation in the oil zone. Provided
that the free gas phase (cap) can be controlled and not produced directly from the
producing wells, better well productivities and lower producing gas-oil ratios can be
maintained. Eventually, however, the gas cap expands and soon reaches the wells up
structure, causing the producing GOR to increase.
 Chapter Four

Fig.(4.4)gas cap drives produces 20-40% of the original oil in place.

In as much as the segregation of reservoir fluids requires considerable dip, gas cap
drives are found mostly in structural traps. This type of drive produces 20-40 % of the
original oil in place. Fig.(4.4).

3. Water Drive Reservoirs

Fig.(4.5) show various strengths of water drive. An efficient water driven reservoir (Fig.
4.6) requires a large aquifer body with a high degree of transmissivity to allow large
volumes of water to move across the oil-water contact in response to small pressure
drops. Owing to the low compressibility of water sufficient water influx can only be
obtained if the aquifer is large volumetrically.
 Chapter Four

Fig.(4.5) Water drive reservoir.

Fig (4.6) water drive reservoir( withlarge aquifer )

 Chapter Four

Fig.(4.2) shows that in an active water drive reservoir, pressure decline is usually much
less than with the other drives. Consequently, the producing GOR remains, more or
less, at a constant level. Oil recoveries are typically 35-75 %. Frequently two or all
three mechanisms (together with rock and connate water expansion) occur
simultaneously, It is called acombination drive reservoir. See Fig. (4.7)

Fig. 4.7 combination drive reservoir

4.2 Improved Oil Recovery (IOR)

Improved Oil Recovery depends both on natural energies and on external energies
supplied to the reservoir and aquifer system. Field exploitation is controlled by:

 the geometry and spacing (producers & injectors)

 the rate allocated to each well (producers & injectors)

 The nature of non-miscible fluid injected (natural gas or water).

(IOR is also referred to “secondary recovery”)

Drive mechanism are all those phenomena which control the hydrocarbon production
from a reservoir.

Usually, the production of hydrocarbons occurs through the exploitation of the reservoir
natural energy (Primary Recovery): if this energy won’t be sufficient, it is possible to
intervene through artificial equipments such as gas lift or well pumps.
 Chapter Four

Secondary Recovery Processes are processes which are done both during the primary
recovery phase, in order to maintain elevated the pressure of the reservoir, and when
the primary exploitation has reached the economic limit. In this kind of processes, we
can find the water injection (for oil reservoirs) and natural gas injection (oil and gas
reservoir) in non-miscible phase.

4.3EOR /IOR Definitions

At this stage, it is important to define EOR (Enhanced Oil Recovery). There is a lot of
confusion around the usage of the terms EOR and IOR. Figure (4.8) shows these in
terms of oil recovery:

Figure (4.8): EOR/IOR definitions.

Primary and secondary recovery (conventional recovery, see figure (4.9) targets mobile
oil in the reservoir and tertiary recovery or EOR targets immobile oil (that oil which
cannot be produced due to capillary and viscous forces).
 Chapter Four

Figure (4.9)Secondary Recovery – Water Injection.

Primary, secondary and tertiary (EOR) recovery methods follow a natural progression of
oil production from the start to a point where it is no longer economical to produce from
the hydrocarbon reservoir.

EOR processes attempt to recover oil beyond secondary methods, or what is left.
Recovery, especially EOR, is closely associated with the price of oil and overall
economics. On average, the worldwide recovery factor from conventional (primary and
secondary) recovery methods is about a third of what was originally present in the
reservoir.

4.4 Subsurface Pressure types:

There are several bottom pressures that may be faced during oil well drilling. They are:

1.Over burden pressure (PO):

It is the resulting pressure due to matrix weight of rocks and the fluids in these rocks
which are over the formation as shown in Fig.(4.10).

wt.mat.  wt. f
Over burden pressure (PO) = ………….. (1)
Area
 Chapter Four

Where:

PO = Over burden pressure

Wt.mat : weight of matrix (grains) lb

Wt.f: Fluid weight (lb)

A: Area (ft2)

Wt.mat. = (1-  ) h A ρmat. ………….. (2)

Wt.f = ( hAf ) …………………….. (3)

Ф: porosity (%)

h: formation thickness (ft)

A: Section area (ft2)

ρmat: matrix density (lb/ft3)

ρf: fluid density (lb /ft3)

By substituting the equations (3 &2) in equation (1).

(1   ) hAm  hAf
To get → PO =
A

Ah (1   ) mat   f
=
A

PO = h ((1-Ф)ρmat.+ Фρf))
 Chapter Four

Figure (4.10) over burden pressure

2.Formation pressure (Pf):

Formation pressure is a fluid pressure in pores of the formation as shown in fig. (4.11).
 Chapter Four

Figure.(4.11) Formation pressure

There are two types of formation pressure: normal and abnormal formation pressure

Normal formation pressure is a pressure of water column extending from the surface
to the formation, as shown in fig. (4.12) & (4.13).

Sometimes,Pf = Depth  pressure gradient (0.465 for salt water)

Or

Pf = Depth  pressure gradient (0.433 for fresh water)

But the relationship

between pressure and density is :
ρw ×d
Pf = 10
Pf: formation pressure (kg /cm2)
 Chapter Four

ρw: water density (gm/cm3)

d: Depth (m)

Figure (4.13) shows the normal formation pressure at two points (A&B).

In the point A, at depth of 100m, the pressure is:

1001
Pf = = 10 kg/ cm2
10

While the point (B) is at depth of 1000m, the pressure is

1000  1
Pf = = 100 kg/cm2
10

Figure (4.12) Normal formation pressure

 Chapter Four

Figure (4.13) Normal formation pressure

 Abnormal formation pressure:

This pressure occurs when the formation pressure is greater than hydrostatic Pressure
of water (pf>phy) as shown figure (4.14 ). The subnormal pressure occurs when the
formation is less than hydrostatic pressure.

The relationship between the overburden pressure and the formation pressure is

(PO = pf+ S) , where (s) is the pressure loaded on the matrix as shown in Figure

(4.14)& Figure (4.15).

 Chapter Four

Figure. (4.14)Abnormal pressure

Figure (4.15) overburden pressure and formation pressure

 Chapter Four

3. Fracture pressure: It is the required pressure to break the formation during drilling of
wells or stimulation operations.

4. Hydrostatic pressure: It is the resulting force from weight of fluid column at the
bottom of the well.

Hydrostatic pressure increases uniformly with density and depth of the fluid.

Phy>pformation (preventing formation fluids to enter well bore)

Phy<pfrcture (preventing mud loss)

ρ× d
Phy = = 10

Where:

Phy: hydrostatic pressure (kg /cm2)

ρ: density gm/cm3

d: depth (m)

10: conversion factor( it can be obtained from the following conversation):

Phy (kg/cm2) = ρ (gm/cm3 *kg/1000gm) * d (cm *100cm/m)

Phy (kg/cm2) =kg/cm3*1000* 1/100cm =1/10 kg/cm2

= 1/10

4.5 Pressure gradient: (change in pressure with depth.)

Pressure gradient is affected by salts, sediments, gases ,and the thermal gradient
.Because of all these factors The pressure gradient have a direct effect on the fluid
density , therefore the pressure gradient has direct proportion with the fluid density .

In general, the pressure gradient of salty water (brine) = 0.1074 kg/cm 2/m andThe
pressure gradient of fresh water = 0.10 kg/cm2/m.

Pressure gradient = p / d

The abnormal fluid pressure is caused by:

1- Geological reasons (permeability barriers & dipping formation)

2- Physical reasons (when oil water contact is inclined)

 Chapter Four

While the subnormal fluid pressure is result from :

1- High hydrostatic pressure

2- Weathering and erosion of shale rocks especially in lenses reservoirs.

Note: Bottom hole pressure (BHP): is the pressure,

1. At the bottom of the borehole, or

2. at a point opposite the producing formation.

 Examples:

EX.1/ What is the water hydrostatic pressure, if water

density =1.1gm/cm3at a point 500 m from the surface?

Phy= ρ d /10 = 1.1*500/10 =55 kg/cm2

 EX.2/ Determine the normal formation pressure at a depth (1000 m)?

Phy= ρw * d /10

Phy = 1 * 1000/10 = 100 kg /cm2

 EX.3/ A formation, its pressure at (1000 m) is 150 kg/cm2, determine whether the
formation pressure is normal or abnormal?

Phy = ρ * d /10 = 1000* 1/10 =100kg/cm2

The formation pressure is greater than 100kg/cm2(150> 100)

So the formation pressure is a abnormal.

 EX.4/ If the pressure gradient of water is 0.476 psi/ft. Calculate the pressure at
1000ft.

P = pressure gradient * d

= 0.476 * 1000

= 476 psi
 Chapter Four

4.6 Formation (subsurface) temperature:

Core of the earth has very high temperature, so temperature is increasing with the
depth of the earth, as shown in Fig. (4.16).

The geothermal gradient (α) is the change in temperature with depth .it is usually
about 1.6 F◦/100ft.

Td – Ta
α= d

Td = Ta + α d

Where:

Td= temp. at any depth (c◦ or F◦ )

Ta= temp. at the surface (c◦ or F◦)

d: depth (ft) or (m)

F◦ =1.8 C◦ + 32

Example 1:

What is temperature at 3000m if the temperature at the surface is 40c◦ and the
geothermal gradient equals 3 c◦ /100 m.?

Td = Ta + α d

Td = 40 + 3000 * 3 /100 = 130 c◦

Example 2:

If (Ta= 30 c◦), and at (3000m is 120 c◦) find (α) in this region?

Td – Ta
α= d

= 120-30/3000

α = 3/100 c◦/m
 Chapter Four

Figure. (4.16) Estimating of subsurface temperature

 Chapter Five

Hydrocarbons process
 Chapter five
Table of Contents Duration(hours):12

5.0 Hydrocarbons process

5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 Field Processing
5.3 Aim of Field Processing
5.4 Overview of Oil and Gas Operations
5.5 Separation Process
5.6 CRUDE OIL TREATMENT
5.6.1 Crude Oil Dehydration/Desalting
5.6.2 Crude Oil Stabilization and Desulphurization
5.7 NATURAL GAS (N. G.) TREATMENT
5.7.1 Impurities in N. G.
5.7.2 N. G. Processing
5.7.3 N. G. Sweetening
5.7.4 N. G. Dehydration
5.7.5 Hydrocarbon Dew Point
5.7.6 Sulphur Recovery
5.7.7 Gas Compression and Export
5.7.8 Gas Plants Normal Operation Condition
5.7.9 Mercury Removal
 Chapter five

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The subject of this training module mainly deals with the general treatment of oil and
Gas.
The petroleum industry is involved in the global processes of exploration, extraction,
refining, transporting (often with oil tankers and pipelines) and marketing the
petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and
gasoline (petrol). Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products,
including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides and plastics.

5.2 Field Processing

Crude oil and raw natural gas may come from any one of three types of wells.
Crude oil wells - Raw natural gas that comes from crude oil wells is called
associated gas. This gas can exist separate from the crude oil in the underground
formation, or dissolved in the crude oil.
Dry gas wells - These wells typically produce only raw natural gas that does not
contain any hydrocarbon liquids. Such gas is called non-associated gas.
Condensate wells - These wells produce raw natural gas along with natural gas
liquid. Such gas is also non-associated gas and often referred to as wet gas.
The well fluid is multiphase in nature and consists of hydrocarbons i.e. alkanes like
Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane, Hexane and above.. The well fluid is
always associated with the formation and produced water; since it is saturated with
the water vapor. Sometimes the well fluids are associated with the impurities like
Hydrogen suphide (H2S), Carbon di Oxide (CO2), Carbonyl sulphide, Mercaptans,
Nitrogen, Helium and Mercury in Organic, Inorganic or in elemental form.

Hydrogen suphide (H2S), Carbon diOxide (CO2), Carbonyl sulphides, Mercaptans

are acidic nature and in presence of moisture, cause the corrosion of the process
equipment and pipelines. H2S, Carbonyl sulphide, Mercaptans
on burning form Sulphur di-oxide gas which is hazardous to the environment and
human beings.
Presence of water in the fluid may cause the formation of Hydrate which is a hard
structure and look like an ice. Hydrates may block the flow line and on sudden
release may cause equipment damage. Water gets condensed in the gas transport
line and forms mixed flow and cause the erosion of the pipelines. It also gets solidify
to form the ice in gas conditioning and LNG facilities where the operating
temperatures are well below the freezing point of the water.
Presence of Mercury in the gas is considered to be dangerous as it amalgamates
and makes the metal week causing catastrophic accidents, especially LNG facility.
Mercury concentrations below 5,500 nano grams are considered safe.
 Chapter five

Figure 5.1 - Typical Oil and Gas Process Overview

5.3 Aim of Field Processing

Fluids produced from oil and gas wells are mixtures of Crude oil ,Natural gas, and
Salt water

These mixtures are very difficult to handle, meter, or transport. It is also unsafe and
uneconomical to ship or to transport these mixtures to refineries and gas plants for
processing.
Field processing may have one of three basic objectives:

a. To produce a Transportable stream: Minimal processing in the field

and transport through a pipeline to a final processing plant. Three
main constituents are of concern: Water, Hydrogen Sulfide, and
Condensate.

b. To produce a Salable stream: All processing necessary to meet

specifications.

c. To Maximize Liquid Production:

 Maximize crude oil production when processing associated gas

 To recover the condensate and re-inject the gas to the reservoir
 In some markets, the NGL produced from the condensate may
be more valuable as liquid products than as sales-gas
components
 Chapter five

5. 4 Overview of Oil and Gas Operations

From the wellhead, the separated gas and crude are sent, through a gathering
network, to the oil and gas centre where it has the necessary processing.
The crude processing in the oil/gas centre (or gathering centre), consists in
separating the oil from gas and other foreign substances in order to deliver to the
utilization centres (refinery, sea terminal, etc.) a product that is in accordance with
the quality and safety rules.
To sum up, it is necessary to further separate the oil from gas, water and then free it
from any possible salts, sulphur, sand and other solid substances which are in
suspension in the crude.
The water effluent from the separators is conveyed to a treatment plant in which any
traces of oil are removed before discharging or reinjection.
The Gas Processing eliminates the harmful elements from natural gas it consists in:
Reducing water (dehydration); Reducing the content of hydrogen sulphide and
carbon dioxide (sweetening).

The typical oil and gas facilities operations can be summarized as:

 Gathering System
 Phase Separation
 Crude Oil Dehydration/Desalting
 Crude Oil Stabilization and Desulphurization
 N. G. Sweetening
 N. G. Dehydration
 Sulphur Recovery
 Mercury Removal
 Chapter five

Figure 5.2 - General Oil and Gas Operations

Utilities such as Instrument Air, Fuel gas, Power Generation, Flare, Firefighting,
Steam Generation, ...etc. will be needed to support above processes. Utilities will be
explained in chapter seven.

5.5 Separation Process

In oil and Gas industry, normally the fluid coming from the wells is separated in to
gas & liquid, and both the streams are processed individually to remove the
impurities before being sent to the downstream consumers.
Oil, Water and gas must be separated from each other before sending to further
processing. The main principles used to achieve physical separation of gas and
liquids are Gravity Settling and Coalescing using a vessel named Separator.
A separator is a vessel in which a mixture of non-miscible fluids is separated from
each other. Any separator may employ one or more of these principles, but the fluid
phases must be ' Immiscible ' (cannot mix), and have ' Different Densities ' for
separation to occur. A separator must have the following sections:

A. Primary Separation Section (Inlet Diverter);

B. Secondary Separation Section (Gravity Settling Section);
C. Mist Extractor (Mist Eliminator);
D. Liquid Accumulation Section (Liquid Collection Section).
More details in chapter six about oil and gas separation .

Figure 5.3 - Separation

 Chapter five

5. 6 CRUDE OIL TREATMENT

Well fluid contains water, salts, sand & sediments apart from oil and gas. Desalting is
the process of removing these contaminants such as salts, solids and water from
crude oil. Most of the contaminants in crude oil are present in the oil as it is
produced. Salts most frequently present in crude oil are Calcium, Sodium and
Magnesium Chlorides and generally present as brine, a solution of salts in water. In
addition, the crude oil contains solids such as finely divided sand particles, clays,
drilling mud, and rust and scale accumulated during production and transportation of
the oil.

Before further treatment of the crude oil, these impurities must be removed for
several reasons. Solid contaminates can contribute to plugging of equipment and so
scale formation. More the water contents in crude oil, greater the amount of heat
required for distillation during refining. Chlorides can be responsible for the formation
of hydrochloric acid at the operating temperatures of distillation tower. Hydrochloric
acid is extremely corrosive and will corrode the material of construction of equipment
and piping. Therefore, the removal of salt from crude oil for refinery feed stocks is a
mandatory step. This is particularly true if the salt content exceeds 20 PTB. A
common salt specification by refineries is 10-20 PTB for transportation tankers or
pipelines.

Removal of contaminants in crude oil can increase refining capacity, cut down on
fuel costs and reduce corrosion and plugging/scaling and fouling problems. Also
removal of light hydrocarbons from the oil reduces the risk of fire and explosion
during transportation and storage. For all these reasons crude is treated in the
following two steps:
Dehydration/Desalting
Stabilization and Sweetening
 Chapter five

5.6.1 Crude Oil Dehydration/Desalting

The water in crude cannot always be removed in the separators since a considerable
amount is in the form of emulsion. There are basically three ways to break down this
emulsion and achieve dehydration of the oil.

These methods also achieve desalting. The salt content of the of crude is, in fact,
generally directly related to the water content, the water generally being salty.

Thermal method: the temperature increase causes breakdown of the emulsions.

Chemical methods: injection of de-emulsifying chemicals.
Electrical methods: the water drops in the crude, when exposed to an electrical
field, form larger size drops which are easily decanted.

Dehydration processes provide a first important decrease of crude oil salinity. A

further reduction of oil salinity is obtained by decreasing the dissolved salt content of
the residue brine by Desalting.

Desalting of crude is undertaken by reducing the high salinity water content and any
solid state salt crystals in the crude.
Washing water is injected in the crude upstream from the desalter with 2 purposes:
to dissolve the salt crystals and increase the number of tiny drops of water in the
system.

Figure 5.4 - Desalter

Exploiting the dipolar characteristics of the water molecule and with the help of an
alternating electric field, the drops are moved together.
The phenomenon of coalescence of the water drops causes their size to increase,
thus enhancing their gravity separation and producing the substantial reduction of
saline content in the crude.
 Chapter five

Crude oil contains salt dissolved in the entrained water droplets. The desalting
process works by washing the crude with clean water and then removing the water
to leave dry, low salt crude oil. Electrostatics are used to create an electrical field
which acts on the water droplets to enhanced coalescence.
Since the salt present in the oil is contained in the water phase, the removal of salt
and water simultaneously by electrostatic oil dehydration is a simple solution.
However, as we cannot remove all the water, some salt will remain. Where high salt
concentrations are present in the emulsion water phase, it would be necessary to
dilute this with fresh water to lower the salt concentration before removing the water.
Dilution water, which has low salinity, is used to lower the salt concentrations. It is
necessary to heat an emulsion prior to electrostatic oil dehydration in order to assist
with breaking stabilized emulsions. After desalting of crude oil, the next step is
stabilization of crude.

5.6.2 Crude Oil Stabilization and Desulphurization

In the early days of the gas industry, the liquids in the raw fluid from the reservoir
were considered to be of no use. These liquids were often of considerable volume,
particularly when more and more gas was produced from the wells. When it was
realized that these liquids are having high market value these liquids were sent to
market in their raw and un stabilized form. These liquids are known as crude oils.
The wild crude oil contains volatile constituents, which had to be removed.
Fractionation method was in its crudest form, resulted in great losses of product and
was not very effective.
Stabilization
Stabilization of crude oil is a process by which we get not stabilized liquid product
consisting of pentanes and heavier hydrocarbons, and if Sulphur compounds are
present these are also removed to make it sweet or free of any Sulphur compounds
and light hydrocarbons which are volatile in nature.

Now day’s crude oil produced should be stable and sweet product, as opposed to
the wild and sour condition of the old days. The crude oil produced by
modern plant processes must meet established pipeline and marketing standards.
Stabilization of crude oil, therefore, refers to the stripping of the light ends content
from the raw liquid.
 Chapter five

Desulphurization
Hydrogen Sulphide and elemental sulphur are found dissolved in crude oil. Because
of high boiling point of elemental sulphur, it is present in the heavier fractions of
petroleum.

In gasoline: Mercaptans, aliphatic Sulphides, aliphatic Disulphides, and five & six-
membered ring cyclic Sulphides.

Techniques of Desulphurization
Catalytic Desulphurization
Reaction of sulphur compounds with hydrogen in presence of a catalyst to convert
them in to Hydrogen Sulphide.
Solvent Extraction
This process removes entire sulphur bearing compounds from the hydro carbon
streams.
Absorption:
Employed for removing acid gases (CO2 and H2S) from natural gas and light
petroleum gases.
Solvents:
Aqueous or alcohol solutions of alkanolomines and aqueous solutions of alkali
carbonates.
Caustic Treating: To remove Mercaptans and organic acids from gasoline and light
distillates
Molecular Sieve Adsorption: This process is used to remove sulphur compounds
from natural gas and light hydrocarbon streams like propane, butane, pentane and
gasoline.

5. 7 NATURAL GAS TREATMENT (N. G.)

5 .7.1 Impurities in Natural Gas (N. G.)

The natural gas used by consumers is almost entirely composed of methane.

However, natural gas found at the wellhead, although still composed primarily of
methane, is by no means as pure. Gas wells typically produce raw natural gas by
itself, while condensate wells produce free natural gas along with a semi-liquid
hydrocarbon condensate. Whatever the source of the natural gas, once separated
from crude oil, it commonly exists in mixtures with other hydrocarbons; principally
ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes. In addition, raw natural gas contains Water
vapors, Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), Mercaptan, Carbonyl Sulphide, Carbon dioxide,
Helium, Nitrogen, Mercury and other compounds.
 Chapter five

Generally, the nature and quantity of the gas from the separator system decides the
further course of action. If the quantity of the gas is very less and it is not sore, it can
be partially used in the process facilities and remaining can be flared. In case the
gas quantity is sizable and contains the impurities, then it can be recompressed and
injected back in the same reservoir or it is processed further for the removal of the
impurities and transported through the pipelines for the sales purposes. Normally
gas processing involves following facilities in series;

1. Gas sweetening unit for removal of H2S, CO2, Mercaptan, Carbonyl Sulphide
2. Dehydration unit for the removal of Moisture from the gas
3. Hydrocarbon dew pointing unit and LPG recovery
4. Mercury, Mercaptan removal unit
5. Gas compression unit for the transportation of the gas for consumer’s like
Compressed Natural gas (CNG) and Liquefied Natural gas (LNG) plants.
5. 7.2 Natural Gas Processing
Unlike crude oil, the fractionation of natural gas separates the individual
hydrocarbons from each other. The process depends on the boiling points of the
components of the gas.

Table 5.5 : Boiling points of the components of natural gas

Component Boiling Point

methane C1  161.5oC ( 258.7oF)

ethane C2  88.5oC ( 127.7oF)
propane C3  41.8oC ( 43.3oF)
butane C4  0.5oC (31.1oF)
gasoline C5+ 36.7+oC (98.0+oF)
vapours

At temperatures below its boiling point, a gas condenses into a liquid. Because some
of the above boiling points are difficult to reach, fractionation is carried out under
very high pressure. Pressure raises the boiling points of liquids. For example, ethane
condenses if its temperature drops below  88.5oC at atmospheric pressure.
However, at a pressure of 400 psi the boiling point of ethane will rise to  66.7oC, in
which case it will be easier to condense the gas.
In addition to separating the hydrocarbons in the LNG process, the inorganic gases
and impurities have to be removed.

The simplified block diagram in Figure( 5.6) shows a step-by-step processing of

natural gas in the LNG plant.
 Chapter five

Figure 5.6 Procession of Natural Gas

 The FEED for the process comes from two sources:

 Natural gas from the field

 LPG from the refinery

 Natural gas is compressed to more than 700 psi in a multistage compressor.

 The compressed gas enters into a cooler where nitrogen (N2) and impurities
freeze and leave the gas.

 The gas is bubbled into a potassium carbonate (K2CO3) solution in the carbonate
absorber column. The solution removes most of the carbon dioxide gas (CO 2)
from natural gas. In this column, the concentration of carbon dioxide in natural
gas is reduced to less than 50 ppm (parts per million).

 To remove hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and other Sulphur compounds, natural gas
is bubbled into a diethanol amine solution [(C2H4OH)2NH] in the DEA absorber
column. The concentration of hydrogen sulphide is reduced to less than 2.5 ppm.

 In the drier, any traces of water carried by the gas from the two absorber columns
are removed.

 The dry gas enters the fractionation section with a pressure of about 400 psi.
 Chapter five

 The temperatures in the de-methanizer, de-ethanizer, de-propanizer, de-

butanizer and gasoline stabilizer are set and controlled to have only one product
collected at a time.

 Methane is collected from the de-methanizer and stored as a compressed gas. It

is difficult and expensive to liquefy it due to its very low boiling point. The other
products leave this unit in the liquid state

 In the de-ethanizer, ethane becomes a gas while the heavier components leave
the unit in the liquid state. Ethane is then liquefied and sent to storage.

 Propane and butane are collected the de-propanizer and de-butanizer in the
same way like ethane.

 The temperature in the gasoline stabilizer is kept below 37oC. At this temperature
C5+ condense.

 Part of the propane produced in the de-propanizer is used in the compressor of

the heat exchanger that is used to cool down ethane to its condensation point.

5.7.3 Natural Gas (N. G.) Sweetening

Natural gas may contain acidic impurities like Hydrogen Sulphide (H 2S), Carbon di-
oxide (CO2), Mercaptan (R-SH), Carbonyl sulphide (COS). When the Hydrogen
sulphide content in the crude Natural gas is more than 0.5%, it is called as “Sour
gas”, whereas when the Hydrogen sulphide content is less than 0.5% the crude gas
is called as ‘Sweet Gas’. The process in which Sour gas is treated for the removal of
acidic components is called as "Gas Sweetening".

Hydrogen Sulphide is a toxic gas and during the combustion of the Natural gas in
fired heaters, it produces Sulphur dioxide (SO2) as a combustion by-product. In
presence of water vapours, it is extremely corrosive for the material of construction
of pipeline and equipment.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) lowers the heating value (Calorific Value) of the fuel gas and
increases the volume of the gas that must be transported. In presence of free water,
carbon dioxide contributes acidic characteristics causing corrosion for the system
pipelines and equipment.
Other sulphurous compounds contained in the gas are Carbonyl sulphide (COS) and
Mercaptans (RSH) which more or less have the same contribution as H2S.

N. G. Sweetening Process

In this process the sore gas is brought in contact with the solid or liquid agent which
absorbs the acidic gases from the gas. The agent is called as ‘Sweetening agent’. A
 Chapter five

large number of gas sweetening processes / methods are available for

consideration. Processes that use sweetening agents which can be regenerated
back to their original forms for reuse are called as Regenerative processes while the
one which cannot be regenerated back are called as Non-regenerative processes.
See fig.(5.7).

Regenerative methods are very common in the Oil & Gas industries using
sweetening solutions discovered and developed for this purpose by the gas
processing industries. Regenerative processes are further grouped into those using
liquid sweetening agents and those using solid sweetening mediums.

Figure 5.7 - Gas Sweetening Process

Liquid sweetening methods are by far the most widely used by the natural gas
industry for separation and removal of the acidic components from gaseous
mixtures. There are several
types of liquid sweetening agents, the most popular of which are the Alkanolamine.
The aqueous amine processes are considered the foremost among the regenerative
liquid type of processes and they have proven to be the most effective in absorbing
acid gases from the sour gas feed mixtures.

5.7.4 Natural Gas (N. G.) Dehydration Process

The sweeten gas from the Gas sweetening unit is saturated with the water vapours.
This water vapour must be removed to avoid the hydrates and ice formation in
further processing of Gas streams which involves the operating temperatures below
0⁰C. Hydrates and ice crystal cause the plugging of the instruments and pipelines.
Condensation and accumulation of water in the pipelines reduces the effective
diameter of the pipe and lowers its capacity. Also, in presence of water, H2S and
CO2 cause the corrosion of equipment and pipelines. Removal of water content from
the Sweet Wet Natural gas to an acceptable level is termed as Gas Dehydration.
The wet Natural gas stream can be dehydrated by contacting with a desiccant
material. Desiccants have the ability to attract and hold large volumes of water.
 Chapter five

When the desiccant employed is a granular solid the process is known as an

‘Adsorption’ process. The water is retained on the surface of the granular
solids. Whereas when a liquid desiccant is used, the process is by ‘Absorption’.
Water is absorbed in the desiccant solutions.
WET Gas

Water
MOLECULAR
SIEVE DRIERS

REGENERATION
GAS COMPRESSOR

DRY Gas

Figure 5.8 - Dehydration Unit

In comparison with other conventional processes of dehydration using Silica Gel,
activated Alumina, molecular sieves and other solid or liquid desiccants, Glycol
dehydration is commercially viable process because of great affinity of glycols for the
water, less hazardous nature of glycols and continuous mode of operation Still or
Regenerator Wet Gas Absorption Section Lean TEG surge vessel Contactor Lean
Glycol Dehydrated Gas Lean Glycol Rich glycol to Atmosphere Regeneration
Section .

Figure 5.9 - Glycol Dehydration Unit

The principle of gas dehydration is contacting the wet Natural gas stream with a
hygroscopic liquid which has a greater affinity for the water vapour than does the
gas. In absorption dehydration, a liquid desiccant dehydrator serves to absorb water
vapours from the gas stream. Glycol, the principal agent in this process has a
chemical affinity for the water. Glycol solution, usually used in this process is either
Diethylene glycol (DEG) or Triethylene glycol (TEG).
 Chapter five

The glycol solution is brought in contact with the wet gas stream in an Absorber or
Contactor column. Column is normally provided with the trays or the packed beds for
the better absorption of water from the wet gas. Column normally operates at a very
high pressure. Sweet and dehydrated natural gas leaves the
dehydrator column at the top. Normally a water dew point analyser is provided on the
gas outlet line.

5.7.5 Hydrocarbon Dew Point

Natural gas typically contains many lighter hydrocarbon components with the heavier
components found in smaller amounts than the lighter gaseous ends. The heavier
components are normally Pentane, Hexane, Heptane and above. It is the heaviest
weight component that first condenses and defines the hydrocarbon dew point
(HDP) temperature of the gas. Hydrocarbon dew point temperature also moves in
relation to pressure.
The gas transportation companies have come to the realization that by managing
hydrocarbon dew point, hydrocarbon condensation can be prevented in cold spots
under rivers and lakes where the liquids collect in the low areas and then often move
as a slug through the system, overpowering liquid handling facilities and flowing into
end user sales points. As the natural gas is used as a fuel in industrial heaters, liquid
entering in burners and pilots can cause fire and explosion hazards. Controlling of
the hydrocarbon dew point can also qualify the pipeline to market the gas to high
efficiency gas turbine users, which require a dry and consistent quality.
In order to avoid the liquid, drop out in downstream pipelines and equipment, it
needs to lower the temperature of the ‘Sweet dehydrated gas’, to knock out heavy
components from the multi-component system before it being transported to end
users. By doing this we bring down the hydrocarbon dew point of gas to an
acceptable level. This is achieved by using a machine called as Turbo-expander.

5.7.6 Sulphur Recovery

The process used in the sulphur recovery unit is called the "Claus" process. In this
process both catalytic and non-catalytic methods are used to combine hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) with sulphur dioxide to produce sulphur.
Depending on the percentage of H2S in the feed gas, a portion of the feed is burned
in the reaction furnace with a carefully controlled amount of air. The rest of the feed
flows directly to the first catalytic converter.
This type of split flow makes the conversion to sulphur more efficient, (up to 98%).
The high and stable temperatures produced by the acid gas burner ensure maximum
conversion takes place in the thermal section.
Chemically, when H2S is burned with air it oxidises into sulphur dioxide. If the
burning is done using a controlled amount of air, only a portion of H2S is oxidised
producing chemical sulphur, H2S and SO2.
 Chapter five

With the help of a catalyst it is possible to combine the H2S and SO2 to produce
sulphur and water. In this process H2S is burned under controlled conditions. These
conditions produce just the right amount of sulphur dioxide required to catalytically
combine with the unburnt H2S.
Approximately 33 % of the H2S in the feed oxidises to SO2. This gives a ratio of H2S
to SO2 throughout the plant of 2:1. This is the ideal ratio for producing sulphur.
The catalytic conversion is done in three converters. Unconverted H2S and SO2
from the reaction furnace is reheated, mixed with hot H2S from the bypass line and
fed to No 1 converter.

1. Combustion.Part of the H2S stream is burned in a furnace, producing SO2,

water, and sulfur. The sulfur is formed because the air (O2)

2. admitted to the furnace is limited to one third the amount needed to make all
SO2.

3. Reaction.The remainder of the H2S is mixed with the combustion products

and passed over a catalyst. The H2S reacts with the SO2 to form sulfur.

The sulfur drops out of the reaction vessel in the molten (melted) form.

5.7.7 Gas Compression and Export

The gas left over after the removal of all the impurities is almost 99.9% pure
Methane. In the gaseous form it can be transported to the customers through the
pipelines or it can be liquefied and transported through the special containers. Liquid
form of the Methane is called as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
Sweetened and dehydrated gas is finally compressed by a compressor to the
required pressure for downstream facilities such as LNG plant or gas distribution
network. Multistage centrifugal compressors are normally used for this. Gas is
compressed from 15-20 barg to 80-100 barg pressure. Compressor can be motor
driven (fixed or variable speed) or turbine driven. Antisurge control is provided for the
compressor protection.

5.7.8 Three-stage compression system

A typical three-stage compression system consists of the following:

 First Stage Suction Scrubber
 First Stage Compressor
 Chapter five

 First Stage Gas Cooler

 Second Stage Suction Scrubber
 Second Stage Compressor
 Second Stage Gas Cooler
 Third Stage Suction Scrubber
 Third Stage Compressor
 Third Stage Gas Cooler.

Fig.(5.10) three stages compression

5.7.9 Mercury Removal

Mercury may be present in the well fluid. Mercury damages aluminium parts in the
LNG plant, but does not affect the carbon steel or stainless lines or vessels. The gas
flows through the Mercury Adsorbers filled-up with fixed bed of Sulphur impregnated
Alumina adsorbent or other catalyst. Expected catalyst bed life is 2-5 years.
The gas from the compressor discharge passes through the Mercury Adsorbers from
top to bottom where Mercury is adsorbed by the fixed bed of Sulphur impregnated
Alumina adsorbent or other catalyst to meet the Sales gas specifications. The
treated gas finally passes through the Dry gas filters for removal of the fine particles.
The pressure controller controls the export gas pressure as required. Finally, the
export gas passes through the metering skid for accurate measurements of sales
volume.
 Chapter Six

gassing
Degassing Station
 Chapter six

Degassing station

Table of Contents Duration:32 hrs

6.1 INTRODUCTION

6.2 SEPARATION

6.3 SEPARATORS

6.4 SEPARATION IN STAGES

6.5 TEST SEPARATOR

6.6 FLARE SYSTEM

6.7 STORAGE & METERING

6.8 MEASURING METERS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

A Gas Oil Separation Plant (GOSP) is a "package" used in the upstream oil industry. The
package is installed after the choke valve and before the production manifolds.

GOSP separates the crude oil from sediments, solids, water, gases and Condensates to
allow the crude to be pumped on the pipeline.

In the oil field, each wellhead cannot be provided with individual separation plant for the
economic and safety reasons. Therefore, the well fluid must be brought to a central Gas
Oil Separation Plant (GOSP) for separation and further processing.

 Wellhead And Choke (See figure( 6.1))

Well fluid that comes out of a well goes through the Wellhead and the Choke valve. Choke
controls the fluid pressure/flow in the downstream flowline. The purpose of a choke valve
is to control the release of fluid from the well and its function is to:
• Keep a backpressure on the producing reservoir formation
• Control the rate of flow of produced well fluid.
Choke:

Figure( 6.1) chokes

A choke is a device which has a built in restriction which is used to control pressure/flow.
The choke also keeps a backpressure on the producing reservoir formation and hence is
working as a reservoir management device to control “bubble point”. This restriction can
be either adjustable or fixed and it can be replaced in the field should it be necessary. The
principle of a choke is that more fluids or gases can flow through a large hole than through
a small one and by regulating the size of the hole, the flow can be controlled. Chokes are
mounted downstream of the Surface Safety Valve (SSV) on the flow wing of the Xmas
tree.
There are two basic types of choke:
1.Fixed (Positive) choke.
2.Adjustable choke.
1-Fixed (Positive) Chokes
Fixed (Positive) chokes are used where the flow rate is known and is not expected to
fluctuate; however, it still needs to be controlled. The fixed chokes used vary in size
according to the production rate. The size denotes the maximum bore size for the bean.
Most fixed chokes have a choke nipple or choke box into which devices called 'choke
beans' are screwed. The choke beans have an accurate hole (orifice) through the centre.
The choke bean must be changed if flow needs to be change. The production flow must be
stopped when the bean is to be changed.

The bean size is related to the diameter of its orifice in increments of 1/64 of an inch. For
example, a 64/64 bean has a 1" diameter hole. The fixed bean is actually an insert which
is fitted into the choke body as illustrated in Figure (6.2). It can vary in length from 1.5" to
6". The beans can have either a ceramic or tungsten carbide lining depending on the
service it is used for. Of the two types of lining available, tungsten carbide is the hardest
and most wear resistant. (See figure( 6.3))

N Component
o
1 BODY
2 BONNET
3 BONNET NUT
4 BEAN ADAPTER
5 CHOKE BEAN
6 GASKET
7 PLUG (1/2” NPT)
8 ‘O’ RING-BONNET
9 EXT. RETAINER RING

Figure 6.2 - Fixed (Positive) Choke

 Figure( 6.3) Choke Bean

2-Adjustable Chokes
This type of choke is normally used until tests establish the correct flowrate for the well; it
is then usually replaced by a fixed choke. Alternatively, they are used where for the
operational reasons the flowrate is changed periodically.

There are two main types of adjustable choke:

• The needle type
• The disc type.
o Needle Type Adjustable Choke
The needle type choke has an adjustable stem that is tapered at one end. The tapered
end fits into a corresponding taper in the flow bean. When the stem is fully inserted the
orifice through the bean is closed. (See figure( 6.4 & 6.5))

Figure( 6.4) Needle Type Adjustable Choke

 Figure( 6.5) Adjustable Choke
No Component No Component
1 HEX BOLT 10 'O' RING-BONNET
2 WASHER 11 JUNK RING
3 HANDLE 12 'J' PACKING + BACK-UP RING
4 HEX. SOC. SET SOCIETY 13 INT. RETAINER RING
5 INDICATOR 14 NEEDLE
6 BONNET NUT 15 SEAT
7 BONNET 16 GASKET
8 NYLON PLUG 17 BODY
9 THUMB SCREW

Unscrewing the stem allows the fluid to flow past the taper and through the bean orifice.
As with the fixed bean its size is measured in increments of 1/64 of an inch, this is marked
on the external part of the stem. This type of choke must never be used as a shut off
valve as the surface of the needle may become damaged if excessive force is applied to it.
This type of choke valve can be manual or automatic operated with pneumatic or hydraulic
pressure.
o Rotary (Disc) Type Adjustable Chokes (See figure( 6.6))

This type of choke is often referred to as a multiple orifice valve. The choke shown below
consists of two ceramic discs (back disc and front disc) enclosed in a steel seat. A
revolving disc with two orifices slides over a similar stationary disc. The rate of overlapping
of the two sets of orifices determines the actual bean size. A mechanical device is used to
manipulate the disc overlap. The choke is sized in such a way that the discs are between
80 - 100% open for most of the time. This type of choke is not used where sand is likely to
be present in the well fluids.

Figure( 6.6) Rotary Adjustable Choke

 Flowlines (See figure( 6.7))

“Flowline" means the segment of a gathering line running from a wellhead to the point of
interconnection with another gathering line or Production facility. Flow line is a pipe, laid on
the ground or underground or on the seabed, which allows the transportation of well fluids
or of the injection fluids. Its length can vary from a few hundred meters to several
kilometres.

The purpose of a flow line is to connect a single wellhead in a producing field to the Gas
Oil Separation Plant (GOSP). Flow lines transport well fluid from the wellhead to the
nearby processing plant. Flow lines are relatively narrow pipes that carry well fluid at high
pressure.
A flowline starts at the downstream flange of the choke valve, where the pressure rating
changes from API for the Christmas tree to ANSI for the flow line and at the connecting
flange to the diverter valve at the production/test manifolds.

A choke for controlling the flow rate of the well is mounted in the flow line and are
designed to take the pressure drop and turbulence caused by throttling the flow. They are
located on the flow line so that they may be easily isolated to replace parts that become
eroded.

A blast joint is fitted directly downstream of the choke which comprises of a section of
large schedule pipe used as protection against erosion caused by high velocity and
turbulence. A gate valve is usually fitted downstream of the wellhead choke for isolation
purposes. At the production facility individual flow lines enter a common Inlet manifold
through another isolation valve.
Wellhead
andFlowline
Flowline
to

Swab RGMS
Valve
Kill Wing W
Valve V Choke
Flow Wing
Valve
Upper Valve
master
Lower
Valve masterValve PT Isolating
F Joint
(SSV) TT T

SC- To Drain Connection for Mobile

SSSV Pit Launcher

Figure( 6.7) Wellhead & Flowline

A flow measurement device (venturi meter) is provided downstream of each Choke Valve
with pressure and temperature correction. (See figure( 6.8))

Figure( 6.8) Venturi Tube - Flow Sensing Element

Although it is only a pipe and has no moving parts, the flowline is as vital as any other item
of production equipment. There are several factors which affect flowline design and
dimensions. Two of them are the Flowrate and the Properties of the Fluids. The line
thickness depends on the working pressure of the fluid and on the strength of the steel
from which the pipe is manufactured.

 Flowline Design: (See figure( 6.9))

Flowline sizing depend upon the following:

• The estimated amount of well fluid to be handled

• The distance the well fluid is to be transported
• The differential between the field pressure and the inlet pressure at the processing
facility.

Many of the flow lines from the wells to the various manifolds are actually production
tubing welded together. This is sometimes laid on the desert floor and sometimes up on
small stands (pipe racks) off the sand. The reason for this is to help prevent corrosion
occurring to the outside of the line.

Figure( 6.9) Flowline

Sand can drift over some flow lines. Where this is likely to happen, the outside of the
flowline is wrapped to help protect it against corrosion. Part of an operator’s duty is to
regularly check flowlines for leaks, damage, etc. and learn all isolation/vent valves on the
systems. You may need them in an emergency.

Without special protection, buried steel flowlines would be subject to corrosion, which is
essentially electro-chemical in nature. Buried flowlines are therefore coated with layers of
bitumen or coal tar or with synthetic tapes consisting of one or several layers of
polyethylene and butyl rubber.
Internal corrosion occurs on the inner surface of the pipe when the well stream fluid is
acidic. It is overcome by injecting corrosion inhibiting chemicals into the well stream at the
wellhead.
 Figure( 6.10) Ultrasonic tester
Ultrasonic tester, which is electronic device producing high frequency sound waves, is
used to determine the pipe wall thickness (See figure( 6.10)) . Probes using an electronic
device measuring resistance are also used. Manufacturing and welding defects are
normally discovered before commissioning the line by means of X-rays and pressure
testing.

Safety valves (HIPPS) are fitted in the flowline while there is a shutdown valve (SSV) at
the wellhead and a pressure relief valve on the flowline or at the manifold. If the flowline is
inadvertently closed in at the manifold, or if there is a blockage somewhere along its
length, then the pressure starts to rise up to the static wellhead pressure. Before this is
reached, the Hi-Lo pressure pilot trips the Surface Safety Valve preventing the line
pressure from going too high.

Because of its importance, the Surface Safety Valve must always be in the automatic
mode when the well is flowing.
If the line is closed in at both ends and contains well fluid, then the pressure increases
when the atmospheric temperature increases. To prevent this condition and also high
pressure due to the wellhead shutdown failure, the pressure relief valve at the manifold
opens at a value lower than the maximum rating for the line. Excess pressure is then
released to the relief system.

Minerals, salts, tars, waxes and solids precipitate out of the well stream fluids and adhere
to the inner pipe wall as hard deposits know as scale. During production, scale deposits
build-up over a period of time and reduce the internal diameter of the line, increase the
pressure drop and the flowrate drag factor which in turn reduces the production flowrate.
Descaling chemicals are injected into the flowline at the wellhead to prevent the build-up of
scale. If there is a buildup of scale or line blockage, then pigging or scrapping operations
are carried out to remove the deposits and normalise the flow.
  Gathering Systems
From the wellhead, the crude will be sent, through a gathering network, to the oil center
where it will have the necessary processing.

The crude processing in the oil center (or gathering center), consists in separating the oil
from other foreign substances in order to deliver to the utilization centers (refinery, sea
terminal, etc.) a product that is in accordance with the quality and safety rules.

Gathering systems consist of several lines, perhaps interconnected, often of relatively

small diameter and low pressure (0- 500 psia). Of course there are exceptions, such as
high-pressure gas wells. The smaller gathering lines may be aboveground or buried,
whereas larger lines are always buried.

Aboveground lines are much easier to maintain but are exposed to the atmosphere
(corrosion problems). (See figure( 6.11)) and (types of gathering system figure( 6.12))

Figure( 6.11) - Block Diagram of a Typical Oil and Gas Producing Facility
Individual Connection

Branch Structure Connection

Integrated Structure Connection

Star Structure Connection

Figure 6.12 - Gathering Systems

  REMOTE GATHERING MANIFOLD STATION (RGMS) (See figure( 6.13))
Network of pipelines that receives and transports the well fluid from individual wellhead to
a common line to form a main trunk transmission line is called as Remote Gathering
Manifold Station (RGMS). Gathering via manifolds is the most common solution when
there are numerous wells or they are widely dispersed. Flowlines from individual wells
converge on one or two sites where the production fluids are blended together.

Such sites are referred to as Satellites or Remote Gathering Manifold Station (RGMS) and
the location is chosen to minimise the flowline length from the wellhead. Provision is made
for tests to be performed on individual wells. This involves switching valves at the remote
header with the flow being directed from an individual well to the Multiphase Flow Meter
(MFM) or to the Test Separator.

Figure 6.13 - remote gathering manifold station (RGMS)

The manifold serves to convey the well fluids from many flowlines to the GOSP. The
manifold is an arrangement of valves and collector pipes which allows individual wells to
be routed to GOSP. The lines that join the manifold are known as “headers”. Chemical
injection points are installed on individual header lines to enable the injection of inhibitors,
de-emulsifiers etc. This is to ensure efficient mixing before the separation process begins
in the GOSP. Pressure indicators are also installed on the manifolds and flowlines for
routine operational checks. There are a number of additional manifold and header devices
as follows:

Check Valves (Non-Return Valves)

These are fitted into individual flowlines to prevent backflow from the manifold if there is a
leak or burst in the flowline. They will also prevent backflow of higher pressure wells into
lower pressure wells. The check valve should be as near to full bore as possible to prevent
excessive pressure drop that would result in turbulence and possible erosion of the
flowline.
Check valves are used to prevent the flow from going in reverse or backwards. When the
wells are flowing it is not desirable to stop the oil flow to change the valve line up.
With a check valve in the system, two routes can be opened, and oil flow will go in the
direction of lower pressure. The check valve in the line prevents fluid coming back from the
higher pressurised production manifold into the test separator.

Sample Points
Sample points are provided on the flowlines to enable well fluid samples to be gathered for
analysis. A typical well fluid will be analysed for water cut, Gas to oil Ratio (GOR),
sourness, salts etc.
The flow lines of all the wells belonging to the same cluster are routed to common RGMS.
In the RGMS, the lines come out of the pit and bifurcate into two branches. One branch
joins to form the common header, termed as ‘Production manifold’. The other branch joins
to form a header called as ‘Test manifold’. Isolation valves are normally installed on each
branch for isolation. In some places Motor Operated valves are installed which can be
operated from CCR during well testing.
The RGMS ‘Production manifold’ is routed to the Inlet manifold of the GOSP through a line
termed as “Trunk line”. The ‘Test manifold’ is connected to the Multiphase flow meter
(MPFM). The outlet of the MPFM joins the main trunk line. (See figure( 6.14))
 Remote Gathering Manifold Station

Production Manifold

Flowline From Well 5

Flowline From Well 4 Trunk Line To GOSP

Test Manifold
Flowline From Well 2
Flowline From Well3
Multiphase Connection for
Flowmeter
Flowline From Well1 Mobile Launcher

Drain Header

Connection for Mobile Receiver Sampling Connection Drain Drum

Figure( 6.14) Production Manifold and Test Header Layout

In normal operations all the wells will be directly lined up to the ‘Production manifold’. Only
during the well testing, the well is routed through the ‘Test manifold’ to Multi phase Flow
meter. As per the ‘Well testing programme’, any well can be tested for its composition by
isolating it from the ‘Production manifold’ and diverting the fluid through the ‘Test manifold’
to the Multiphase flow meter (MPFM). A sample point connection is provided at the inlet of
the Multiphase flow meter so that MPFM results can be counter checked.

Mobile scraper launcher can be hooked up to the trunk line at the RGMS. Mobile scrapper
launcher facility is provided for each RGMS to periodically carry out the online pigging of
the trunk lines.
Each RGMS is provided with an underground Drain drum. It collects the drains from Test
header, Production manifold, Multiphase flow meter package and Mobile launcher. When
the liquid level of the drum is high, the contents are vacuumed out to the safe location. The
gases collected in the drum are routed at safe location and at safe height through a vent
stack. Near the open end, the vent stack is provided with a Flame arrestor.

If the service is of corrosive nature, a permanent facility should be provided in the RGMS
for the continuous injection of the ‘Corrosion inhibitor’ solution in the trunk line. A provision
should also be made for the Eye wash safety shower (EWSS) with a sun shade and
overhead water tank.

RGMS is also equipped with the CCTVs, 415 V transformer skid and Access & Escape
gates. ‘Production manifold’ header of the RGMS, joins the trunk line near the RGMS
boundary fence through an ‘Isolating spool’ with an insulating gasket. This arrangement is
made to avoid the undue passage of current to RGMS unit as the whole trunk line is
provided with the cathodic protection facility at the strategic points over its length from
RGMS to GOSP.

There is another way of well testing. For this type of well testing, a 3 Phase Test Separator
is provided at GOSP for well testing. In that case the test header from RGMS is extended
up to the GOSP. Multiphase flow meter is not required as measurements of oil, gas and
water are done after the phase separation. The test header is of smaller size as only one
well to be tested at a time. The lineup is as shown below in figure (6.15).
 RemoteGatheringManifoldStation

To GOSP

Production Header Trunk Line to GOSP

Flowline from Well 5

Connection for

Flowline from Well 4 Mobile Launcher

Flowline from Well 3
Test Header
Flowline from Well 2

Test Header to GOSP

Flowline from Well 1

Connection for MobileReceiver

Figure 6.15- remote gathering manifold- test header

-TRUNK LINE

Trunk lines are the pipe lines coming from the RGMS to GOSP. Trunk line enters the
ground inside the RGMS boundary fence and travels under-ground up to the boundary
fence of GOSP. Trunk lines of all the Remote gathering manifold stations transport the well
fluid to the Inlet manifold of GOSP.

Since all the trunk lines travel underground and pass through deserts, wet areas and
Wadis, they are facilitated with the cathode protection to avoid the external corrosion. An
‘Isolating spool’ with an insulating gasket is provided on the trunk lines near the RGMS
boundary fence.

The trunk lines are also coated with minimum three layers of Polyethylene to take care of
the Chloride stress cracking corrosion.

The figure below shows a typical field gathering system consisting of wells, flowlines,
RGMS and Trunk lines.
- INLET MANIFOLD
Inside the GOSP boundary fence, all the trunk lines come above the ground. An ‘Isolating
spool’ with an insulating gasket is provided on the trunk lines near the GOSP boundary
fence. Outside the GOSP boundary fence, a corrosion coupon and the field corrosion
monitoring system are installed on each trunk line. Field monitoring system continuously
measures the corrosion of the trunkline.
For the over pressure protection of the trunkline, relief valves are installed on it, always
one is on line and other one is spare. Set pressure for the PSV’s is kept
below the design pressure of the line and outlets of PSVs are routed to the flare header.

An Emergency shutdown valve and a check valve with a block and bleeds arrangement
are also provided on each trunk line. Provision is made at GOSP to hook up mobile
Scrapper receiver to the trunk line through a barred- Tee arrangement. The Barred Tee
(See figure( 6.16)) is a Tee-piece provided with bars across the internal bore of the branch
pipe to prevent entry of a pig in the branch.

Figure 6.16- Barred Tee

In GOSP area, the trunk lines bifurcate in to two/three branches. One branch from each
trunk line joins to form a common header called as ‘Production manifold train-1’ header
and other branch joins to form ‘Production manifold train-2’ header and so on. Each
branch of the trunk line is furnished with a remotely operated Tight Shutoff (TSO) valve.
This arrangement helps to divert the well fluid from any of the cluster to any of the train in
order to balance the system load during normal as well as during the turn-down
operations.

A High Pressure (HP) fuel gas line is provided for each trunk line to facilitate the purging or
pressurising of the Trunk line, RGMS and flow lines up to the Well head. A typical Inlet
manifold at a Gas Oil Separation plant is shown below (Figure 6.17) :
 Figure 6.17 - Typical Inlet Manifold

6.2 SEPARATION
The separation process is a fundamental part of all petroleum producing operations in oil
and gas fields (See figure( 6.18)).

Figure 6.18 – horizontal separator

BASIC THEORY OF SEPARATION

The two factors necessary for separators to operate properly are:

 The fluids must not be soluble in each other i.e. immiscible.

 The fluids must not be the same density i.e. they must be different in weight
per unit volume.

Separators depend upon the effect of gravity to separate the fluids. Therefore, if the
fluids are soluble in each other no separation is possible by gravity alone.

In oilfield production plants reservoir fluids are produced continuously so separation

must be a continuous process. This can only be achieved in one or more pressure
vessels which are designed to achieve optimum separation as a continuous process.

6.3 Separators
A separator is a cylinder positioned either vertically or horizontally.

The different types of separators can be classified according to:

 shape (horizontal , vertical and Spherical )

 Number of phases separated (2 or 3 phase)
 Duty (use)

 Flash Separators( used for Condensate Gas Processing)

 Clean up separator(used to remove contaminants from a newly drilled

or worked-over well when it is brought on stream for the first time.)

 Free Water Separators

 Test Separators

 Scrubbers (e.g. a Flare Drum) and Filters

 Position in separator train (1s /2nd/3rd stage.)

Horizontal Separators
The Internal Parts Of A Horizontal Separator (See figure( 6.19))

The most common internal parts used for improving the efficiency of a separator are:
 Figure( 6.19) - The Internal Parts Of A Horizontal Separator

1-The Deflector (diverter plate) (See figure( 6.20)):

When the fluid hits the plate, the velocity slows and the liquid droplets fall to the bottom of
the separator. The gas continues its path around the plate. Inlet deflectors (momentum
breakers) change the flow direction of the inlet stream as part of the primary separation
process. This quickly absorbs the energy of the incoming stream.

Figure 6.20 - The Deflector

2-The Straightening Vanes (See figure( 6.21)) : used for reducing turbulence in the gas
current after the initial separation of the inlet deflector.
 Figure( 6.21) The Straightening Vanes

3-Mist Extractors:

Use impingement to remove gas droplets from gas flows. The most common form is the
knitted wire mesh. As the gas containing the very small droplets flows through the wire
mesh pad the entrained fine droplet.

strike the wire strands and stick to them. As more droplets accumulate on the wire they join
together to form larger drops that slowly travel down to the lower areas of the

pad. When they are heavy enough they fall from the pad under the influence of gravity into
the liquid accumulation section of the separator. (See figure( 6.22))

4-Horizontal Baffles: (AS shown in figure (6.19))

These are flat plates located just above the liquid accumulation section in the
separator. They help to prevent waves forming in the liquid which might result in liquid
re-entrainment in the gas stream.

The horizontal baffles also provide support for some of the other internal features of the
separator.
 Figure( 6.22) Mist Extractors

5-Vortex Breakers:

When large volumes of liquid are discharged from a vessel through a bottom outlet a
vortex will form. If this occurred in a separator it could allow gas to break through the liquid
and enter the outlet pipeline. This could result in damage to downstream vessels, pumps
and instruments. A device is attached to the outlet nozzle inside the separator to prevent
the formation of a vortex. (See figure( 6.23))

Figure( 6.23) Vortex Breakers

6-Weir: (AS shown in figure (6.19))

This is a vertical plate with a V-notch at the top p laced across the bottom of a 3-phase
separator in the liquid accumulation section. The weir separates the oil and water
accumulation areas. In some designs the weir is adjustable but only after shutting down
and entering the vessel.

Other internal devices may also be found in separators and can include:

Coalescing Plates:

These are a type of mist extractor which consists of a series of parallel plates on which
small droplets of liquid mist collect and join together (coalesce) to form larger ones. The
straightening vanes studied earlier also act as coalescer.

Water Jets:

Sometimes sand may be produced from the wells and will eventually accumulate in the
bottom of the separator. Where this is a problem water-washing facilities are installed.
These devices consist of a set of nozzles distributed close to the bottom of the separator
with an external connection for the supply of a high-pressure water source. Sand and
sludge is forced to the bottom of the vessel to the sand pans by the jetting system. From
here the sand and sludge is drained into an outside collection system.

THE SEPARATION SECTIONS

The process within a separator can be divided into 5 steps or sections: (See figure( 6.24))

 Primary Separation
 Secondary Separation
 Mist Extraction
 Liquids Accumulation
 Figure( 6.24) separation sections

1-Primary separation

Most of gas-liquid separation takes place at the inlet to the separator. As the reservoir
fluids enter the separator the initial separation of gas and liquid takes place because
there is a:

 Sudden reduction in velocity

 Sudden change in flow direction
 Reduction in pressure

The velocity of the inlet stream is reduced as the fluids flow from a relatively small
diameter pipe into the large volume separator. The change in flow direction is made by
placing a baffle or deflector at the inlet to the separator. The pressure in the separator is
reduced to accomplish the separation of gas. The result is the liberation of gas and an
 oil mist while the heavier liquids fall to the bottom of the separator.

2-Secondary separation

After the initial separation gas and liquids slow down and enter the second section of the
separator. Gas travels along the length of the separator and exits at the top outlet at the
opposite end of the vessel. However, it still contains a certain quantity of liquid in the
form of a mist or droplets. These droplets are removed from the gas stream in the
secondary separation.

Some suspended liquid droplets fall or 'settle' out of the gas as it travels along the
separator due to the force of gravity. The ease with which these droplets fall from the
gas stream depends on the following factors:

 Size of droplets.
 Density of droplets compared to the density of the gas which is determined by
the composition of the well fluids in the reservoir.
 Velocity at which the gas stream is travelling through the separator which is
determined by the size of the separator ..
 Turbulence in the gas stream. High turbulence will help the liquid droplets to
stay in the gas stream. Turbulence can be reduced by installing straightening
vanes in the upper part of the separator to smooth the gas flow.

3-Mist Extraction:

Finally, to remove the very small liquid particles left in the gas stream a mist extraction
device is built into the gas outlet of the vessel. The most common form of mist extractor
is the knitted wire pad. Another design is the centrifugal mist extractor which is normally
used in vessels where the gas flows vertically upwards. The gas stream containing the
mist is made to flow in a circular motion and the centrifugal force throws the liquid
particles outwards causing them to strike the walls of the demister and accumulate
there. The small droplets coalesce into larger droplets until they are heavy enough to
fall into the liquid accumulation section. In centrifugal separation a continual change in
gas flow direction at high velocities is essential for small particle removal. This can
result in a relatively large pressure-drop across the separator which may limit its flow
rate.

4-Liquids accumulation:

All the liquids accumulate in the bottom of the separator before being discharged from
the vessel.

This liquid still contains some gas bubbles entrained within it which must be removed
before discharge from the separator. Just as heavier liquid droplets tend to fall through
a gas stream lighter gas bubbles tend to rise to the surface of liquids due to density
differences.

The time required for the gas bubbles to reach the surface and enter the gas stream will
vary. The time that the liquid stays in the separator is called the residence or retention
time. Separators are designed with sufficient residence time to ensure they get
maximum separation of reservoir fluid into its components. In 3-phase separation water
separates from the oil and sinks to the bottom of the separator. Water separates faster
from the oil than gas liberates from the oil. As the separator is designed with enough
residence time to allow complete gas separation there is sufficient time for water to
separate from the oil.

Water separation @ interface (See figure( 6.25))

A weir is placed in the bottom of the separator, near to the oil outlet which is at the
opposite end to the inlet. The level of the interface between the oil and water is
controlled below the top of the weir so that the water that collects in the bottom is
trapped behind the weir. The oil can flow over the top of the weir into the oil
compartment and out through the oil outlet. Water is removed from the separator
through a water outlet on the upstream side of the weir. The dividing plate or web
between two liquids which separate out because of a density difference is called an
interface. When the oil and water have to be separated it is necessary to control the
level of the interface between them. If this is not done, there is a danger that light
material (oil) may enter the heavy material (water) flow and vice versa. Problems with
interface level control can occur when a level of emulsion builds up between the water
and oil levels. This can affect the proper operation of the displacer and cause the
emulsion to pass into the crude oil flow.

In a three-phase separator, the upper part of the liquid collecting section contains the oil
whereas the water is found in the lower part.

Each of the liquid sections has its own controller for their relevant valve.

When the liquid reaches the required level, the controllers open their respective level
valve. The separated liquids leave the separator through the various liquid outlets.

The water and liquid hydrocarbon settle out at the left bottom section. The hydrocarbon
material, being lighter, floats on top of the water and as the level rises, it overflows the weir
into the hydrocarbon compartment from where it leaves the separator under level control.

The water phase remains in the left side of the separator and is also disposed of under
level control.
 Figure 6.25 - Typical Three-phase Horizontal Separators
In this type of separator difficulties can be encountered due to emulsions and foams
forming in the separator. These interfere with the efficient operation of the level controllers.

Figure shows an improved design of three-phase separator where level control of the
water and hydrocarbon phases is not affected by foaming or emulsion formation. The
hydrocarbon phase overflows a weir and enters a hydrocarbon 'bucket' compartment.
From this compartment it leaves the separator under level control.

The water phase flows along the bottom into a chamber on the right where it leaves under
level control.

Vertical Separator
The main advantage of this separator is that it can accept larger liquid slugs without
causing excessive entrainment in the gas. It is used even where liquid level control is not
critical to unit operation. Considering the great distance there usually is between the liquid
level and the gas outlet, this reduces the entrainment of liquid droplets. However, it has a
larger diameter for any given gas capacity.

Vertical separators are therefore well suited to large quantities of liquid (low GORs) or, on
the other hand when there is only gas (the minimum liquid space in a horizontal drum is
too great).

Typical applications are scrubbers, compressor suction, heating gas drums and certain oil
separators containing sediments.

They are also used for wells with solid deposits (easy to clean).

Incoming well fluids meet an inlet deflector plate on entry to the separator. This deflector
plate spreads the incoming fluids inside the separator shell and imparts a centrifugal
motion to the gas which allows gas and liquid to disengage. The liquid falls to the bottom
of the separator while the smaller liquid particles are swept upward to coalesce on the
outlet demister pad.

A vertical separator occupies less area that the horizontal separator and is easier to clean.
The natural upward flow of gas opposes the falling liquid droplets; therefore, the vertical
separator is larger than a horizontal separator of the same capacity. However, vertical
separators have less tendency for re-vaporisation of liquid than horizontal separators.
(See figure( 6.26 and 6.27))

Figure 6.26 –External View of Vertical Separators

Figure( 6.27) two phase vertical separator

Spherical separator (See figure( 6.28))
Spherical separators are a special case of a vertical separator where there is no
cylindrical shell between the two heads. They may be very efficient from a pressure
containment standpoint but because they have limited liquid surge capability and They
exhibit fabrication difficulties . They are not usually used in oil field facilities .

Figure( 6.28) Spherical separator

 Figure( 6.29) External Devices of separator

External Devices of separator (See figure( 6.29))

1- Sight Glass: (See figure( 6.30))
Sight or gauge glasses provide a continuous visual indication of liquid levels in a
vessel. The simplest type of sight glass consists of a vertical glass connected directly to
the vessel by valves and piping. The liquid level in the tube is the same as the level in
the vessel. The gauge glass is only suitable for low-pressure applications. The glass
window forms a pressure-tight seal with the column. The recessed column is connected
to the separator at the top and the bottom by valves and pipe work. Sight glasses are
fitted to the separator using special valves called ball-check valves. These valves are
designed to isolate the sight glass from the pressure vessel for cleaning and checking,
while at the same time will isolate the flow of high pressure liquid or gas should the
sight glass break.

Figure( 6.30) Sight Glass

2-Controlers:

Oil production separators have two major operating control parameters: pressure control
and level control. The well stream inlet temperature usually fixes separator temperature.

Typical separator controls are shown in Figure (6.31) .

KIO-4-0139.CDR

PSV

RUPTURE
VENT TO DISC
BLOWDOWN
TI PI PC

GAS
OUTLET

WELLSTREAM
INLET VAPOUR/GAS SPACE

LC
LC
CONDENSATE TI
SETTLING CHAMBER CHAMBER

WEIR

DRAIN

WATER CONDENSATE
OUTLET OUTLET

Figure 6.31 - Typical Separator Controls

Pressure Control

The gas capacity of a separator increases as the operating pressure increases. The
separator operating pressure is controlled as high as possible to achieve efficient
separation. Increasing the pressure reduces gas volume, and decreases gas flow velocity
in the vessel. The operating pressure of a separator is controlled by a backpressure
controller, which regulates the flow of gas leaving the vessel.

Three-phase Separator Level Control

The term water cut is used to describe the percentage of water to total liquid. A 20% water
cut is 20% water and 80% condensate.

In the separator, the level in the liquid settling chamber is fixed by the height of the weir.
The volume of oil in the oil chamber is relatively small, and changing the level of oil in this
chamber has no effect on the liquid settling volume, or residence time. Liquid residence
time is determined by the water level in the settling chamber. If the water level is
increased, the water residence time increases but the oil residence time decreases.

Liquid carryover in the outlet gas stream of three-phase horizontal separators is not
usually a level control problem. Commonly this problem is caused by defective coalescing
devices or an abnormally high gas flow

3- SEPARATOR INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

All separators are fitted with the following instrument protection: (See figure( 6.32))

 Low level alarm(LAL)

 Low level shutdown(LSLL)
 High level alarm(LAH)
 High level shutdown(LSHH)
 High pressure alarm(PAH)
 High pressure shutdown(PSHH)
 High pressure relief valves(PSV)

Figure 6.32 instrument protection separator

Note: To prevent gas passing from a high pressure separator to a low-pressure

separator due to low liquid level a shut-off valve is fitted in the pipe work connecting
the vessels. This valve is designed to close on a low-low level condition in the
upstream vessel or a high pressure condition in the downstream vessel. Should
either or both of these conditions be detected excessive pressure will not be
communicated to the lower pressure-rated vessel.

4-Pressure Relief Valves:

Pressure relief valves are an important part of vessel safety. The sequence of events
 which could lead to the lifting of a relief valve is as follows:

 Pressure builds up to the set point of the alarm switch and the alarm sounds.
 If the fault is not rectified the high pressure switch activates and shuts down the
separation train.
If the pressure continues to rise the relief valve (normally set at design pressure of the
vessel) will lift and discharge the pressurized gas into the blow down or flaresystem.

Note: Once a separator pressure relief valve has lifted it is essential that the reason it
lifted is traced and cured. Valves that have operated to relieve pressure MUST be re-
certified at the earliest opportunity.

6.4 SEPARATION IN STAGES

So far separation via one vessel has been discussed. In practice it is necessary to extend
residence times to separate the reservoir fluids properly by using a number of separators in
series.

This is known as staged separation. As stated previously the objectives of a separation

system are to obtain liquids that are free from gas and gas that is free from liquids.

When separation has been accomplished the gas and liquids have reached a state of
equilibrium at the temperature and pressure within the vessel. This means that no further
separation will take place at these conditions of temperature and pressure.

In most oilfield applications the requirement is to produce a crude oil for shipment that is
free of gas and water (stabilized) at atmospheric pressure. So the ideal separator would
have to operate at atmospheric pressure. The pressure would also have to be reduced in
one stage from wellhead conditions to atmospheric conditions. In order to achieve optimum
separation in the above conditions the process has to be carried out in a number of
separator vessels in series.

The second and third separators operate at progressively lower pressures than the one
before.

This process is known as staged separation with the separation process repeated at each
stage.

Gas and water is removed at each stage and the oil containing less and less water content
is passed to the next vessel in the series until it is near to atmospheric pressure. (See
Figure( 6.33))
 Figure( 6.33) staged separation

The series of vessels used in a staged separation is called a separation train. The number
of vessels in a train can vary but usually ranges from two to four. This is referred to as 2, 3
or 4-stage separation trains.

6.5 Test Separator

In addition to constant monitoring of wellhead flow and pressure, the duties of the
operations staff include regular use of the test separator. The information acquired is used
to assess how best to operate a well with regard to choke settings, separator operating
pressures, etc.

Test separators differ from normal production separators because they are employed in
the system that checks for oil, gas and water flow rates of individual wells.

The purposes of a Test Separator are to:

 Detect the Well Rates

 Keep Recovery of Water-Oil and Gas-Oil under Control

 Keep the Production Trend of Wells under Control

The controls during the test are relevant to the metering of oil, gas and water; the test
duration is not less than 12 hours up to a maximum of 24 hours

At the end of the test a comparison with the data of the previous test is carried out and, if
necessary, the variation of well exploitation is determined
Test Separators are equipped with the following:

 Gas Measurement Line

 Oil Measurement Line

 Free Water Measurement Line

Each wellhead effluent is provided with its flow line connected to a test separator header.

Given that all wells cannot have the same flow rate and pressure, they often present
different characteristics such as different gas-oil recovery rates, water content, etc.

These parameters are not constant but variable during the lifetime of the oilfield and need
to be periodically monitored.

Test Separator is designed to enable the individual measurement of gas, condensate and
water flows from the wells connected to Metering export. As well, this separator serves to
allow performing gas-dynamic studies at different line-ups to monitor the field
development.

The test separator is used to test the output of any well within the field. The well output is
switched at the inlet manifold from Production to Test and is often routed to the test
separator via a pre-heater.

Before Raw Gas enters into the Test Feed Pre-heater, corrosion inhibitor is injected using
dedicated connections.

The separator is three-phase and is provided with a means of accurately measuring the
quantity of each phase.

As well as quantities, qualities are monitored by drawing off small samples for laboratory
testing. All phases have an automatic control system. Liquid outputs are totalled from the
meter readings taken during the test period. Gas output totals require calculations to be
made after the test operation has been completed.

The feed at the outlet of Test Feed Preheater enters into Test Separator at a controlled
temperature condition.

Test Separator is a 3-Phase horizontal separator that operates at a certain rate of

pressure and is designed to separate Raw Gas into three phases: gas, condensate and
produced water.

Typically, a Test Separator interfaces with the following process and utility systems:

 Closed Drainage System, to receive small quantities of liquid from bleed valves
  Corrosion Inhibitor System, to avoid problems in the line to exchanger and separator

 Methanol Distribution System to minimise hydrate formation

A Test Separator contains a shrinkage tester for exported condensate.

The shrinkage tester is a device which allows well testers to easily determine the
shrinkage rate of the freshly separated oil at the well site.

This is important to know because oil volume at the wellhead may reduce after a few days
due to cooling and the dissipation of gas and volatile compounds

Having knowledge of the shrinkage value allows the oil sales rate to be adjusted. The
shrinkage tester includes a sight glass calibrated in percentiles to assess current oil flows.

A process is controlled by the well tester until 100% of scale is reached after which the oil
flow is shut off, followed by closing the pressure equalising valve

This fresh sample is slowly opened to atmosphere allowing entrained gasses and volatiles
to escape and the sample to cool

As the gas volume in the test chamber is reduced, the oil volume shrinks

Using a fixed time factor against the oil's API density, a tester can determine the
percentage of error in the oil flow meter via the shrinkage percentage scale. (See figure(
6.34)) .

Figure( 6.34) Typical Test Separator with Shrinkage Device

6.6 Flare System

In the oil & gas industry, a key safety consideration is the control and response to over-
pressure situations. Traditionally, pressure relief valves and flares were used to handle the
relieving of vessels from over-pressure in the worst case.

Following are the sources which can attribute to the flaring of hydrocarbon gases:

- Relief Valves.
- Emergency (automatic) blow down /depressurization valves (EDV).
- Manual Vents, Drains.
- Pressure control valves (start-up and process upset).
- Pilot gas flaring.

FLARE SYSTEM DESIGN

A flare system is required at the facility as a part of safeguarding systems to protect the
process and utility systems from upset conditions and fire.

The following criteria were considered in the design of flare system:

1. Flow rate
2. Feed composition
3. Gas temperature
4. Gas pressure available
5. Utility costs & availability
6. Allowable radiation, noise and required dispersion levels
7. Flare Tips, Ignition system and purging requirements
8. Flare structure
9. Safety considerations
10. Environment regulations
11. Flare capacity & sizing
12. Flash back seals

The flow diagram (See figure( 6.35) depicts the typical components of an overall
industrial flare stack system
 Figure( 6.35) Flow Diagram of Flare System

FLARE SYSTEM COMPONENTS

 A gas collection headers & piping arrangements for collecting gases from processing
facility units in case of flaring events
 A knockout drum which is used to remove & store condensable & entrained liquids
 A seal drum, to prevent any flashback of the flame from the top of the flare stack.
 A steam or forced air injection system to provide an external momentum force used
for efficient mixing of air with the relieved gas, which promotes smokeless burning.
 A pilot flame (with its ignition) that burns continuously, so that it is available to ignite
relieved gases whenever needed
 The flare stack, including a flashback prevention section at the upper part of the flare
stack

(HP) Flare Collection System

The HP flare system is designed to collect and safely dispose of processed fluid discharge
from various high pressure sources. (See figure( 6.36)
 Figure( 6.36) HP Flare Package

(LP) Flare Collection System (See figure( 6.37)

The LP flare system is designed to collect and safely dispose of processed fluid discharge
from various low pressure sources.
 Figure( 6.37) LP Flare Header

Knockout Drum (See figure( 6.38)

Knock-Out Drums are designed to effectively remove hydrocarbon liquids from the main
flare relief gas to prevent the possibility of liquid carryover and “flaming rain” from the flare
tip. The knock-out drum is typically either a horizontal or vertical vessel located at or close
to the base of the flare, or a vertical vessel located inside the base of the flare stack
because of the following reasons:

 Liquid in the vent stream can extinguish the flame or

 Cause irregular combustion and smoking.
 In addition, flaring liquids can generate a spray of burning chemicals that
could reach ground level and create a safety hazard.
 Figure( 6.38) Horizontal Knockout Drum

Flashback Protection

Flashback protection (the possibility that the flame will travel upstream into the system)
should be considered for all disposal systems because flashback can result in pressure
build-up in upstream piping and vessels.

Seal Drums

Liquid seal drums are vessels that are used to separate the relief gases and the
flare/header stack by a layer of liquid. Water (or water/glycol mixture) is normally the
sealing fluid. The flare gas (or purge gas) is forced to bubble through a layer of water
before it reaches the flare stack. This prevents air or gas from flowing backward beyond
the water seal. Seal drums serve as a final knockout drum to separate liquid from the relief
gases.

Molecular Seals
Molecular seals cause flow reversal. They normally are located below the flare tip and
serve to prevent air entry into the stack. Molecular seals depend on the density difference
between air and hydrocarbon gas. Light gas is trapped at the top of the U-tube. (See
figure( 6.39)
 Figure( 6.39) Molecular Seal

Flame Arrestors (See figure( 6.40)

Flame arrestors are used primarily on atmospheric vents and are not recommended on
pressurized systems. Because of the acceleration of the flame, the flame arrestor must be
installed approximately 10 pipe diameters from the exit, which prevents the flame from
blowing through the arrestor.

Figure( 6.40) Flame Arrestor with Removable Element

FLARE SYSTEM TYPES & APPLICATION

Open or Elevated Flare Systems

This type of gas flare system is most widely used in the petroleum industry and in chemical
plants thanks to its capacity to handle higher loads. The elevated refinery flare system
consists of flare header collecting the waste gas and entrained condensates from all over
the plant. Condensates are removed using a ‘Condensate Knockout Drum’.

Enclosed or Ground Flare Systems (See figure( 6.41) Figure( 6.41)

In typical ground flare systems, the combustion of waste gases takes place close to ground
level, hence the name. Commonly this type of flame close to the ground has to be
enclosed in a refractory lined enclosure to contain the radiation and gases originating from
the flame.

Figure( 6.41) Typical Ground Flare System

- Burn Pits (See figure( 6.42)

Burn pits can handle volatile liquids. They must be large enough to contain the maximum
emergency flame length and must have a drain valve and pump (if required) to dispose of
trapped water.
 Figure( 6.42) Typical Burn Pit

FLARE SUPPORT STRUCTURES

-Guy Wired Supported (See figure( 6.43)

Figure( 6.43) Guy Wired Supported Flare

-Derrick Supported (See figure( 6.44)

Figure( 6.44) Derrick Supported Flare

- Derrick Guy Wired (See figure( 6.45)

Figure( 6.45) Derrick Guy Wired

 -Self-Supporting Flare Stacks (See figure( 6.46)

Figure( 6.46) Self-Supporting Flare Stacks

FLARE TIPS (See figure( 6.47)

A flare tip is used for the disposal of waste combustible gases and consists basically of a
high grade alloy tube. Usually it is mounted on the top of a steel stack so that the heat of
combustion and its products will not cause danger to life and property on the ground.

Steam assisted flares are designed to dispose of heavier waste gases which have a
greater tendency to smoke. In order to prevent incomplete combustion, steam is injected
into the waste stream using peripheral steam rings, center steam spargers, and/or inner
induction tubes. The injection of steam has two principal effects

Air assisted (See figure( 6.48) Figure( 6.48)

When smokeless flaring is desired and neither steam nor assist gas is available, blowers
can be used to inject combustion air directly into the waste gas stream as it exits the flare
tip.
Figure( 6.47) Steam Assisted Flare

Figure( 6.48) Air Assisted Flare

6.7 STORAGE & METERING
Tanks are used for storing liquids. The kind of liquid being stored determines which type of
storage tank is used. Some liquids, such as crude oil, can be stored in plain covered tanks.
Some liquids must be stored in pressure tanks. Very light and highly volatile liquids will
evaporate in tanks that are not sealed. This would be a waste of valuable products. It
would also be a fire hazard. (See figure( 6.49)

Figure( 6.49) Tanks

TYPES OF STORAGE TANKS

1.FIXED ROOF STORAGETANKS
A typical fixed-roof tank consists of a cylindrical steel shell with a cone or dome shaped roof
that is permanently affixed to the tank shell.

A cone-shaped roof is used for two reasons: (See figure( 6.50)

- First, rainwater will run off the sloping roof.

- Second, the structural strength of the cone.

Cone-shaped fixed roof tanks are used to store non-volatile liquids. The products stored in
fixed roof tanks are normally vented to atmosphere.
 Figure( 6.50) Cone Roof
FIXED ROOFT YPES:

 Non-pressure tanks (See figure( 6.51)

which are in open connection with the atmosphere by vents installed in the roof.
Tanks are used to store non-volatile liquids, like water or low-flash stocks.

Figure( 6.51) Non-pressure tanks

 Low-pressure tanks (See figure( 6.52)

where instead of vents, pressure safety valves have been installed which open at
certain pressures to protect the tank from high pressure and vacuum pressure, Fixed-
roof tanks are relatively easy to construct and therefore cheaper to build than floating-
roof tanks. The main disadvantage of a fixed-roof tank is product losses due to the
escape of vapour from the free space between the liquid and the roof through vent
openings in the roof. These losses are either breathing losses, caused by the
difference in day and night temperature, or filling losses, when in flowing oil expels an
equal volume of vapour through the vents.
 Figure( 6.52) Low-pressure tanks

FIXED ROOF TANK AUXILIARYEQUIPMENT

Some stored liquids must be heated. Some liquids must be mixed. Fixed Cone roof tanks
must be vented to prevent pressure build up. These requirements make certain auxiliary
equipment necessary. (See figure( 6.53)

Figure( 6.53) Cone Roof Auxiliary Equipment

Fixed roof storage tanks may be fitted with the following Ancillary equipment:

1. Roof access ladder with safety rail.

2. Roof or Ground Level Access Manholes.
3. Water Drain.
4. Filling and Emptying Pumps.
5. Bund Areas [often called Firewalls].
6. Relief Valves.
7. Inert Gas Blanket Inlet Pipes and Valves Foam Injection Box.
8. Vapour Vent.
9. Hatch for Sampling or Gauging the Tank Contents.
10. Earth Connections.

Vapour Vent (Breather Valve)

Vent pipes on top of storage tanks are turned downward to prevent rainwater entering the
tank. Turning the pipe down also reduces the chance of windblown sand or trash entering
the tank.

The vent allows air to enter the tank when it is emptying (to prevent vacuum which cause
tank collapse), and to leave when the tank is being filled (to prevent tank rupture due to
overpressure). A tank without a vent would burst open during filling, and collapse in on
itself when being emptied.

Cone roof storage tanks are never completely filled. Vapours from the stored liquid collect
in the vapour space under the tank roof. The vent pipe, installed at the peak of the roof,
allows any vapour under the roof to escape to atmosphere. The small amounts of vented
vapour quickly disperse in the air and do not present a hazard.

The hazard is the confined space under the roof. A spark from maintenance work, such as
welding, could ignite the gas in the vapour space. A flame or spark arrester is fitted to the
end of the pipe. Mesh screens or baffles inside the arrestor allow gas to pass through, but
make it almost impossible for a spark to pass.

An alternative for reducing breathing losses is the installation of pressure/vacuum valves

in the roof. These valves will not open before a certain overpressure or vacuum inside the
tank is exceeded.
The tank has pressure relief valve (See figure( 6.54) . The relief valve prevents the
pressure of the liquid vapours from going too high. Pressure Relief Valve is set at a certain
pressure. Vacuum relief valves are also used on low pressure fixed roof tanks.
They prevent a vacuum from forming inside a tank when product is being moved.

Figure( 6.54) Double Breather Safety Valve

Some other auxiliaries are:

Product Mixers: (See figure( 6.55)
Mixers agitate the product in the tank, keeping it on specification.

Figure( 6.55) Storage Tank Mixer

-Tank Heaters

It is important to prevent heavy components of crude oil from settling in the tank and to
make pumping easy .

-Level Measuring Devices

It is important to know how much liquid is stored in a tank. Some cone roof tanks use
a float and tape system to show the level in the tank, any scales product must be
accurately measured. The most accurate level measuring device for a storage tank is
a hand reel tape.

There is a gauging platform on the top of the tank, surrounded by a safety railing. The
platform provides a place for an operator to use the hand reel tape. There is a gauging
well through the roof. The gauging well is used to lower the weighted tape into the tank.
(See figure( 6.56)

Figure( 6.56) Hand Reel Tape

2.FLOATING ROOF STORAGE TANKS

Floating roof tanks are generally used for volatile liquids, like crude oil, naphtha, and
gasoline. The floating roof rests on the top of the stored liquid, so there is no space for
vapours to collect under Floating roof. Tanks are used to store hydrocarbon liquids with
relatively low volatility, such as crude oil naphtha.

Before it is stored in tanks, crude oil is heated. The heat causes lighter gases to separate
from the crude oil. The gases are sent for NGL processing. The crude oil that remains is
stable. Stable crude will not release a large amount of vapour when it is stored. (See
figure( 6.57)
 Figure( 6.57) Floating Roof Tank

Advantages

 Reduced product loss, due to minimized vapour loss.

 Reduced air pollution.
 Reduced fire and explosion risk, due to the reduced vapour space

Floating Roof Types

-PONTOON ROOF (See figure( 6.58)

The outer edge of the pontoon roof is a float, called a pontoon. This is a sealed metal air
chamber that provided flotation for the roof. As figure 6 shows, the underside of the roof is
flat. The pontoon around the roof also provides some air space insulation for part of the
liquid surface under theroof.

Figure( 6.58)- Pontoon Type Floating Roof

-DOUBLE DECK ROOF

The double deck floating roof is the most efficient type of floating roof. The air space
between the top and bottom of the roof provides insulation from the heat of the sun
over the entire surface of the stored liquid. The sloping top forms a collecting point for
rain water in the centre of the roof. (See figure( 6.59)

Figure( 6.59) Double - Deck Type Floating Roof

-Roof Legs (See figure( 6.60)

The underside of the roof is fitted with support legs in order to leave space between the
roof and the tank bottom when the tank is empty. These legs allow access to the tank for
cleaning and/or maintenance.
 Figure( 6.60) Floating Roof Legs

3. SPHERICALTANK (See figure( 6.61)

Spherical Tanks look like large balls.

 They are used to store volatile liquids that are being processed.

 The round shape is very strong.

 A sphere is the best shape for use with high pressure fluids.

 A sphere uses thinner metal than other vessels. However, spheres are more
expensive to build than cylinders.

Figure( 6.61) LPG Tank Insulation

 4- BULLET TANKS:

BULLET TANKS are large metal cylinders.

 Bullet Tanks do not hold as much fluid as the larger Dome or Sphere tanks

 They are very strong, and can be used for high pressure fluids.

 Bullet Tanks are not as expensive as Sphere Tanks

(See figure( 6.62)

Figure( 6.62) Bullet Tank

6.8 MEASURING METERS

FLOWMETERS

Apart from pressure and temperature meters, the most common meters encountered
on oil and gas installations are flow meters. (See figure( 6.63)
 Figure( 6.63) Flow meters

They can be classified as:

- DIRECT VOLUMETRIC METERS:

Such as positive Displacement (PD) meter which measures directly volumetric flow by
continuously separating the flow stream into volumetric segments

- INFERENCE METERS:

Which determine volumetric flow by measuring some property of the flow stream, e.g.
Turbine meter, Coriolis mass meter and Ultrasonic meters

Positive Displacement (PD) Meters

were introduced in the 1930s. They are versatile, accurate, stable and been used for
custody transfer. (See figure( 6.64)
 Figure( 6.64) PD meters

Turbine Meters (See figure( 6.65)

were introduced in the 1970s and used for custody transfer of petroleum liquids such as
liquefied petroleum gases (LPGs), refined products and light crude oil. Later models
extended its application to higher viscosity and waxy crude oil.

Turbine meters determine flow rate from the multiplication of the velocity of the fluid
and the suspended rotor blade.

Figure( 6.65) Turbine flow meter installation

Coriolis Mass Meters

came into their own in the 1980s They measure mass flow rate directly thus eliminating the
need for pressure and temperature compensation. (See figure( 6.66)

Figure( 6.66) Ciriolis Meters

Ultrasonic Flow Meters: (See figure( 6.67)

Like Turbine meters, Ultrasonic meters are inferential meters that determine flow rate by
measuring stream velocity. Volume throughput is then obtained by multiplication of the
velocity by the flow area. They are becoming the preferred technology. They have no
moving parts, do not impede flow and virtually eliminate pressure loss that is common to
other types of meter technology.

Figure( 6.67) Ultrasonic flow meter

Also with no moving parts, they can be used for bi-directional application for both upstream
and downstream.
 Chapter 7

Overview of Utility Systems

 Chapter seven

Table of Contents Duration(hours):12

7.0 Utility Systems

7.1Water Systems

7.2 Drainage System

7.3 HVAC

7.4Instrument and Utility Air

7.5Inert Gas System – Nitrogen

7.6 Flaring Systems

7.7Chemical Systems

7.8 Water Injection System

7.9Power GenerationSystem

7.10 Fire Fighting System

7.11 Fuel Gas System.

 Chapter seven

7.0Utilities
The main utility systems:

 Water Systems
 Drainage System
 HVAC
 Instrument and Utility Air
 Inert Gas System – Nitrogen
 Flaring Systems
 Chemical Systems
 Water Injection System
 Power Generation
 Steam Generation
 Emergency Power Generation
 Fire Fighting System
 Fuel gas systems.

7.1WATER SYSTEMS

Water is usually used in a plant for:

 Fire Fighting.

 Desalination.

 Steam generation feed (Boiler Feed Water).

 Hydrocarbon general process (Process Water).

 Cooling (Cooling Water).

 Potable Water.

 Utility Stations.

Water to the Plant:( SeeFig.7.1 )

 Service water.

 Drilling water.

 Cooling water (open or closed circuit).

 Waste water.
 Chapter seven

Figure (7.1)Water to the Plant .

7.2 DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The closed drains system allows draining of flammable and toxic liquid hydrocarbons into
a closed system, where they can be safely collected and transferred for further processing
or disposal. They are usually vented to flare to eliminate the gas that can be separated
from the drained oils and hydrocarbons.

 Open Drains and Waste Water System

The open drains system collects contaminated surface water from the following:

 Rainfall
 Fire-fighting
 General equipment hose down.They drain to waste water system.

 Closed Drains
Closed drain system elements:

•Drains tanks
•Oil transfer pumps
•Relief valves to flare system

7.3 HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING(HVAC)

 Heating Systems
 Heating shall be provided to control the enclosed environment in cold areas.
 Specific equipment temperature range shall be according to manufacturer’s data
sheet.
 Heating shall also be provided to maintain working environment around 16 ºC and 13
ºC for environments with physical activity.
 Chapter seven

 Ventilation
Ventilation air is necessary to dilute odours and limit the concentration of:

•Carbon dioxide
•Airborne pollutants such as dust and smoke
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (SeeFig.7.2 )

Figure (7.2) Typical Air Flow Path in Air Conditioning

 Air Conditioning
Air Conditioning is the term used to describe the system used for controlling the
temperature and humidity of air delivered to
buildings. The main components of a typical
system are:( See Fig. (7.3)& (7.4) )

 Refrigeration Unit;
 Air Handling Unit;
 Air filtration
 Pumps;
 Air Circuit
 Humidifiers,

Fig.(7.3) Typical single – stage vapour compression refrigeration.

 Chapter seven

Fig. (7.4)Heat Flow Path in a Direct Expansion Unit

7.4 INSTRUMENT AND UTILITY AIR

The production of compressed air is necessary for 3 different uses, so that air from the
compressors feeds 3 separate networks.( SeeFig. (7.5))

 Instrument
air is necessary for pneumatically operated instruments and valves. This air
must be treated to avoid damage to instruments and must be free of oil and water
vapour.

 Service air is used to operate pneumatic tools and for maintenance work. It does not
require particular treatment apart from basic filtration and moisture trapping in the
supply lines.

 Inert
Gas (nitrogen) is used for various safety related purposes around the plant. Inert
gas is produced from dry compressed air.

Fig.(7.5) Example of Air Supply System.

 Chapter seven

The compressors start and stop automatically maintaining the pressure of around 5.5
kg/cm2 sensing from the immediate discharge of the compressors. Compressors start at
5.0 kg/cm2 and stop at 7 kg/cm2.

 Air Compressors
Reciprocating air compressors are typically sized for applications under 50 hp of power.

7.5 - INERT GAS

The inert gas system is to provide 99.5% pure nitrogen for compressor seal purging and
also purging and blanketing of vessels, equipment and pipelines.

The main consumption for nitrogen is summarised as below:

• Blanketing of vessels/tanks
• Purging of vessels
• Seal of compressors
• Purging of HP and LP flares

7.6 FLARING SYSTEMS

The flare system is designed to provide safe receipt and disposal of combustible, toxic
gases and vapours released from process equipment during normal operation and during
upset conditions. The safe disposal is achieved by knocking down the heavy ends and
condensable in the flare knockout drum and burning the gases through an elevated stack.
In some cases, a controlled amount of steam is used to ensure smokeless burning and
easy dispersion of combustion products. The process helps maintain an acceptable level
of pollution at ground level.

A flare facility, particularly the flare burner, must have a stable flame capable of burning
the hydrocarbon vapour released during a major operational failure. Also, the vapour must
be sufficiently free from liquid droplets before entering the stack. Smoke is minimized by
the injection of steam into the flame. The stack is located remote enough from operating
units to provide safety for operating personnel and equipment. The flare system is purged
with inert gas to prevent flame flashback.

(See Fig.( 7.6 ) and Flare Stack Showing Condensate Recovery and Typical Water Seal))

The flares are classified in:

 Chapter seven

• Cold or dry flare;

 Warm or wet flare;

 Low pressure flare

Fig.( 7.6 ): Typical Flare System.

Fig.( 7.7 )Flare Stack Showing Condensate Recovery and Typical Water Seal

Flare Applications

Flare applications can be found in the following installations:

 Chapter seven

• Oil and Gas processing facilities

• Gas Transmission pipelines
• LPG and LNG plants
• Refineries
• Petrochemical plants

7.7CHEMICAL SYSTEMS
Chemicals used in Oil and Gas Plant are:

 Anti-Bacteria (Biocide),
 Corrosion Inhibitor
 Demulsifier
 Antifoam
 Scale Inhibitor
 O2 Scavenger
Chemical dosing facilities consist of tanks, injection pumps and distribution piping.

 Anti-Bacteria Chemical (Biocide)

Biocide is used to prevent the growth of bacteria inside the piping. The two Biocides are
used alternately. This is due to the bacteria becoming immune to the action of the Biocide
if the same one is used constantly.

 Corrosion Inhibitor
The presence of acid gases - H2S and CO2, and the water in the oil systems, causes the
formation of acids which are very corrosive to the metal of the equipment. The Corrosion
inhibitor is injected to avoid or reduce the corrosion occurring mainly in pipes and
devices. It can act reacting chemically with the corrosive compound giving a non-
corrosive product.

 Demulsifier
The Demulsifier is a special chemical product that is injected where an oil-water
emulsion occurs, to promote the separation rate between oil and water (see figure (7.8)).
 Chapter seven

Figure (7.8) Example of Demulsifier Effect on Oil-Water Emulsion.

 Antifoam
The antifoam is injected to reduce foaming formation in vessels, during the expansion of
oil in three phase separators.

 Scale Inhibitor
To minimize scale formation on the inside walls of vessels and piping.

 O2 Scavenger
Oxygen may cause corrosion to the boiler tubes, so oxygen scavenging chemicals are
added to the deaerated boiler feed water to remove any last traces of oxygen that were not
removed by the deaeratorBulk Chemical Storage

Chemical Handling
Any chemical in the Oilfield has a Material Safety Data Sheet that shall be checked for:

 Toxicity level
 Handling precautions
 Potential health effects
 Fire and explosion data
 Spillage precautions and remediation requirements
Typical chemical injection package is asFigure (7.9).
 Chapter seven

Figure (7.9)Chemical Injection Package

 Pumps
Metering pumps provide the chemical dosage for the equipment. They come in the
following configurations: (See Fig. (7.10))

 Reciprocating, pneumatic/hydraulic actuator

 Reciprocating, electric
 Diaphragm, pneumatic/hydraulic actuator
 Diaphragm, electric

Fig. (7.10)Typical Electric Metering Pump

 Monitoring
Monitoring of the chemical dosage is usually by:

 Tank level instrumentation

 Chapter seven

 Metering pump stroke frequency, pump must be calibrated by means of

calibration column
 Positive displacement flowmeters(See Fig. (7.11))
 Calibration columns(See Fig. (7.12)), (for manual calibration of metering
pump)

Fig. (7.11)Positive Displacement Flowmeter

Fig. (7.12)Chemical Calibration Column

7.8 WATER INJECTION SYSTEM

Water injection will often be used in the following cases:
1- Low energy oil reservoir: undersaturated oil, aquifer relatively inactive or of negligible
volume,
2- Low permeability oil reservoir or very large oil reservoir (pressure differences too high),
3- Oil reservoir with a geometrical configuration such that the natural water entries
leave large unswept zones.

The aim of water injection is to optimise production and increase the recovery by:
 Maintaining the pressure,
 Chapter seven

 Sweeping the oil in place.see figure(7.13)

Figure(7.13)Typical Water Cycle

But in order to be used, water must be compatible.

There are generally 3 different types of water according to the source:

 Surface water: sea, lakes, rivers, marsh creeks, etc.

 Groundwater: deep groundwater
 Produced water: reservoir, desalter, condensation, etc.

7.9 POWER GENERATION

Electric Power Generation

Electric power, in an oil field, can be supplied by the following generators:

Main Generators:
Steam/Gas Turbine generators used to produce electricity to run all the services to allow
production.

In the event of a power outage the emergency generator supplies a switchboard that
provides power for “life support” systems.
 Chapter seven

o Steam Generations

Boilers
Boilers are devices where usually water is heated to produce saturated or superheated
steam. Typical boilers for steam generation are fire-tube types where saturated steam is
produced ,(See Fig. (7.14) & (7.15) )

Fig. (7.14) -Boiler Steam Generator

Fig. (7.15) -Boiler for Steam Generation

o Gas Turbine Power Generation

Gas turbines are used as prime movers where large scale power plants are not practical,
for example desert locations where water is a premium or where construction critical route
 Chapter seven

for the project makes more economical to select a system that requires a lower installation
effort, since most gas turbine packages are quite portable.

Gas turbine power is usually used in packages under 30 MW where scale of steam is not
economical; also they are selected when efficiency is not a critical decision issue in the
project.(SeeFig. (7.16))
Exhaust

Load
Generator or
Compressor

Gearbox

Compressor Turbine

Combustion Chamber

Fuel Supply

Fig. (7.16)Gas Turbine Power Single Shaft

Another industrial gas turbine arrangement uses the gas turbine as a gas generator for a
power turbine. The power turbine is not mechanically coupled to the gas generator and is
only used to power the generator or mechanical load.

Fig. (7.17) Combined Cycle Power Generation

The figure(7.17) shows a schematic of a combined cycle plant where the exhaust of the
gas turbine is used for steam generation. The system could also benefit from extra heat
into the boiler for extra power generation over the gas turbine flue gas energy. Combined
cycle has proven to be the most
Efficient cycle.
 Chapter seven

Emergency Power Generation

Emergency generation is normally required on essential equipment that will keep
minimum safe operation of the plant in case of shut down, incident or emergency.

Emergency power is required for equipment and services that require power in case of a
partial or general shut down.

The equipment that requires power is usually essential for:

a) Emergency equipment such as fire fighting, lighting, lifesaving equipment and

communications

b) Essential equipment that require working during shut down or major emergency
such as Distributed Control System (DCS), Emergency Shut Down System (ESD),
Uninterrupted Power System (UPS), air system for instrumentation and flare
system

7.10 Fire Fighting System

Fire detection and automatic extinguishing systems are installed on oil and gas facilities.
These comprise a number of distinct components to respond to the different types of fire
which might occur in the various locations concerned.

Fire Fighting Systems includes fire water tank, pumps, pipe network, the foam system, and
the diesel storage tank. (See Fig. (7.18) & (7.19))

Fig. (7.18)Fire fighting system on Tank.

 Chapter seven

Fig. (7.19)Fire fighting System

There are portable fire extinguishers in some areas of the plant. (SeeFig. (7.20))

Fig. (7.20)Portable Extinguisher

Fire Detection and Alarm System( See Fig. (7.21))

 Gas detectors
 Smoke detectors
 Flame Detectors
 Heat detectors
 Chapter seven

Fire Detection

Fig. (7.21)Fire detection

Gas Detectors

Gas detectors monitor the atmosphere for release of hydrocarbon gas. Typically:

One single detector will register an alarm in the control room but no executive
action will take place.

 Two detectors are generally required to register conformation in the event of

equipment malfunction before a protective automatic executive action occurs.

Confirmation of high level gas in hazardous areas or low level gas in non-hazardous areas
will bring about a level 3 shutdown.

Gas detection for hydrogen sulphide in general falls into two types:(See Fig. 7.22)

 Fixed Gas Detection;

 Portable Gas Detection.

Fig. 7.22 Typical Toxic (H2S) Gas detector

 Chapter seven

Fire detection and automatic extinguishing systems are installed on the facilities. These
comprise a number of distinct components to respond to the different types of fire which
might occur in the various locations concerned.

7.11FUEL GAS SYSTEM(See Fig. 7.23)

Fuel Gas can be generated and supplied from a number of plant sources.

 Methane

 Product Ethane

 Excess / Off-Spec Ethane

 Vaporised NGL

 Propane

The Fuel Gas system provides a reliable continuous supply of gas to: -

 HP Boilers

 Furnaces and Heaters

 Gas Turbines

 HP Flare

 Pilot Gas system

 Plant Purge Gas system

Fig. 7.23: Example of Fuel Gas System

 Chapter Eight

Chapter Eight

Outline of Downstream Activities

 Chapter Eight

Table of contents

8.0 Outline of Downstream Activities

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Definition and Types of Refineries

8.3 Refining Processes

8.4 Distillation

8.5 Gasoline

8.6 The Octane Scale

8.7 Refinery Processes on Gasoline

 Chapter Eight

8.1 Introduction
Downstream Activities

In the oil and gas industry, the downstream process consists of converting crude
oil into other products and then selling those products to customers. Thus, oil
refineries represent plants that operate within the downstream process.

Figure 8.1(upstream , midstream and downstream )

8.2 Definition and Types of Refineries

A refinery is a factory which takes a raw material (crude oil) and transforms it into
petrol and fuels and other products.
A refinery breaks down crude oil into various components which then are
selectively changed into new products.
This process takes place inside a maze of pipes and vessels and is operated
from an automated control room.
A refinery performs three basic steps:
- Separation (Fractional Distillation)
- Conversion (Cracking and Rearranging the Molecules)
- Treatment
8.3 Refining Processes
Refinery Processes Classification
Petroleum refining processes and operations can be separated into five basic
areas:( See figure 8.2)
 Fractionation (Distillation): Is the separation of crude oil in an
atmospheric and vacuum distillation into groups of hydrocarbon
compounds of differing boiling-point ranges called “Fractions” or “Cuts”.(
See figure 8.2)
 Chapter Eight

 Conversion Processes: Change the size and/or structure of hydrocarbon

molecules. These processes include:
o Decomposition (dividing): By Thermal and Catalytic Cracking;
o Unification (Combining): Through Alkylation and Polymerization;
o Alteration (Rearranging): With Isomerization and Catalytic Reforming.
 Treatment Processes: To prepare H/C streams for additional processing
and to prepare finished products. Treatment may include removal or
separation of aromatics and naphthenes, impurities and undesirable
contaminates. Treatment may involve chemical or physical separation e.g.
dissolving, absorption, or precipitation using a variety and combination of
processes including Desalting, Drying, Hydrodesulphurization, Solvent
Refining, Sweetening, Solvent Extraction, and Solvent Dewaxing.
 Formulating and Blending: Is the process of mixing and combining
hydrocarbon fractions, additives, and other components to produce
finished products with specific performance properties.

Figure 8.2 ; Flow Scheme of a Modern Refinery

8.4 Distillation
The various components of crude oil have different sizes, weights and boiling
temperatures; so, the first step is to separate these components. Because they
have different boiling temperatures, they can be separated easily by a process
called fractional distillation.
 Chapter Eight

Distillation is based on the fact that the vapor of a boiling mixture will be richer in
the components that have lower boiling points. Thus when this vapor is cooled
and condensed, the condensate will contain the more volatile components.
Distillation is the most common separation technique and it consumes enormous
amounts of energy, both in terms of cooling and heating requirements. Distillation
can contribute to more than 50% of plant operating costs.

Main Components of Distillation Unit (see figure 8.3):

- Column: Vertical Shell (Tray/Packing)
- Reboiler: Provide necessary heat
For vaporization
- Condenser: Cool and condense
Vapour leaving the top of the column
- Reflux Drum: Hold condensed vapour
From the top of the column
- Reflux: Liquid recycled back to the
column.

Figure 8.3 : Main Components of Distillation Unit

 Chapter Eight

Crude Oil is separated into fractions by Fractional Distillation (See figure 8.4) .
The fractions at the top of the Fractionating Column have lower Boiling
Points than the fractions at the bottom. The heavy bottom fractions are
often cracked into lighter, more useful products. All of the fractions are
processed further in other refining units.

Figure 8.4: Fractional Distillation Column

The following schematic flow diagram (Figure 8.5) shows a typical crude oil
distillation unit. The incoming crude oil is preheated by exchanging heat with
some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then desalted to
remove inorganic salts (primarily sodium chloride).
 Chapter Eight

Figure 8.5 :flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit

8.5 Gasoline
Gasoline, known also as petrol, is a light, volatile and highly flammable liquid
that is produced by further processing of naphtha and gasoline fraction. It is
composed of hexane (C6), heptane (C7), octane (C8) and small amounts of C9+.

Gasoline is one of the most important and wanted products of crude oil. It is
mainly used as a fuel for internal combustion engines. Before they are ignited
by a spark plug, the hydrocarbons in gasoline may ignite without a spark due to
the high temperature and pressure inside a cylinder. This pre-ignition causes
engine knocking. Chemists found out that straight chain alkanes produce
higher knocking than branched alkanes because they burn faster.
 Chapter Eight

8.6 The Octane Scale

The study of different alkanes, normal and branched, has proved that normal
heptane is the poorest fuel for a gasoline engine because it produces the
maximum knocking in a test engine. The best fuel is 2,2,4-trimethyl pentane,
known as iso-octane. These two hydrocarbons were considered to be the
standard measure of knocking.

n-heptane CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 poor fuel

CH 3 CH 3
i-octane CH 3 C CH 2 CH CH 3 excellent fuel
CH 3

A scale was made in which normal heptane was assigned a rating of 0, and iso-
octane a rating of 100. This scale is called the octane scale. According to the
octane scale, a mixture of 25% n-heptane and 75% i-octane has an octane
rating of 75.

How does the octane scale apply to gasoline?

Gasoline contains many hydrocarbons, not only n-heptane and i-octane. To

measure its octane rating, gasoline is used as fuel in a test engine. The
knocking that gasoline produces is compared with the knocking produced by
pre-tested mixtures of n-heptane and i-octane. If, for example, the knocking
that gasoline produces is similar to that produced by a mixture of 20% n-
heptane and 80% i-octane, then gasoline is said to have an octane rating of 80.

Leaded Gasoline

Addition of some compounds of heavy metals to gasoline can increase its

octane number. These compounds must be soluble in gasoline and have
covalent bonds. Two such compounds are:

Terramethyl lead (TML) [Pb(CH3)4]

Terraethyl lead (TEL) [Pb(C2H5)4]

Gasoline that contains the above two compounds is called leaded gasoline.
Leaded gasoline causes formation of lead deposits inside the engine. To
remove these lead deposits, the following compounds are added to gasoline:
 Chapter Eight

1,2-dichloro ethane (C2H4Cl2)

1,2-dibromo ethane (C2H4Br2)

These compounds convert lead deposits to volatile lead chloride and lead
bromide that leave the engine with the exhaust gases.

8.7 Refinery Processes on Gasoline

The further processing of the naphtha and gasoline fraction are designed to
increase the amount of gasoline produced from crude oil, and to increase the
octane number. Fractional distillation of crude oil in the main fractionating tower
produces about 10% gasoline as a first cut. In further processing, the
percentage is increased to about 25%. Three major refinery processes are
carried out.

 Catalytic cracking converts the heavy crude oil fractions and converts to
gasoline. This process increases the gasoline fraction.

 Catalytic reforming converts aliphatic hydrocarbons with low octane

number to aromatic hydrocarbons with high octane number by
restructuring the molecules.

 Alkylation converts gaseous hydrocarbons to gasoline with high octane

number. This process increases both the gasoline fraction and the octane
number.
 Chapter Nine

Transprtation and marketing of oil products

 Chapter Nine

Table of Contents Duration(hours): 6

9.0 Transprtation and marketing of oil products

9.1 RAIL CAR LOADING OPERATIONS

9.2 types of rail car

9.3 Loading Facilities

9.4 Loading Pumps

9.5 Client Sales Requirements

9.6 Spot Transactions

9.7 Futures Markets

9.8 Price Contracts

9.9 Oil Classification For Sales

9.10 World Benchmark

9.11 LNG Transportation

 Chapter Nine

9.0 Transportation and marketing of oil products

9.1 Rail Car Loading Operations

The products are loaded from storage tanks located within the processing facilities
via dedicated loading pumps, loading arms and in the case of butane and propane
products via pressurised connections.

Figure (9.1) An Example of an LPG Storage and Loading Terminal

Fig.(9.2 Loading Terminal

 Chapter Nine

9.2 Types of Rail Car

1- Atmospheric Pressure Rail Cars

The crude oil and naphtha are loaded into the same type of rail car with a
typical design as follows:

 The tank shell is designed to take full account of additional pressure

generated by liquid surge during rapid deceleration.

 The tank is provided with a maintenance platform around the top

nozzles and manway with one ladder access to the platform provided.

 The right front side of the railcar is provided with a ladder and
handgrips for the person in charge of moving the train.

 The access to side valves/flanges is available for the connection of

loading/unloading equipment.

 Side valves are leak tight and provided with a locking device and a
metal dust cap. Both cap and locking device are permanently attached
to the valve by means of a chain with welded shackles. A typical rail
car is shown below.

Figure 9.3: Atmospheric Pressure Rail Car

 Chapter Nine
2-LPG Rail Cars

Normally rail cars for LPG use the bottom loading system. The uncoupled
tank cars are placed in the corresponding loading positions and connected
with a product arm and a gas recirculation arm.

A typical LPG rail car is shown below.

Figure 9.4: Pressurised LPG Rail Car

9.3 Loading Facilities
Rail cars can be loaded in many ways most of which are covered by the following:

a- Bottom Loading

- Several rail cars loaded consecutively at a single loading point.

- Several rail cars loaded simultaneously at more than one loading point.

Below is an example of the bottom loading of a road tanker which is the same
system for a rail car.

Figure 9. 5: Bottom Loading Connections

 Chapter Nine

b-Top Loading Simple System

- Several rail cars loaded consecutively at a single loading point.

- Several rail cars loaded simultaneously at more than one loading point.
Loading equipment
- Hoses from overhead pipelines.
- Telescopic tubes from overhead connections.
- Articulated loading arms.
Below is an example of a top loading arm with a vapour recovery arm
incorporated.

Figure 9.6: Top Loading System

A loading station with rail cars is shown below.

Figure 9. 7: Loading Station

 Chapter Nine

9.4 Loading Pumps

The rail car loading pumps are normally within the process area adjacent to
the product storage tanks. The type of pump installed will be dependent on
the type and specification of the product to be loaded into the rail cars.

Start up and operation of the loading pumps is carried out remotely at the rail
car loading station with emergency shutdown of the loading pumps adjacent
to the loading facility.

A typical seal less centrifugal transfer pump is shown below

Figure 9. 8: Seal-less Centrifugal Pump

One of the more important hazards is the breathing of the vapours from the
top of the rail cars and the rail loading gantries. The appropriate PPE must be
worn to prevent inhalation of vapours.

For LPG rail cars the excess vapours from the top of the tank is routed to the
suction of a vapour recovery compressor where the vapour is compressed,
then condensed and the liquid produced discharged back into the storage
tanks or the process.

9.5 Client Sales Requirements

The crude oil market employs a variety of contract arrangements including spot
transactions and futures markets. Futures markets can be regarded as a
mechanism designed to distribute risk among participants with different
expectations of the market, but not generally to supply physical volumes of oil.
 Chapter Nine
Both spot markets and futures markets provide critical price information for
contract markets.

9.6 Spot Transactions

A spot transaction is an agreement to sell or buy one shipment of oil under a price
agreed-upon at the time of the arrangement. There is no understanding or
agreement that further purchases will be made or, on the part of the supplier, that
further supplies will be made available.

. Spot markets also differ for different regions such as:

 Rotterdam/Northwest Europe
 New York Harbour/US Northeast
 Chicago/US Midwest
 Singapore/South East Asia
 US Gulf Coast

9.7 Futures Markets

The prices paid on futures markets further enhance the availability of price
information to all aspects of the oil market. While spot markets involve the trade
of physical barrels of oil, futures markets are designed as a financial mechanism.
While everyone in the market wishes to buy at a low price and sell at a high price,
buyers and sellers are on opposite sides of the transaction and their risks are
inherently different.

9.8 Price Contracts

Contract arrangements in the oil market in fact cover most oil that changes
hands. demand declined and supply increased, leading to significant price
declines. At the same time, additional players (both countries and companies)
entered the oil market. Worries over supply faded. It became apparent that the
old constant price called for in most contracts was too high - higher than the
purchaser would pay in the abundantly-supplied open market.

9.9 Oil Classification For Sales

The physical characteristics of crude oils differ. Crude oil with a similar mix of
physical and chemical characteristics, usually produced from a given reservoir,
 Chapter Nine
field or sometimes even a region, constitutes a crude oil 'stream'. Most simply,
crude oils are classified by their density and sulphur content. Less dense
(sometimes termed 'lighter') crude oils generally have a higher share of light
hydrocarbons, regarded as higher value products, than can be recovered with
simple distillation. The denser ('heavier') crude oils produce a greater share of
lower-valued products with simple distillation and require additional processing to
produce the desired range of products. Some crude oils also have a higher
sulphur content, an undesirable characteristic with respect to both processing and
product quality. For pricing purposes, crude oils of similar quality are often
compared to a single representative crude oil, a 'benchmark', of the quality class.

Arabian Light West Texas Bonny Light

Intermediate

Figure 9.9 Product yield from simple distillation

In addition to gravity and sulphur content, the type of hydrocarbon molecules

and other natural characteristics may affect the cost of processing or restrict a
crude oil's suitability for specific uses. The presence of heavy metals,
contaminants for the processing and for the finished product, is one example. The
molecular structure of a crude oil also dictates whether a crude stream can be
used for the manufacture of specialty products, such as lubricating oils or of
petrochemical feed-stocks.

Refiners therefore strive to run the optimal mix (or 'slate') of crude oils through
their refineries, depending on the refinery's equipment, the desired output mix,
and the relative price of available crude oils. In recent years, refiners have
confronted two opposite forces - consumers' and government mandates that
 Chapter Nine
increasingly required light products of higher quality (the most difficult to produce)
and crude oil supply that was increasingly heavier, with higher sulphur content
(the most difficult to refine).

9.10 World Benchmark

Because there are so many different varieties and grades of crude oil, buyers and
sellers have found it easier to refer to a limited number of reference, or
benchmark, crude oils. Other varieties are then priced at a discount or premium,
according to their quality.

Brent is generally accepted to be the world benchmark, although sales volumes

of Brent itself are far below those of, for example, some Saudi Arabian crude oils.

According to the Institute of Petroleum Engineers (IPE), Brent is used to price two
thirds of the world's internationally traded crude oil supplies.

In the Gulf, Dubai crude is used as a benchmark to price sales of other regional
crude oils into Asia. This is not because there are more supplies of Dubai crude
oil than of any other grade - there are not - but because it is one of the few Gulf
crude oils available in single, on the spot, sales as opposed to long term supply
contracts.

However, if supplies became extremely limited and price swings became

exaggerated, a new benchmark would have to be found.

US Benchmark
In the United States, the benchmark is West Texas Intermediate (WTI).

This means that crude oil sales into the US are usually priced in relation to WTI.

However, crude prices on the New York Mercantile Exchange generally refer to
'light, sweet crude'.

This may be any of a number of US domestic or foreign crude oils but all will have
a specific gravity and sulphur content within a certain range.

'Sweet' crude is defined as having a sulphur content of less than 0.5%.

Oil containing more than 0.5% sulphur by weight is said to be 'sour'.

Slightly confusingly, the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

has its own reference.
 Chapter Nine
OPEC Basket
Refer to Table ,OPEC aims to look after the interests of its members by
controlling the amount of oil produced by its member states and thus the oil price
within an agreed range. The OPEC basket, introduced on January 1, 1987, is the
arithmetic average of seven selected crudes. These are: Saharan Blend (Algeria);
Minas (Indonesia); Bonny Light (Nigeria); Arab Light (Saudi-Arabia); Dubai
(United Arab Emirates), Tia Juana Light (Venezuela), and Isthmus (Mexico).
Mexico is not a member of OPEC. In practice, the price differences between
Brent, WTI and the OPEC basket are not large. Crude prices also correlate
closely with each other.

Country of Origin Crude Oil

Saudi Arabia Arabian Light

United Arab Emirates Dubai

Nigeria Bonny Light

Algeria Saharan Blend

Indonesia Minas

Venezuela Tia Juana Light

Mexico Isthmus

Fig.(9.10) Table - The OPEC Basket

9.11 LNG Transportation

There are two types of LNG carrier currently in service, those with membrane
type tanks as shown in Figure 9.11. In the membrane type of tanker, the double
hull and containment system is heavily insulated to prevent heat ingress.
 Chapter Nine

Figure 9.11 LNG carrier

The second type of LNG carrier has specially insulated double walled spherical tanks
which contain the LNG cargo. This type of carrier is known as the Moss-Rosenberg type.
Refer to Figure 9.12.

Figure 9.12– LNG carrier with Moss Rosenberg tanks

Regardless of design, LNG carriers will typically have a capacity of between

125000 m3 and 145000 m3 of LNG.