Higher Engineering Mathematics BS Grewal

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Also available by the same author : NUMERICAL METHODS
IN ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE for B.E., B, Tech., M.E., M.C.A. B,
Sc. (Computer Science), M.Sc. (Physics / Maths) ■ — (9th Edition)
Contents : Approximations and Errors in Computations Solution of
Algebraic, Transcendental and Simultaneous Equations Matrix Inversion
and Eigen-value Problems Empirical Laws and Curve Fitting Finite
Differences and Interpolation Numerical Differentiation and Integration
Difference Equations Numerical Solution of Ordinary and Partial
Differential Equations Linear Programming Use of Computers in N
umerical Methods Numerical Techniques using C and C++ Languages
ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS for / and II Semesters of B.E., B.Tech.,
B. An:h. of Technical Universities — (14th edition) Contents : Infinite
Series Analytical Solid Geometry Differential and Integral Calculus Partial
Differentiation and Differentiation under Integral Sign Multiple Integrals
and Beta, Gamma Functions Vector Analysis and Orthogonal Curvilinear
Coordinates Ordinary Differential Equations with Applications Series
Solution of Differential Equations and Special Functions Fourier Series and
Partial Differential Equations Laplace, Fourier and Z-T ransfbrms Complex
Numbers Solution of Equations, Matrices and Curve Fitting Statistics,
Probability Distributions and Numerical Methods Objective Type of
Questions
42nd Edition | Mathematics B.S. GREWAL, Ph.D. Professor of
Applied Mathematics Priru'ipaJ Scientific Officer (Ex.) Defence Research
& Development Organisation, New Delhi Formerly of Cnltaao nf Military
Engineering , Poona, _ _ College of Engineering. Delhi J.S. GREWAL,
M.LE., I Engr. (UK), M.J. Mar. Engg , PDF Compiled by
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II Published by R.C. Kh.uina & Vineet Khainna for KHANNA
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Publishers.} ISBN No. : 978-81-7409-195-5 Pot fy h tit tan. 2012 , June ?
4BO.OO
Preface to the 42 nd Edition The hook has now been recast in an
attractive new format, retaining its main features which have made it so
popular. The text has been carefully revised, the number of illustrative
examples has been increased and problems from the latest university
question papers have been added. The ‘Objective Type of Questions* have
been updated and given at the end of each chapter. It is hoped that the book
in its new form will enjoy its ever increasing popularity. The author takes
this opportunity to thank the numerous readers in India and abroad for their
letters of Appreciation and fellow professors for their suggestions and
patronage of the book. In particular, he is grateful to Prof. Jeevargi
Phakirappa. V.N. Engg. College, Bell ary (Karj; Prof. P. Annapurna,
N.B.K.R. Ins!., of Technology'. Vidyanagar (A.P.); Dr. A.P. Burnwal, R.I.T.,
Koderma (Jh. Kh.); Prof, M. Vasudeva Reddy. Vaiehnavi Inst, of
Technology', Tarapalli (Tirupati); Dr. K.P, Ghadle, B.A.M, University,
Aurangabad f>5ah.>: Prof E.K. Yadov, Chauksev Engg. College, Bilaspur
(C.G.); Prof. D. Ravi Kumar, Vignan University, Guntur (A.P,); Dr. J.C
Prajapati. Charotara University of Sc. & Technology, Change CGuj.}; Prof.
Ramesb Chandra, S.R Technology Institute, Nalgonda (A.F.); Dr. Latikn
Bhandari, R.V.S, College of Engg. & Technology, Bhillai: Prof. R. Suras
wathi, Sri Padmavati Engg. College. Kavalli (A.P.) and Prof. Vikas Goyal,
J.M. Inst, of Technology. Radur i Haryana). Suggestions for improvement
of the text and intimation of misprints will be thankfully acknowledged.
Now Delhi B.S. GREWAJL
Contents Unit 1 : ALGEBRA, VECTORS AND GEOMETRY 1.
Solution of Equations . ,* J 3t Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices
*i**i 17 8. Vector Algebra and Solid 'Geometry *i* 76 Unit II :
CALCULUS 4. Differentia) Calculus & Its Applications 134 5. Partial
Differentiation & Its Applications m 6, Integral Calculus & Its Applications
-** 239 7. Multiple Integrals & Beta, Gamma Functions 2 74 a Vector
Calculus & Its Applications 315 Unit 111 : SERIES 8. Infinite Series 365
to. Fourier Series & Harmonic Analysis — 395 Unit IV : DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS 11. Differential Equations of First Order 426 | 12.
Applications of Differential Equations of First Order *“ 452 ia Linear
Differential Equations 471 14 Applications of Linear Differential Equations
p--* ■ 502 15. Di fferentia S Equa tiora of Other Types } Series Solution of
Differential Equations and Special Functions -a. 531 14 — 542 17. Partial
Differential Equations — 577 1& Applications of Partial Differential
Equations »p. 600 (i*> *
variom wniwrzt Note ; Tki* i tm und prufattitiunat bodies. The

abbreviatum# used fur sume of these vm given below : Agra stands for Dr
B.fL Ambcdfcar University, Agra Andhra m Andhra University, Waits lr
Anna " Anna University Chenfrai Blwtxii i* Rajiv Gandhi Technical
University, Bhopal Mitt * Biju Patna Ik Technical University, Rourkela
Coimbatore 1# Bharathlyar University, Coimbatore ■ CL &AT . Cochin
Universjty of Science and Technology, Kochi Of fkut * Calicut University,
Cochfn Hasunbafj M Vinoba Bhave University, brazaribag Hhiof Guru
Jambeshwar University, Hissar I.LT.E. . Gradoateship Examination of the
institute of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers {Indie) lit *
Degree Engineering Examination of Indian Institute of Technology LS.M m
Indian School of Mines, Qhanbad Hottoyam ■* Mahatma Gandhi
Memorial University, Kottayam Kunikxhetra * National Institute of
Technology, Kiiruksh&fcra Madurai » Madurai Kamaraj University,
Madurai Maratftwndti H BAM. University, Aurangabad Nagarjuna H
Acharya Naganuna University pm Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar
Hoipur " PL Ravi Shankar Shukfa University, Raipur R.T.URphtdk *
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota * Maharishi Dayan and University*
Ftobtak 1 Ptitei m Sardar Patel University, Valla bh Vldyanagar &VJM *
Swami Vivekansnd Technical University, Chhatisgarh Jirupotl •# Sri
Venkaleswara University, Tirupati Tifucturopait i m Sham! hidasan
University, Tiruchirapallt LLlttfc. w UP Technical University, Lucknow U-
K-TU *r Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradurt V.TM M
Visveswaraiah Technological University, Belgaum W&rangat N Warangaf
University of Technology W.BJM *■ West Bengal University of
Technology Kolfcata
Solution of Equations I 1 . Introduction. 2. Genera! properties, 3.
Transformation of equations. 4. Reciprocal equations 5. Solution of cubic
equalions-Cardan's method. 6. Solution of biquadratic equations—Ferrari’s
method ; Descarte’s method. 7. Graphical solution of equations. 8.
Objective Type Questions. 1.1 The expression fix) - a^xf1 II. + a ^-U... +
Vl* + an where a’s are constants (au * 0) and n is a positive integer, is
called a polynomial in x of degree n . The polynomial fix) = 0 is called an
algebraic equation of degree n. If /lx) contains some other functions such as
trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential etc. ; then fix) = 0 is called a
transcendental equation. The value ofx which satisfies fix) = 0, ,..(1) is
called its root. Geometrically, a root of (1) is that value ofx where the graph
of y = fix) crosses the x-axis. The process of finding the roots of an
equation is known as solution of that equation. This is a problem of basic
importance in applied mathematics. We often come across problems in
deflection of beams, electrical circuits and mechanical vibrations which
depend upon the solution of equations. As such, a brief account of solution
of' equations is given in this chapter. GENERAL PROPERTIES I. If a is a
root of the equation fix) = 0, then the polynomial fix) is exactly divisible by
x - d and conversely. For instance, 3 is a root of the equation x4 — - 8x — 3
= 0, because x - 3 satisfies this equation. x - 3 divides x* - for2 - Bx - 3
completely, (.«?, , x - 3 is its factor. II. Every equation of the nth degree has
n roots (real or imaginary), Conversely if «1, u.^ . ui( be the roots of the nth
degree equation fix) = 0, then fix) = A (x-ciÛ- a,) ... Cx - ii s) where A is a
constant. Ohs. If a polynomial nf degree n vanishes for more than n value
ofx. it must be identically zero. Example 1.1. Solve the equation 2x:i + x2 -
ISx + 6 = 0. Solution. By inspection, we find x = 2 satisfies the given
equation. 2 is its root, i.e. x - 2 is a factor of 2x3 + x2 - 13x + 6. Dividing
this polynomial by x - 2, we get the quotient 2x2 + 5x - 3 and remainder 0,
Equating the quotient to zero, we get 2rB + 5x - 3 = 0. Solving this
quadratic, we get x = -5±Vr52 -4 .(2}.{-3)] 2x2 5±7_ O 1 Hence, the roots
of the given equation are 2,-3, L/2. 1 ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
2 Higher Engineering Mathematics Note. The labour of dividing
the polynomial by x — 2 can be saved considerably by the following simple
device called synthetic division. 2 2 1-13 6 4 10 - 6 5 -3 I 0 2 lExp/cmurion
: li) Write down the coefficient of the powers of x in order {supplying the
missing powers ofje by zero co efficients and write 2 on extreme right. («)
Put 2 as the first term of 3rd row and multiply it by 2, write A under l and
add, giving 5. liit) Multiply 5 by 2, write 10 under - 1,1 and add, giving - 3.
(io) Multiply - 3 by 2, write - 6 under 6 and add given zero I . Thus the
quotient is 2x'2 + fix - 3 and remainder is zero. Ob*. To divide a polynomial
by .r + h, we write - h «n the extreme right. III. intermediate value property.
If fiu) and fib) have different signs, then the equation fix) - 0 has atleast one
root between x = a and x = 6, The polynomial fix} is a continuous function
of a- ( Fig. 1.1 >. So while x changes Ifom « to 6, fix ) must pass through all
the values from fia t to fib). But since one of these quantities fia) or fi b i is
positive and the other negative, it follows that at least for one value of x(say
ctl lying between a and b, fix) must be zero. Then tx is the required root. IV.
In an equation with real coefficients, imaginary roots occur in conjugate
pairs, i.e. , if a + i[i is a root of the equation fix) = 0, then a - i|3 must also
be its root. (See p. 534) Similarly if a + ^fb is an irrational root of an
equation, then a - Jb must also be its root. Ohs. hr cry equation of the odd
degree has at least one real root This follows from the fact that imaginary
roots occur in conjugate pairs. Kx ample 1.2. Soivv the equation Sir1 - 4*?
+ x + 88- 0, one root being 2 + \f7». Solution. Since one root is 2 + \'7 1, the
other root must be 2 — V7i. .■. The factors corresponding to these roots arc
(x - 2- V7i) and l.r - 2 + <7i) or (x- 2 - V7() (x - 2 + <7i) = (x- 2)2 + 7 = x2
- 4x + 11, which is a divisor of 3xa - 4x2 + x + 88 ...fi) Division of (t) by x2
- 4x + 11 gives 3x + 8 as the quotient. Thus the depressed equation is 3x +
8-0, Its root, is - 8/3. Hence the roots of the given equation are 2 ± v7f,-8/3.
V. Descarte’s rule of signs. *The equation f(x) = 0 cannot have more
positive roots than the changes of signs in f(x); and mare negative roots
than the changes of signs in ft—x). For instance, consider the eq nation fix)
= 2x7 -x5 + 4**— 5 = 0 .,.(1) Sign of fix) are + — + — vvv Clearly, fix)
has 3 changes of signs (from + to - or - to +). Thus (i) cannot have more
than 3 positive roots. * After the French mathematician and philosopher Re
ne Descartes C 1 596-1 350 \ who invented Analytic geometry in 1637
Solution of Equations 3 Also /t-x> = 2l-x}7-(-j:)5 + 4(-*)3-5 - -
2x7 + jc5 - 4^ - 5 vv This shows that f(x) has 2 changes of signs. Thus (i )
canned have more than 2 negative roots. Qbs* Existence of imaginary
roots* I fan equation of the nth degree has at the most p positive roots and
at the most q negative roots, then U follows that the equation has at least n -
(p + q) imaginary roots, Evidently ( !> above an equation of the 7th degree
and has at the must 3 positive roots and 2 negative roots. Thus ( \ ) has ot
least 2 imaginary roots, VI* Relations between roots and coefficien ts, //’
aJt ..,t o.n be the roots of the equation CLrfc*1 + c4 ” 1 + a^pc11'2 + **- +■
an r 4 x + an = 0 ..A 1) then Zaa = - — , let, 0^=^, £0^0^ = - — ao ao
ajCt^ctj, . «n = (- D" . «« Example 1.3. Solve the equation x3 - 7x* + 38 - 0,
given that one, root is double of another. Solution. Let the roots lie a, |i, y
such that p - 2«. Also a + p + y=7,a{i + J3iy + 7tx = 0, «py = - 36 3a + 7 = 7
2a2 + 3ay = 0 2a'4 - - 36 Solving (i ) and (ti), we get a = 3, y = ~ 2. [The
values a = 0, y = 7 are inadmissible, as they do not satisfy (iii)). Hence the
required roots are 3, 6 and — 2. ...Hi ) ...(iii) Example f .4. Solve the
equation x4 - Sx3 + fi2 + 6r-2f = 0, given that the sum of two of its roots is
zero. (Coiyfiin, 2005 ; Madras, 2003) Solution. Let the roots be a, £), y, 8
such that a + |i = 0. Also a + P + y+ 8 = 2 y + 6 ~ 2 Thus the quadratic
factor corresponding to «, p is of the form x* - 0.tr + p, and that
corresponding to y, 5 is of the form of x2 - 2x + q. x4-2x3 + 4x2 + 6z-21 =
(x* + p) (x2 -2x + q) ,M) Equating the coefficients of and x from both sides
of (i ), we get 4=p + q, 6 = -2p. p = — 3, q = 7. Hence the given equation is
equivalent to ( x 2 - 3} (x2 - 2x + 7) - 0 The roots arc x = ± JH , 1 ± i>/6 .
Example l„n. Find the condition that the cubic x3 - Lx 2 + mx - n - 0 should
have its roots in (a) arithmetical progression. f Madras, 2000 S) (£>}
geometrical progression. Solution, (ct) Let the roots be a - d, a, a + d so that
the sum of the roots = 3« = l i.e. , a = H'i. Since o is the rout of the given
equation a3 — ta 2 + ma - n = 0 ...
Higher Engineering Mathematics (6) Let the roots be air, a,
5 Solution of Equations PROBLEMS 1-1 1. Form the equation of

the fourth degree whose roots are 3 + i and (J| 2090 S) 2- Solve the equation
+ 6x + 20 = 0, one root being 1 + 3E (m)jt4 — Sr3 - {HSra + fiS&r - 15 =
0, given that 2+ >/3 irs roof, 3. Show that — 3b? 4 2x:} —1=0 has at least
four imaginary roots. [Cochin, ZOOS) 4. Show that. I he equation xA +
15x£ 4 7x - 11 = 0 hm one positive, one negative and iwa imaginary rout*
5. Find t he number a nd position of real roots ofx,( 4 4r3 - 4x - 13 = 0. <5.
Solve the equal, ion 3xs - ! lx* 4 Sx + 4 - 0, given (hat two of its roots ore
equal. 7* If r=| , r?, r3 are the routs of the equation 2r^ - 3x* + kx - 1 = 0P
find wmstanL * if sum or two roots is 1. iS.V.TU^ 2009) 8* The equation
x* - *ix3 4 &x* + 4,r + ft - 0 has two pairs of equal roots. Find the values of
a and h Sol re the following equations 9-14 : ih a*3 - &■* + 14x + 24 = 0,
given that two of its roots are in the ratio 3 : 2. 10- ar1 - 4a* - 2(h + 48 = U
given that the roots c 4 2/>:? = 0, {S. V' T.. I r . 200H) 16* Solve the
equations Cl) jr4 + 2jr*~ 2hv2- 22x + 40 ■ 0 whose roots are in A.P, iiilx4 +
5a 3 - 30a - + 4 Oat + S4 = 0 whose roots are in G.P. 1 7. If + m^lll ) = 0
This is same as multiplying the second term by m, third term by m2 and so
on in (t). Cor, To find an equation whose roots are with opposite signs to
those of the given equation, change tlu ’ signs of the every alternative term
of the given equation beginning with the xervnti. Changing the signs of the
roots of (t) is same as multiplying its roots by - 1. The required equation will
be 3*< + I- l)fi*3 + (- DUxt-l-lpRx+i- 1)‘ 11 = 0 or 3r4 -Sr3 + 4 r3 + fir +
11 * 0 which is (i)wilh signs of every alternate term changed beginning with
the second (2) To find an equation whose roots are reciprocal of the root of
the given equation, change x fo lix.
6 Higher Engines ring Mathematics Example I -9. Solve Sxr1 -
llxd - 3x + 2 = 0, given that its routs are in harmonic progression. Solution.
Since the roots of the given equation are in H P,, the roots of' the equation
having reciprocal roots will bo in A.P, The equation with reciprocal roots is
6( l/x)a - 1 l(l/x)B - 3( Vx) + 2 = 0 or 2x3 — 3x2 - llx + 6 = 0 .Mi Since the
roots of the given equation are in H.P., therefore, the roots of (i) are in A.P.
Let the root bo a - of, a, u + d. Then 3u = 3/2 and a(a2 -d'2) = - 3. Solving
these equations, we get a = 1/2, d ~ 5/2. Thus the roots of (£) are - 2, 1/2, 3.
Hence the required roots of the given equation are - 1/2, 2, 1/3. Example I .
Hi. If o, ft, ybe the roots of the cubic equation Xs - px2 + qx -r = Q, form
the equation whose mots are ft/ + / /«, + / / ft ttp + 1/y. Hence evaluate 2/otp
+ 1 fy) /py + If a). (S. V. T. U, , 2008) or or Solution, ff x is a root of the
given equation andv a root of the required equation, then y = ft-H/a=?*I±l =
!V±l W txpy = rj y = r + 1 a a r + 1 x X .V Thus substituting x = (r + \)fy in
the given equation, we got ry3-q(r + l).Va + p(r + iTy — (r + l)"1 = 0, which
is the required equation. Hence E (ap + l/y) (fty + 1/a) = p(r + 1 )Vr.
Example 1.11. Form art equation whose roots are cubes of the roots ofx 3 -
3x5 4-1=0. .M) Solution. If y be a root of the required equation, then y = x3
...(it) Now we have to eliminate* from (i) and (tr) Rewriting U) as x3 + 1 =
3x2 Cubing both sides, xa + 3x6 + 3x3 + 1 = 27xfi Substituting x3 = y, we
get y® - 24 v2 + 3y + 1 = 0, which is the required equation. (3) To diminish
the roots of an equation fix) = 0 by h, divide f (x) by x - h successively.
Then the successive remainders determine the coefficients of the required
equation. Let. the given equation be OoX" + a1x/,“ 1 + ... + an _ (x + = 0 ...
(£) Tn diminish its roots by ht puty = x - h (or x = y + A) in (i ) so that a0ly
+ AT + ctj(y + AT " 1 + ... + = 0 ...(«) On simplification, it takes the form
A0yn + Axyn~ 1 + ... + An = 0 ...{£«) Its coefficient An, At, ... An can
easily be found with the help of synthetic division (p. 2). For this, we put y -
x - h in (iii) so that A0 ( x — hT + A,(x - h )n - 1 + ... + An = 0 ...(to)
Clearly, (i) and (it?) are identical. If we divide L.H.S. of (iu)byx - h, the
remainder is Afl and the quotient Q =A0(x— A)n_l+A1(x-A)u_2 + ... +An r
Similarly, if we divide Q by x -h, the remainder isA„_ , and the quotient is
Q,(say). Again dividing Qj by x - h, An_ 0 will be obtained as remainder
and so on. Ob*- To increase the route by ftt we take h negative.
Solution of Equations: lii'\'ampk‘ LI 2- Transform the equation
xf* fix'* + Sx + 8 - 0 into another in which the Second tern; is m i&i nif.
Hence find the equation of its squn red differences. (Cock in , 2005 i
Solution. Sum of the* mots of the given equation = 6. In order that the
second term in the transformed equation is missing, the sum of the roots is
to be zero. Since the equation has 3 roots, if we decrease each root by 2, the
sum of the roots of the new equation will become zero. Dividing x3 - 6x2 +
5.v + 8 by x - 2 successively, we have or Thus the transformed equation is
x3 - 7x + 2 = 0, If a, (3, y bo the roots of the gi ven equation, then the roots
of (i) are a - 2. (J - 2, y — 2. Let these roots be denoted by a, h, c. Then b - c
- (3 - y. Also a + b + c = 0, abr - - 2. Now (6 - cl2 = (6 + c)E - 26c = (a + 6 +
c — a)2 - — — - a2 + 4/a a The equation of squared differences of (i) is
given by the transformation y - x2 + 4lx x3 - xy +■ 4 = 0 Subtracting (it)
from (t), we get — 7x + xy - 2 = 0 or x = 2 !{y - 7) Substituting forx in (t),
the equation becomes l2/(y - 7>|3 - 7[2/(y - 71) + 2 = 0 or y3 - 28.v3 + 245y
- 682 = 0 Roots of this equation are (6 - c)2, (r -a)a, (n - 6)2 i.e., (p - y)2, (y-
a)a, (a - p)2. Hence (Hi) is the required equation. ,„(i) ...(iri) 1.4
RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS If an equation remains unaltered on changing
x to I lx, it is called a reciprocal equation. Such equations are of the
following standard types : 1 . A reciprocal equation of an odd degree having
coefficients of terms equidistant from the beginning and end equal. It has a
root = - 1. IL A reciprocal equation of an odd degree having coefficients of
terms equidistant from the beginning and end equal but opposite in sign. It
has root - 1. III. A reciprocal equation of an even degree having coefficients
of terms equidistant from the beginning and end equal but opposite in sign.
Such an equation has two roots = I and - 1. The substitution x + 1/x =y
reduces the degree of the equation of half its former degree. Example 1.13.
Solve fix* 1 * III.’ - 4 lx4 + 97%? - 97x s + 4 lx -5-0. {Coimbatore, 2001 Si
Solution. This is a reciprocal equation of odd degree with opposite signs. x
= 1 is a root. Dividing L.H.S, byx - 1. the given equation reduces to 6x4 -
35x3 + 62x~ - 3Gx + 6 = 0 Dividing by x2, we have 6(x2 + 1/x2) - 35(x +
1/x) + 62 = 0 Putting x + 1/x = y and x2 + 1/x2 = y2 - 2, we get 6(y2 - 2) -
35y + 62 = 0 or 6y2 - 35y + 50 = 0 nr (3.v - lX2y - 5) = 0 x + 1/x = y = 1/3
or 5/2
9 Higher Engineering Mathematics Le„ 3xa-10x + 3 = 0 or 2xa-
5x + 2 = 0 i.e„ {3jc-1)(i-3)-0 or (2x-lK*-2)=0 x = l/3,3 or 1/2,2 Hence the
required roots are 1, 1/3, 3. 1/2, 2. Exam pi* 1. 1 4. $oiw 6xM - 25^ +31x4
- 3 lx2 + 25x -6 = 0. (Madras, 2003 ) or i.e.. Solution. This is a reciprocal
equation of even degree with opposite signs. Dividing L.H.S, by x - 1 and x
+ 1, the given equation reduces to 6x4 - 25*3 + 37x2 - 25x + 6 = 0 Dividing
by x2, we get 60: 2 + Vx2) - 25(x + Vx) + 37 = 0. Putting x + 1/r = y and x2
+ Vx2 = y2 - 2, it becomes 6(v2 - 2) - 25y + 37 = 0 or 6y2 - 25r + 25 = 0
(2y - 5) (3 y - 5) = 0 x + 1/x - y - 5/2 or 5/3. 2x2 - 5x + 2 = 0 or 3x2 - 5x + 3
= 0 x = 2, 1/2 or 5±iVn 6 Hence the required root* of the given equat ion
are lf - ls 2, 1/2* 5 ± ix/ll 6 x - 1, - 1 are its roots. PROBLEMS 1.2 !. Find
the equation whose roots are 3 times the ronts of xa + 2x'- 4x + 1 = 0. 2.
Form the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots pf2x* + 4xa -
I3x-' + 7x- 6 = 0. (S.VT.U., 2009\ 3, Find the equation whose roots are the
negative reciprocals of the roots of x*+ 7x3 + 8x2-$* + 10= 0. 1. Solve the
equation dr3 - 1 lie2 — 31+2 = 0, given that its roots are in H P. a Find the
equation whose roots are the root* of (i) xa - 6x2 + 1 lx — 6 = 0 each i no-
eased by 1. (S, V. T. U„ 2009 } (ti) x4 + x3 - 3x2 - r + 2 = 0 each
diminished by 3. (iii) xs - 5** + 10rJ - 10xa + 5* + 6 = 0 each diminished
by 1. fi. Find the equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of f3 - xa
+ fix - 6 = 0 7. Find the equation whose roots are the rubes of the roots of
x3 + /i.n2 + q - 0. 8. If a, p, y are the roots of the equation 2rri + 3x ' - x
-1=0, form the equation whose roots are > 1 - om *, H - p) 4 and
SOLUTION of- Equations 9 SOLUTION OF CUBIC
EQUATIONS-CAR DAN'S METHOD* Consider the equation cur3 4 bx* 4
cx 4 d = 0 ...{!) Dividing by a, we get ail equation of the form jr3 + ix2 +
mx + n = 0. To remove the x2 term, put y = x - 1/3 ) or x = y - U 3 so that
the resulting equation is of the form ,Y3 + py + q = 0 ,..(2) To solve (2), put
y = u + u so that y3 = u3 4 v3 + 3uv iu + u) = u3 + «3 + 3uvy or ya - 3uvy -
= 0 ...(3) Comparing (2) and (3), we get uv - - pi 3* u3 + y3 = - q or u3 4 o3
= - q and u3 o3 = p3/ 27 k3, e3 are the roots of the eq uation t2 + qt - p3/27
- 0 which gives and u3 = -(- q + yjq2 + 4p3/27) = X3 (say) u3 = Q ~ i/q2 +
4p3/27) U The three values of u are X, Xoi, kai2, where co is one of the
imaginary' cube roots of unity. From uv = - p/3, we have v = - p/3u When u
-X. Xvi and Atu2, a„d-£2. tv rf-ii 3X 3». 3\ P p(£> pto Hence the three roots
of (2) are X — — , tao - ~ , Xcsr - -zr3A oA 3A Having known y, the
corresponding values of x can be found from the relation x = y - 1/3. (Being
= u + v) Obs. 1. Ifone value of u is found to he a rational number, find the
corresponding value of r givingone rooty = u + r. Then find the
corresponding root x - « Isay). Finally, divide the left hand side of (1) byx-
a. giving the remaining quadratic equation from which the other two roots
can tie found readily. Obs. 2. If u3 and 0'd turn out to be conjugate complex
numbers, tire roots of the given cubic can be obtained in neat forms by
employing he Moivre’s theorem. (§ 19.5) Example 1.15. Solve by Cardan's
method xv - 3x? + 12x + 16 = 0. Of.P.TU., 2008 ) or or Solution. Given
equation is jit3 — 3x2 4 12r 4 16 = 0 „.(i) To remove the second term from
(i), diminish each root of fr) by 3/3 = 1 , r\e. , puty = j£ -1 or 3e=y + l Sum
of roots = 3]. Then (r) becomes (y + l)a - 3(y 4 1) + I2(y 4 1) 4 16 = 0 or y3
4 9y2 4 26 = 0 ...(«> To solve (t*)t put y = u + v so that y3 - 3uvy - (u3 4
t>3) - 0 ...(m ) Comparing (») and (m), we get uo = - 3 and u3 + vs = - 26
u3y t>3 are the roots of the equation t2 + 26/ — 27 = 0 (f 4 271 (t - 1) = 0
whence t = - 27, 1=1. u3 = - 27 i.e. , u = — 3 and o3 = 1 i.e. , u = 1 y = u4P
= -3+l=-2 and x =y 4 1 = — 1 Dividing L.H.S. of (i) by x + 1, we obtain x2
— 4x 4 1 fi = 0 or = 4±#6T64)=2±.2^ Hence the required roots of the given
equation are - 1, 2 ± i 2\f%. * Named after an Italian mathematician
Girolamo Cardan i 1501-1676) who was the first Lo use complex number
as roots of an equation.
10 HtGHEft EHGlN££nMG MATHEMATICS Example 1,1 2 = 0
or (/ + 343 V2 = 0 / = — 343 t.e., o3 = u3 = - 343 or u = v = - 7, Thus y - u
+ v — - 14 and % - y - 1 = — 15. Dividing L.H.S. of O') by x + 15. we get
(x - 6)2 = 0 or x — 6, 6. The root of (i) are - 15, 6, 6. Hence the roots of the
given equation are - 5, 2, 2. Example 1.18* Solve x 3 - jfcr2 + 3 = ft
(S.V.T.U., 2000) Solution. Given equation is Xs - 3x2 + 3 = 0 To remove
the x2 term, put y = x - 3/3 or x - y + 1, so that
Solution of Equations u = cos (6+2uJt^ . . f0 + 2injr') 1 3 J+l8m[_
3~ J Giving n the value 0, t, 2 successively we get the three values of u to
bo 8 . . 8 8 + 2ti , . 8 + 2it 8 + An . . 8 + 4tt cos - + t s»n - , cos - + t sin - ,
cos - + i am 3 3 3 3 3 3 2lt . . 2n fix . * fix 14 n . . 1471 i.e., cos — + t sin
— , cos — + t stn — , cos - + t sin — , 9 9 9 9 9 9 The corresponding
values of v are 2n . . 2jt fix .. fix 14ji . . 14x cos — t Kin — , cos — — i sin
— , cos - — i sin - . 9 9 9 9 9 9 The three values of y = u + v are 2 cos 2n/9,
2 cos fix/9, 2 eos 14ji/9. Hence the roots of (t ) are found from x = 1 + y to
be 1 + 2 cos 2n/9, 1+2 cos 8n/9, 1 + 2 cos 14n/9. PROBLEMS 1,3 Solve the
following equations by Cardan’s method : 1. X3 - 'll x + 54 = 0. {U.P.T.U.,
2003) ± x* I8x + 35 = 0 3* Xs ~ 1'jS'jf - 126 (S. V.T. U„ 2009) 4, 2x3 + 6x2
+ r - 2 = 0 & a*3 + fir3 - 1 - 0 {S. V.T.U., 2008 ) 8. x* - 6» 3 < &x - 5 = 0 7.
Xs - 3x + l = 0 8. 27X3 + 54xs + 19ftr-73 =0 11 {Osman in, 2003) tUP.T.U..
2003 i WWM SOLUTION OF BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS tl) Ferrari’s
method This method of solving a biquadratic equation is illustrated by the
following examples : Example 1.19. Solve the equation x 1 - l&x* + 4 lx3 -
ISx -72 = 0 by Ferrari’* method. (S. V, T, U., 200 7) Solution. Combining
x4 and x2 terms into a perfect square, the given equation can be written as
(x2 - 6x + X)2 + [5 - 2l)x2 + (I2X - lS)x - l\2 + 72) - 0 or fx2-6x + X)2= |
<2X-5hJi + n8-12X)x + (X2 + 72>| ...ft) This equation can he factorised if
R.H.R. is a perfect square Le., if R>2 = 4ac] i.e., if 2X3 - 4 lA2 + 2 52 A. -
441 = 0 which gives X = 3. A (i) reduces to (xa fix + 3)E - (x 9 f i.e., (x2 -
5x - 6) (xE — 7x + 12) - 0. Hence the roots of the given equation arc - 1. 3,
4 and 6. Fx ample 1.20. Seine the equation X* - 2x3 5xs + 10 X - 3 -0 by
Ferrari’* mat hod. Solution. Combining x* and x3 terms into a perfect
square, the given equation can be written as (x2 - x + X)2 = (2X + 6) x2 -
(2X + 10) x + (X2 + 3). This equation can be factorised, if R.H.S. is a
perfect square i.e. , if (2X + 10)2 - 4(2X + 6) (X2 + 3) f&2 = 4ae| or 2X3 +
5X2 - 4X - 7 - 0, which gives X — - 1. (t) reduces to (x2 - x - l)2 = 4x2 - fix
+ 4 or (x2-x- l)2-(2x -2>2 = 0 or fx2 + x - 3) (x2 - 3x + 1) = 0 x Hence the
roots are -1± Jl7l2 nr -l±v/l3 3±S 3±^9^4 2 2 2 ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
12 Higher Engineering Mathematics (2) Desc arte's me th od This
method of solving a biquadratic equations consists in removing the term in
x3 and then expressing the new equation as product of two quadratics. It
has been best illustrated by the following examples : Example 1 .21. Solve
the equation x* - &r -- 24x + 7 = 0 by Descarte’s method. Solution. In the
given equation, the term in x3 is already absent so wc assume that x 4 - 8x2
- 24x + 7 = (x2 + px + q) (x2 - px + q') Equating coefficients of the like
powers ofx in (i), we get -8 = q + qf -pz, “ 24 = p{q' -q) ; 7 = qq’ q + q = pl
- 8, q - q‘ - 24 /p ip2 - 8)2 - (24/p)2 = 4x7 p 2 - lSp4 + 36p2 - 576 = 0 or t 3
— I6f2 + 36/ - 576 - 0 where t - pNow / = 16 satisfies this cuhic so thatp =
4. q + q' = 8, q — q’ = 6 q = 7, qr - 1 Thus (i) takes the form (x2 + 4x + 7)
{x2 — 4x + 1 ) = 0 whence x = - 4 + J(16 - 28) or x = 4 ± Jog - 4) 2 Hence
x = - 2 ± V3i, 2 ± V3. (U.P.TM., 2001) Ui) Example 1 .22. So/oe the
equation x? - Ox3 - :ix* + 22x -6 = 0 by Descarte’tt method. Solution. Here
sum of roots — 6 and number of roots = 4 To remove the second term, wc
have to diminish the roots by 6/4 (= 3/2) which will be a problem.
Therefore! we first multiply the roots by 2. /. y4 - 12y:* + 12y2 + 176y - 96
= 0 where y - 2x. Now diminishing the roots by 3, we obtain zA — 4 2z2 +
32? + 297 = 0 where z = y — 3. Assuming that z* — 42 z1 + 32? + 297 =
(z2 + pz + q) {z2 - pz + q') ,..(/) and comparing coefficients, we get - 42 = q
+ q‘ - p2 ; 32 = p ( q ' - q) ; 297 =q q' q + q' = p2 — 42 ; q — q' = - 32/p, q q
* = 297 (p2 - 42)2 - {- 32 tp )= = 4 x 297 or /s - 84 t2 + 576/ - 1024 - 0
where t = p2 Now t = 4 satisfies this cubic so that p = 2. nr q + q’ - - 38, q
— q' = - 16, ,v q - - 27, q = — 11. Thus (i) takes the form (z2 + 2z — 27)
(z2 — 2s - 1 1) = 0 Whence Hence - 2 ± Jt4 + 108) 2 ± J{4 + 44) 2 2 x = | y
= \ + 3) = I (2 ± 728 ) = 1 (4 ± Jl2 ) X - 1 ± J7 . 2 ± \f3 . PROBLEMS 1.4
Solve by Ferrari 'b method, the equations ; l. x*- Iflfcr* + 35x* - 50x + 24 -
0 ( HP. T. V., 2003 ) 2. ** + Zra - 7*2 - 8* + 12 = 0 3. x* - lOx2 - 2J0x - 16
= 0 L x*-&x3- 12xe+ 60* + 63 = 0 Solve the following equations by
f'escartes method . G. jr* - 6*3 + 3xz + 22x - 6 = 0 7. x* ■■ hx11 - 24* + 7
= 0 (tlP.T. V 200 /t 8, . 1 - 1 0*4 + 44*a - 104a + y« 0 L I i 2002) i U.P.T.
U.t 2005) t We have obisiincd dlgebi&ic of cubic u r id biquadratic
equaUDiis. But Lhi? need often Ui solve higher or tranacendentai equations
for which rto algebraic methods arc avaifehle in genera]. Such equations
cun be best solved by graphical method (explained beJow) or by numerical
method* (J2S.2}
Solid ids Of Equations IW GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF
EQUATIONS _ _ Lot the equation be /lx) = 0. (i) Find the interval (a, b) in
which a root nf f(x) = 0 lies. [At least one root affix) = 0 lies in (a, b) if/Ta)
and/T6) are of opposite signs — $1.2(111) p. 2). fr> > Write the equation
fix) - 0 as t>lx) = y(x) where y(x) contains only terms in x and the
constants. (iii) Draw the graphs of y - and y - y(x) on the. same scale and
with respect to the same uxes. iiv ) Read the abscissae of the points of
intersection of the curves y = (x) andy = lyfx), These are requ ired real roots
of fix) - 0. Sometimes it may not be convenient to write the given equation
fix) = 0 in the form = e + 2-3 = 2.718-1 = + ve .■. A root of (i ), lies
between x = 1 and x = 2. Let us rewrite (i) as e* ~ 1 = 3 - x. The abscissa of
the point of intersection of the curves y = e* ” 1 ...fit) and y = 3 - x will give
the required root. To plot (til, we form the following table of values : Xy -
e*_1 1.1 1.11 1.2 1.22 1.3 1.35 14 1.49 1.6 1,66 1.8 1.82 1.7 201 t.8 2.23
1.9 2.46 2.0 2,72 Taking the origin at(l, l)and 1 small unit along either axis -
0-02, we plot these points and pass a smooth curve through them as shown
in Pig. 1 .2. Ui) fig. 1.2
14 High£h Engineering Mathematics To draw the line (Hi), we
join the points (J, 2) and (2, 1) on the same scale and with the same axes.
From the figure, we get the required root to be x - 1.44 nearly. Example 1
,24. Obtain graphically an approximate value of the root of x = s in i + n 12.
Solut ion. Let us write the given equation as sin x - x - ji/2 The abscissa of
the point of intersection of the curve y = sin x and the line y = je - x/2 will
give a rough estimate of the root. To draw a curve y = sin ,v, we form the
following table : -*-■ 0 x/4 3JI/4 X y 0 0.71 1 0,7t 0 Taking 1 unit along
either axis - te/4 = 0.8 nearly, we plot the curve as shown in Fig. 1,3. Also
we draw the line y - x ~ tl/2 to the same scale and with the same axis. From
the graph, we get x - 2.3 radians approximately. F*g. 1.3 Example 1 -25.
Obtain graphically the lowest, root of cos jc cosh x = - /, Solution. Let fix) -
cos x cosh x + 1 = 0 ,„.(£) v /t0) = + ve, /( n/2) = + ve and /(tt) = — ve. .'.
The lowest root of (i) lies between x . ir/2 and x = jt. Let us write (i) as cos
x - - stch x. The abscissa of the point of intersection of the curves y - cos x
...(£/) and y ~~ seel"1 * ...(«*) will give the required root. To draw (it), we
form the following table of values : X m= is? Art 4 = 2.35 IT = 3.14 y = cm
x 0 -0.71 - I Taking the origin at (1.57. 0) and 1 unit along either axes = rc/8
- 11.4 nearly, we plot the cosine curve as shown in Fig. 1.4. r Fig. 1.4 To
draw (Hi), we form the following tahle : X 1.67 2.36 3.14 2.58 5.66 UL.12
y = — seth x - 0.39 - 0.18 - 0.09
Solution op EouAfrONS Then we plot the curve Uii) to the same
scale wjlh the same axes. From the figure we get the lowest root to be
approximately x - 1.57 + 0.29 = 1.8G. 15 Solve the following equations
graphically : 1. jc3 — * — I 0 {Madras* 3000 S) 2. ^-ftrs+9r-3 -0. 5, x - 3
cos (Jr PROBLEMS 1.5 2- jr’-ax-SÔ 4, tan x = 1J2 x fi* e* = 5a which is
near x = 0.2. 1.8 OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS PROBLEMS 1.6
Choose the correct answer or fill up the blanks in the following problems :
5. If for the equation X3 —3** + hx + 3 = 0, one root is the negative of
another, then the value of k is (a) 3 (A) -3 (c)l (d)-l. 2. If the roots of the
equation x" -1=0 are 1, a,. a;, a. _ t, then (1 - Kj) [ 1 - ) l (c) n id) h + 1. ll'a,
fS. y are tlie roots of 2x3 - 3xs + fix + 1 =0. then a* + 32 + "f is (a) 15/4 (h)
- 3 tr) - 15/4 If/) 33/4, A. X + 2 is a factor of (a) xA + 2 (b) x4 - x2 + 12 (c)
x* - 23T1 - x + 2 id) x4 + 2x3 -x - 2 I C« + p + y = 0 ; otJJ + py + ya = 7 ;
affy = 3. then the aquation whose roots are a, fi anti y is la)*3 -7=0 (6) x3
— 7jc2 + 3 = 0 =x : + afi s x" -1 + . . , + a r* + tiu — 0 where cr^, a ... _ j
are real, is given to he 2 - 3i , Of the remaining! the next n - 2 roots are
given to be i, 2, 3, n - 2 > The nth root is {a) n (6) n - 1 tc) 2 + 3 i (d) - 2 + 3
L 12. If a real root uf.flx) = t>1ie£ in [av6|» then the sign o its „„„ 13i
Descartes rule of signs states that . 14. If a. JS, y are the roots of the
equation x 3 - px + q j= 0, then Z l/u! = . 15. if a, |i, yare the roots ofx3 - 7,
then la3 iu 16. One real root of the equation *:i + 2x2 + 5 = 0 lie* between .
*
16 Higher Engineering Mathematics 17, 1 n an equation with real

coefficients, tm aginary root-a must occu r i n . IK, I f /* a, - 2) 29. If two
roots of_tJ - 3x2 +2 = 0 are equal* then its roots are _ 30. The cubic
equation whose two roots are 5 and 1 -iia ...... 31* The sum und product of
the rents of the equation = 2 are - and .... 32. I f the roots of the equation a4
+ it3 - or2 — 22r + 40 = 0 are - 5, - 2r 1 and 4t then a - . 33. A rout of*3 -
3x* + 2.5 - 0 lies between 1 A and 1.2. I True or Fa Ism) I • ( ' Sjl " ' . ‘ *
3*1. The equation -x5 - 10x + 7-0 has four imaginary roots. Trur* or FaJsej
Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices i 1, Introduction, 2.
Determinants, Cofactors. Laplace's expansion. 3, Properties of
determinants. 4. Matrices, i I Special matrices. 6. Matrix operations. 6.
Related matrices. 7. Rank of a mairix. Elementary transformations, ,
Elementary matrices, Inverse from elementary matrices, Normal form of a
matrix. 8. Partition method. 6. Solution . of linear system of equations. 10.
Consistency of linear system of equations. 11, Linear and orthogonal ! 1
transformations. 12, Vectors ; Linear dependence, 13. Eigen values and
eigen vectors. 14, Properties of eigen [ I values. 15. Cayley* Hamilton
theorem. 18, Reduction to diagonal form, 17, Reduction of quadratic form
to I I canonical form. 18, Nature Of quadratic form. 19. Complex matrices.
20. Objective Types of Questions. i _ _ _ . _ _ , _ „ _ _ _ i PI
INTRODUCTION _ _ _ Linear algebra comprises of the theory and
applications of linear system of equation, linear transformations and eigen
value problems. In linear algebra, we make a systematic use of matrices and
to a lesser extent determinants and their properties. Determinants were first
introduced for solving Linear systems and have important engineering
applications in systems of differential equations, electrical networks, eigen
value problems and so on. Many complicated expressions occurring in
electrical and mechanical systems can be elegently sim plified by
expressing them in the form of determinants, Cayley* discovered matrices
in the year 1860, But it was not until the twentieth century was
welladvanced that engineers heard of them. These days, however, matrices
have been found to be of great utility in many branches of applied
mathematics such as algebraic and differential equations, mechanics theory
of electrical circuits, nuclear physics, aerodynamics and astronomy. With
the advent of computers, the usage of matrix methods has been greatly
facilitated. 2,2 DETERMINANTS 1 1 } Definition, The expression |*. It
contains 4 numbers av 6JP a,lt b,t (called elements) which are arranged
along two horizontal lines (called iolus ! and two vertical lines (called
columns ). Similarly, «t h ci U2 ^2 C,2 is called a determinant of the third
order, It consists of 9 elements which art arranged in 3 rows and 3 columns.
* Arthur Cayley ( 1821-1895 ) was a professor at Cambridge and ia known
lor hh important contributions to algebra, matrices and differential
equations 17
18 Higher Engineering Mathematics In general* a determinant of
the nth order is denoted by A u. t*2 ^2 cig,.Ta "^d which is a block of n2
elements arranged in the form of a square along n-rou>s and n-columns.
The diagonal through the left hand top corner which contains the elements «
t, b2, c3, ... ln is called the leading or principal diagonal, (2) Cofactors The
cofactor of any element in a determinant is obtained by deleting the row and
column which intersect in that element with the proper sign. The sign of an
element in the ith row and jth column is {- 1)' +J. The cofactor of an
element is usually denoted hy the corresponding capital letter, h &l cl For
instance, in A = the cofactor ol'6a i.e., B3 = (- l)3 + a “l <3 and C„= — A °2
c2 4 ti3 kj °2 ^ c2 (3) Laplace’s expansion.* A determinant can be expanded
in terms of any row (or column) as follows : Multiply each element of the
row (or column) in terms of which we intend expanding the determinant, by
its cofactor and then add up all these terms. Expanding by i?1 U.e. , 1st
row), A = G] Aj + + c^Cx - Cj h-2 c% i “ 2 C2 a2 hg ^ a ca -th Wj % + A “3
^3 = (Vs “ bzc'j “ b M'/s - aSC2> + ‘l
Unear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices 19 Example 2.2. Find the
out ue of A = 0 12 3 10 3 0 2 3 0 1 3 0 12 Solution, Since there are two
zeros in the second row, therefore, expanding by R.z, we get 12 3 0 13 3 0 1
+ 0-3 2 3 1 0 12 3 0 2 (Expand by Cj) (Expand by ffj) = - [1(0 x 2 - 1 x
l)-3(2 x 2 - 1 x 3) + 0J - 3[0 - (2 x 2 - 3 x 1) + 3(2 x 0 - 3 x 3)J = _ 3) -
câ2b3 - c,fbg) + bxiaf 3 - a^2) ~ ~ [O jlbgCg — ^gCj,) ~ bjtO^Cg ~ CgCj)
+ C|{fXj6a ~ Qrf>,,)\ ~ — A. Cor. If a line of & be passed over two parallel
lines, i.e., if the resulting determinant is like A' h c% °2 then A' = {— l)51
A. ^3 c3 °3 In geneixd, if any line of a determinant be passed over m
parallel lines, the resulting determinant A' = (- l)"r A. III. A determinant
vanishes if tuto parallel lines are identical. Consider a determinant A in
which two parallel lines are identical.
Hiqh eh Engineering Mathematics Interchange of the identical
lines leaves the determinant unaltered yet by the previous property, the
interchanges of two parallel lines changes the sign of the determinant.
Hence A = A' = - A or 2A = Gt or A = 0, IV. If each element of a line, be
multi filled by the same /actor, the whole determinant is multiplied by that
factor. t.e.t tti pb, Ca «1 *1 C1 «2 p£*j c2 = P a% b2 c2 “a Pkj L-s °3 ^3 L'a
L. H,S. - - pb — a^} + ,c3 - OgCj) - pb2{alc2 - a^} - pi- 6,i?1 +■ b *8, -
b,^] = E.H.S. For on expanding by Cg, Similarly, Cor. If two parallel tines
be such that the elements of one are equi- multiples of the elements of the
other, the determinant vanishes. i.e., ai &i P1 “1 *1 CI kax kb2 kc^ = k “2
r2 Os ^5 “a «i *1 Pb 1 2 Cy + da — 63 — e3 end of whose third column
elements consists qf three terms. Expanding A by C3, we have A = (fj + dj -
«?j) (a2b3 - a^>2) (cg + dg - t*2) (ajb3 - Ogbj) + (c3 + d3 * e3) (a ,6, -
aa*1) = [Cj(a263 - a3b2) - t'glct^g - a Jiff + e3(a,b2 - a2bj)J + [dt(
LmEAn Algebra : Determinants, Matrices 21 I Passing C3 over
C2 and Ct in the second determinant! 1 a a2 i a a2 1 b b 2 ( abc — 1) = 0,
Hence abc = IT since i b b2 1 c c2 i c cs / G as a, b, c are all different. VI. If
to each elemen ts of a line be added equi multiples of the corresponding
elements of one nr more parallel lines, the determinants remains unaltered.
Let Then A — A' = a, 6j ct CXuj ^ ^ **3 ^3 C3 ai + pbi ~ 9ci 0-2 + Ph ~
<7<2 -31 — 8 -12 0 6 - 2 0 — 4 -6 0 5 7 1 [Expand by C,| = " - S 6 -4 -12
-2 -2 l -6 -1 = 0 [v Rl = ‘2Ri] x + 2 2x + 3 3x + 4 Example 2.3. Salve the
equation 2x + 3 3x + 4 4x + 5 3x + 5 Gx + 8 lOx+17 = 0. Solution.
Operating /?3 - (/?, + we get, x + 2 2x + 3 3x + 4 2jc + 3 3* + 4 4x + 5 0 1
3jc + 8 = 0 (Operate R2 - Rx and /?j + /?,,} or x+ 2 x-t- 1 0 2x+ 4 * + l 1 6*
+ 12 * + 1 3.t + 8 = 0 or (sc + 1) (* + 2) 2 1 1 e 1 3x + B = 0 To bring one
more zero in Cit operate R , - R2.
22 ■Higher Engineering Mathematics lx + 1) (a: + 2) 0 1 5 11 1 0
1 3* + 8 = 0 Now expand by Cr - (r + 1 ) (x + 2) (3r + 8 - 5} - 0 or - SO* +
1) {ar + 2) lx + 1) = 0 Thus, x = — 1, - 1, - 2. / + a 2 1 I 1 1 + b 1 J = abed (
I + - + - + - + 4)* 1 I 1 + c 1 V a b c aJ 1 1 1 1 + d I^xampli' 2.. Prove that
Solution. Let A he the given determinant. Taking a, h, c, d common from Rv
R2. R3, Rt respectively, we get A - abed a 1 + 1 -i a a b~ 1 + 1 b~x c~' c~x
+ 1 ■ -l j-L d~l d~l + 1 = abed (1 + a-1 + 6_1 + c_1 + d~v) [Operate /?1 +
(Rg +■ /?3 + R+) and take out the common factor from Jfjl 1111 i_1 if1 + 1
b'1 ft"1 -i c~l + 1 tT1 d~l + 1 = abed. fl+— +-r + — + -jl V abed* 1 0 0 0 bl
10 0 cl 0 1 0 dr1 o o i [Operate C2 - C1, C3 - C]t C4 = abcd (1 + “ + £ + f +
^) Oh*. If all elements on one eide of the leading diagonal are zero, then the
determinant is equal to the product of leading diagonal elements and such a
determinants is called a triangular determinant. VII. Factor Theorem, if the
elements of a determinant A are functions of x and two parallel lines
become identical when x = a, then x - a is a factor of A Let A = fix) Since A
- 0 when x - a, fla) - 0. Le., lx ~a) Ls a factor of fix)Hence x - a is a factor
of A. UIm, If k parallel lines of a determinant A become identical when x
=> a, then (x - 1 is n factor of A. Example 2.7. Factorize A = a2 a 1 b2 h 1 c
2 c 1 d£ d 1 Solution. Putting a = b, Ry = R2 and hence A = 0. a - b is a
factor of A. Similarly, a - a and a -d are also factors of A. Again putting b =
c, R2 = and hence A = 0. b - c is a factor of A. Similarly b -d and c — d are
also factors of A. Also A is of the sixth degree in a, b, c. d and therefore,
there cannot be any other algebraic factor of A. Suppose A = k{a — b) la —
c) (a -
Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices 23 Example 2S. Proue
that (b + cf b 2 a* (c + a)2 a* b3 = 2abc (a + b ± cf. (J.N.T.U., 1998) cs c2
(a + bf Solution, ket the given determinant be A. If we put a = 0, A = ( b +
cf 0 2 0 0 c2 b2 f b2 = 0 a is a factor of A. Similarly b and c are its factors.
Again if we put ti + b + c = 0, A (- af (-bf 2 (-cf = 0 In this, three columns
being identical, f a + b + c)* is a factor of A. As A is of the sixth degree and
is symmetrical in a, b, c the remaining factor must therefore, be of the first
degree and of the form k (o + 6 + c). Thus A = ka be (a + b + c)a To
determine k, put a = b = c = 1, then 4 11 1 4 1 =27* or 54 = 27k Le.,k = 2 1
1 4 Hence A = 2a6c (a + b + c)3. Otherwise : Operating Cj - C3 and C.2 -
C3, we have A = (6 + c)2 - a2 0 a2 0 (c + a)2 - fe2 62 c2 ~ (a + bf c2~(a +
bf {a + bf = (a + 6 + c)2 = (a + b + cf = (a + 6 + e)2 b + c - a 0 a 0 c + a. - b
h2 c-a-b c-a-b {a+bf 2 b + c — a 0 0 c + a - b - 2b - 2a a h2 2 ah [Take (a +
b + c) common from Ct and C2J [Operate R3 - /?, - fl2l Operate Cj 4 , Cg t
— a b b + c a2 lb 2t 0 b2/a c + a 0 a 2 ah [Expand by RJ - 2 ab{a + b + cf
[(6 + c) (c + a) — aft] = 2u.be (it + b + c)3. VIII. Multiplication of
Determinants. The product of two determinants of the same order is itself a
determinant of that order. a, h c\ k "*1 ni Let *i = “2 h ^3^3 + ^3^*3 + ^3^3
Similarly, the product of two determinants of the nth order is a determinant
of the nth order.
24 Higher D^gineriung Mathematics Example 2.9. Evaluate as +
X" ab - cX ea + bX ob + eX ett - ftX b 2 + X2 be + aX X - c b c X - a b a X
be - aX c + X Solution. By the rule of multiplication of determinants, the
resulting determinant A = where r/] , = («2 + Xs) X + ( ab + r XX’ + fra -
bX) (- h) = X(o2 + h2 + r2 4- X2) d.7 = (a2 + X2K- c) + (ah + rX)X + (ra -
hX)a = 0 du = 0, rf,, t/12 ^13 d 21 rf22 ^2S ^31 ^32 ^33 d 21 = 0, = X(u2 4-
bz + r2 + X2), d.^ - 0. d51 = 0, d „ = 0. = X(o2 + A2 + c2 + X2). X(o‘ + b2
+ c2 + X2) Hence A = 0 0 X(a" 0 + 62 + c2 + X2) 0 X(a" + 0 0 + c2 + X2)
= X3(n2 + bz + r : A X2)3. Example 2*10. Show that 2 3 respectively in the
determinant «; ¥ % /x, ®jr 4 wAene A, ii etc. are the co factors of a, b, etc.
Solution. Let A *1 CJ A * b.2 c2 and A' =
AlGEBRA I DETERMINANTS., MATRICES 25 PROBLEMS

2.1 1. Prove, without expanding, that I a n -be l b h2 - ea 1 r - ab vanishes.
2, ff i +x3 1 +y* 1 -l-*3 3, Show that (0 r = 0* then prove, without
expansion, That xyz = - 1 where x*yf z are unequal. MiBrfAncL, JA99 ;
Assti™p /9S.9) = , / m ft. x n a $ x a p y £ it) a b e 5 + c c + o o + 6 a $r - -
(o - h){b - c) - a) to + b + e). 4. If aY b% c are all different and a3 a4 - l b*
b4 - 1 c3 e4 - 1 = 0, then show that abc f be + ca + at ) = a +■ A + c. B.
Evaluate (i) Provo the following results : (6 to 12 i 12 3 4 13 3 4 (it) l1 22
32 42 22 32 41 52 12 4 4 3* 4* f?2 fi2 12 3 5 43 T? 5® l1 fi +b 6 +■ c r + a
ft h e a -b-c 26 2r 6. I + m m + n n + / + / m n = 2 7. 2a 6 - c - a 2r p + f? ff
+ r r + p P < 1 r %n 26 c -a -h (a +■ b + c)3 i+a2-fc2 2«6 26 26 l - n- +■ 6~
- 2a -26 ‘2n 1 V 62 is a perfect cube 9, \ cob A sin A ! cos B sin B 1 cos C
am C ii-C . C-A , A-B = 4 kih — - — sm — - — sin — - — 4 5 ti jc 5 6 7 v
1 a a2 a3 + 6«f 1 6 b2 63 + v da 10. 6 7 8 r x y z 0 is a perfect square. 1 1 . I
c r2 c3 + (616 t rf d2 rf3 + ct6c vanishes* n“ + X ab fir ad ah fc2 + \ he bd
ac 6c c‘! * A. cd ad 6d rtf d2 +X ] 2- . y , - X-ô5 + 6? + c2 + cP + X)
Factorize each of the following determinants ; (13 to 15) 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 13. 1
a b c (AiufArd, i998J 14. a2 b1 c3 ft 2 62 C-2 *3 63 C3
26 Higher Engineering Mathematics 16. aVlo2 cV + 62 a?b2 + c'
be + a ca + b ab + c 17. If a + b + £ = 0, «olve IB. Solve the equation n — x
e b x + 1 2x 4jc + 1 16. a a 1 bed c b - x 2X4 1 4*+3 for + 4 6 a e- x 3x4 1
6x + J Bx + 4 = 0. h2 +c2 ab ac 0 c b 19. Shew that hi i c2 + a 2 be c 0 a c
Linear Algebra : Determinants. Matrices Diagonal matrix* A
square matrix all of whose elements except those in the leading diagonal,
are zero is called a diagonal matrix. A diagonal matrix whose all the leading
diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar matrix. For example. '3 0 O' ‘3
0 O' 0-2 0 and 0 3 0 0 0 6 0 0 3 are the diagonal and scalar matrices
respectively. Unit matrix. A diagonal matrix of order n which has unity for
all its diagonal elements, is called a unit matrix or an identity matrix of
order n and is denoted by /„. For example, unit matrix of order 3 is 'I 0 0“ 0
1 0 0 0 1 Null matrix. If all the elements of a maim: are aero, it is called a
null or zero matrix and is denoted by H3’ ; e.g. , f0 0 0 0| 0 0 0 0 is a null
matrix.. Symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices. A square matrix A - Ui ]
is said to be symmetric when aij ~ aji f°r 1 an<1 Jlfa(j = - Oy. for all i andj
so that all the leading diagonal elements are zero, then the matrix is called a
skewsymmetric matrix. Examples of symmetric and skew- symmetric
matrices are respectively. Triangular matrix. A square matrix ail of whose
elements below the leading diagonal are zero, is called an upper triangular
matrix. A square matrix all of whose elements above the leading diagonal
are zero, is called a lower triangular matrix . Thus a h g ' 0 h -8 h b f and - h
0 f .8 f c _ g ~f 0 8 f and 2 3 1 -5 are upper and lower triangular matrices
respectively, MATRICES OPERATIONS (I) Equality of Matrices Two
matrices A and B are said to equal if and only if (1) they are of the same
order and (ii) each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B.
(2) Addition and subtraction of matrices. If At B be two matrices of the
same order , then their sum A ± B is defined as the matrix each element of
which is the sum of the corresponding elements of A and B. ’«i V "cl " a, +
Cj + dl c2 d2 = a2 + c2 b2 + d2 _a3 V <2 31 _ _°3 + C3 ^3+^3. Thus,
Similarly, A- B is defined as a matrix whose elements are obtained by
subtracting the elements ofB from the corresponding elements of A. Thus,
()b& 1, Only matrices of the same order can be added or subtracted. 2
Addition of matrices commutative* U. A + 0 = B + A h AL _K -ct [“2 vl
rf2J K~C2 fe2 — d2 ^
26 Higher Engineering Mathematics 3- Addition and subtraction
of matrices is associative. U, (A +B)-C=A + {B-C)=B + IA-C). 43 >
Multiplication of matrix by a scalar. The product of a matrix A by a scalar k
is a matrix whose each element is k times the corresponding elements of A.
Thus, The distributive law holds for such products. i.e.. k(A + B) = kA +
kB. Obs. All the laws of ordinary algebra hold for the addition or
subtraction of matrices and their multi plication bv scalars. o, C, 1 _ r ka.
kbj 1
Linear Algebra ; Determinants, Matrices 29 In general, if A = '«n
Ojl, °12 “as* a2n and B Ai 65, ^22 "■ ^Lp “ml “m2 -- %. Kl ^np bp two m
x n and n x p conformable matrices* then their product is defined as the m x
p matrix AB = % Cml Cm2 — Cmp _ where c{j = cc , by + a.g6^ + +■
cr[fl6 , the element in the ith rowr and the jth column of the matrix AH is
obtained by weaving the ith tow of A with jth column of B. The expression
for c is known as the inner product of the ith row with the jth column. Post-
multiplication and Pre-multiplication, In the product AB, the matrix A is
said to be post-multiplied by the matrix B, Whereas in BA, the matrix A is
said to be pre- multiplied by B , In one case the product may exist and in
the other case it may not. Also the product in both cases may exist yet may
or may not be equal. Ohs. 1. Multiplication of matrices is associative, i.e. ,
(AB)C = A(BCj provided A, B are conformable for the product AB and B.
C are conformable for the product BC, {Ex. 2_lSs. (lbs. 2. Multiplication of
matrices is distributive Le. , A(B + C) - AB + AC. provided A. B are
conformable Far the product AB and A, C are conformable for the product
AC. Obs. 3- Powtr of a matrix. If A be a square matrix* then the product
AA is defined as A^. Similarly, we define higher powers of A. iv. , A . A2 =
A3+ A2 r A2 = A4 etc. If A* = A , then the matrix A is called idem potent ^ '
0 1 3 1-2 Example 2.14. If A = 1 2 3 2 3 4 and B = -1 0 2 -1 , form the
product of AB. Is BA defined? Solution. Since the number of columns of A
= the number of rows ofB (each being = 3). -v The product AB is defined
and '0.1 + 1.-1 + 2.2, 0. — 2 + 1 .0 + 2. - 1 3 -2 1.1 +2.-1 + 3.2, 1, - 2 + 2.0
+ 3.-1 5-5 2.1 +3, -1 + 4,2, 2. - 2 + 3.0 + 4.-1 7 -8 Again since the number
of columns of B * the number of rows of A. .\ The product BA is not
possible. Example 2.15. If A 1 3 0 -12 1 ,B = 2 $ 4 1 2 3 , compute AB and.
BA and shorn that AB *■ BA 0 0 2 -112 Solution. Considering rows of A
and columns of B# we have 1.2 + 3.1 + 0. -1, 1.3 + 3.2 + 0.1, 1.4 + 3.3 4
0.2 5 9 13' AB = -1.2 + 2.1 + 1.-1, -1.3 + 2.1 + 1.1, -1.4 + 2.3 + 1.2 = -1 2 4
0.2 + 0.1 + 2. - 1, 0.3 + 0.2 + 2.1, 0.4 + 0.3 + 2.2 - 2 2 4 Again considering
the raws of B and columns of A, we have 2.1 + 3. - 1 + 4.0, 2.3 + 3.2 + 4.0
2.0 + 3.1 + 4.2 1 12 11 BA = LI + 2. - 1 + 3.0, 1 .3 + 2.2 + 3.0 1.0 + 2.1 +
3.2 -1 7 S - 1.1 + 1. - 1 + 2.0, -1.3 + 1.2 + 2.0 -1.0 + 1.1 + 2.2 -2 - 1 5
Evidently AB * BA,
30 Hksker Engineering Mathematics ' 3 2 2 ~3 4 2 Example 2.16,
if A ■ 1 3 1 5 3 4 , find the matrix B suck that AB = 1 6 1 5 6 4 . {Mumbai,
2005). 3 2 2 rri n Solution. Let AB = 1 3 1 P <7 r 5 3 4 u V w 3 l + 2p + 2 u
l + 3p + u 51 + 3p + 4u 3m + 2q + 2v m + 3g + v 5m + 3q + 4u 3/i + 2 r +
2u> n + 3r + w 5n + 3r + 4 w 3 4 2' 16 1 5 6 4 (given) Equating
corresponding elements, we get 3( + 2p + 2u = 3, ( + 3p + u = 1, 3m + 2q +
2v = 4, m + 3q + u = 6, 3n + 2r + 2iy = 2, n + 3r + w = 1, Solving the
equations (i), we get / = 1, p = 0, u = 0 Similarly equations («) give m = 0, q
= 2, v - 0 and equations (lit) give n = 0, r = 0, w = 1 1 0 01 Thus, B 2 0 51 +
3p + 4u = 5 5m + 3q + 4v = 6 5n + 3r + 4w = 4 ...(it) Example 2.17. Prone
that A3 - iA? - 3A lit = Q, where A i 3 2 2 0 - 1 i 2 3 1 3 2 1 3 2 1+6+2
3+0+4 2-3+6 "9 7 51 Solution. A2 = A x A 2 0-1 12 3 2 0-1 12 3 — 2+0-1
6+0-2 4+0-3 1+4+3 3+0+6 2-2+9 — 1 4 1 8 9 9 A3 = A2 x A = ‘9 7 5 1 4 1
X 'l 3 2 2 0-1 _ '9+ 14 + 5 27 + 0+10 18-7 + 15' 1+8+L 3+0+2 2-4+3 _ '28
37 26' 10 5 1 8 9 9 12 3 8 + 18 + 9 24 + 0+ 18 16-9 + 27 35 42 34 A3~4.\2-
3A + 11/ s GO g _ J, '9 7 5' 'l 3 2' '1 0 O' 10 5 1 35 42 34 -4 14 1 8 9 9 -3 2 0
—1 1 2 3 + 11 0 1 0 0 0 1 "28 -36-3 + 11 37-28-9 + 0 26-20-6 + 0" "0 0 0’
— 10-4-6-0 5-16 + 0+11 1—4 +3 + 0 — 0 0 0 35-32-3 + 0 42-36-6 + 0 34
-36-9 + 11 0 0 0 Example 2.18. By matkemaiicpi induction, prove that if -[?
['1 Wn 4n - 25n 1 Wn Solution. When n - 1, A11 gives j4’ - j ^ ^ | 4 — y Let
us assume that the result is true for any positive integer k, so that ...(d
31 Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices ri + 10* — 2SAr I [
4k 1-lOfcJ Aa + 1 =j4fr.jl1 = 1 + 10ft -25ft 1 rn -25l 4k -9 1 [11(1 + 1 - [
44A + ■ [1 + 10(A + 1) - 2£KA + 1 Aik +1) 1 - 1(XA + lOAj-lOO* - 25(1 +
lOfe) + 225A1 4(1 - lOAj - 100A - 9(1 - 10ft) | ir i) This is true for n — k +
1 We have seen in (i) that the result is true for n - 1* It is true far ft = 1 + 1
= 2 Similarly, it is true for n = 2+1 = 3 and so on. Hence by mathematical
induction, the result is true for all positive integers n. .Mi) l by (ii')l
Example 2.19, Prove that (AB)C = A(BC)t where A, B, C are matrices
conformable for the productsiJ.N.T.U., 2002 S) Solution. Let A = fc^l be of
order m x n, B — [btJ\ be of order n x p and C - [cy J be of order of p x q. n
Then AB = \aj IbJ = ]T aik bkJ (AB)C = P r « ^ Iy. aik Ki ll J * Z S aik hi %
= A = a l- I U=i J _ p O V L 2_ aiM bki co Similarly, BC — [fi^l ■■ k^l —
^ ' ] b ki cij Hence A(BC) = \aj (AB)C ~A{BC). p « f' Jl, ft f p V y bkt ^ L
a* 2- bkt % z y aik t>ki % x=i rfr p II k = l II PROBLEMS 2.2 1 . for what
values of x, the mal ris 3 - * 2 2 2 4 -x 1 — 2 - 4 - 1 -x is singular ? 2. Find
the values of x, y, z and a which satisfy’ the matrix equation * + 4a + ] = [']
oj j 3. Matrix A has x rows and x + 6 columns. Matrix B has y rows and 11
—y columns. Both AB and BA exist. Find x and y, 4. If A + B = p and A - B
= j j ^ . calculate the product AB. 5. If A 12 3 4 2 0 12 3 10 5 and B =■ 2 1
0 3 2 t 10 1 , find AB or BA. whichever exists. 6. If A = * l 'B=\l ^ j and C=
t qJ i verify that ( AB)C = A(BC) and A
32 Higher Engineering Mathematics 8. Prove that the product of
two matrices oos z 0 cos B sin 0 cos 0 sin (J sin" 0 and cos“ $ cos 0 sin 0
crws i;i sin 4> sin~ cosu -sinal sin a cos a J ' 3 2] 2 3J* 1 2 -3 12-1 2 0 3 0 1
2 find the value of A* -6 A + SI, where / is a unit matrix or second order. ,
and / is the unit matrix of order 3, evaluate A1 2 — 3A + 9/. . verify the
result (A + ff)s = Aa + BA + AH + B3 *. 2 3 3 -1 1 2 ,B = t> i o U 0 1 0 0 0
and F 3-11 0 0 2 4 -3 2 0 0 O' 1 0 0 0 1 0 calculate the products EF and FE
and show that E2F +■ FES = E. 14. If A = cos a sin a - sin a cos a , show
that A* T can ~ L~ai cos ft a sin aa sin no. cos no , when n is a positive
integer. 16. Factorize the matrix A = matrix. 5 -2 7 1 3 7 (B.PT.V , 20061
into the form LU, where L is lower triangular and V is upper triangular
RELATED MATRICES ( 1 ) Transpose of a matrix. The. matrix obtained
from any given matrix A, by interchanging rows and columns is called the
transpose of A and is denoted by A *. Thus the transposed matrix of A 1 2 4
5 7 8 is A' = 1 4 7 2 5 8 Clearly, the transpose of an m x n matrix is an n x m
matrix. Also the transpose of the transpose uf a matrix' coincides with itself,
Le.t (AT = A. For u symmetric matrix. A' = A and for a skew -symmetric
matrix. A" = - A. Ohs. ] . The transpose of the product of the two matrices is
the product of (heir transposes taken in the reverse ordt r i.e., (All)' = BJA\
For, the element in the ith row andjth col- of (ARY = element in the jth row
and ith eol. of AH - inner product ol/th row of A with ith col. of B - inner
product of jth col. of A' with fth row of If' - element in the ith row and /Lh
coi. of B' A' Hence (ABY = B'A'. Ohs. 2. Every square matrix can be
uniquely expressed ns a sum of a symmetric and a skew ■ symmetric
matrix. [J.N.T.V., 200 n Let A be the given square matrix, then A = ^ (A +
A') + ^ (A — A'). Ut B= \ (A + A') and C = | (A - A') 4 4 B’ |fA + Al - ^ |A'
+■ (A'Y\ - (A' + A) - B, i.e., B - lA + A') is a symmetric matrix.
Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices 33 Again, C ' = -|f A - A'}J - (A'
— < A')'J = ^ (A' - A) = - C, te., C = ^ (A - A') is a i?kew- symmetric matrix. Hence
A can bi* expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix. To
prove the uniqueness, assume that P lb a Symmetric matrix and Q is a skew-
symmetric matrix such that A = P Q. Then A' -
34 HicSMEFI E.VCWJEERIfiG MaTHEM^CS ( il is. i*. The
reciprocal, of the product of two matrices is the product of their reciprocals
taken tn the reverse order i.c, , (ABH = B-* A"1 lAs&arn, 1999) If A, H be
two matrices, then the reciprocal of their product is (AB)_I Clearly, CAB) .
CB"1 A"') = A(JBB 1 J A ' (by Associative I aw I =AJA1=AA-i = I.
Similarly, £ fi-U"1) . CAB) = I Hence B"1 A-1 is the reciprocal of AB. Obs.
3, Multiplication by an inverse matrix plays the same role in matrix algebra
that division plays in ordinary algebra. he., if lAltfll - [C|K>J, then (A^1
[AJlBl = i$~*j LCIfS] or B-A-MCIIDI, he-, = A~l [
Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices PROBLEMS 2.3 I. If A -

* a Sin U~ I * verify that AA* = / = A'A, where / is the unit matrix, sin ct
cos aj J 2* Express each of the following matrices as the sum of a
symmetric and a skew-symmetric: matrix : 3 -2 6 a a b 2 7 -1 Hi) € b b 5 4 0
a a €i m If A is a non-singular matrix of order /?. prove that A adj A =? j A | /
1 2 3 Verify that A {adj AJ = {adj A) A = | A | J* where A ?= 1 3 5 ' 1 5 12
4* Find the inverse of the matrix (i) 2 3 4] 4 3 1 i Mumbai, 2009) (it ) 5 -2 4
- 2 11 ] 2 4 4 10 £L If A *= 3 2 2 1 3 1 6 3 4 * compute adj A and .A Also
find sucli that A/f '3 -3d II. If A - 2 3 1 p (j) find A 0 - 1 t 7, Find the inverse
of the matrix -i 3 4 2 1 6 1 5 6 4 fii) show lim A:i - A J 0 1 r x 4 -1 r 1 0 j
and if A -2 3 -i 1 1 0 2 2 I 5 show ibsit SAS 1 ss is diagonal matrix dig (2,
3V T.X 2" ( prove that A** 1 8, tfA = 1 1 2 2 1-2 -2 2 - 1 Show that | cos 0 -
sin fll _ A i - tan 8/2 1 ton 0/2 T [sin 0 cos oj J tan 0/2 1 - tan 8/2 1 J 1 2 - 1
I 0 0 10. If A = 30 2 and B 2 t 0 4 5 0 0 i 3 , verify that (AB>r = B'A\ where
A" is the transpose of A, t verify (hat (A/Jr1 - B 'A h 12* If A is a square
matrix, show that (i) A + A' is symmetric*' and (ul A - A' is skew-
symmetric. ‘1 1 2 "i 2 O' U. A = t 9 3 ,a = 2 3 -1 1 4 2, t -1 3 ('Mumbai,
2006) IB.PX&, 20m {Mumbai, 2008) {Mumbai, 2007 ) iP.T,U.> 1999) 13.
if O = diag \dv I. dv d^ 0, prove that D l ^ diag ldf\ df lt d3 l\ 14* If A and B
are square matrices of the tmme order and A is symmetrical* show that
BrAB is also symmetrical. [Hint. Show that {B'ABY = BAS] 15, If a non-
Binguiar matrix A is symmetric:, show that A 1 is nlso symmetric. 111
RANK OF A MATRIX If we select any r rows and r columns from any
matrix A, deleting all the other rows and columns, then the determinant
formed by these r x r elements is called the minor of A of order r. Clearly,
there will la* a number of different minors of the same order, got by
deleting different rows and columns from the same matrix. Def, A matrix is
said to be of rank r when (i) it has at least one non -zero minor of order r,
and in) every minor of order higher than r vanishes. Briefly, the rank of u
matrix is the largest order of tiny nan -vanishing minor of the matrix.
36 HlGWEH &KSINEEHIM3 MaTHEWIiCS If a matrix has a
non-zero minor of order r, its rank is > r. If all minors of a matrix of order r
+ 1 are zero, its rank is < r. The rank of a matrix A shall be denoted by p(A
). (2) Elementary transformation of a matrix. The following operations,
three of which refer to rows and three to columns are known as elementary
transformations : I. The interchange of any two rows (columns). II. The
multiplication of any row (column) by a non-zero number. III. The addition
of a constant multiple of the elements of any row (column) to the
correspond ing elements of any other row (column). Notation. The
elementary roui transformations will he denoted by the following symbols :
ti) RtJ for the interchange of Lhe ith and jth rows. («) kRi for multiplication
of the ith row by k. {id ) Rr + pH, fur addition to the ith row, p times the jth
row. The corresponding column transformation will bo denoted by writing
C in place or/?. Elementary transformations do not change either the order
or rank of a matrix. While the value of the minors may get changed by the
transformation J and II, their zero or non-zero character remains unaffected.
(3) Equivalent matrix. Two matrices A and 13 are said to he equivalent if
one c an be obtained from the other by a sequence of elementary
transformations. Two equivalent matrices have the same nr dor and the.
same rank. The symbol - is used for equivalence. Example 2.23. Determine
the rank of the following matrices : (t) i 2 1 4 2 6 (ii) 0 I -3 - J I 0 1 1 3 1 0 2
I 1 -2 ( V.T.U.,2011 ) Solution, ti) Operate R.,-Ri and f?a — 2Ry so that the
given matrix 1 2 3' 2-1 2 -1 = A (say) Obviously, the 3rd order minor of A
vanishes. Also its 2nd order minors formed by its 2nd and 3rd rows [1 3 0 -
1 = ~ 1 /. p(A) - 2. Hence the rank of the given matrix is 2. in) Given matrix
0 1 -3 - 1 0 1 -3 -f 10 0 0 10 0 0 3 1 - 3 — 1 ' 3 0 0 0 1 1 -3 -1, 10 0 0
(Operating C3 - Cj, C4 — Cjl [Operating R3 — Rr, RA 0 1 -3 -1 '0 10 0" 10
0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 [Operating Rs - 3R2, R4 - R2)
[Operating C.£ + 3C2, C, + C2] Obviously, the 4th order minor of A is zero.
Also every 3rd order minor of A is zero. But, of all the 2nd order minors,
only = - X * 0. p(A) = 2. Hence the rank of the given matrix is 2. (4)
Elementary matrices. An elementary matrix is that, which is obtained from
a unit matrix, by subject ing it to any of the elementary transformations.
37 Linear Algebra . Determinants, Matrices Examples of
elementary matrices obtained from fa1 0 o' I 0 0 0 0 "l P o' 0 l 0 are J?23 =
0 0 1 — C„ ; fr/?2 — 0 k 0 ; R t + pR,t 0 1 n 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 l ts)
Theorem. Elementary row ( column ) transformations of a matrix A can be
obtained by pre-m ultiplying (post-multiplying) A by the corresponding
elementary matrices. Consider the matrix A = Then x — «i f>t Cl a2 b2 %
&g C3. 1 0 0 “i h, c{ fij by q* 0 0 1 X a2 c2 c3 0 1 0 ^3 ^3 r E K> ,F & i_
So a pre-multiplication by /f„;i has interchanged the 2nd and 3rd rows of A.
Similarly, pro-multi plication by £/?2wil1 multiply the 2nd row of A by k
and pre-multiplication byffj +pR,, will result in the addition ufp limes the
2nd row of A to its 1st row. Thus the pro- multiplication of A by elementary
matrices results in the corresponding elementary row transformation of A, It
can easily be seen that post routi plication w ill perform the elementary
column transformations, (61 Gauss-Jordan method of finding the inverse*.
Those elementary row transformations which reduce u given square matrix
A to the unit matrix, when applied to unit matrix I give the inverse of A. Let
the successive row transformations which reduce A to / result from pre-
multiplication by the elementary matrices /?, , /?,,, ... Rt so that _ j /?rj/?jA
— ~ I RiR,_1 ... R^R ,AA-1 = IA~l or RiHl_l.„R,iRJ = A-1 W AA^ = T\
Hence the result. Working rule to evaluate A-1. Write the two matrices A
and I side by side. Then perform the same row transformations on both. As
soon as A is reduced to /, the other matrix represents A1. Example 2.24.
Using the Gauss-Jordan rnethmi, find the inverse of the matrix / 1 -2 1 3 4 3
-3 -4 [Kurukshetrct, 2006) Solution, Writing the same matrix side by side
with the unit matrix of order 3, we have (Operate R2-Rl and + 2 /?, )
(Operate t R2 and -jj Rj L £t 1 i 3 1 0 O' 1 3 — 3 0 1 0 -2 -4 -4 0 0 1 -1 1 l
3: 1 0 O' 0 2 -6: - 1 1 0 0 -2 2: 2 0 1 1 1 3: 1 0 0 0 1 -3: 1 2 1 2 c 0 - 1 I : 1 0
1 2 (Operate Rv - R2 and R:i + Rj *Named after the great German
mathematician Carl Friedrirh Gauss (] 777— 1856) svho made hip first
great discovery as a student ai Gott ingen. His important contributions are
to algebra, number theory, mechanics, complex analysis, differential
equations, differential geometry, nnn»Eudidean geometry p numerical
analysis, astronomy and electromagnetism. He became director of the
observatory at Gottingen In 1807, Name after another German
mathematician and geodesist Wilhelm Jordan (1842-1899). ebuzzpro.
blogspot.com
38 Higher Engineering Mathematics 1 0 6: 0 1 -3: 0 0 -2: 3 2 1 2
1 2 1 l 2 2 3 0 0; 0 10: 0 0 1: Operate + 3RS, R2 - 1 ft, and ( - R> Hence the
inverse of the given matrix is 3 5 4 J. 4 let'. Example 2.21 j (7) Normal form
of a matrix. Every nonzero matrix A of rank r, ran be reduced by a sequence
of elementary transformation s, to the form X o 0 0 railed the normal form
of A, ...(/) Cor. 1. The rank of a matrix A is r if and only if it ran be reduced
to the norma/ form ti i. Cor. 2. Since each elementary transformation can he
affected by pre-multiplication or post- multiplication with a suitable
elementary matrix and each elementary matrix is non-singular, therefore,
we hove the following result : Corresponding to every matrix A of rank r, I
here exist non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ equals (i). If A be a
m x n mat rix, t hen P and Q are square matrices of orders m and n
respectively. Example 2.25. Reduce the following matrix into its normal
form and. hence find its rank. 2 3 - 1 - 1 l -l -2 -4 3 1 3-2 6 3 0 -7 iU.PT.U.,
2005} Solution. rl -1 -2 -4 2 3-1-1 3 1 3 -2 6 3 0 -7 1 -1 -2 -4 0 5 3 7 0 4 9
10 0 9 12 17 10 0 O' 0 5 3 7 0 4 9 10 0 9 12 17 10 0 O' 0 5 3 7 0 4 9 10 0 0
0 0 (By RrJ\ \By fl2 - 2ff|f R:i - 3^, - 6/?,| (By C2 + Cl% C3 + 2C1P C, +
4CJ (By /? , - Rt - JSa]
LiimcAM- Algebra : Determinants, Matrices 39 Hence pf-A) = 3.
10 0 0 01-6-3 “ 0 4 9 10 0 0 0 0 '10 0 0 01-6-3 0 0 33 22 0 0 0 0 [10 0 O' 0
10 0 0 0 33 22 0 0 0 0 fl 0 0 01 0 10 0 0 0 1 22 0 0 0 0 '1 0 0 O' 0 10 0 0 0
10 0 0 0 0 -['oS] [By R 2 - /J3| [By - 4R2] [By C:1 + 6C2, C4 + 3Cal [By
C4 - 22C3J Example 2.26. For the matrix A 1 1 2 12 3 0 -1 - 2 find rum-
singular matrices F and Q such that FAQ is in ihe normal form , Hence find
the rank of A. iKurukshetra, 2005) A 1 2 '1 0 O' [10 0' Solution. We writer =
IAI, i.e.r 1 2 3 0 -1 -1 — 0 10 0 0 1 A 0 10 0 0 1 Wc shall affect every
elementary row (column) transformation of the product, by subjecting the
pre-factor (post-factor) of A to the same, Operate C2 - Clr C3 — 2 C1P rl o
o' 1 0 o' 1 -1 -2' i i i = 0 1 0 A 0 1 0 0 -1 -1 [0 0 1 0 0 1 Operate - /?,,
Operate C;i - Ct, Operate /?,, + R2, ‘l 0 o' 1 1 o' 1 - 1 -2 0 1 1 — ■ -1 0 0 A
0 1 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 o' 1 0 o' 1 -1 -1 0 1 0 = -1 1 0 A 0 1 -1 0 -1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0' 1 0 0 '1 -1 -1' 0 1 0 = - 1 1 0 A 0 1 -1 0 0 0 -1 1 1 0 0 1 which
is of the normal form h 0 0 0
Higher Engineering Mathematics Hence, P = 10 0' -110 ,Q = 1 -l -

l" 0 I -1 -111 ooi ant! p(A) = 2. PROBLEMS 2.4 Determine the rank of the
following matrices (1-4) : 1. 3. 1 4 6 2 6 fi 3 7 22 1 2 3 0 2 4 3 2 3 2 13 6 8
7 5 1£ 3m T 32 42 3" 4a G2 4 2 5s 62 (ar.tr., 2005) (ffuftoyum. 2005) 2, 13
4 3 3 9 12 3 13 4 1 5 6 7 8 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 16 17 IB 19 {W.B.T.U.,
2005) (Rohtak, 2004 ) 6fi ^2 6. Determine Lhe values of p such that the
rank of A = 2 9 is 3. "l 1 -1 01 4 4-31 2 2 P 3 7. Use (j au sr-, Jordan method
to find the inverse of the following matrices (Bhopal, 2008) (Mumbut.
2007) 2 1 -1 8 4 3 (0 0 2 1 hi) 2 1 1 5 2 -3 1 2 t -1 2 2 0 1 2' (-*«> 2 -1 2
UiP.T.V.. 2006) m 1. 2 3 2 2 -1 • i 1 i 2 3 Find Lhe non-singular matrices P
and Q such that A 2 1 4 3 0 5 — ( Mumbai , 2008) (Kurukshrirxi. 2000) 9.
If A = 3-3 4 2-3 4 0 - 1 1 is reduced tu normal form. Also find its rank.
(S.V.T.U., 2008 ; Mumbai, 2007} , find A ■*, Also find two non-signujar
matrices P and Q such that F’AQ - I , where l is the unit matrix and verify
that A-1 = QP. 10. Kind non-singular matrices P and Q such that PAQ is in
the normal form for the matrices : 1 -1 -1 1 2 S -2' (i) A = 1 1 I (Rahtak,
2004) hi) A = j 2 -2 \ 3 3 1 1 3 0 4 1 1 1 . Reduce each of the following
matrices to normal form and hence find their ranks 8 1 3 6" '2 1 -3 6" tf) 0 3
2 2 (KuruksketrOi 2005) Hi) A 3 -3 1 2 (/i hajkit 2009) -8 -1 3 4 L1 1 1 2 1
2-1 4 ’ («i) 1 2 3 2' 2 3 5 1 ; i Mumbai, 2008) Uv) 2 1 4 3 4 2 3 4 < V.T.U. ,
20W) 13 4 5 -I -2 6 -7
Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices 41 PARTITION
METHOD OF FINDING THE INVERSE According to this method of
finding the inverse, if the inverse of a matrix An of order n is known, then
the inverse of the matrix An + j can easily be obtained by adding (n + l)th
row and (n + 1 )th column to A^. ^2 X t X2 Let A X a and A-1 l H i _ i
where A2, X2 are column vectors and A3'T X3' are row vectors (being
transposes of column vectors A,t, X3) and a. x are ordinary numbers. We
also assume lhal Aj_1 is known. Then,AA_1 = /n i.e,, gives A, : A2 X1 At :
« A*i+AA' = ^ A,X2 + A, jX - 0 a^'Xj + oxr; = o A3'X2 + or = 1 4 o'! o ij
...) ...(if) ...(iii) ...(iu) Prom (it ), X2 = - A j-1 A^x and using Hi is, (in) gives
x = (« - A.‘ A ( 1 A^lr 1 Hence x and then X2 are given. Also from (i), X, =
A fl (/„ -A^X/) and using this, (in) gives Xa' = — A3' A,-1 (ot — A3'A,_1
A2)_1 = - A3'Aj 1 x Then Xj is determined and hence A-1 is computed.
Obs. This is also known as the 'Escalator method'. For evaluation of A"1 we
only need to determine two inverse matrices Al 1 and fu -A.JA 'i i i ¥% ,« 1
: Example 2.27- Using the partition method, find the inverse of 4 3-1 3 5 3 t
. y .uv - • Solution. Let A = 1 1 4 3 3 5 : r : -1 'a, : A% : 3 < _ 1 - 1 a so that
i" r1. i 3 -r 3 ■i -4 ij Let A"1 = so that AA~* = 1. a-A3'A1-MH = 3+ [3 5 r a
- 1 1" L-4 1, -1 L J = - 10 X - (a A'AÂ*-1" IQ Also, Then Finally, 3 - 1 ir
*i (--L) 1 4~ -4 1 JL-iJ l 10a1 10 - 5 *.-**?,. 9 «[J 21 x,.V(/-a2*3')~ 3 — 4
H[-* ‘5] [-!]'- 11 21
42 HlGHEH EfJGIMEEI-LSNG MATHEMATICS Hence
Rsample 2.28, If A and C arc non-singular matriceajtien show that A 0 A'1 0
' R C -c-'ba1 C“f Hence find inverse of 10 0 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 4 0 0 10 3
Solution. Let the given matrix be M = form where A, B, C, P, Q, R, S are all
matrices. A B c] and its inverse be M 1 = P Q R S {Mumbai, 2005) both in
the partioned or MM l = \t 2\\Z / B C\[R sj AF + OB AQ + OS] JI o BP +
CR BQ + CSj -[o I Equating corresponding elements, we have AP + OR =
I,AQ + OS = 0. BP + CR = 0, BQ + CS = /. Second relation gives AQ = 0,
i.e., Q =■ 0 as A is non-singular. First relation gives AP = I, i.e., P = A-1.
From third equation, BP + CR - 0, i.e., CR = - BP ~ - BA"1 CP1 CR = -
CMBA"1 or IR = - C-'BA"1 From fourth equation, BQ + CS = I, or CS - I
or S = C1 i-i or R = - C~l BA-1 Hence lit) Let Whence M-l = M = A = A'
C'BA 1 0 0 2 3 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 3 0 A B O C ] B = P °1 C=\4 °1 [o
lj’ [o 3J A_! = I 2 2 0 0 1 C~l = — 1 f3 0 12 0 4 -c-1 Hence, M~l = 1 [3 0] f
: 1[3 01 [2 0]} 12 [0 4\[‘ 2 [0 lj[o lj} Jj '3 o 1 re O' 1 18 0 24 | 0 4 J J_0 1 24
| 0 4 1 0 0 0 ' 0 1/2 0 0 - 3/4 0 1/4 0 * 0 -1/6 0 1/3
Linear Algebra ; Determinants. Matrices 43 PROBLEMS 2.5

Find the inverse of each of the following matrices using the partition
method 13 3 ) 4 3 1 3 4 ] 2 3 1 13 3 2 2 4 3 3 1111 (Nagpur, 1997) 2. 4. 3 2
-1 2 1 1 1 3 5 3 - 1 10 2 5 1 20 3 9 7 39 4 1-2 21 SOLUTION OF LINEAR
SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS then ( 1 1 Method of determinants —
Cramer’s5 rule a,* + ft, y + cxz - d. Consider the equations a,fx + h2y +
c,2z = d,2 • a.. + c3z = cf:i lf‘ the determinant of coefficient be A = ai a..
Thus Similarly, JCO, xA ^ X(I,, c2 [Operate xa3 ih c3 axx + i\y + c i2 4 Cl
= a?x + b.zy + C 2Z c2 ~ o3x + b^y + c 32 C3 dt bl 2 c2 o2 b2 r2 a problem
in evaluation of determinants. (2 1 Matrix inversion method [By (i)| .Mii)
.Mv) reduces the S* II “t 4 ci a3 Aj Cr, ,x= X y and D = V d-2 «3 4j z d fA _
then the equations (i) are equivalent to the matrix equation AX ~ /J where A
is the coefficient matrix . Multiplying both sides of ( v ) by the reciprocal
matrix A-1, we get A"1 AY = A~'D or / X = A~'D .(w) [ v A~XA = I\
^Gabriel Cramer (1704-1 752), a Swiss mathematician.
Higher Engineering Matmematjgs or X = A~1D i.e t_ A Aj A% A-
j Bl B2 fi( G| ^2 dy X d 2 J /4j A Hence equating the values of jc, y.z to the
correts landing elements in the product on the right side of (ui), we get the
desired solutions. Ob*. When A is a singular matrix, i.e,, A = 0, the above
methods fa il. These also fail when the /> timber uf equations and the
number of unknowns are unequal. Matrices can, however, be usefully
applied to deal with such equations tut will he seen in § 2. 10(2). Example
2.29. Solve the equations Jx + y + 2z = 3, 2x - 3y - z - - 3, * + 2y + z - 4 by
(i) determinants (it) matrices. Solution, (il By determinants : 3 1 2 Here A =
2 -3 -1 1 2 1 3 12 -3 -3 -1 4 2 1 = 3(- 3 + 2) - 2(1 — 4) + (— 1 + 6) = 8
[Expanding by CJ [Expand by Cjl Similarly, Hence = -i |3(- 3 + 2) + 3(1 -
4) + 4(- 1 + 6)] = 1 8 * = A 3 3 2 -i 3 13 2 -3 - 1 - 2 and z — — 2 -3 -3 1 4 1
A 1 2 4 = - 1 x ~ lt y = 2,z - - 1, Note. The use of Trainer's rule involves h
lot of! a hour when the number nr equations exreeds four. In such and other
cases, the numerical methods given in § 28.4 to 28,6 are perferable, {«) By
matrices : (say). AI = -l,A2 = 3,A3 = 5;BJ = -3, B2 = l,Ba = 7 ; C\ = 7, C2 =
- 5, C, = - II. A - ciÂ, + «2A2 + OgAa - 8. 3 1 2 «i 4 CJ Here A = 2 -3 -1
“2 C£ 1 2 1 “3 Then Also jc] 1 A, Ag ^ ^1 y 1 A Bi B2 Bz X <4 z o ^2 ^3
<4. = I 8 Hence * = l,y = 2, z = — 1. -i 3 5 3' 1 -3 1 7 X -3 1 ~ 8 7 -5 - 11 4
-3-9 + 20 -9-3 + 28 21 + 15-44 1 2 - 1 Example 2.30.8’oiue the equations xt
- x2 + x3 + x4 = 2 ; Xj + - x3 + X4 ~ - 4 ; xt + jc2 + x3 - jc 4 = 4 ; Xj + xt +
x3 + x4 = 0, by finding the inverse by elementary row operations. Solution,
Given system can be written as AX = B, where A = 1 -1 1 1' *1 2 1 1 1 1 Xt,
-4 1 1 -1 -1 ■* Ill d xa * B = 4 1111 .*4. 0
UriEAR Aloe bra : Determinants, Matrices 45 To find A l. we
write Thus, Hence, 1-1 1 1:1 0 0 0 1 1-1 1:0 1 0 0 1 1 1-1:00 10 1 1 1 1:0 0
0 1 Ri - *i /Jg + /f| r4 + /?, 1 -1 1 1 1 0 0 O' 0 2 - 2 0 -11 0 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 1 0
2 0 2 2 1 0 0 1 1 -1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 -1 0 - 1/2 1/2 0 1 0 1 0 1/2 0 1/2 1 0 1 1 1/2
0 0 0 1 6 o o 0 1; -1 0; 1 0: 0 1: 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/2 0 0 0 0
1/2 0 -1/2 1/2 1 0 0 0: 1/2 1/2 +1/2 -1/2 110 0: 01/2 1/2 0 l 0 1 0: 1/2 0 1/2 0
0 0 0 1: 0 0 -1/2 1/2 *3 — *2 R4 - R$ Rt - R* R2 + Ry 1 Lft-Jvl 0 0 0: 1 0
0: 0 1 0: 0 0 0 1: 1/2 1/2 0 0 1/2 0 1/2 0 1/2 1/2 0 0 1/2 0 0 1/2 1/2 0 -1/2 0 -
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 0 0 -1/2 - 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 -1/2' 2' 1' -1/2 0 0
1/2 -4 -1 0 -1/2 0 1/2 4 2 0 0 -1/2 1/2 0 -2 i.e.. X=A'B = - l,x,-“l,*3= 2, j4 =
-2.
46 Higheb Engineering MiWfteiwvtlCS "3 4 5 " 4" 11. By
finding^ \ kq\w the linear equation AX - R, where A 1 2 0 5 1 1 ,x = >' 2
und B ~ -1 1 5 12. In a given electrical network, the equations for the
currents i2, i3 nre 3i, + i2 + i3 = S ; 2i j - Sr2 - 2i3 = - 5 ; 7l, + 2 i.> - Bla =
0, Calculate j ( and j'a by Cramer's rule. 13. Using the loop current method
im n circuit, the fbllwomg equations are obtained : 7il - 4r2 = 12, - -1j, +
12i2 - 6i3 = 0. - fiJ2 + 14i4 = 0. By matrix method, solve fort,, r’aand t.,,
11. Solve the following equations by calculating the inverse by elementary
row operations : 2*, * 2*j + 2xa - :fce4 - 2 ; 3x, + fir., - 2xa + x4 = 8 ; xt +•
xa - &r3 - 4x4 = - 1 ; 2xL + x2 * 6*a e x4 = 5. 2.10 (1) CONSISTENCY OF
LINEAR SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS Consider the system of m linear
equations “ll*! + avzx2 + — + a~lnXT\ - ^1 %i*i + W + - + =A2 «mr*i +
Lsn,ear AlgfbhA Determinants, Matfijcff(i) If r * r\ the equations
are inconsistent, i.e., there tut solution, Ui) If r - r' - n, the equations are
const tent and there is a a tuque solution. (Hi) If r = d < n, the equations are
consistent and there are infinite number of solutions. Giving arbitrary
values to n - r of the unknowns, we may express the other r un knowns in
terms of these. J Example 2.31. Test for consistency and solve Sx + 3y + 7z-
4, 3x + 26y + 2z - 9, 7x + 2y + lOz = 5. i Bhopal, 2008 ; J.N. T. U., 2005 ;
PS. U„ 2005} Solution. We have Operate 3f?j, 5/?2, Operate R.2 - /?j.
Operate iRv fi Ra, Xi?.,, Operate R3-Rl+ R2, J Rv The ranks of coefficient
matrix and augmented matrix for the last set of equations, are both 2. Hence
the equations are consistent. Also the given system is equivalent to '5 3 7' r
x A 1 3 26 2 y e i 7 2 10 z t 15 9 21 X i 12 15 130 10 y — 45 7 2 10 z f 15 9
21' X ' 12 0 121 -11 y 33 7 2 ioj z 5 35 21 49' X '28 0 11 -1 y = 3 35 10 50 z
25J rs > 3 7] X 4' 0 11 - 1 J 3 c > 0 oj z 0 5x + 3y + 7z = 4, lly - z = 3,
where z is a parameter. 3 J z v = — + — - 11 11 and 11 11 Hence v ^ Obs.
In the above solution, the coefficient matrix is reduced to an upper
trianpular matrix by row-transformations. jc = -S , y = J— and z = 0, is a
particular solution. Example 2.32. Investigate the values ofk and p so that
the equations 2x + 3y + 5z - 9, 7x + 3y - 2z - 8, 2x + 3y + fcr = p, have (i)
no solution, (it) a unique solution and (Hi) an infinite number of solutions.
(Mumbai, 2007 : V.T.lh , 2007) '2 3 5' X '9' Solution. We have 7 3-2 2 3 X ^
n' _ I _ 1 — 8 M The system admits of unique solution if, and only if, the
coefficient matrix is of rank 3. This requires that. 2 3 5 7 3-2 2 3 k = 15(5 -
\>*0 Thus for a unique solution k * 5 and p may have any value. If A. = 5,
the system will have no solution for those values of p for which the
matrices '2 3 5' '2 3 5 9 A = 7 3-2 2 3 5 and K = 7 3-28 2 3 5 p
HltiHtR EMi-iINfFTOMG MATHEMATICS are not of the same
rank. But A is of rank 2 and if is not of ran k 2 unless g = 9, Thus if X = 5
and p * 9, the system will have no solution. If X = 5 and p = 9, the system
will have an infinite number of solutions. Example 2.:13. Test for
consistency the following equations and solve them if consistent :x - 2y + 3t
= 2, 2x + y + z + t = - 4 ; 4x - 3y + z + It = 8 *. Mumbai. 2008) Solution.
Given equation can be written as 1 -2 0 3 2 111 4-317 Operate R.2- 2R^, R:i
— 47? p Operate 7?.t 1-2 0 3 0 5 1-5 0 5 1-6 1-2 0 3 0 5 1-5 0 0 0 0 1 X y _
z ■ t X 2 y 0 z 0 t X 2 = 0 z 0 t 8 Clearly, rank of the coefficient matrix is 2
and the rank of augmented matrix is also 2. Hence the given equations are
consistent. But the rank 2 < 4, the number of unknowns. The number of
parameters is 4 - 2 = 2 Thus the equations have doubly infinite solutions.
Now putting t - k j and z = k., in x — 2y + 3t = 2 and 5y + z - 5f = G, we
get x - 2y + 3A, =2 and 5y * k2 - 5k t = 0 Hence y = k t - k,yS and a: = 2 +
2y-3A1 = 2 + 2{k.i-k1/&)-3ki .2-4, "1^ (3) System of linear homogeneous
equations. Consider the homogeneous linear equations aHJC, + al2x2 + ... +
alltxt] - 0
Linear Algebra ; Determinants, Matrices 49 Example 2 ,31. Solve
the equations (i) .r + 2y ■+ 3k - 0, 3x + 4y + 4z - 0 , 7x + Iffy + I2z - 0 (iii)
4x + 2y + z + 3tv = 0, (ix + 3y + 4z + 7w - 0, 2x + y + tv = 0. .Solution. (i )
Rank of the coefficient matrix 1 3 7 2 3 4 4 10 12 12 3 0 -2 -5 7 10 12 [1 2
3] 0 -2 ~5 0 0 1 is 3 which = the number of variables (Le., r = n) The
equations have only a trivial solution : jc = y - z = 0. (iii) Rank of the
coefficient matrix [Operating f?3 - 3f?j ] [Operating - 7 Rl - 2 /t2] 4 2 13 4 2
1 3 6 3 4 7 0 0 5/2 5/2 2 10 1 0 0 -1/2 — 1/2 '4 2 t 3 0 0 5/2 5/2 0 0 0 0
[Operating R2 — ~ Rr R3 [Operating i?3 + — R,A 5 is 2 which < the
number of variable (i.e. , r < n) Number of independent solutions = 4-2 = 2.
Given system is equivalent to 4jc + 2 y + z + 3 w - 0, z + w » 0We have z =
- w and y = - 2x - w which give an infinite number of non-trivia! solutions,
x and w being the parameters. Example 2.35. Find the values ofk for whuh
the system of equation# (3k - 8)x +3y + 3z = 0, 3x +• (3k - 8}y + 3z = 0, 3x
+ 3y + (3k - 8) z = 0 has a non tri vial solution, (U.P.T.U., 2006} Solution.
For the given system of equations to have a non-trivia! solution, the
determinant of the coefficient matrix should be zero. 3/fe -6 3 3 3k -2 3 3
i.e.f 3 3k -8 3 = 0 or 3ft -2 3ft -8 3 = 0 3 3 3* -8 3k -2 3 3ft -8 1 3 3 1 3 i 3
or (3k -2) 1 3A-8 3 = 0 or (3k - 2} 0 3ft11 1 3 1 3 3ft -8 0 0 3ft -Hi or (3k -
2) (3k - U)2 = 0 whence k = 2/3, 11/3, 11/3. [Operating + (Ca + Ca)]
[Operating R2-Rv R3-Rl\ Example 2.36. If the following system has
nontrivial solution, prove that a + b + c = 0 or a = h = e ; ox + by +i cz = 0,
bx +cy + az=0,cx + ay+ bz = 0. (Mumbai. 2006) Solution. For the given
system of equations to have non trivial solution, the determinant of the
coefficient matrix is zero. i.e. a b c a + b + c a + b + c a + 6 + c ]b c a - 0 or
b € a c a b c a b [Operating Jfj + R% + f?3] 1 1 b c c a 1 = 0 b or (a + b + c)
1 b c 0 0 c - b a~b a -c b - c = 0 or (a + b + c} [Operating C2 - Cv C3 - C,]
Higher Engineering. Mathematics or (a + b + c) -6) db ■ -c) («’ -

o] (o -&)1 = 0 or (a + h + c) (a2 b 2-cz + afi + fir + m) = = 0 Lt*rf a + h + c
= 0 or a 2 + A3 3 — afe - hi: - ca = 0 or a + b + t = 0 or 1 2 [(a+ (&c)'2 +
(ca)2] or £1 + 6 + c = 0; i a b,l » = c. c = £1. Hence the given system has a
non-trivial solution if ti + b + c = 0 or a = & = c. Example 2.37, Find the
values of X for which the equation# (X - I)x + (3k + l)y +- 2Xz = 0 (X- Vx
+ (4X - 2>y + (X + 3)z ^ 0 2x + (3k + Vy + 3(1 - l)z = 0 are i onsistent, and
find the ratios of x : y : z when A has the smelliest of these values. What
happens win n X has the greatest of these values. iKurukshrtra, 2006 ;
Delhi, 2002} Solution. The given equations will be consistent, if 2k ?v - 1
3A + 1 A — 1 4A-2 2 3A + 1 X - 1 3A + 1 or if. 0 A - 3 2 3A + 1 A-l 3A + 1
5A + 1 or if. 0 A-3 0 2 3A + 1 6A-2 X -1 5A+ 1 or if. (A -3) 2 2{3A + 1) or
if, 6A(A - 3)2 2k = 0 = 0 = 0 {Operate R.^ jR,J | Operate C, + C2J [Expand
by RrJ = 0 or if, 2 a - 3) | (X - 1) <3A - 1> - (5A + 1)1 = 0 (a i When X - 0,
the equations become - x + y — 0 — x — 2y + 3s = 0 2x + y - 3z = 0
Solving (if) and (Hi), we get z ...U) ...(it) ...(hi) 6-3 6-3 -1 + 4 (£») W/ip/i A
= 3, equations becomes identical. . Hence x-y-z. PROBLEMS 2.7 I.
Investigate fur consistency of the following equations nod if possible find
the solutions : 4x - 2v + fe = 8* x \y - Zz = I, I5jc - Zy + 9- = 21 2„ For
what values of k the equations x ■+ y + s - 1, 2x + y + - kt 4x + y + ltt? = k?
have a sol at tun and solve them completely in eath case, {Bhopal, 2008 ;
Mumbai, 2008 . V T.t 2006) 3, Investigate for what values ofl and jj the
simultaneous equations x ■* y + z. - St x -+ 2y 4 = 10, x k 2y + Xz = ji,
have (ft no solution, Ui l a unique solution, Hit) wn inEnite number of
solutions. 2007 ; HETM-d $006 ; /tofcfo*, 2004) 4, Test for consistency and
solve, fi > 2.x - 3y + 7^ - 5, 3r + v 3* - 18, 2x f- 1% 47 z = 32, 'Bhopal, 2
009 ; KurubsheUti, 2005 ; flkii/Jwr, 2W/>1 £iij c + 2y + ^ = 3, 2x + 3y 4 2z
- Jj, 3.x — 5y + 5s = 2, 3x + 1 >y = 4. ; Madras t 2002} {iii) 2x + 6y + 11“
0, 6a + 20y - €\Z + 3 = U, Gy - 1& + I = 0. Uiuju&fhnnm 2005} (it* P 8a +
3y + = 1, a + 2y - 4. ]0>- i Zz - — 2, 2x - By - z - 5+ ( U 7\ tLn 2010 ;
flogarjtmtt, 2008 1
Linear Algesra : Determinants, Matrfges 51 (Kurukshelru, 2005 ;
Madras, 2003) Find Lhe values of u and b for width the equations jc + ay +
2 3= 3, x + 2y + 2s = 6. x * Gy + 3s = 9 are consistent. When will these
equations have a unique solution ? Show that if X * - 5, the system of
equations 3x - y + 4z ~ 3, x + 2y - 3c = - 2. 6x + 5y + X* = - 3, have u
unique solution. If A = — 5, show that the equations are consistent.
Determine the solutions in each case Show Lhat the equations 3x + 4y + fia
= a, 4x + 5y + 6s = b , 5* + fry + Iz-e do not have a solution unless » + c =
2.6. {Raipur, 2004 ; Nagpur, 2001 ) Prove ihat the equations fi j +■ 3y + 2z
- 12, 2a: + 4y e fir = 2, 3th + 43y 4 4Bz = c are incompatible unless c = 74 ;
and in that case the equations are satisfied by.T ~2 +■ f,y — 2 — 3t,z = —
2 + 21. where t is any arbitrary quantity Find the values of X for which the
equations 12 — Xjbc + 2y + 3 = 0, 2x + (4 K)y + 7 = 0, 2.v + 5y + <0 - A.)
= 0 ure consistent and find the values of x and y corresponding to each af
these values of X. 10. Show that there are three real values of it for which
Lhe equations to - X) x + 6y + cz = 0, bx + fc - X}y + tiz - 0, ox + y + (* 1
3)* = 0,(6- 111 + (Sit + l>y + 2 fcz = O, 2x + (36 + l)y + 3{lt - 1)2 = 0.
{Mumbai, 2005) 1 2. Show tha t Lhe system of equu Lions lit , — 2xa + xs
- Xx v 2^ - :ix„ + 2.v3 = Xx2, - Xj + 2x2 = Xx3 can pattern a non tri vial
solution only if X = 1, X = - 3. Obtain the general solution in each case, 13.
Determine the values of X tor which the following set of equations may
possess non-trivial solution : 3vL + X2 - Xxg = 0, 4* , - 2ra - 3r;t = 0, 2Xr,
+ 4xa + Xi’,j = 0. For each permissible value of X, determine the general
solution. {Kurukshetra, 2006 > 14. Solve completely the system of
equations 1 1 ) x + y - 2z + 3th = 0 ; x - Sjy + z - w - 0 ; 4x + y - 5r + 3m>
— 0 . Bar - *N + 2z - «■ = 6, tii) 3* + 4y - 6w = 0 : 2r + 3,v + 2z -■ 3m = 0
; 2x ■ + y - 14a - 9m = 0 ; * + 3.V + 13a + 3/r = 0- i. J.N,T.U.. 2002 S\ (1)
LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS Let (jc,y 1 be the co-ordinates of a point
P referred to set of rectangular axes OX, OY. Then its ca(x\y') referred to
OX', OY\ obtained by rotating the former axes through an angle W given by
6 + > sin 6, 1 in 8 + y cos 0J X = X cos y' — - x sin A more general
transformation than (0 is jr'-Ojjc + ^y I 7 = a2x + b2yj ordinates ...(it) M-K
\y I wly 1 which in matrix notation is Such transformations as (i) and (it),
are called linear transformations in two dimensions. x' - l^x + mxy + rtjj: !
Similarly, the relations of the type y -l^x + m2y + n^z z = /3X + tn^y + n^z
give a linear transformation from ix, y, z ) to (x', y\ z'\ in three dimensional
problems. ...(tii) In general, the relation Y = AX where Y = i tv H- * tA = ci
j fi> ^ dq >x= i ^ £ _ _ _ _ _ i ,.v„. _°n K % — K_ ...(to)
52 Higher Engineering Mathematics give linear transformation
from n variables x2, ...txn to the variables j|,ya, -,j'n i.e. , the transformation
of the vector X to the vector Y. This transformation is called linear because
the linear relations AfXj +X2J = AX^ + AJf; mid A(bX) = bAX, hold for
this transformation. If the transformation matrix A is singular, the
transformation also is said to be singular otherwise nonsingular. For a non-
singular transformation Y — AX, we can also write the inverse
transformation X = A-1 Y. A non-singular transformation is also called a
regular transformation. Cor. If a transformation from (*,. x2, x3) to lyA,y2,
ya) is given by Y = AX and another transformation of (yl,y2,y;i) to (zt, r2,
z3) is given by Z = Bl', then the transformation from (jc,, x0, Xg> lo (ct, z2,
zfi is given by Z = BY = B(AX) = (BA)X. (2) Orthogonal transformation.
The linear transformation (iu). i.e., Y — AX, is said to be orthogonal if, it
transforms y \ + y% + - + y? into x * + x? + - + The matrix of an
orfAoôntu! transformation is called an orthogonal matrix. We have X'X -
lx fa . jeJ x = x,2 + xJ + ... + x„ and similarly, FT - yf + y22 + ... + yfta. .■.
If Y - AX is an orthogonal transformation, then X 'X =YY= (AX)' (AX) = X
‘A' AX which is possible only if A' A = I. But A-1A = /, therefore. A' = A-1
for an orthogonal transformation. Hence a square matrix A is said to be
orthogonal if AA' = A'A = /. Obs. 1, If A is orthogonal, A ' and A 1 are also
orthogonal. Since A is orthogonal. A' = A l. (A')' = (A-‘)' = (A,)-l1 i.e, , B’ =
Bl where B = A' Hence B (i.e.. A') is orthogonal. As A’ = A A 1 is also
orthogonal. Oba. 2. If A is orthogonal, then ] A \ = * 1. Since AA' = A1 A =1
| A | { A' | = \J { (Muinbtu, 2006) But | A' j = | A | , I A | j A | = | 1 t or I A
f2^l t&Y | A | 1. Example 2.118. Show that the transformation y i ~ ^xi + xs
+ x:r y2 = xr + xg + ^x,v Xj ~ x i ~ %x3 is regular. Write down the Inverse
transformation , Solution, The given transformation may be written as F =
AX where X = V X2 ,Y = yi >2 '2 1 1" 11 2 *3. >3. 10—2 Now i A I = 2 1 1
1 1 2 1 0 -2 1 Thus the matrix A is non-singular and hence the
transfomiatiuon is regular. /. The inverse transformation is given by X-A^Y
where A-1 ■
53 Linear Algebra : Determinants. Matrices Thus xs = 2yt - 2 -
,Vg ; *2 = - 4y , + 5y2 + 3y;J ; x3 =.y, -y2 -ya is the inverse transformation.
Example 2.39. Prove that the following matrix is orthogonal : -2/3 1/3 2/3
2/3 2/3 1/3 1/3 - 2/3 2/3 2/3 1/3 2/3 -2/3 2/3 1/3 Solution. We haveAA'= 2/3
2/3 1/3 X 1/3 2/3 -2/3 . 1/3 -2/3 2/3 2/3 1/3 2/3 * KUruk&hetra, 200r, ) 4/9
+ 1/9 + 4/9 -4/9 + 2/9 + 2/9 -2/9 -2/9 + 4/9 - 4/9 + 2/9 + 2/9 4/9 + 4/9 + 1 /9
2/9 - 4/9 + 2/9 - 2/9 - 2/9 + 4/9 2/9 - 4/9 + 2/9 1/9 + 4/9 + 4/9 = /. Hence the
matrix is orthogonal. Example 2.40, If A - 4 1 2 2 a 1 b is orthogonal, find a,
b, c and A' !. {Mumbai, 2006') 3 2 -2 c J ! Solution. As A is orthogonal, AA‘
= 1 or 1 2 a i i 2 2 1 0 o' 2 1 h 2 1 -2 = 0 :i 0 2 -2 c 3 u b c 0 0 l 1 + 4 + a2 2
+ 2 + ab 2 - 4 + ac '9 0 0~ 2 + 2 + ttb 4 + 1 + fo2 4 - 2 + for = 0 9 0 2-4 + ar
4 - 2 + 6c 4 + 4 + c2 _ 0 0 9 5 + a2 = 9. 5 + fo2 = 9, 8 + c 2 = 9, i.e.., a 2 =
4, 6s - 4, c2 - 1 Thus a - 2, h = 2, r = 1. Since A is orthogonal, A"1 = A' = ^
u 1 2 2 2 1-2 2 2 1 2.12 (1) VECTORS Any quantity having n- components
is called a vector of order n. Therefore, the coefficients in a hnear equation
or the elements in a row or column matrix will form a vector. Thus any n
numbers xr xg, xn written in a particular order, constitute a vector x. (2)
Linear dependence. The vectors x,( xa, xfl are said to be linearly dependent,
if there exist numbers X)( Xr not all zero, such that XjXj + kjXjj + ... + irxr
= 0. ...(/) If no such numbers, other than zero, exist, the vectors are said to
be linearly independent. I f Xj + 0, transposing XjXj to the other side and
dividing by - we write (i) in the form x, - + p3Xg + ... + pÊr. Then the
vector Xj js said to he a linear combination of the vectors x^, x3 . xr.
Example 2.41* Are the vectors x, = (1. 3, 4. 2), x., = (3, - 5, 2, 2) and x3 =
(2, - 1, 3, 2) lineuHy dependent ? If so express one of these, os a linear
combination of the others. Solution. The relation X,Xj + /.2x2 + Xax3 = 0.
i.e., \[1, 3, 4. 2) + X.j(3. - 5. 2, 2) + X3(2, - 1, 3, 2) = 0
54 HJGHER ENGJNEEfTlMG MATHEMATICS is equivalent t -

X3 = 0t 4^.j 4- + 3X,^ — 0, 2?L| + 2A.y 4- 21^ = 0 As these are satisfied by
the values h, = 1, = 1, k^ = - 2 which are not zero, the given vectors are
linearly dependent. Also we have the relation, x, + - 2x;i = 0 by means of
which any of the given vectors can be expressed as a linear combination of
the others, Ohs. Applying elementary row operation* \v (he vectors xr we
see that the matrices A = E — t _ and 13 xi *3 _X3_ x, + x2 - 2x3 have the
sams rank. The rank of B being 2* the rank of A is also 2, Moreover xt, are
linearly independent and x3 can be ex proceed as a linear combinution of
x1 and x£ j~y x3 =■ X(xs + x2 )J Similar results will hold for column
operations and for tiny matrix. In general, we have I he following results :
If a given matrix has r linearly independent vectors (raws or columns) and
the remaining vectors tire linear Comlnna tions of these r vectors, then rank
of the matrix is r. Conversely, if u matrix ts of rank n *f contains r fi nearly
independent vectors are remaining vectors (if any) can be expressed as a
hne&r combination of these vectors. PROBLEMS 2.8 1. Represent each of
the transformations *i = %i + %*. yt = +'2*a and ** - -y* + 4>- y2 = 3*i
hy the use of matrices and find the composite transformation which e xpress
xv x2 in terms of ^ zT 2. If £, = x cob a - v sin utl t\ = x sin Cf +y cos fyl=xl
+ 2x2 + Scc^ ;y2 = 2xx +■ 4x2 + 1 Ix3 ; ya = + 2x3. 5. Verify that the
following matrix is orthogonal : cos fj 0 sin C (Kuruksheira* 2005)
{Mumbai, 2005 8) ' 2 1 0 1 l 1' A = 0 1 — 2 1 2 3 - J 2 1 1 8 5 i/3 2/3 2/3'
cos 0 0 sin b ((> 2/3 1/3 -2/3 (Hissur, 2005 S ; P.T.U.. 2003) (ii) 0 J 0 2/3
-2/3 1/3 sin B 0 CO H 6 fi. Find the valuer of a, h,c if A 0 Ah c a b - c a -b c
is orthogonal ? 7* Prove tbit l m n 0 0 0 0 -1 n l - m 0 ™ m n 0 is
orthogonal when / - 2/7. ni = 3/7 h n - G/7 H. If A and B are orthogonal
matrices* prove thai AB is also nrthogoiuiL ' 9* Are the following vectors
linearly dependent: If so, find the relation between them : ft) (2* I, U <2, 0t
- IX *4. 2, l). (ii|;aiUl8)i (lt 2, 3. -IU2,3.4,9b ,r, [/., 2003 ; Ato^par, 2001)
(Arcttff, 3005) (JMWn&ai, 3009) 2.13 Cl) EIGEN VALUES If A is any
sqmtru matrix of order n, we can form the matrix A -XI, where / is the nth
order unit matrix. The determinant of this matrix equated to zero,
Imtm Algebra : DETERMtt^Nrs. Matrices an -A aVJ °l n i.e., | A
— A/ | =
Higher Engineering Mathematics Corresponding to X = 1, we
have i HI;]-" which gives only one independent equation x + y = 0. giving
the eigen vector (1,-1). 1 -I Example 2.13, Find the eigen values and eigen
vectors of the matrix l l 3 1 t> 1 3 l l Solution. The characteristic equation is
| A - XI \ 1 - X 1 3 1 5-X 1 3 1 1 - X (Bhopal, 2009 ; Raipur, 2 005) , i.e.t k3
- 7k1 + 36-0 Since X = - 2 satifies it, we can write this equation an (X + 2)
(X2-9X.+ 18) = 0 or 0L + 2)(X-3)(X~6)-0. Thus the eigen values of A are X
- — 2, 3, 6, If x, y z be the components of an eigen vector corresponding to
the eigen value X, we have = 0 Putting X = - 2, we have 3x +„y + 3z = 0, x
+ ly + z = 0, 3* + y + 3z = 0. The first and third equations being the same,
we have from the first two x 1-X 1 3 f A-W1XX 5 - X 1 3 1 1 - X y z .M) y
z x - or _ _ = I = £ - 20 0 20 _ l 0 I Hence the eigen vector is (- 1, 0, 1). Also
every non-zero multiple of this vector is an eigen vector corresponding to X
= - 2. Similarly, the eigen vectors corresponding to X = 3 and A. = 6 arc the
arbitrary non-zero multiples of the vectors (1, - 1, 1) and (1, 2, 1) which are
obtained from (i). Hence the three eigen vectors may be taken as (— 1, 0,
1), (1,-1, 1), {1, 2, 1). Example 2,44. Find the eigen values and eigen
vectors of the matrix A = 3 J 4 0 2 0 0 0 5 WsP.TM.. 20051 Solution. The
characteristic equation is [A-X« = 0, i.e. , or "3 - X 1 4 0 2-X 6 =0 0 0 5 - X
(3 - XH2 - X) (5 - X) = 0 Thus the eigen values of A are 2, 3, 5. If x,y, z be
the components of an eigen vector corresponding to the eigen value X, we
have 3 — X 1 4 11V \A-kllX= 0 2 - X 6 y = 0 0 0 5 - Xj |_z_ Putting X = 2.
we have x + y + 4z = 0, 6z = 0, 3z = 0, i.e., x + y = 0 and z - 0. - = ^ = - = k.
(say) 1-10 1 ' Hence the eigen vector corresponding to X= 2 is kl (1, - 1, 0).
Putting X = 3, we have y + 4z = 0, -y + 62 = 0, 2s = 0, i.e. , y = 0, * y -h z =
0.
Ljhear Algebra : DETimflNANTs. Matrices 57 Hence the eigen
vector corresponding to A = 3 is fta U, 0, 0 1. Similarly, the eigen vector
corresponding to X. = 5 is ka (3, 2, 1 ). 2.14 PROPERTIES OF EIGEN
VALUES /. Any i square matrix A and its transpose A' have the same eigen
values. We have (A - MY = A’~U' = A'~U | ( A-MY | - | A'-M | | A - A J | = |
A' - A7 | l v | B' | = j B \ ) A ~XJ j - 0 if and only if | A’ - M | = 0 i.e., A is an
eigen value of A if and only if it is an eigen value of A'. //. The eigen values
of a trio ngular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix. Lot “n
"is 0 "22 “l« be a triangular matrix of order n . 0 0 Then | A — 3d J = (tin —
A) (u^ — A) - A). Roots of | A - M J = 0 are A = et^, a22, ann. Hence the
eigen values of A are the diagonal elements of A, i.e.,alv «2, . «nFJ. ('or.
The eigen values of a diagonal matrix a re just the diagonal elements of the
matrix, III. The eigen values of an idempotenl matrix are either zero or
unity. Let A be an idem potent matrix so that A2 = A. If A be an eigen value
of A, then there exists a non-zero vector X such that AX = VC A(AX) = AO
JO, Le.t A2X = X(AX) i.e. AX = AfAJD (v A2 = A and AX = XX AX =
X2X ...{2) From (1 ) and (2), we get X2X - XX or (A2 - A) X = 0 or A2 - A
= 0 whence A = 0 or 1. Hence the result. TV. The sum of the eigen values of
a matrix is the sum of the elements of the principal diagonal. fThis property
will be proved for a matrix of order 3, but the method will be capable of
easy extension to matrices of any order. | Consider the square matrix "n
«1’> a13 a21 °22 ."31 a32 “33 ...ft) so that | A - AJ | "ii — A and (Hi) and
comparing coefficients of A2, we get A, + Aj + A $ = ] + a^ + a:i3. Hence
the result. V. The product of the eigen values of a matrix A is equal to its
determinant Putting A = 0 in (Hi), we get the result. VI. IfX is an eigen
value of a matrix Af then 1/X is the eigen value ofA~l. If X be the eigen
vector corresponding to A, then AX = AX' (On expanding) ..Xii) ...dii) ...a)
SB Higher Engineering Mathematics Premultiplying both sides
by A we get A"1 AX’ = A i.e., IX = AA_1 X nr X= MA_1 X), i.e., A~'X =
{Vk)X This being of the same form as (>’), shows that 1 IX is an eigen
value of the inverse matrix A"1. VII. IfX is an eigen value of an orthogonal
matrix, then 1IX is also its eigen value. We know that if A. is an eigen value
of a matrix A, then I IX is an eigen value of A'1. [Property V'|. Since A is an
orthogonal matrix. A-1 is same as its transpose A', 1/X. is an eigen value of
A'. But the matrices A and A* have the same eigen values, since the
determinants | A— XI | and | A'-W [ are the same. Hence 1/?. is also an
eigen value of A VIII. Ifky Xj, Xtl are the eigen values of a matrix A, then
A”' has the eigen values Xlm, ?.2,,J , Xt"’ (m being a positive integer).
(Mumbai, 2006) Let A; he the eigen value of A and X the corresponding
eigen vector. Then AX- = Xfr We have A% = A(AXf) = A{\ Xf) = J.,(AX( )
= X(XpCl ) = X?X{ Similarly, An Xi = L3 X-. In general, A "'A' - which is
of the same form as (/). lienee is an eigen value of Am. The corresponding
eigen vector is the same Xr 2.15 CAYLEY-HAM1LTON THEOREM*
Every square matrix satisfies its own tharacteristic equation ; i.e., if the
characteristic equation for the «tli order square matrix A is | A - XI | = (-
IPX" + kxXn ~ 1 + ... + kn = 0 ..,(*) then (- 1 T A” + A, A" ~ 1 * ... + kn =
0. Let the adjoint of the matrix A - Xi be P „ Clearly, the elements of P will
be polynomials of the (n - 11th degree in X, For the cofactors of the
elements in J A - XI [ will bo such polynomials . P can be split up into a
number of matrices, containing terms with the same powers of X, such that
P = PtXn ~ 1 + P2X11 ~ 2 + ... + Pn _ , X + Pn .Mi) where P,, P7, ..., Pn are
all the square matrices of order n whose elements are functions of the
elements of A. Since the product of a matrix by its adjoint = determinant of
the matrix x unit matrix. { A - ?J|P = | A - XI | x / by (i 1 and (it), [A - a/] IP,
Xn ~ 1 + P2 Xn 2 + + P„ _ t X + P„ 1 = [(- IP Xfl + ft, X» - 1 + ... + kn _ ,
X + ftj /. Equating the coefficients of various powers of X, we get -Pj = (-lp
/ APj - P2 = kl /, AP , — P, = k9 I, IP, = P,\ *Pri = VNow pre-mu l ti plying
the equations by A", A" 1 , A, I respectively and adding, we get C-1)BA" +
k jAf* - 1 + ... + kis _ t A + kn I - 0, for the terms on the left cancel in pairs.
This proves the theorem. Cor. Another method of finding the inverse.
Multiplying (iii) by A'1, we get ...( Hi ) t-vr A”-1 + /itAn1 + ... + k J+ k A-1
= 0 — ■ 1 fl whence A ~t
Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices This result gives the
inverse of A in terms of n - ] powers of A and is considered as a practical
method for the computation of the inverse of the large matrices. As a by-
product of the computation, the characteristic equation and the determinant
of the matrix are also obtained. 1 4 2 3 Example 2,45- Verify Cayley
Hamilton theorem for the matrix A Also express A' 4A* - 7 A * + 1 1A2 -
.A - Wi l us a linear polynomial in A Solution. The characteristic equation of
A is = 0 or X2-4X-5=0 and ftnd its inverse. (Bhopal, 2009) 1-X 1 2 3-X By
Cayley- Hamilton theorem, A must satisfy its characteristic equation (r }, so
that A2 - 4A - 5/ = 0 Now ...O') ■~(i it) 9 16 ,8 17 This verities the theorem.
Multiplying (ft) by A we get A — 41 - 5A 1 = 0 ][i s] -*[i S]-«[i ?] n 16] [5
0] [0 O' 12 J |0 S J [ 0 0 = 0 or :ht -i] Now dividing the polynomial XG —
4?.'* - 7X3 + 1 IX3 — X - 10/ by the polynomial X3 — 4X - 5, we obtain
X5 _ ^ - 7X3 - X - 10/ = (X3 - 4X - 5) (X3 - 2X + 3) + X + 5 = X + 5 I By
(i)l Hence A5 - 4A4 - 7A3 + 11A2 - A - 10/ = A + 5, which is a linear
polynomial in A, Example 2,46. Find the characteristic equation of the
matrix A inverse. 1 1 3 1 3 - 3 -2 -4 ~4 and hence find its Solution. The
characteristic equation is 1-X 1 3 1 3 - X - 3 -2 -4 -4-X = 0, i.e., X3 - 20 X
+ 8 - 0. By Cayley- Hamilton theorem. A3 - 20A + 81 = 0, whence A-1 = ^ I
- | Ar, 1 0 0 0 10 0 0 1 -4 -8 -12 10 22 6 2 2 22 3 1 3/2 -5/4 -1/4 -3/4 -1/4
-1/4 - 1/4 [cf. Ex. 2.21 Example 2.47. Find the ckaractercstie equation of
the matrix, A = 2 t f 0 10 and hence compute A h Also find the matrix
represented by 1 1 2 (U.T.ll. 2010) A8 - BA7 + 7A* - 3AS +■ A4 - SA3 +
HA2 - 2A + /, t Anna , 2009 ; Rajasthan. 2005 ; U.P. T. U.t 2003 ) Solution.
The characteristic equation of the matrix A is 2 -X 1 1 0 1 -X 0 1 1 2 -X = 0
or [X3 - 5X2 + 7X - 3 = 0]
60 According to Cayley-Hamilton theorem, we have Aa - 5Aa +

7A - 3/ Multiplying f /) by A '1, we get Higher Engiweefmk® Mathematics
Mi) A2-bA + 71- 3A'1 = 0 or A'1 - 1 But A2 = A2 — bA + 71 2 0 1 5 0 4 1
1 1 4 1 1 1 ' 0 2 4 0 5 ' 2 0 1 -5 1 0 2 - A. {Aa — 5A + 7/] d 4+0+1 2+1+1
0+0+0 0+1+0 2+0+2 1+1+2 2+0 + 2 0 + 0 + 0 1 + 0 + 4 I— rr tS* if? i _ =
a i o i _ i 2 11' 10 0' 2 -1 -1' 0 1 0 + 7 0 1 0 = 0 3 0 1 1 2 0 0 1 _ _i -1-1 2
Hence frnin (it), A-1 = ^ d Now 2 -1 -1' 0 3 0 -1-1 2 As — 6A7 + 7AR -
3A5 + A* - SA3 + 8A2 - 2A + / = A6 (A3 - 6A® + 7A — 3/) + A(A3 - fiA2
+ 7A — ZD+A2+A + l -A2 + A + / | v .Mi) A3 - 5A* + 7A - 3/ = 01 '5 4 4' 2
1 r ' 1 0 0 ' ' 8 5 5 ' — 0 1 0 + 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 4 4 5J 1 1 2 0 0 1 5 5 8
PROBLEMS 2.9 3 1 >1 1. Find the sum and product of the eigen values of
0 2 U 0 0 6 2. Find the eigen values anti eigen vectors of the matrices : it) 6
-{> 2 -6 7 -4 2-4 3 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 2 -2 2 -3 2 1 -ii -l 2 0 (Fihnpal, 2008 .
Nagnrjuna. 2008 , 8. V.T.U., 2008 ; J.N. T. U„ 2006 1 {J.N.TM.. 2005 :
Kurukshetru, 2005) (Mumbai, 2006 ; B.PTAJ,, 2006; V.P.T.V,, 2006} id) 6-
2 2 -2 3-1 2-1 3 (Ku ruhshetra, 2006) (e) (Madras, 2006) 2 1-1 t 1 -2 -1 -2 I
4. Jf X be an eigen value of a non-singular matrix A, show that | A | A is an
eigen value of the matrix adj A (U.P.TU., 2001) '2 3 4] 5. Find the eigen
values of adj A and of A2 - 2A + /, where A = (V 4 2 0 0 3 (Mumbai, 2006)
6. Two eigen values of the matrix A = 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 are = 1. each. Find
the eigen values of A'1. 7. Show that if a.,. L,, XtJ are the latent roots of a
matrix A, then A2 has the latent roots A2, X;, ... X2. (PT. 11 .,2005)
Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices 61 8, Lor ft symmetrical

square matrix, show lhal the eigen vectors corresponding to two unequal
eigen values are orthogonal. ft* Using Ca jdby*Ha m U t S 3 3 2 1 1 3 1 3-3
2 — 4 -4 m 1 0 3 2 1-1 1-1 1 {Osman ta, 2000 S) {Bhopal, 2002 S) Ue) 1 0
1 2 -2 0 U/.P.T.U,, 2006) J 0 0 3 10. Lind the characteristic equation of the-
matrix A = 1 3 7 4 2 3 1 2 1 obtain the inverse of the given matrix 1 1 ,
Verify Cay ley- Hamilton theorem for the matrix A and find its inverse. .
Show that the equation is satisfied, by A and hence l Bhopal. 2008; Anna,
2005 ; Kerala, 2005 ) (i> U£) 2-1 1 - I 2-1 1-1 2 7 2-2 -6 - 1 2 6 2-1
{Coimbatore, 2001) (tit) 3 2 4 4 3 2 2 4 3 r l- 2i 13* Usi tip Cayley-
Hamilton theorem, find AK, if A = “ , . find A4. 13, If A = 2-1 2 - 1 2-1 1-1
2 14. Using C ayley- Ha mil Lon theorem, find A where A 1 2 0 2-1 0 0 0-1
iAnna, 2009 ; S.V.TM,, 2008 : Madras, 2006) (P.T tl., 2006) {Anna, 2003)
{Madras, 2006) . {Bhopal, 2008 ) 15. IfA =■ 16. IfA 4 6 6 1 3 2 -I -4 -3 .
evaluate A-1, A~E and A-3. I 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 , show that A" = A" ~ * + A2 -
1 . Hence find A5C. {Mumbai, 2006) 2.16 (1) REDUCTION TO
DIAGONAL FORM if a square matrix A of order n has n linearly
independent eigen vectors, then a matrix Be an be found such that B 1 AP is
a diagonal matrix. |This result will be proved for a square matrix of order 3
hut the method will be capable of easy extension to matrices of any order !
Let A be a square matrix of order 3. Let XJt Ay, be its eigen values and *1 =
.x2 = $ £ 1 _ and X3 = *1. ^2, be the corresponding eigen vectors. Denoting
the square matrix [Xj X2 X3J = >\ y% y3 Z\ Z2 *3 . AP = AIXjX^] = IAX,,
AX2, AX3| = |A,X,, X.JC.J by P, we have
62 HrciHEB Engineering Mp,rnejMTics ^1*1 ^2^2 ^3*3 ’*] *2
X, 0 0 = ^1^1 ^2 ^3*^3 = .Vi yz .v3 0 x2 0 m^lZl ^2% ^3Z3, _2| Zj, Z 3 « *
< O O - PD, where D is the diagonal matrix. P1 AP - P~x PD ~ D, which
proves the theorem. Ohs. ] . The matrix P which d«igona!imt A is miff'd the
rmrtiat matrix of A and (he resulting diagonal matrix D is known ns the
spectral matrix of A. 2. The diagonal matrix has the eigen values of A as its
diagonal elements, 3- The matrix. P, which diagonal! se A, constitutes the
sign vectors of A. (2) Similarity of matrices. A square matrix A of order n is
called similar to a square matixA of order n if A = P~tAP for some non-
singular n x n matrix P. tion. This transformation of a matrix A by a non-
singular matrix P In A is called a similarity transforma» *■ Obs. If the
matrix A is similar to the matrix A, /.hen A has the same eigen values as A.
If x is an eigen vector of A, (hen y = P1 x is an eigen vector of A
corresponding to the same eigen value. (3) Powers of a matrix. Diagonal!
sat ion of a matrix is quite useful for obtaining powers of a matrix. Let A be
the square matrix. Then a non-singular matrix P can be found such that D =
P~l AP D* = (P lAP) (P~!AP) = P 'A-P fv PP-l = f] Similarly, Z>3 - P~l
A3P and in general, Dn - P~ 1 AnP ...(f) To obtain An . premtdliply (i ) by P
and poat-multiply by P~K Then PD,iP~i — PP~ 1 A'J PP-1 = A" which
gives A". Xf 0 0 0 XS 0 0 0 X3 Thus, A" = PD"P * where, D'‘ = Working
procedure : 1 Kind the eigen values of the square matrix A. 2. Find the
corresponding eigen vectors and write the modal matrix P. 3. Find the
diagonal matrix D from D = P 1 AP 4. Obtain A‘! from A" - PDnP~i.
Example 2.48. Reduce the matrix A - 1 2-2 12 1 - 1 - J 0 to the diagonal
form.
63 Linear Aloeefia : Determinants, Matrices Solving 2nd and 3rd
equations, we get or y 2 1 -1 6 - 2tJE - 1 + & l-S Vs - 1 giving the eigen
vector ( -JE - 1, I, — 1). Similarly the eigen vector corresponding to X = -
J5 t is ( Vs + 1, — l, 1). Writing the three eigen vectors as the three
columns, we get the transformation {modal) matrix as P = Hence I he
diagonal matrix is D = 1 S1
64 Higher Engineering Mathematics or or or Example 2.60. Find
e* and 4A if A = î/~> j/9 = 0, i.t>„ (3/2 -X)a- 1/4 = 0. Solution. The
characteristic equation of A is 3/2 - X 1/2 1/2 3/2 — X .\ X3-3X + 2 = 0
whenceX=l,2. When X = 1, \A - U] X = Q, gives 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 ft]-!!] - [i !]
[;]■[; [0 3KI-B. jc1 + xs = 0. If jc2 = — 1, xv = 1, i.e. , the eigen vector is 1
1* - 1]'. When X=2,(A-)J|X = 0.g)ves [ * [ « o][SH°] — jcj + x*2 = 0, Le,r
x j = 1, Xj = 1, i.t\ , the eigen vector Is tlt 1|' Now «■[!!] -'■[-!!] If p-i - adj
P \P\ ~ 2 /HD-fiA./UH-e0- [** ' [ 0 f }][e‘ j]j[; -j] n -*+*2l [l lj 2[_(?+(?z e
+ «?2J _ 1 ' 2 - e e Replacing e by 4, we get Aa = '20 121 I no 6i 12 20jLe
10J (By 2J?iP 2fl2l T By 2/tj 1 L ***J (By fi2 - fij REDUCTION OF
QUADRATIC FORM TO CANONICAL FORM A homogeneous
expression of the second degree in any number of variables is called a
quadratic form. For instance, if A = a h 8 X h b f ,X = y 8 f c % and X ' = [ x
y z] , then X'AX = ax1 + by* + cz2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2/i3cy which is a
quadratic form.
65 Linear Algebha : Determinants, Matrices Let Xj, X^, X^ be the
eigen values of the matrix A and *,= xi y> to ■ 11 1 EM 7-1 * ^ 1 _ _ _ ,x3
= *a ■V3 LzsJ be its corresponding eigen vectors in the normalized form
(i.e., each element is divided by square root of sum of the squares of all the
three elements in the eigen vector). >> — i o o 1 *’i *3 Then by ft 2.16(1),
P 1 AP = o x2 o where P = >1 *2 >3 0 0 X3 Z\ Z2 %J Hence the quadratic
form (i) is reduced to a canonical form (or sum of squares form or Principal
axes form). Xj*2 + X^y2 + X^2 anti P is the matrix of transformation which
is an orthogonal matrix. Note. Congruent (or orthogonal) transformation.
The diagonal matrix D and the matrix A are called congruent matrices and
the above method of reduction is called congruent (or orthogonal)
transformation. Remember that the matrix A corresponding to the quadratic
form ax2 + by 2 + cz'2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2 hxy is coeff of xl ^ coefF. of yz ^
coeff. oF zx d d coeff. of yz coeff. of y2 ^ coeff. of xy d d ^ coefF, of zx ~
coeff. of ir coeff. of z2 4 d L.e.m a h g h b f g f c Example 2.31. Reduce the
quadratic, form 3xf + 5ys +■ 3z' - 2yz + 2zx - 2xy to the canonical form
and specify the matrix of transformation. ■. (Bhopal. 2009; Kumk&hetra,
2006) Solution. The matrix of the given quadratic form is A = 3-1 1 -1 5-1
1-1 3 Its characteristic equation is | A - XI \ =0, i.e. , 3-X - 1 1 -1 5 - X -1 1
-1 3 - X = 0 which gives X = 2, 3, 6 as its eigen values. Hence the given
quadratic form reduces to the canonical form XjX2 + Ly- + X^2, i.e., 2x2 +
3y2 + &2. To find the matrix of transformation From [.A — X/] X = 0, we
obtain the equations (3 — X)x — y +2 - 0 ; — x + (5 — X)y - z = 0 ; x -y +
(3 - X) z = 0. Now corresponding to X = 2, we get x—y + z = 0, - x + ‘Ay -
z - 0, and x —y + z - 0, whence x = y 1 0 z - 1 /. The eigen vector is (1, 0,
— 1) and its normalised form is (1/S . 0, - 1/S ). Similarly, corresponding to
X = 3, the eigen vector ts X,, (1, 1, 1) and its normalised form is ( 1/ S , 1/ S
, 1/S ). Finally, corresponding to X = 6. the eigen vector is X3 (1, - 2, 1) and
its normalised form is (1/ S ,-2/S , US)Hence the matrix of transformation is
P 1 /S 1/S i/S 0 1/S -2/S -1 iS 1/S 1/S
66 Higher Engineering Mathematics 2.18 NATURE OF A
QUADRATIC FORM Let Q = X' AX be a quadratic form in n variables a:,,
*2, ... x>r Index. The number of positive terms in its canonical form is
called the index of the quadratic form. Signature (S)o/" the quadratic form
is the difference of positive and negative terms in the canonical form. If the
rank of the matrix A is r and the signature of the quadratic form Q is s, then
the quadratic farm is said to he (i) positive definite if r = n and a = n (it)
negative definite if r - n and s = 0 (Hi) positive semidefinite if r < n and $ =
r ( iv ) negative semidefinite if r < n and s = 0 (v) indefinite in alt other
cases. In other words n real quadratic form X'AX in a variable is said to he
(() positive definite if all the eigen values of A > 0. (ii) negative definite if
all the. eigen, values of A < 0. (iii) positive semidefinite if all the eigen
values of A >0a.nd at least one eigen value - 0. (iv) negative semidefinite if
all the eigen values of A <0 and at least one eigen value - 0. (o) indefinite if
some of the eigen values of A are positive and others negative. Example
2.52. Reduce the quadratic form 2x (x2 + 2x to a canonical form by un
orthogonal reduction and discuss its nature. (Madixts, 2006} Also find the
modal matrix.. Solution. {/} The matrix of the given quadratic form is A = 0
1 1 0 1-1 Its characteristic equation is |A - )T\ = 0. i.e. , -X 1 1 - X 1 -1 1 - 1
= 0 which gives X3 — 3X + 2 = 0 Solving, we get X = 1, 1, — 2 as the
eigen values. Hence the given quadratic form reduces to the canonical form
X}x2 + Xjj y2 + Xjj^2 ~ 0, i.e. ( x2 + y2 - 2 z2 - 0 (ii) Since some of the
eigen values of A are positive and others are negative, the given quadratic
form is Indefinite. Hit) To find the matrix of transformation From [A — X/|
X - 0, we get the equations - Xi + y + 2 — 0, .v - Xy + 3 = 0, x -y - X? = 0
When X = - 2, wo get 2x+y + 2 = 0,je + 2y - 2 = 0, x -y + 22 = 0. Solving
first and second equations, wo get je = y = 5 - 1 11 The corresponding eigen
vector X, -(-1,1, 1 ) and its normalised form is (— lfjs, l/s/S, 1/ JS) When
X-Iy we get —x + y + 2 = 0, x -y - z - 0, x -y —z = 0. These equations are
same. T ake y — 0 so that x - 2. /. The corresponding eigen vector X2 = (1,
0, 1) and its normalised form is (U-J2 , 0, V sf2 ) To find the eigen vector
X3 = (l, m, n) (say) Since Xa is orthogonal to Xt, - / + m + n = 0 Since X3
is orthogonal to X2, / + n - 0 These equations give j- = ~ = . The eigen
vector Xa = (1,2,- 1) and normalised form is U/V6, 2/^6,- 1/^6) .
Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices Hence the modal matrix
is 67 - 1/^/3 1/^2 1/S 0 1/S l/y/2 i/S 2/S -1/S PROBLEMS 2.10 -1/2 - S/2 0‘
1/2 S/2 0 If A -^3/2‘ i/2 0 0 0 0 and P ~ - vi/2 1/2 0 0 0 1 , show that P~*
lAF is a diagonal matrix. 2. Shov* that Lhe linear transformation cos© sin©
sin © cos 6 H2h , where 6=4 tan-1 2 a-b . changes the matrix: the diagonal
form D - HCH‘. 3. Reduce the malm A 4. If A = 6 3 1 3 5. If 4 = 6. If A = —
1 7l jn to the diagonal form. — 42 loj , find A" and A*. . calculate A41 41 ,
then prove that 3 tan A = A tan 3. 3-1 1 -1 5 -1 t - 1 3 m.P.T.TJ., 2005)
{Mumbai, 2006) [Coimbatore, 2001 ) (Mumbai, 2006) 7. Find the eigen
vectors of the matrix 6-2 2 2 3 -1 2-1 3 squares'. Also write the nature of the
matrix. 8. Reduce the quadratic form 2x> + 2yz + ‘2zx into canonical form.
and hence reduce 6xa + 3y2 + 3z2 - 2,vz + 4zx - 4*y to a ’sum of [Calient,
2005) [Anna, 2009 , Kurukshetra, 2006 ; Mumbai, 2003) 9. (n) Find the
eigen values, eigen vectors and the modal of matrix 1 0 0 0 3-1 0-1 3 16)
Reduce the quadratic form + 3ac22 + 3x^ — 2x^c% to a canonical form.
(Anna, 2009) 10. Reduce the following quadratic forme into a 'sum of
squares' by an orthogonal transformation and give the matrix of
transformation. Also state the nature of each of these. fi) 3sC|“ + anv2 +
3a:32 + 2xxx2 + 2rtx3 (ii) S*:2 + 7y2 + 3a2 - I2xy - 8yr + 4 zx (Anna, 2002
S) 11. Find the index and signature of the quadratic form xf + 2xf -3xf.
(Madras, 2006 1 ! z. Find the nature of the quadratic Form i3 + By2 ii:-*
2xy + 2yz + 6 zx. (Bhopal, 2009) 1 3. Shaw that the form faj2 + 2ftta2 +
lftrav + 4*^t3 + 14#^ + is a positive semi-definite and find a non- zero set
of values of Xj, x.^, x3 which make the form zero. (P- T.U., 2003 ) 2,19
COMPLEX MATRICES So far, we have considered matrices whose
elements were real numbers. The elements of a matrix can, however, be
complex numbers also. (1) Conjugate of a matrix. If the elements of a
matrix A - |nr,j tire complex numbers ar/. + i Prifl o.rv and |3rfJ being real,
then the matrix
Higher Engineering Mathematics A =farsl = [ttrs - iprt:] is called
the conjugate matrix of A. T hi* transpose of a conjugate of a matrix A is
denoted by A' orAH, Le. , (Af =A*. (2) Hermitian matrix. A square matrix
A such that A' - A is said to be a Ilermitian matrix*. The elements of the
leading diagonal of a Ilermitian matrix are evidently real, while every other
element is the complex conjugate of the element in the transposed position.
For instance A = \ 2 3 + 4il 3 - 4i -5 is a Hermitian matrix, since A' 2 3 + 3-
4H_x 4i -5 J (3) Skew- Ilermitian matrix. A square matrix A such that Ar- -
A is said to he a skew-Hermilian matrix# This implies that the leading
diagonal elements of a skew-Hermitian matrix are either all aeros or ail
purely imaginary. 0bn* A HcrmUiun matrix is a generalisation of a real
symmetric matrix every rial symmetric matrix is HermL tian. Similarly, a
skewltermitian matrix is a generalisation of a real skew symmetry matrix.
Properties 7. Any square matrix A can be written as the sum of a Hermitian
and skew -Her mi t ian matrices * {Mumbai, 2007} Take Then and is a
Hermitian matrix. Again, B = - [A +■ A') and C = - the eigen value of a
Hermitian matrix is real. 7V„ The eigen values of a skew-Hermitian matrix
are purely imaginary or zero. * Named after the French mathematician
Charles Hermite i 1822-1901 ), known for his contributions to algebra and
number theory,
Li he tft Algebra ; Determinants, Matrices Let X be the eigen
value and X the correa pondittg esgen vector of a stoew-Hermitian matrix R
so that RX = XX. X'BX = XIX = XX p X or X = X BX f XX Since X'X is
real and non-zero. Also XBX is a skew-Hermitian form which is purely
imaginary or zero. X, the eigen value of a skew-Hermitian matrix is purely
imaginary or zero. 4. Unitary matrix. A square matrix U such that Ur - E/’ 1
is called a unitary matrix. For a unitary matrix, [/, U . U* = U* . U = /. This
is a generalisation oi the orthogonal matrix in the complex fieldProperties L
Inverse of a unitary matrix is unitary If U is a unitary matrix, then t/'=trl or
or or i.e.. IT = U~ 1 icf/1) ‘r= f/-1 Writing [/' 1 = V. we have \V~H’= V or
V-L-V‘ Thus V (- U l) is also unitary. Cor, Inverse of an orthogonal matrix
is orthogonal. II. Transpose of a unitary > matrix is unitary ir U is a unitary
matrix, W - U 11 (£/') = V-1 k £/' >r = rtr_ir = rcri-1 Writing IT = V, we
have V = V1 Thus V (i.e., ET) is also unitary. Cor, Transpose of an
orthogonal matrix is orthogonal. III. Product of two unitary matrices is a
unitary matrix. If 17 and V are unitary matrices then Now, ir = tf 1 . v = v^1
(I/VT1 = tTTv\-l _T7-i77-) (t/V)"1 =V V = vir = (UV t Thus, UV is a
unitary matrix. Cor. Product of two orthogonal matrices is an orthogonal
matrix. TV. The eigen value of a unitary matrix has absolute value 1. ff U is
a unitary matrix then UX = XX Taking conjugate transpose of (1), iUXY =
(UXY = XV' = XV' 1 Also (f7X7 = (XAT»X]f' X' irl = ix' Post-multiplying
(2) by ( I ), we get Or rr1 }
70 Higher Emgsneermg Mathematics Example 2-13. If A gate
transpose of A,. 2 + i 3 - i + 3i -5 i 4 - 21 , show that AA' is a Hermitian
matrix, where A' is the conju (J N. T. U., 2005 ; U. P. T. U., 2002) and ■[ 24
- 20 + 2 i - 20 - 2i 46 , which is a Hermitian matrix. Example 2.54 . Prove
that the matrix A ~a+» ~( -l + i? j +4a + i) -â-i)2 +4
Linear Aioebra : Determinants, Matrices 71 Example 2.5">.
Given that A 0 1 + 2i -1 + 2/ 0 L J . show that U - A)(l + At1 is a unitary
matrix [Mumbai, 2007 ) Solution. l + A = U+A a -a) (j + Ar1^ I 1 + 2 i" -1 +
2/ 1 1 -1-2/ 1 -2i 1 , |/ + A| = 1 -{-1-4) = 6 + 6. Also / -A = 1 - 1 * 2/ 1-2 1 1
Its conjugate-transpose - 6 Product of {/} and (//) = Hence the result. 1 — 1
- 2(1 1 1 -l-2fl 1 T -4 -2-4 £ 1 — 2/ 1 J j 1 - 2i 1 ~ 6^2-4/ -4 -4 2 + 4/1 — 2
+ 4/ -4 1 ‘ -4 -2-4/1 [ ”4 2 + 4/1 _ 1 [36 0 36 Tf _ 1 -4 J [-2 + 4/ -4 J 36 [ o
36 = A ...(0 ...(«) PRO0LEMS2.il i Prove that every Hermitian matrix can
be written as A + t/J, where A is r eal and symioeti ic and U is real and
skewsymmetric : {P. T. if., 1&9&} V.. Show that every square matrix can be
uniquely expressed as P+ iQ, where P and Q are Hermitian mai ric es
iMumbni. 2008 ; 2002 S\ lb Show that a Hermitian matrix remains
Hermitian when transformed by an orthogonal matrix. i. Show that the
matrix j *s a unitary matrix, if a2 + |iL’ + y2 + 6s = 1. (U.F. T.r .2000) 5.
Show that 3 7 - 4r -2 + 5i 7 + 4i -2 3 + i - 2 - 5i 3 - i 4 is a Hermitian matrix.
6. If A » -I 2+i 5-3/ 2-/ 7 5j 6 + 3i -a 2 7. Show that, the following matrix is
unitary 1 l + i , • i 1 U) ^ *-i -1 „ show that A is a Hermitian matrix and iA
is a skew-Hertnitian matrix (Sambalpitr, 2002) 2 + i 2 i {UJP.T.U,, 2002) m
3 3 2 1 2^± 3 3 {Mumbai, 2008 1 B. Express A = 2i 2 + i l — i 2 + i -/ 3i - ]
- i 3i 0 as P + iQ where I’ is real and skew -symmetric and Q is real and
symmetric. [Mumbai. 2008) 9. lfS = 1 1 1 1 n2 a 1 o a2 . where a = e2™*1,
prove that A'-1 = is. 3 ( Ktinikshctrtt, 2006 . J. N.T, f . 2-001 \
72 2,20 OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS Higher

Engineering Mathematics PROBLEMS 2.12 rftfKUptf the carters answer or
fill up the blanks in the following problems I . To Multiply a matrix by
scalar k , multiply (b) every element by k (a) any row by k 2. If A ^ I ? ~4A,
then A" is [c] any column by ft. ta) •i: ::]■ [1 +2 n - 4n I n t-2nj n+3* [l + n
1 —ft' J ui) 1 + 2n — 4;i 1 4- fl 1 - 2* •i. The inverse of the matrix 0.5 0
O' 0 4 0 0 0 t is ia) "0.5 0 0 0 -4 0 m 0_5 0 0 0-4 0 [2 ? a] * =[?] 6, If Â"
= gj ■ then ^ equals •G > Mt d) none of the above. W 7. rr a = [-■ -Hi
(5) f 1 L -2 wr 1 -r (<0 P . -Ml L * ivj h i 1 |_- 2 ] h l - 17 j (ri) -R3 10 0] 0
10J , then A lat^j A) equals (b) 0 10 10 0 (c) R ■«] (rft none of the
above. B If %x + 2y + z sf 0, x + 4y + s = 0, 2x +y + 4* Qt be a system of
equations, then (0.) it is inconsistent (b) it has only the trivial solution x
- 0, y = 0^-0. (*} it can be reduced to a single equation and so a solution
does not exist. id) determinant of the matrix of coefficients is ?,ero,
co$0 mnO 9. UA _ fi Ol ' o l] in) C - A cos B-B sin 0 (t ) C = A sin B — B
cos 0 and C = -sinfl cm0 f then Ci>> C - A sin 6 + B cos 0
Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices 73 1 0 0 '1 o n' 10. Ixsl.
Ai = K 1 0 i and li 2 10 _P T \ 3 4 1 , then fa) A is now equivalent to B only
when a = 2, {1 ^ 3, and y = 4 (&) A is raw equivalent to li only when a * 0,
jl * 0, and y = 0 ic) A is not row equivalent to B id) A is row equivalent to B
for all value of a. [1, y [2 -!]=[J o] where M = |“ *]. then A is 1 Pc > 1] f 2 li
r 2 i i (6) [s .-J AA-'=J 2-1 3 1' 16. The rank of matrix 1 4-2 1 is . .... 5 2 4 3
17. The sum of the eigen values of a matrix is the .. . of the elements of the
principal diagonal IB, The sum and product of the eigen values of the
matrix [2 -31 IX [4 -aj are and . . respectively. (A/i/in. 20091 1 2 -2 '326 Sft.
Inverse of -1 3 0 is 1 1 k "0-2 1 2 2 5 then k is 21). Using Cavley-Hamilton
theorem, the value of A* - 4AS — SAU - A + 21 when A J1 2liS. W *J !
Anna. 2001/} 21. If two eigen values of '8-6 2 -6 7-4 2 —4 3 22. A
quadratic form is positive semi. definite when 23. ABi „ n and Hfrm are two
matrices. When will (aj A . II exist 24. The product of the eigen values of
are 3 and 15, then the third eigen value is {b)A + B exist ? 1 0 O' 0 3—1 is .
0 -1 3j 25. The quadratic form corresponding to the diagonal matrix diag
(Xj , q, .... Xn) is (a) xi + x$ 4- ... + x% W kixf + 72-v| + (
74 Higher Engineering Mathematics 29. The eigen values of the
malm 30. 31. 6-2 2 2 3-1 2-13 are A matrix A is idempotent if...,. ,1 1 -t Thu
rank nf the mu iris 2- 3 4 3- 2 3 is - 1 2 3 32. If A = 0 3 5 0 0 -2 then the
eigen values of A4 are 33. The sum at the eigen val ues of is 34. 35. 36. 37.
36. J 1 3 1 5 1 ■3 -1 -1 (it -2 (ii) 3 (Hi) 6 The maximum value of the rank of
a 4 x f> matrix is . .... The sum of two eigen values and trace of & 3 x 3
matrix ore equal, then the value of | A f is {ii'> 7 (S.V.T.f., 2009) (Anna,
2009) If the sum of the eigen values of the matrix of the quadratic font! is
zero, then the nature of the quadratic form is cos 0 — ! The eigen values of
matrix , . sin ft -i are ......... 39. 1 1 the product of two eigen values of the
matrix 40. 41. is 1G. then the third eigen value is . - sin 9 cos ft The eigen
values of a triangular matrix are . . fi -2 2 -2 3-1 2 -1 8 If 1, i=l,2, n are the
eigen values of a square matrix A, then the eigen values of A T are By
applying elementary transformations to a matrix, its rank (a) increases ib>
decreases (
Linear Algebra : Determiâp^ts, Matrices 75 52. A system of

linear n on -homogen e o u s equations is consistent, if and only if the rank
of coefficiei rank of . 53- The matrix of the quadratic form q = -lx* - 2.V2 +
z2 - 2rv + Qzx is . . 54. If 5Wj, Xg are the eigen values of a matrix A. then
A* has the eigen values . 56, If i, is an eigen value of a non-singular matrix
A, then the eigen value of A-1 is ........ 5(5. 'I 'he matrix corresponding to
the quadratic form x2 + 2,y’t — lz2 - 4ry + firy + ftyz is ......... “3 1 4l 57.
The sum of the squares of the eigen values of is 58. 59. If the rank of a
matrix A is 2, then the rank of A‘ is . The index and signature of the
quadratic form xf + -3*3 are respectively The equations z + 2y = 1, 7jc +
\4y = 12 are consistent. find 60. HI. IF rank {A > =2, ron k {B ) = 3, then
ran k (AB) = 6, 62, Any set of vectors which includes the zerg vector is
linearly independent, H3, If K is an eigen value of a symmetric matrix. then
X is real. Mi Every square matrix does not satisfy its own cha mete ris Lie
equation, 65. If a is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix, then 1 fk is also
its eigen value 06. If the rank of a matrix A is 3* then the rank of is 1 , H7.
The vectors [1, I, - 1 , I], [h -1, 2i - I U 13, 1, 0, 1| are linearly dependent,
68. The eigen values of a skew-symmetric matrix are real. B\K Inverse of a
unitary matrix is a unitary matrix. 70, A ia a nonzero column matrix and B
is a nun-aero row* matrix, then rank of AB is one, — ’ **-r ¥'• ~ ; * ‘"iv ~ ^
I * ""'r | ’■ - 'J- ‘ • ' " T-' - j '~~m '■ , “ • ’r~~'Y‘ 7 1 . The sum of the eigen
values of A equals to the trace of A 1 0 0 3 (1 -1 matrix is equal lu (True or
False! (True or False) (True or False) (True or False) (True or False) I True
or False) (True or False) (True or False) (True or False) (True or False)
(True or False) (True or False)
Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry 1. Vectors. 2. Space
coordinates. Resolution of Vectors, Direction cosines. 3. Section formulae.
4-6. Products of two vectors. 7. Physical applications. 8—10, Products of
three or more vectors. 11. Equations of a plane. 12. Equations of a straight
line. 13. Condition for a line to lie in a plane. 14. Coplanar lines. 16. S.D.
between two lines. 16. Intersection of three planes, 17. Equation of a sphere
18, Tangent plane to a sphere19, Cone. 20. Cylinder. 21, Quadric surfaces.
22. Surfaces of Revolution. 23. Objective Type of Questions. VECTOR
ALGEBRA [I (1) VECTORS A quantity which is completely specified by
its magnitude (inly is called a scalar. Length, time, mass, volume,
temperature, work, electric charge and numerical data in Statistics are all
examples of scalar quantities. A quantity which is completely specified by
its magnitude and direction is called a vector. Weight, displacement,
velocity, acceleration and electric current density are all vector quantities
for each involves magnitude and direction. A vector is represented by a
directed line segment. Thus PQ represents a vector whose magnitude is the
length PQ and direction is from P (starting point } to Q (end point). We
denote a vector by a single letter in capital bold type (or with an arrow on
it) and its magnitude (length) by the corresponding small letter in italics
type. Thus if V is the velocity vector, its magnitude is y, the speed. A vector
of unit magnitude is called a unit vector. The idea of unit vector is often
used to represent concisely the direction of any vector. Unit vector
corresponding to the vector A is written as A . A vector of zero magnitude
(which can have no direction associated with it) is called a zero (or null)
vector and is denoted by 0-a thick zero. —I — ) The vector QP represents
the negative of PQ , i.e., - A. Tioo vectors A and B having the same
magnitude and the same (or parallel) “4 4 directions are said to be equal and
we write A = B. Clearly the vectors Aff, LM and PQ are all equal (Fig. 3,1),
Fig. 3.1 O P 76 A Fig. 3.2
Vector Al&£bha & Solid Geometry 77 (2) Addition of vectors.
Vectors are added according to the triangle law of addition, which is a
matter of common knowledge. Let A and B be represented by two vectors
OP and PQ respectively then OQ = C is called the sum or resultant of A and
B, Symbolically, we write, C = A + B (3) Subtraction of vectors. The
subtraction of a vector B from A is taken to be the addition of- B to A and
we write A + {- B ) = A - B (4) Multiplication of vectors by scalars. We
have just seen that A + A = 2A and -A + (— A) = “2A where both 2A and -
2A denote vectors of magnitude twice that of A ; the former having the
same direction as A and the latter the opposite direction. In general, the
product mA of a vector A and a scalar m is u vector whose magnitude is in
times that of A and direction is the same or opposite to A according as m is
positive or negative. Thus A=cA. Example 3. 1 . If A and B are the vectors
determined by two adjacent sides of a regular hexagon. What are the
vectors represented by the other sides taken in order t Sol u i ion. Let
ABCDEF be the given hexagon, such that AB - A and BC = B Also Now
and AC - AB + BC = A + B AD 2BC = 2B CD = AD - AC = 2B -(A + B) =
B - A BE - - AB = - A l v AB = and j| ED\ EF = - BC = -B [v BC = and |j
FE\ FA = - CD = -(B-A) = A- B |v CD = and J| AFj -A Fig. 3.3 3.2. (I)
Space coordinates. Let X'OX and Y'OY, Z'OZ be three mutually
perpendicular lines which intersect at O. Then O is called the origin. X'OX
is called the x-axis, YOY the y-axis, Z'OZ the. z-axis and taken together
these are called the coordinate axes. The plane YOZ is called the yz-plane,
the plane ZOX the zxplanc, the plane XOY the xy- plane and taken together
these are called the coordinate planes. Let P be any point in space. Draw
PL, PM, PN _Ls to the yz, zx and ay-planes. Then LP. MP. NP are
respectively called the coordinates of P (Fig. 3.41. in practice, if OA - x ,
AN y, NP = z, then {x, y, z) are the Fig. 3.4 coordinates of P which are
positive along (LV, OY, OZ respectively and negative along OX\ OY‘, OZ' .
The three coordinate planes divide the space into eight compartments called
octants. The octant OXYZ in which all the coordinates are positive is called
the positive or first octant. Note. Three non-coplanar vectors A. B, C are s
aid to form
78 Higher Engineering Mathematics We have explained the most
commonly used system of coordinates namely the Rectangular Cartesian
Coordinates. The other two systems of coordinates often used to locate a
point in space are the Polar spherical coordinates and Cylindrical
coordinates, which are explained in § 8.21 and 8.20. (2) Resolution of
vectors. Let I, J, K denote unit vectors along OX, OY, OZ respectively. Let
Pix. y, z) be a point in space. On OP as diagonal, construct a rectangular
parallel opiped with edges OA, OB, OC along the axes so that OA =xl, OB
= .yJ, OC =zK Then R = OP = OC' + C'P = OA = AC + OC = OA+OB +
OC Hence R = xl + yJ + zK is called the position vector of P relative to
origin O and. r- | R| = j(x2 + y2 +z2) [ .. _ op* - OC * + C’P “ = OA'2 +
AC"1 + C'P2} (3) Direction cosines. Let any line L or its parallel OP. make
angles a. |i, y with OX, OY, OZ respectively, then cos a, cos p, cos y arc
called the direction cosines of this line which arc usually denoted by l, m, n.
Ifl, m, n are direction cosines of a vector R, then (i}R =l\ + mj + rK, (ft) l2
+ m! + ii!tl Proof. Let D be the foot of the perpendicular from Pix, y, z) on
OY. Then y - OD = r cos p = mr. Similarly, z- nr and x = Ir . R = xl + yJ +
zK = r(/I + mJ + n.K) or R = - = (I + mJ + nK r which expresses a unit
vector in terms of its direction cosines. Also I = | R | = \j(l2 + m2 + n2) thus
I2 + m2 + n2 = I i.e., cos2 a + cos2 p + cos2 y = 1 Fig. 3.5 Zl fig. 3.7 Fig.
3.6 z) {V.T.U., 2010) Obs. Directions ratios. If the direction cosines of a
line be proportional to a, b , c, then these are culled proportional direction
cosines or direction ratios of the Jine. tf the direction cosines be /, m, n. then
l m n J(fZ + m2 + »2) 1 a b c ^(H2 +i2 + r2) ^(Ea2) .a b c - - t “■ j * tn ” j -
1 “ j ij(Zit2) Jan3) <41 Distance between two points P(x,,yx, zx) and
Q(x2,y2, z2) is - xt f + ly2^ yi f + (z2 - z, >2 1 and direction ratios of PQ
are Xg - x,T y2 - y t, 3!a — at, We liave OP +yxtl + zxK and OQ — x2I +
y2J + ZgK PQ = OQ-OP
79 Victor Algebra & Solid Geometry = (x2 -x,)I + (jg-yt>J + (2a -
x^K Thus, d = [ PQ | = J|2 +■ <6 - 6 f j = 3^2 BC = + 3)2 + (7 -§f + (10
-6)2] = 3^2 and CA = J[(- 4 - 0? + <9 - if + (6- 10)2] = 6 Since AB'A + BC
2 = CA2 anti AB = SC, it follows that AABC is a Hpjl it- angled isosceles
triangle. The direction ratios of AS are — 1 + 4, 6 - 9. 6 - 6. 1 1 Its direction
cosines are — =-, — = , 0. v2 >12 SECTION FORMULAE The point R (r+
_y+ z) dividing the join of the points A(xr yv st) and BU^, y 2, z2) in the
ratio : m2 is r J7ij + ni2.vl mlz2 + ^ || _ + nH& t.e ,, .M) ni| + trtn \ m-y +
n%2 ?7i| + Hty wi| + m*2 j Let P(A) and Q( B) be the given points referred
Lo origin O. Let /i{R) be the point dividing: the line joining P and Q i n the
ratio nij : m,2 ho that We have or or whence Since and PR mi - «*, - - — -
PR = m, . RQ B Q m2 — f -» ma PR = ml RQ mÔR-OP) = mllOQ-6R) m
,J It — A) - m | f B — K) R = mtB 4 m2A nti + A = Xjl + Jvl + ^K. B = X2I
+ y?S + 2jK R =s xl + yj + 2-K J + J +■ ZjK) xl + y J + zK ^ IT* 1! j + m-2
Equating coefficient of 1, J, K, we get the desired results ii). Vor* L Mid-
point ofP(A)and Q(B) is ^ h - . [Rewriting U" i as mÂ +■ mi^B - Ufi ( +
m2)R = U, we note that the sum of the eoetlicientH of A* B and R is zero.
Hence it follows that any thrê points wuh position visitors Af Bifid C chip
ro///ne«r if XA + pB + jC = 0t where X + ft + y - tf. Example 3,3. /« ^
trapezium, prove that the straight line joining the mid-points of the
diagonals is parallel to tke para! let sides and half their difference. Sol ii
lion. Consider a trapezium OABC with parallel sides OA and BC. Take O
as the origin and let the other vertices be A(Ah B(B), C(C).
80 High eh Engineering Mathematics Since CB is parallel to OA,
therefore, b - c - ch = \6a = >jl. The mid-points of the diagonals OB and AC
are DIHJ2) arid DE = OE - OD = i< A + C> - - B = — |A - (B - C)1 2 2 2 =
- (1 - X)A 2 From trV >, it is clear that DE is parallel to OA \ from (i)t it
follows that DE ~ 7f(0A - CB)Hence the result. Example 3.4. SAotc that the
line Joining one vertex of a parallelogram to the mid-point of an apposite
side insects the diagonal and is itself trisected there at. Solution. Consider a
parallelogram OABC. Take O as the origin and let the other vertices be
/4(A), BIB) and C(C). The mid-point D of OA is A/2. Now since OA is
equal to and parallel to CB. which may be written as OA ~CBt Le„ A = B-C
+ ^ ^ ^ = P so that P trisects DC and OB. 2 + 1 3 A Fig. 3.11 L Given Rt ^
El - 2J + 4K and = I + 3J + 7K, find the magnitude and direction cosines of
the Vttctftrs Rx + R^ and m, - r2 2. Show that the points (% 4* 1) ; (2* — *
. i.4p 5, 0? and (2, 2; are the vertices of a squaw. (O.H/mimo, 1999 S) 3* A
straight line is inclined to the axes of x andy at angles df30Q and Sir. Find
the inclination of the line to the {Madras, 2003) 4. If a line makes angles
ct+ Jj, y with the axes* prove that ( t) sin2 a + sin2 p + sin2y= 2. (V,7' f/.(
2000 ; Qsrmma* 1999) (u) cos 2a + cos 2p 4 cos 2y - - 1r». If A and R are
non-col I in ear vectors and P = {2x 4 3y - 2)A 4 i3x + 2 y + 5 )B and Q = (-
x + 4y — *2\A + (3x - 4_y + 7 iB, fmd x, y such that 7P - 3Q. fk Prove that
the line joining the mid-points of the two sides of a triangle is parallel to the
third side and half of it, 7. Prove that (i) the diagonals of a parallelogram
bisect each ether ; Hi) a quadrilateral whose diagonals bisect each other is a
parallel Ogrfim 8. In a skew quad ri lateral* prove that : (i) the figure
formed by joining the mid’ixnnUof the adjacent sides is a parallelogram.
Hi) the joins of Lhe mid-points of opposite sides bisect eadl other. 9. In a
trapezium, prove that the straight line joining the mid- points of the non-
ptiraild sides is parttll^ to the parallel sides and half their sum. 10. l^rove
that the vectors A = 31 + J - 2K? B=-I + 3J + 4K. C = 41 - 2J - OK can form
the sides of a triangle. Also find the length of the median bisecting the
vector C. {J.N.T.U., 1995 S\ l L Find the ratio in which the line joining E2,
4, 16) and (3. 5, 4) is divided by lhe plane 2x - 3y + a + 6 = 0, (Myôrc,
1995) 12- Show1 that the three points I - 2 J + 3K, 21 + 3 J - 4K* - 7J i 10K
are coll incur. 13* If A, R, V be the position vectors of the vertices A , B, C
of the triangle ABC, show that tr three It) medians concur aL the point (A 4
R -4 C\ called the centroid. 3 (ii) internal bisectors pf the angles concur at
the point aA 4- &B + eC -vi * , - _ — ^ called the a + h 4- c
Vector Algebra & SOUP Geometry 81 M- Show that i he
coordinates of the centroid vf the triangle whose vertices are *!>• (i'j.To'
y3> a, c *1 + *2 + *3 .vi + .V2 + J5 g) +** + *a' 3 * 3 ' 3 l 1.", Show (.lint
the coordinates of l.ht* rmtroid of the tetrahedron whose vertices «,(J z,) : r-
1, 2, 3, 4 are 7< ■■* | > ^ + •% + *4 h “ hV] * *2 « .Vy ' V.J I: 7 Ui + 2-2 +
“8 + -4 > ! 4 4 4 |Def. A tetrahedron is a solid bounded by ft mr triangular
fuem. Thus the tetrahedron ABCD has four faces— the As ABC . AfO,
ADfi, BCD. (Fig. 312.) It has four vertices A+ B+ C\ D and three pairs of
opposite edges ABf CD ; BCt AD ; CA , BD. The centroid of the ttfrahrdron
divides the jam of each vertex to the centroid of the opposite nitwgtthir fin-
e in the Wtio <1 : 1 1. 16, M jind N are Lhe mid- points of the diagonals AC
and BD respectively tif a quadrilateral ABCD. Show that the resultant of the
vectors Alf AD, CBS CD is 4 MN , (Cnehm, 1999} WWM PRODUCTS
OF TWO VECTORS _ Unlike the product of two scalars or that of a vector
by a scalar, the product of two vectors is sometimes seen to result in a scalar
quantity and sometimes in a vector. As such, we are led to define two types
of such products, called the scalar product and the vector product
respectively. The scalar and vector products of two vectors A and B are
usually written as A . B and A * R respectively and are read as A dot B and
A cross B. In view of this notation, the former is sometimes called the dot
product and the latter the cross product. In vector algebra, the division of a
vector by another vector is not defined. 3.5 SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT
(1) Definition. The scalar or clot product of two vectors A and B is defined
os the scalar ab cos 0, where 0 is the angle between A and B. Thus A.B = ab
cos 0. (2) Geometrical interpretation. A.B is the product of the length of one
vector and the length of the projection of the other in the direction of the
former. Let Oh — A, OM ~ B then A . B = 06 cos 6 = aiOM cos 0) =
a(OJVj = | A | Proj. of | B | in Lhe direction of A. Similarly, A . B = | B [
Proj. of | A | in the direction of B. (3) Properties and other results. I. Scalar
product of two vectors is commutative. Le., A - B = B . A for A . B =
or Hiqheh EiMtiiMteftiNo Mathematics V. Scalar product of two
vectors is distributive Le., (A + B) . C = A . C + B , C VI. Schivurz
inequality* : | A . B | < j A j [B| J A . B | = | A | J B | j cos 6 | < | A | ] B | [v |
cos 0| < 1] VII. Scalar product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the
products of their corresponding components. For if A = «jl + o2J + «3K, B -
fc,I + h.Î + /j3K then by the distributive law, A . B = iijbj + o.J},? + o.Jb:t
In particular, A2 = a 2 + ti,^ + aff. VIII. Angle between two lines whose
direction cosines are l, m, n and V, m\ n' is cos ' (11* + mm* + nn'). The
unit vectors in the direction of the given lines are U - fl + md + nK and U'=
11 + m'J + n*K. If © be the angle between the lines, then U . U* = {ll + mJ
+ nK) U'l + m'J + n*K) 1,1, cos Q = W + mm ' + nn' (V.T.U., 2008) Hence
cos 0 = IV + mm ' + nn' ...(i) Cor. 1. sin1* 6 = 1- cos2 0 = 1 - ((/' + mm' +
nn')2 = (/2 + m2 + n2) U'2 + m's + nfl) - {IT + mm' + nn')2 = imn'~ nm '? +
ini' - tn‘P + Um’- ml’? sin fl = ± yfZimn' - nm'?. ...In) Cor. 2. The condition
that the tines whose direction cosines are l , m, n and V, m\ n' should he
perpendicular is U* + mm' + nn' = 0 and parallel is 1 = 1% m = m', n = n'
These conditions easily follow from (i) and (ir). Cor. 3. The angle 8
between two lines whose direction ratios tire a, b, c» and o', c' is given by „
ad + bb‘ + cc cos 6 = —i= ...(k£) ...(in) or Jl(bc — rf/r + ica — — ba^ *“ =
V(z«a>V(s«'2) These lines are (i) perpendicular if an' + bb' + cd = 0, (ii)
parallel if at a' - h t b ' = tie’. IX. Projection of the line joining two points
(Xj.yj, zf) and (xv,y.it z.,) on a line whose direction cosines are l, m, n is
/(*2 - jTj) + m(y2 — + niz.j-z^. Let, OP = Ajl +ytJ + rjK, OQ - xfl + ysJ
+r2K PQ = Uj, - x,)l + Also unil vector U along the given linos is /I + tnJ +
nK, —i Projection of PQ on the given line = PQ . U. = /Cx2“Xj) + m(y2 -yd
+ fttea— £,). Example 3,5. Find the side s and angles of the triangle whose
vertices arc 1 - 2*1 + 2K, 21 + J - K, and .31- J +2K. Solution. Let QA = 1 -
2J + 2K, OR = 21 + J K, OC. = 31 - J + 2K Then BC = 1 - 2J + 3K CA = -
21 - J * Named after the German mathematician Hermann Amandas
Schwarz (t843 — -1921) who is known for his work in conformal mapping,
calculus of variations and differential geometry. He succeeded Waerstrass in
Berlin University.
Vector Algebra & Souo Geometry and A B = I + 3 J — 3K BC = -
Jli, CA = V5, AS = Vl9. Now d.c/s of AB and AC being 1/V19, 3/Vl9, -
3/Vl9 and 2/>/5, 1/V5. 0, We have cow A - }— . -7= + —7= . -7=- + — p=
- 0 = ^(5/19) Vis S Vis Vs Vis i.e., ZA = cos-1 ^{5/191. Again d.c.’s pfBC
and BA being 1/Vu, - 2/Vl4 , 3/Vl4 and - 1/VlS, - 3/VT9, 3/Vl9 ; we have
cos B - -^1=- . -^= + , -j=L + Z= , -^= = Vll4/19) , i.e., ZB - cos 5 yji 14/191
Finally, d.c.'s of CA and CB being - 2/Vs, - l/Vs, 0 and - Wl4, 2/yfU, -
3/Vl4 ; wo have Nr, 3,15 — 2—1 — 1 2 — 3 cos C = - —3= + — pr . + 0 ,
-= - 0 , i.£.f ZC = 90D Vs V14 Vs V14 Vu Example 3,6. Pnwe that the right
-bisectors of the sides of a triangle, concur at its cirtutnvenire. Solution. Let
A(A}, BIB), C(C) be the vertices of any triangle ABC. The mid-points of
the sides BC. CA andAB are ^■(“Wx) Let the perpendicular at D and E to
BC and CA respectively intersect at the point P(R). Then DP . BC = 0 i,e.t
'h-“±5 and EP . CA = 0, i.e., Adding li) and (ii), we get . (C-B) = 0 C + A (R
A + B {A -C) = 0 , (A - B) = 0 ...li) ...(«> which shows that FP is
perpendicular to AB. Hence the result. Further PA = PB if | A - R | = ( B - R|
or if, (A - R)2 = (B - R)2 or if. A2 - 2A R = B2 - 2B . R of if. ( 2 J (A - B) =
0, which is true. Example 3.7, If the distance between two points P and Q is
d and the lengths of the projections of PQ on the coordinate plane* d s, d2,
dv show that 2d~- dj + df + rf|. Solution. Let P be 2 + U1 - 22)2. The feet of
the perpendiculars drawn from Pand Q on theXY-plane are the projections
of P and Q on this plane. If these are L and M\ then L is (xp yp 0} and M is
ix2, y2, 0). d, = projection of PQ on XY-plane, i.e., LM or df = txj -x2)2 +
(yj ~y2)2 df = (y5 - y2}2 + tei - z2)2 and df = (Zj - + (Xj - x2)2 df + d| + df
= 2[{xl - x2)2 + Oj - y<2? + (z; - z2)2| - 2d1. Similarly,
84 Higher Eugene ew/g MAWENWittcs Example 3.8* 4 K#ijp

makes angles a, pf % 5 w/ftA diagonals of a cube* prove theft cos? a + cos2
p + eos2 y + ros- 6 = 4/J+ (V.T.tA, 2£>0t? , Osma/iiti, ,2000 S) Solution,
Take O* a turner of the cube as origin and OA* OB , 0C the three edges
through it, as the axes. Let OA = OB = OC = «. Then the coordinates of the
corners are as shown in Fig. 3.17. The four diagonals are OPT AA', BBf and
CC\ Clearly , direction cosines of OP are a - 0 a - 0 a - 0 VE?)’ vETT JSyi
“" 1 1 1 Similarly, direction cosines of AAr are - -j= . ^ ^ ; B' (a. n, oj
Similarly, direction cosines of BBf are S’ J3’S; z C(ot ot a) A ’fa, a, i A / / #•
j S > * * * P tak fl, a) ^y'Qfo. v, o) r R(it, «B X y' A( ii. o) CY«. a, a) Fig.
3.17 and Similarly direction cosines of CC* are -^=* -j=w - -JU. Let/, m, n
be the direction cosines of the given line which makes angles a, p+ y. 5 with
OPk AA', BB\ CC' respectively. Then cos o (/ + m + n) ; cos p = ^ + m + ^
cos y = (f — m + n); cos 5 = —j= (1 ! + m — n) Squaring and adding, wfe
get cos2 a + cos2 B + cos2 y + cos2 8 = — \{t + m + n)2 + (- / + m + n )2 +
(/ m + rcj2 + t/ + m - n )2] 3 = — |4(/2 + m2 + n2)| - — ,. 3 3 ( v l2 +
m2±n2 = 1] Example 3.9. //* //ie qefeffy c/a paraWeiopipî at e a, br t\
show that t he angle between the four diagonals are cos ( fj "" 4" fi2 -f \ [ ns
+ b2 + r J Solution. Lot OA - a, OB = b, OC - c bt' the edges of the
rectangular parallclo piped. Then the coordinates of the corners are as
shown in Fig. 3. 18. The four diagonals taken in pairs are (i) (O P, AfV), («>
{OP( BB'), (Hi) (OP, CC), (iv) (AA‘, BB"), (v) 2 *
Vector Algebra & Scud Geometry 85 Example S.lO.frotv that the
tines whose direction cosines are given by the relations at + hm + rn = Oand
mu + nt + ttn - 0 are (1) Perpendicular if a 1 1 6 'J + c “J = 0 [Burdwan.
2003} {ii ) parallel if -Ja + jf) 4- •Jc = 0. Solution. Eliminating n from the
given relations, we have at + bin ' (m + /) (+ lm = 0 or al2 + (r - a - h)lrn +
bm2 = 0 or a{l/tn)2 + (c — a - b)U/m) + 6 - 0 ...(1) If7j, m,, n, ; l2, m2. n2,
are the direction cosines of these lines then l fm t . I Jm2 are the roots of the
quadratic (1). A 1 tn^ a ■2 b — - — or Vo ™ in*a fhn2 Vb Vc (bv
symmetry) = k (say). ( 1 1 Is) The lines wit! hr perpendicular if fl2 + mtni2
+ ntn2 = *— + — + — =0 £l C; or if. la+i-oi a b e The lines will be parallel
iff = l2, ml - m2,n1 = n2> f.e.,if, fl/m1 = i.e. if, (o — a — b)2 = 4ab or if, c
- a —b - ± 2 , Jiah) or if, c - a + 6 ± 2 flab) = {4a ± 4b)2 or if. ± 4c - -fa ±
4b or if, 4a + 4h + 4t' = 0 (Taking necessary signs] Example 3. 1 1. Find the
angle between the linen whose direction cosines are given by the equate 'U t
r 3m 4 on - 0 and film - 2 mu + fint = 0, Solution. Let us eliminate t from
the given relations, by substituting l = - 3m - fin in the second relation 5m
(— 3m — 5«) — 2m n + Gn (- 3m — 5n ) - 0 i.e., 15ma + 45mn + 30n2 - 0
or m2 + 3 mn + 2n 2 ~ 0 or {m + n Km + 2n ) = 0, i.e., m + n = 0«rm + 2 n
= 0 Now let us first solve the equations / + 3m + fin - 0 and m + n = 0 / _ m
_ n -~2 ~ -A ~ T These give m = - n and l - - 2 n, i.e., ■ ...U) Similarly,
solving the equations l + 3m + fin = 0 and m + 2 n = 0, Waget lmJ!L.± 1-21
(f ) and (ii) give the direction ratios of the two lines. If 0 be the angle
between these two lines, then (1) J(22 +1^ +l2)J(l* + 22 +l2) 6 UJ
PROBLEMS 3.2 \ . [f A = I + 2J + iSK, B :r- I + 2 J + K mid C = El + d,
find t Kuch thal A * /B is perpendicular U> C. ft) Show LhuL ( it.) 1
nt«rpret geometricalljr i C — A) * fB — G) ^ If j A + B | - | A - II |, « haw
that A and B anv mutuaDy p^rpondHuloiv
86 Higher Engineering Mathematics 4- If A = I + 2#I - 3K and II

= SI - J +- 2K, show thal AtBis perpendicular to A - B. Also calculate the
angle between 2A + C and A + 2B. 5. Shnw that the three concurrent line*?
with direction cosines i/1+ mp nx)t (7^ "U, n?h f n3) are copJanar if /, m, fj,
a % L m. j n j M* frt,. = 0. 6- Find the projection of the vector I - 2J + K on
41 - 4J + 7K, 7, The projection of a line on the coordinate axes are 12, 4, 3.
Find the length and direction cosines of the line. (Rajaxfk 2006) R. Shew i
by vector methods) that the mid-point of the hypotenuse of a right-angled
triangle is equidistant from its veilices. 9* Prove (by vector methods) t hat
the angle in a semi-circle is ft right angle. 10. Show (by vector methods)
that the diagonals of n rhombus intersect at right angles. 11, Show that Lhe
altitudes of a triangle meet in a point (called the orlhomnire), 12- ABCD is
to tetimtadxon having the edges BC and AC ’ at right angles la opposite
edges AD and BD respectively. Show rlial Lhc third pair oT opposite- edges
A8 and CD are also at right angles, 13- Find the angle between i.he line#
whose direction co-nines are given by the equations / + m + n = 0. F +■ m2
3 + n2 - 0. {Rajasthan, 2005 J 14, Show that the lines whose direction
cosines are given by the equations 4/m - 3m n - nl = Q. and 3/ +■ m + 2n ~
b are perpendicular. {Anna, 2QQ& J IS* Show that the lines whose
direction cosines are given by the equations / + m + n = 0, aP + hm2 + rns =
0 nre iil perpendicular, if a + 6 +- c = flp Ui) parallel, if nr1 + fr1 + c_l = 0.
!fj. Show that the straight lines whose direction cosines are given by the
equations at + bm + i n - 0, fmn +■ gni + him — D are (/) perpendicular if
— + ^ + - = 0 {Osman hi, 2003) a p c (ii ) parallel if ± ,/fig ± VcA - n. 17*
Shew that th* ^ngle between any two diagonals of a cube is cos-1 1/3. i V T
lLf 2009 ; Assam, 1999) 18, f/j. m r n f A, pirgi n.2) and (/3, mv n3l are the
direction cosines of three mutually perpendicular lines. Prove that the line
whose (Lc.’b are proportional to ^ W2 + mx + m2 + m3. ^ + nv + makes
equal angles with I he axes. iV.TM 2003) 19* AB, BC are I he diagonals of
adjacent faces of a rectangular box with its centre at the origin (A its edges
are parallel to the axes If the angles BOC\ COA ami A()$ are equal tn 0, v
respectively, prove that cos 0 + cos $ + Cm V = - 1 . 3.6 VECTOR, OR
CROSS PRODUCT ( 1 ) Definition. The verier, or cross product of two
vectors A and B is defined as a vector such that (1) its magnitude is ab sin 0,
0 being the angle between A and B, (ii ) its direction is perpe.ndieut.iir to
the plane of A and B, and (Hi) it forms with A and B a right-handed system.
If N be a unit vector normal to the plane of A and B {A, B, N forming a
right-handed system), then A x B = ab sin B N. (2) Geometrical
interpretation. AxB represents twice the vector area of the triangle having
the vectors A and B as its adjacent sides. If N be a unit vector normal to the
plane of the triangle OAR , then A x B = ab sin B N = 2 f ±ab sin 6 | N = 2A
OAR N = 2A OA B. (3) Properties and other results /. Vector product of two
vectors is not commutative, A * B * B x A. In fact, AxB=-B xA. Fig. 3.19
87 Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry for and AxB = ui sin 0 N or
2A GAB. B x A ~ ah sin (- 0) N = -ab sin 0 N ot 2A ORA. II. The necessary
and sufficient condition for two nan-zero vectors to be para tie/ is that their
vector product should be zero. When the vectors A anti B are parallel, the
angle 0 between them is 0 and 180" so that sin 0-0, and as such A * B := 0.
Conversely, when A x B = 0 ; ab sin 0=0 i.e. , sitt 6=0 (v s*0,6i0l or 0 = 0 or
180°. In particular, A x A = 0. III. For the orthonarnwl vector trial 1, J, K,
wTe have the relations : lx Isjx J = K x K = I X J = Kj J x I = -K J X K = I,
K x J = ~ I K x I = J, I x K = - J. ue.< /V, Relation between scalar and vector
products. We have (A . B)2 = u2i>2 cos 0 = a2b2 - r/262 sin2 0 « a2b2 - (A
x B) , (A x B) {A x B)2 = A2B2-(A.B)2. V', Vector product of two vectors
is distribu tive. (A+B)xC = AxC + BxC, VI. Analytical expression for the
vector product. If A = djl + tijjJ + QgK, B = bjl + b2 J + 6^K then. A x B =
For we gel A x B = [a,fb^ - + (ct^ a /bîJ (« |f*2 - n2t>, )K whence follows
the required result. t J K at a,j a:i &t br^ Example 3.1 2, // A = 41 + j’J + K.
B = 21— J + 2K, find a unit vector N perpendicular to vectors A and R such
that A, B, N form a right handed system. Also find the angle between the
vectors A and B. Solution. Since A x B = - 7i _ 6J - 10K and Unit vector N
J_ In A and B = | Ax B I - Vim" + Prove that the area of the triangle whose
vertices are A, B. C is - )BxC + CxA + AxB| 2 (i7) Calculate the area of the
triangle whose vertices arc AU. 0 - 1), B{2, 1. 5) and CIO, 1, 2). Solution, (i
I Let A(A), Sill). C(C) be the vertices of the triangle ABC (Fig. 3.20) and O,
the origin so that BC = OC-OB= C-B ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
86 Higher Engineering Mathematics (ii) Let O be tho origin so
that OA - I - K, OB = 21 + J + 5K and OC = J + 2K Then BC =OC-OB=-
21 - 3K and Vector area of A ABC = — (BC x BA) = 7: 2 2 6K I J K -2 0 -3
-1 ~1 -6 Thus area of A ABC = \ j - 31 - 9J+ 2Kf = \ Example 51.14, In a
triangle ABC; D, E. F are the mid-points of the sides BC, CA, AB; prove
that A DEF * AFCE - - A ABC. 4 Solution. Take B as the origin and let the
position vectors of C and A be C and A (Fig 3,21}; so that the position
vectors of D, E, F are C/2, (C + A)/2, A/2. A DEF = -
89 Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry Qp - (p cos A) I - t p sin A)J
— ? OQ - iq cos B)I + {q sin B) J Then | OPx OQ | = | |(p cos A)I - (p sin
AU] x [( cos fill + {q sin B) J | = p^ | cos A sin B (I x J) - sin A cos B < J * I
) | = pq (cos A sin B + sin A cos B) for ) I x J ( = 1 — * — + Also | OP x
OQ | = pq sin (A + R). Equating the two expressions, we get (/). — > — f
Similarly, (ii) follows from OP . OQ - pq cos (A + B), Example 3*16. In
any triangle ABC , prove that (i) of sin A = h/sin B = cfstn C. [it) a - h cos C
+ c cm B. ii) a 2 - b2 + f r - 2hc cos A. or or or rt’ Solution. From AABCt
we have SC + C ^4 + AB = 0 CA + AR=-RC i ■ — ^ U) Multiplying IX)
vectorial ly by /1/3 , we get — > — > CA x AB = — BC x AB j CA x AB j
= | BC x AB j 6c sin (s - A) = ac sin (it - B) a/sin A = 6/sin B, Similarly,
multiplying (X) vectorially by CA ,we get u/sin A - c/sin C, whence follows
the result. (ii) Multiplying (X) scalarly by BC , wo gel CA . BC + AB . BC -
- (BC)" 6o cos in - C) + co cos (n — B) -- nz or a = 6 cos C + c cos B. (in)
Squaring (X), we get (CA)2 + iAB f + 2CA . AB =(BCf b 2 + cl 2bc cos (ji
— A) = u.2 or a2 = 62 + c- — 26c cos A. {Sine formula) (Projection
formula) {Cosine formula) ...a) Fig. 3.Z3 PROBLEMS 3.3 1. Given A = 21
+ 2J - K, B = 61 - 3J + 2K, Gnd A >- B anti the unit vector iterpCndiOtilar
to both A and It Also deter mine the sine of the angle between A and Ii. 0 1
2. If A and II are unit vectors and 0 is the angle between them, show I hat
sin — - — | A — B | 3. Find a unit vector normal to the plane of A = 31 - 2 J
+ 4K ami B = I + j - 2K. For any vector A, show that | A x 1 1 2 + [A x J | 2
+ | A x K |a =2 J A | . 5, By vector method, find the area of the triangle
whose vertices arc (3, \ . 2). (1. - 1, - 3) and f4, - 3, 1 ). 1 ■> — ► — ) 6.
(t») I ’rove that, the vector area of the quadriatpral A BCD is _ 4^’ x g]j 2
(6j If 31 + J - 2K and I - 3J - -3 K an- the dingo nn Is of a parallelogram
Find its area.
90 Higher Engineering Mathematics 7. Given vectors A = I - ;iJ +
2K and R = 21 + J - K. Find the projection of A k B parallel to r>I K 8. IF A
+ B + C = 0, prove that A. h B = O h C = G * A* and interpret it geomelru
:o I l> 8. Skmv that the perpendicular distance of llie point C from the lino
joining A and R ip | II * C + V * A + A < R | 4 I B “ A | 10* In AC. diagonal
nf the parallelogram AliCD. a point P is taken. Prato that ASAP = ADAP.
11. Prove by vector methods, that (i I sib (A-fl)* sin A cos B - cos A sin 8;
(ti) cos (A - 8) = coe A toe B 4- sin A sin B. (Cochin, i999\ 12. In any
triangle A fit \ prove by vector methods, that (r I b = r cos A + a cos C-. tit 1
cs = a* + b2 - 2 ab coe C. PHYSICAL APPLICATIONS (1) Work done as a
scalar product. If constant force F acting on a particle displaces it from the
position A to position B, then Work done - (resolved part of F in the
direction of AB). AB —I' = F cos 8 . AB = F. AB Thus, the work done by a
constant force is the scalar (or dot) prod net of the rectors representing the
force and the displacement. Example 3.1 7. Constant farces P = 21 5J + 8K
and Q = - 1 + 2J — K ad on a particle. Determine the work done, when the
particle is displaced from: A to B the position vectors of A and B being 4\ -
3*} - 2K and 81 + J - 3K-.respw&ive&y.. ' , * ' , Solution. Resultant force
F-P + Q=13J + 5K and AB = OB - OA = (61 + J - 3K) - (41 - 3J - 2K) = 21
+ 4 J - K Work done - F. AS = (I - 3 J + 5K) . (21 + 4 J - K > = 1 . 2 - 3 . 4 +
5 . (-1) = - 15 units. (2) Normal flux. Consider the flow of a liquid through
an element of area with a velocity V inclined at an angle 8 to the out ward
unit normal N to the surface 5s (Fig. 3.26). Normal flux of the liquid
through &s in unit time V cos 0 , 6e = V . N5s. Thus, the rate of normal flux
per unit area = V . N Ot>*. We can also apply this result to the case of
electric or magnetic flax. (3) Moment of a force about a point. Suppose the
moment of the force F acting at the point P about the point A is required.
Draw AM ± the line of action of F [Fig. 3.27). If 0 be the angle between AP
and F and N be a unit vector 1 to their plane, then AB x F = (AP. F sin 0) N
- FiAP sin 0) N = (F . AM) N Clearly, (i J the magnitude of AP k F = F . AM
which is the numerical measure of the moment of F about A. — i and (i>)
the direction of AP x F is the direction of the moment of F about A. — T>
Hence the moment (or Lorquel of F about A is AP * F. Example 3, 18, Find
the torque about the point 21 + J - K of a force represented by -/I + K acting
through the point I - J + 2K. Solution. Let O be the origin and P be the
point, moment about which of the force AB through A, is required (Fig.
3.28).
91 Vector Algebra & Souo Geometrv OP = 21 + J - K, OA - 1 — J
+ 2K, and AB - 41 + K, Then, PA = /. Moment of the force AB about P ~ PA
x AB = (-1 - 2J + 3K) * (41 + K) Fig. 3.28 1 J K -1-2 3 4 0 1 = - 21 + 13J +
8K /. Magnitude of the moment - ^4 + 169 + 641 - 15,4 (4) Moment of a
force about a line. Def. The moment of' a force F about ci line 1) is the
rest)! veil purl (dong L) of the moment o/F uhnui any point on D. Example
3.19. Find the moment about a line through the origin having direction of
21 + 2 J + K, due to a 30 kg force acting at. a point (— 4, 2, 5) in the
direction of 121 - 4J - -SK Solution. D be the given line through the origin
O and F the force through At- 4, 2, 5). Clearly, OA = - 4 1 + 2J + 6K and
the force F = 30 a Moment of F about O = OA x F I J K = -4 2 5 360 -120
-90 13 13 13 Thus the moment of F about the line D = resolved part of the
moment of F about O along D, = — (71 + 24J -4K) 13 Fig. 3.29 Le., 60 13
(71 + 24J-4K) . D = ~ (71 + 24J-4K). 2f."ll2J..^K = — (7 *2 + 24x2-4* 1) =
89.23. 13 ^(4 + 4+1) 13 (5} Angular velocity of a rigid body Let a rigid
body be rotating about the axis OM with angular velocity w radians peT —
j second {Fig. 3.30). Let P be a point of the body such that OP ~ K and
/.MOP = 9. Draw PM 1 OA/. — ► Now if N be a unit vector ± w R then w
x R = w r sin 0 . N = tnJIfP . N = (speed of P) N = velocity V of P in a
direction X to the plane MOP. Fig. 3.30 Hence V = M * R.
92 Higher Engineering Mathemat ics Example 3,20. A rigid bodj
is spinning with angular velocity lJ7 radians per second about an axis
parallel to 51 + J 2K passing through the paint I + 5J K. Find the vel&ldty
of the point of the body whose position vector is 4 1 + &J + K -* 21 + J -
2K 1 Solution, Unit vector alone the direction of ti> = , = — (21 + J - 2K)
,/(4 + l + -1) 3 27 Angular velocity w = — - (21 + J — 2K) = 9(21 + J —
2K) 3 Let A be the point I + 3 J - K and the point P of the body be (41 + SJ -
K) so that AT = (41 + 8J + K) - (I + 3J - K) - 31 + 5J + 2K —t — > /.
Velocity vector of P = V = ux AP - 9121 + J - 2K) x (31 + 5J + 2K) I = 9 2 3
J 1 5 K -2 2 -■ 9(121 - 10J + 7K) and its magnitude 9 yj(\44 + 100 + 49} - 9
V293 . PROBLEMS 3.4 1. A pnrtide acted on by constant fbrct.-s 41 + J -
mAK and 31 + j - K is displace from t be | n>im I + !fcJ + :$K to the point
fil 4 Id + K. Find the Lota] work done by the forces. 2. Fori i % 21 5J +
6KP - T + M-Kimd 21 ¥ 7J act on a pEiri idc P whose position vector hs 41
- 3J - £K DeU-niiinr i he work done by the forces in a displacement of the
particle to the point Q Hi, t. -3)« Alp find the vector moment of the resultant
of ihree forces acting a t P about the point Q 3. Forces of magnitudes 5* 3
1. units acL in the directions Gi *- 2J + 3K, 31 - 2J + GKt 21 - 3«J - (>K
respectively on a particle which is displaced from tire point (2^ 1, -3) to (6,
-l, 1). Find the work dene by Lhe forces. 4. The point of application of the
force £-2* 4, 7) is displaced from Lhe point £3, -5* I \ lo the point !5H 9, 7)
But the fr-rce is suddenly halved when the point of application moves hftlf
lhe distance Find the work do up. G. A force F Ml + 2d - 4K is applied at
lhe point ( l. - 1, 21. Find the moment nHhe force about lhe point Cip - lt
(Assam, 1999) 6. A force with components (5, - 4, 2) acts at u point P which
is at a distance 3 units from the origin. If the moment of Lhe force about
origin has components {VZt 8* - t-l), find Lhe cm rdi nates of P. 7. Find
Lhe moment of the fora F = 21 + 2#- K acting at lhe point (lt - 2d 1} about
8. A force of ID kg acts in a direction equally inclined to the co-ordinate
axes through lhe point (3, - 2, 5k Find the mag: ;ttirie of the rmim&nt of the
force about a line through the origin and whose direction ratios are f2, -3,
6). i», A rigid body is rotating at 2,5 radians per second about an axis OR t
whore R is lhe point 21 2J + K relative Lo O; Find Lh# velbdty of the
particle of lhe body at Lhe point 4l + J + K. i All lengths are in fern). 3,8
PRODUCTS OF THREE OR MORE VECTORS With any throe vectors a,
B, C, we can term the products (A . B> C, (A xBI.C and IAkBIxC. The first
being the product of a scalar A . B and a vector C, represents a vector in the
direction of C. The second being the scalar product of vectors A * B and C,
represents a scalar and is usually called lhe scalar product of three, vectors.
The third being the vector product of the vectors AxB and C, represents a
vector and is usually known as the vector product of three vectors. The
reader must, however, note that the products of the form A , (B . C), A * (B ,
C) and A(B x C> are meaningless. In practical applications, we seldom
come across products of more than three vectors. Such products if they
occur can, in general, be reduced by using successively the expansion
formula for vector t riple products. As an illustration, we shall consider twro
products (A x B). . (C x D> and (A x R) x (C x Dj of any four vectors, I fie
former being a scalar and a latter a vector.
Vtcti r Algebra & Souq Geometry 93 3.9 SCALAR PRODUCT
OF THREE VECTORS (1) Definition, If A, B, C be any three vectors then
the scalar or dot product of A k 11 with C is called the scalar product of the
three vectors A, B, C and is written us (A * BkC or [ABCj. Nro ambiguity
can arise by omitting the brackets in iA * Bh C as A x f jB _ C) would he
meaninRlesB . (2) Geometrical interpret alien. The Product AxB.C
represents numerically the volume of a parallelepiped having A* Bff C as
coterminous edges. i ^ Consider a parallelepiped with OA = A, OB = B, OC
- C as coterminous edges (Fig. 3.31). Let V be its volume, a the area of each
of the two faces parallel to the vectors A and B and p the perpendicular
distance between these faces. Then | A x B | = a and [ C | cos = p or — p
according as A, B. C form a right-handed or left-handed triad. A x B . C = |
A x B | , | C | cos 0 = ± up = ± V. Thus [ARC] = V or - V according as A. B,
C form a right-handed or left-handed triad . {Kerala, 1990: J.N.T.U., 1988)
In particular, for an orthonormal right-handed vector triad I, J, K, [IJK] =Ix
J.K = K.K = /. (3) Properties and other results. /. Thu condition for three
vectors to he coptunar is that their scalar triple product should vanish. If
three vectors A, B, C anti coplans r, then the volume of the parallelepiped so
formed is zero. Le., [ABC] = 0. II. If any two vectors of a scalar triple
product are equal, the product vanishes , i.e., [ABCJ - 0 when either A = B
or B = C, or C = A, for in this case the parallelepiped has zero volume. III.
Two important rules ( for evaluating a scalar triple product). Every scalar
triple product (i) is independent of the position of the dot or cross . and {it)
depends upon the cyclic otxler of the vectors. It is easy to note that if A, B,
C is a right-handed triad so are B, C, A and (■. A, B. Moreover a
parallelepiped having A, B, C as coterminous edges is the same as that
having B, Ct A or C, A, B as coterminous edges. Thus, if Vhe the volume of
this parallelepiped, A * B . C = V, B*C.A=V, CxA.B = V Also, since A , B =
B . A, wl> have C ,AxB = AxB.C = Vr A.BxC=BxC.A = Vf Thus B . C x A
= C x A. B = V AA x B.C = A.B*C RxC.A=B.CxA = V C*A,B=C,AxB ...
(a) Further a right-handed triad becomes left-handed when the cyclic order
of Ihe vectors is changed. Therefore A, C, B; B, A, Cl C. B, A being left-
handed triads, it follows that AxC.B = -V, BxA.C = -V,CxB.A=-V, Thus AA
xC.B = A,CxB BxA,C = B,AxC * C xB.A=C,B x A = -V ...Cp) In support
qf the above rules, oar notation |AB('| indicates the cyclic order of the
factors end has nothing to do with position of the dot or the cross. •. The
relations
Higher Engineering Mathematics IV Scalar triple product is
distributive i.e. . [A, B + C, D - EJ = |ABD| - [ABE] + [ACDJ - [ACE] V. If
A = (jjl + u2J + a3 K, B = b ,1 + b2J + fc^K, C = «| ttj «3 then | ABC} — /i|
/ij Cj C2 C3 As A x B = («2b3 - asb2) I + {a3b} - aj/>3) J + (a^ - °2î^
[ABC | = [ajftg - a^J2i I + (a;j61 - 0^3) J + («!&2 - o2î^ K] . (cj + c. jJ +
c3K) = c1(ajb3 - a — 4 The given points will be coplanar if ,46, AC, AD
are to planar, i.e., if their scalar triple product is zero. Now 9-5 2 |AS, AC,
AD] = 11 4 1 = 9(— 12 - 14) + 5(- 33 + 7) + 2(154 + 28) = 0 -7 14 -3
Hence the points A, B, C, D are coplanar. Example 3.22. Show that the
volume of the tetrahedron ABCD is I AB, AC, ADJ. u Hence find the
volume of the tetrahedron fanned by the points (1, l, l), (2. 1, 3\ (3, 2, 2) and
(3, 3, 4). Solution. (t) Volume of the tetrahedron ABCD p 1 = ~ {area of
AABC) * (height h of D above the plane ABC) 1 = ~ (2 area of AABCJA ft
1 = ~ (volume of the parallelepiped with AB, AC. AD as co terminus edges)
- - IAS, AC, ADI . 6 (it) Let OA = 1 + J + K, OB = 21 + J + 3K, OC = 31 +
2J + 2K and OD = 31 + 3 J + 4K. Then AB = OB - OA = I + 2K Similarly,
AC = 21 + J + K and AD = 21 + 2J + 3K 1 ~ i Volume of the tetrahedron
ABCD = - [ AS, AC, AD] = 6 6 5 6 1 0 2 2 11 2 2 3
Vtcrofl Algebra & Soud Geometry 95 3.10 VECTOR PRODUCT
OF THREE VECTORS (1) Definition. If A, B, C be any three vectors, then
the vector or cross product of A x B with C is called the vector product of
three vectors A, B, C and is written as [A x B) x C. Hero the brackets are
essential as A x (B * CM (A * B) * C. expressing the fact that vector triple
product is not associative. (2) Expansion formula. If A, B» C be any three
vectors, (A x B) x C = (C . A)B - (C . B) A la words (extreme x adjacent) x
outer = (outer . extreme ) adjacent - (outer . adjacent) extreme. Thu vector
(Ax BIx C is perpendicular to the vector A x B and the latter is
perpendicular to the plane containing A and R, Hence (A x B) x C lies in the
plane of A and B, As such we can write (A x B) x C = lA + mB ...111 where
/ and m are some scalars. Multiply both sides scalarly hy C. then C.
(AxB)xC = /CJ + mC . B The scalar triple product un the lefl-hadd side is
zero, since two of its vectors are equal, IfC . A) + m(C . B) = 0 / m - n, say.
or t.e.. C .B -C . A Substituting the values of l and m in U ), we gel, ] B -
\BCD]A (interchanging the dot and cross) (A x B) . fC x Dl — [A kB) x CJ
, D - [(A . C)B - (B . C)A | . D - (A . CXB , l>) - ( A . D)(B . C i whence
follows the result. In particular, we have (A x B>2 = A2B2 - f A . B)2 which
has already been proved in § 3.6 (3) - IV. (it) (A»B)x(C*D) = (A x B) x P,
where P = C x D = (A . P)B - (B , P)A = (A.Cx D)B -(B.Cx DlA = lACDjB-
[BCDSA. Example 3.24. Show that the components of a vector B along and
perpendicular to a vector A. in the plane of A and B. u re A.B (A x B)x A -
TT nnd - Solution. Let OA = A, OB = B and OM be the projection of B on
A (Fig. 3.33) Component of B along A = OM (unit vector along AJ \ a j a B.
A *2 [ v A = n A] I v o2 = A21
96 High eh Engineering Mathematics Aiso component of B 1 A -

MB ~t, „ B.A 4 (A.A)B (A.BlA (AxBUA = OB -OM=B - — 5- A = - * - = -
n Example 3.23. Prove the formula IB x C) . (A x D) + (C x A) . (B x D) +
(A x B) . (C x I>1 = 0. and hence show that sin (G 4 Solution. Wo know that
(BxC).(AxDI = (B . A)(C . D) - (B . D)(C . A) (A xB).(C* D) = (A,C)(B,
l»-)N| = abed sin (0 + N I - abed sin2 Substituting the values from (ii), iiii J,
(hi) in (i), we get ...(to) Fig. 3.34 abed sin (0 +■ 4>) sin (G - ) - abed sin'4 0
+ abed sin2 Verify whether the following set of vectors are linearly
independent (4t 2, 9 b (3, 2h lb i— 4, 6, 2005) ft, hind the volume of the
tetrahedron, three of whose Cotermimis edges are 31 - J + 2K. 21 +■ J K
and I 2J + 2K
97 Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry 6. 7. 9. 10, II. IS. 13, 14. 15,
Find the volume of the tetrahedron formed by the points (t) (1, 3, 6). (3, 7,
12), (8, 8, 9) and (2, 2, 8). {B.P.T.U., 2005 } (u) C2, 1, 1), U. - 1, 2), <0, 1. -
1) and U, ~ 2, 1). If A , N - 0, B . N = 0, C . N - 0, prove that |AfiC| :* 0.
Interpret this result geometrically («) Prove that |A + B, B + C, C + A| =
2IABCI, 16) Show that volume of the tetrahedron having A + B. B + C and
C + A as concurrent edges is twice the volume of the tetrahedron having A,
B. C as concurrent edges. If A x (B kC) = (AxBI»C, show that (AxC)kB =
0. Show that I x (R xfl+J k(R* J) + K*(RxK) - 2R, {Assam, 1999) 1TA = 1
- 2J - 3K, B = 21 + J - K. C = I + 3J K, find If) A x (B x C) (k) (A x B) x (B
* C). l«) Given A = 2] - *J + 3K, B = - I + 3J + 3K, C = E + J - 2K, find the
reciprocal triad (A'. B', C') and verify that I ABC] IA'B'C'1 = l. (6) Prove
that AxA'+BxB' + CxC'-O Prove that (r) IA x B, C x B, E x FI =
[ABDtICEF] - IABCMDEFJ C« > UA + B + C) x (B + C)1 . C = I ABC!.
Show that liHB x Cl x (A x D) + CC x A) x tB x D) + (A x B) x 1C x Di = -
21ABC1D. [Mumbai, 2007) (it) A n |F * B) * (G k C)| + B * (F n C) * (G *
A! + C « |(F * A) > {G * B)| = 0, (a) Prove that ILMNHABC] L. A M . A N.
A L . B L . C M , B M,C N.B N.C (b } The length of the edges OA, OB, OC
of the tetrahedron OABC are ar b, c and the angles BOC, VGA, AOB are 9,
i>, V. find its volume. SOLID GEOMETRY 3.11 (1) EQUATION OF A
PUNE Let Pix,y, z) be any point on the plane through A{xv yx zt) which is
normal to the vector N = al + 6 J + cK. — > — J1 Then OP = jcI + y J + zK
and OA - Jtj J + y j J + zTK Clearly the vectors AP- U I + (y - y^l J + (z —
Zj) K and N are perpendicular to each other. AP . N = 0 „,(t) or (x — x l +
(y — y j) J + (z — a KJ . (ni + 6 J + cK) = 0 or a(x-x1} + bly-y1) + e(z-z1)
= G which is the equation of any plane through the point {x1P y p z j). Fig.
3.35 Ohs. Equation Ui > written as ax + by + cz + d ~ 0 is the general
equation of a plane. Conversely, euro linear equation in v, y, z represents a
plane and the coefficients of x, y, z arc the direction ml ms of (be normal to
the plane. Cor. IF t, m, n be the direction cosines of the normal to the plane,
then lx + my + HZ — p ,.Xiii) which is called the normal form of the
equation of the plane where p is the perpendicular distance from the origin.
(2) Angle between two planes. Def. The angle between two planes is equal
to the angle between their normals. Let the two planes be cuc + &y + cz +
tl=0 and a'x + 6'y + c'z + d' = 0. Now the direction ratio of their normals are
atb,c and a\ b', c'.
96 Higher Engineering Mathematics Hence the angle 6 between
the planes is given by cos fl = (ta + hb' + rc' + 62 xc2) sja* + tf'2 4 c'2
pZones uii/f 6e perpendicular (if their normal are parallel), i.c .. if au* + bb '
+ cc' = 0 77nj plunes cuttf 6e pamMe/ (if their normals are parallel), i.e.t if
— ^ . £l' ZT c# Cor* Any p/a/te para Me/ to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0
is ax + by 4- cz + k = 0 for the direction-ratios of their normals are the
tftime. (3) Perpendicular distance of the point Up yv z^fram the plane ax +
by i- cz + d = 0 axt + by | ■+■ cz, + d {k being: any constant) is aa + ba
+c2) Let PL be the perpendicular distance ol'PU^.y^, ?t) from the plane (i)
so that the direction cosines of LP are a J(La2 1 If Q if.g, h) be a point on
(r) then af + bg + ch + d = 0 ...(«) PL - projection of QP on LP - QP . LP =
Ut - /)n + lyx - g )fc + (2i - h)c Ûi~ + b2 + e2 ) ar, + byl + re, + d ijia2 + fr
+ c2 ) by virtue of fit) IBy ZX p. 82] Mm The sign ol' the radical in (Hi) is
taken to be positive or negative according as d is positive or negative. Ofos.
The perpendicular to a plane from two points are taken to be of the same
sign if the points lie on the came side and of different signs if they lie on the
opposite sides of the plane. 7 'he two points U L, y1> and {x.„ y.^ z2) In an
the same side or on opposite, sides of the plane ax + by +■ cz + rf - 0,
awarding as ax , + i.y , + czl + d and ux„ + by.z + cz3 +■ d are of the same
sign or of opposite signs. Cor. Planes bisecting the angles between two
planes. Lei ax + by + cz + d = 0 and n‘x + b'y + c’z + d' = 0 be the given
planes. Lei IKx, v, z) be any point on eiLlier of ihe planes bisecting the
angles between the planes (0 and (tt). Then X distance of P from (i) = X
distance ol P from («), or + by + cz + rf _ q'x + Py + c'z + d‘ V*aa + bY + rs
) + c'") which are the required equations of the bisecting pianos. ...(«)
Example 3.27. Find the equation oft he plane to hie h (i) cuts off intercepts
a, b, c: from the axes. {it ) passes through the points A(Q> /, ?)f /, l, 2i and
C(-l , 2, '-2). Solution, (t) Intercept form of the equation of the plane. Let
the required equation of the plane he + |iy + yz + 8 = 0 ...tl) The plane cuts
the axes at A, B, C such that OA = a, OR - b, OC - c, i.e., it passes through
the points j4tc. 0, 0), JBiO. 6, 0), C(0t 0, c).
Vector Al gebra & Sctlio Geometry 99 eta + 6 = 0. (J6 + 6 = 0,
vc1 + 6 = 0 whence a = - 5/a, p = - &/b, y = - &c € 3 S x Substituting these
values of a, p, y in (1), - x — y — z + 0 = 0 or — + — + — ±± 1. a b c a b c
(it ) Three points form of the equation vf the plane. Any plane through (0, 1,
1) is a(x - 0) + b(y - 1) + e(z - 1) - 0 ...(2) It will pass through (1, 1,2) and
(-1. 2, - 2}, if a . + r = 0 and -o + 6- 3c = 0. By cross-mu It i plication ,
ySubstituting these values in (2), we get — 1 . jc + 2(y - 1) + l(z — 1 ) = 0
or x — 2y — z + 3 = 0, which is the required equation of the plane .
Exainpie 3.28. Find the equation of the plane which passes through the
point (3, - 3, 1) and is If) parallel to the plane 2x + 3y + 5z + 6‘ = <1 (it)
normal to the line joining the points {3, 2, - 1) and (2. - /. 5). {V.T.V , 2006)
(Hi ) Perpendicular to the planes 7x +y + 2z = 6 and 3x + 5y - 6z = 8.
{Cochin, 2005 : V.T. U.. 2006) Solution, ii) Any plane parallel to the given
plane is 2x + 3y + 5z + k = 0 which goes through (3,-3, 1), if A = - 2 Thus
the required plane is 2x + 3y + 5z - 2 = 0 (u) Any plane through (3, - 3, 1)
isa(x - 3) + b(y + 3) + ciz - 1) = D The direction cosines of the line joining
the points (3, 2,-11 and (2, - 1,5) are proportional to 1, 3, - 6. This line is
normal to the plane (1), a, b, c are proportional to 1, 3, - G, Substituting
these values in (1), the required equation is l(x - 3) + 3(y + 3) - 6{z - 1) = 0
or x + 3y -6 z + 12 - 0. (tit) Any plane through (3, - 3, 1) is u{x - 3) + biy +
3) + c(z - 1) = 0 which will be 1 to the planes 7x + y + 2z — 6 and 3x + 5y
— 6c = 8 if 7a + b + 2c = 0 and 3a + 56 — 6c = 0. Solving these by cross-
multi plication, we get a T c Hence the required equation is l(z — 3) - 3(y +
3) - 2(z - 1 ) = 0 or x - 3y — 2e - 10 =0. Kxampie 3.29. The plane 4x +
5y~z = 7 is rotated through a right angle about its line of intersection with
the plane 2x + 3y - 3z - 5. Find the equation of this plane in its new
position. Solution. Any plane through the line of intersection of 4x + 5 y —
z - 7 Ui) and 2x + 3y - 3z = 5 ... (ii ) is 4x + By — z — 7 + k (2x + 3y - 3?
— 5) = 0 (4 + 2k) x + (5 + 3A)y -(1 + 3k)z- (7 + 5h) = 0 .Mii) Then new
position of (i) when rotated through a right angle, is such that ii ) and iiii)
are perpendicular. This requires that 4(4 + 2k) + 5<5 + 3A) + {] + 3A) = 0
i.e.r 26k + 42 = 0 or k = - 21/13 Substituting k = - 21/13 in (Hi), we get IGx
+ 2y + 50z + 14 = 0. or 5x + y + 25r +7 = 0, which is the required plane.
Example 3.30, Find the distance between the parallel planes 2x - 2y + z + 3
- O and: 4x - 4y + 2z i 9 - 0 Find also the equation of the para/ tel plane that
lies mid -way between the given planes. {Madras, 200.3)
100 HhQHEFI EfciGiJMcEFllNG MATHEMATICS Solution.
The distance between the given planes is the perpendicular distance of any
point on one of the planes from the other. A point on the first plane is (0, 0, -
3). .\ Required distance - J_ distance of (0, 0, — 3) from 4r-4y + 2^ + 9= 0
_ -6 + 9 31 ~ ,/(16 + 16 + 4) 6 2 Let the equation of the parallel plane that
lies mid-way between the given planes be 2jf - 2y + z + k = 0 ...(f) Now
distance of any point {0, 0, - 3) on the first plane from (t) should be 1/4. ± .
^ + ^ - 1/4 (,*>., k = 15/4 or 9/4. + 4 + 1) Thus the required plane is 2x —
2y + z + 15/4 — 0. Assume that k = 15/4 and verify that the distance of a
point on this plane 4x - 4y + 2z + 9 = 0 is also 1/4. t -9/2 + 15/4 1 v A point
on this plane is (0, 0t -9/4), Its distance from the plane (*') = - - - = — (in
magnitude) d *t Thus k = 9/4 is not admissible. .\ The required plane is 2x
— 2 'y + z + 15/4 - 0. Example 3.31 . A variable plane is at a constant
distance p from the origin and meets the axes at A. , B, C. Find the locus of
the centroid of the tetrahedron OABC. Solution. As the given plane is at a 1
distance p from the origin* therefore its equation is of the form lx + my +
nz = p ...(/) where l, m, n are the d.c's of the ± from the origin. X V s (i) may
bo rewritten as ■ ■- + — - — - + ■■■ ■— = 1 ip/l) (p/m) ip/n) so that OA
= p/I, OB — p/m , OC — pin. A = ip/l, 0, 0), B = (0, p/m , 0), C = (0, 0, p!n
). Thus the coordinates of the centroid G of the tetrahedron OABC are (xp
yv z,) = (p/4,1, p/Am, p/4n ) 16 ai + — + ~y = — $ (l2 + m2 + rca) = 16 a
yt Thus the locus ofG is x “5 +y -s +■ z P ~z - 16p ~2, |See p. 81 1 Example
3.32. A variable plane ut a constant distance p from the origin meets the
axes in A, B. C Planes are drawn through A, B, C parallel to the coordinate
planes. Show that the focus of their point of intersection in given by x~ * +
y 2 + 2“ 2 = p~‘. x y z Solution. Let the variable plane be — + ^- + — - 1. a
b c Us distance from origin — -7.—^. — ^ . - .. . = p (given) \a * +b~2
+c~2) i.e„ a~2 + 6-2 + c_s = p~2 ...(f) Since OA - u, OB = b and OC = c,
therefore equations of the planes through A, B, C parallel toyz, zx and xy-
planes are x = a y = 6, z = c Let the point of intersection of these three
planes be U,, y^, zt). Then = «,yj = b, 2, = c ...(«) Substituting (ii) in (i), we
get Jej 2 + y," 2 + 2, 2 — p~ 2 Thus the locus of ixv yv zj is x“2+y 1 ± zm'£
— p~ z.
Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry Example 8.33. A variable plane
passes through the fixed, point (e, b, eh and meets the coordinate axes in A,
B, C. Show that the locus of the point common to the planes through A, Bt
C parallel to the coordinate planes is u b c - + - + - = 1. x y z Solution. Let
ABC be any plane through the fixed point H(a, b, c> such that OA=xr OB =
yit OC - 2V Then its equation is Since H lies on it. jf y z — + — + — =1 ft
ft ft a b c — + — + — =1. ft [See Ex. 3.27 (i)I -.(1) ft ft The planes through
A, B, C parallel to the coordinate planes are x = y = Vj, z-zv which meet in
P(xltyt. Zj). Thus changing xt to x, y ]S to y and 2, to z in the locus of the P
is ti b c - + — + - =1. x y z Example 3.34, Find the. equations to the two
planes which bisect the angles between the planes bx - 4y + 5z = 3 , 5x + 3y
- 4z - 9. Also point out which of the planes bisects the acute angle. (V. T. U.
, 2007 i Solution. The equations of the pl anes bisecting the angles between
the given planes are 3x - 4y + 5r - 3 _ + 5x + 3 y — 4z — 9 >/l32 +{-4)2 +
62) ” J[52 + 32 + (-4)21 o r 2x + 7y - 9z — 6 = 0 and 8x~y+z— 12 — 0
which are the required planes. Lot 0 be the angle between (i) and either of
the given planes, say: 5jc + 3y - 4z = 9. 2 x 5 + 7 X 3 (—9) X (—4) 67
Then, cos 0 = tan O Î22 + 72 +■ (-9>2 + 32 + (-4)2| 5^(268) >/22ll which
is less than 1. ,M) 67 i.e., 0 < 45°. Now 0 is half the angle between the
given planes, so that (f) bisects that angle between the planes which is 20 <
90°. Hence the plane 2r +■ 7y — 92 = 6, bisects the acute angle.
PROBLEMS 3.6 I , Find the equation of the plane patsing through the point
( IT 2r 3) and having t he vector N - 21 - «] + 3K normrd to iU 2* Find the
equation of the plane through the points (3* - 1, IK U, 2, - l)and 11, h IK 3.
Kind a uniL vector normal to the plane through the points 1, 2, 3)n U. 1 p 1
) and 12, 1 . 4. Find the distance of the point (I. 4, 5) from the plane passing
through the point* (2, - 1,5)* (0, - 4* 1) on d (2, - 6r 0) tRujasthan, 2006}
5r Show that tho Four points {0, - 1, 0), {% 1, — IK (1# 1, 1) and c3+ 3, Oi
are coplanar. Find the equation of the plane through them. IV.TM., 2008*
102 HkaHEG Engineering Matwe^ttcS 6. Show ihat the point (»
1/2, 2, 9} the dreumtentn. of the triangle formed by the points U, 1, U\ ft*
2r 1 1. 'I- 2,2t-lU | Hint. Show that the point {- V2, 2, 0) lies in the plane of
the triangle and is equidistant i'rym its vertices.] 7. Find the equation of the
plane through the point ^2, 1, 0J and perpendicuhir to l he planes 2x y - z ~
B and .x + 2y - & = r>. b, Find the equations of the plane through ( 0, 0, 0)
parallel to the plane x + % - 3* + 4. (A fadras, 2006 j 0. Fund the equation
ofihfc plane which bi sects the join of the pninU {xvy^ end U2, _y^ rj at
right angles, 10, Find the equation oHhe plane through the points t- lt 2f t), (
- 3, 2, - 3) and parallel to fastis (V*TJ 20]0 ) ! ]„ Elnd the equation of the
plane through the points (2, 2* 1.) and (9, 3, 6) and perpendicular to the
phine + by + 6? = 9; ^ (V.T. U*. 2004 : Osrwmm, 1999) 12. A plane
contains the points A{- 4, 9, - 93 and B( 5* - 9, 6) and is perpendicular to
the line which joins B and f r(4, - 6, k). Evaluate k and find the equation of
the plane. 13- Find the distance between the parallel planes Sx - 3v + B? +
12 = 0 and fix - By + IBs -6 = 0, Also find the equation of (he parallel plane
that lies mid way between the givnn planes, 1 4. Find the angle between the
plane x +y + z = 8 and 2x ± y - z - 3. {R.P TUtl 2006 j 15. Two planes are
given by j + 2y - 32 - 2 = 0 and 2x + y + 2 + 3 = G* find (ij direction
modules of their line of intersection, Uj) acute angle between the planer,
and (jEtl equation of the plane perpendicular to both of them through the
point (2, 2, 1/ 16. The plana lx + my - 0 i£ rotated about its line of mter
section with the plane z = 0, through nn angle a. Prove thaL the equation of
the plane is Lx + my + z + m7 > tun a = Q. iAntm, 2005 S J 1 7. Find the
equations of the two planes through the points (0t -1,-3), (6. - 4t 3) other
than the plane through the origin which cn.it off from the axes intercepts
whose £um is zero. 1 8. A plane meets the coordi nates axe* at A* B, C.
such that 1 he centroid of the triangle ABC is the point (nN fr, cj. show1 X
Vr 2 that the equation of the plane is — + — + — =3 (Assam, 1999 ) « h c ?
!), A plane passes through a fixed point la, b, c), show that the incus of the
foot of the perpendicular from the origin on the plane is a sphere. \P.T, IJ.,
2005) 20. A variable plane is at a constant distance p from the origin and
meets the axes at A, ft, C. Find the locus of (he centroid of the triangle
ARC. (Rajasthan, 2005 J 21. A variable plane makes with the coordinate
axes a tet rahedron nf constant volume 6i fc3. Find the locus of the centroid
of the tetrahedron. {Rajasthan, 2006 ; Os Mania, 2003 1 22. Find equations
of the planes bisecting the. angle between the planes x * 2y + ‘lz = 9, 4x -
3y + I2z * 12 = 0 and specify the one which bisects the acute angle. 3.12
EQUATIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE (11 General form. Two linear
equations in.r,y, z Le.t ax + by + cz + d = 0 ..,(i) and a'x + b‘y + c’z + d' = 0
. ..
Vector Algefjha & Solid Geometry nr (x — Xj) I + {> -JiJtl + (z -
zt) K = t (11 + r?iJ + iik) X — Jtj — tl,y — - tin, Z — Z} = tn ...{«) Every
point P on the line is given hy (ii ) for .some value of /, Thus these are the
parametric equations of the given line. Eliminating t , we get y ->i m Z - Zi
l m ti which are the stymmctri.cn! farm of Ike equations of the line. (> Fig.
3.39 Ohs. Any point on the tine (ml is (xt + ltfyr + rnt,zl + rtf*. Cor. The
equations of the line joining the points (xv, y ( . 3 5 ) and (x.,,y.£, z2) arc *-
*i _ y-y) _ z-z, *2 - - yj for the direct ion -ratios of the line joining the given
points are x2-xvy2-yvz2-zv [To reduce the general equation of a line of the
symmetrical form: ( t) find a point on the line, by putting ?. - 0 in the the
given equations and solving the resulting equations for x and y. (ii) find the
direction cosines of the line, from the fail that it is perpendicular to the
normals 1o the given planes. (iu) write the equations of the line in the
symmetrical form. I Example 3.35. Pi. rid in symmetrical form, the
equations of the line x t v + 2 + / - 0, 4x + v - 2z + 2 - 0. Solution, (i) To
find a point on the line. Putting z = 0 in the given equations, we have x + y
+ l = Q;4x+y + 2 = 0 (Osmania, 1999) Solving, — = — = — A point on the
line is (- 1/3, - 2/3, 0). 1 2 — 3 (til To find the direr (ton cosines l, m, n of
the line. Since the line lies on both the given planes. It is perpendicular to
their normals whose direction cosines are proportional to 1, l, 1 and 4, 1,-2.
i,e., I + ni + n = 0; 4/ + m - 2n = 0. Solving. ± = "=-5-1 2 -1 The direction
cosines of the given line are proportional to - 1,2,— 1 , (iii.) Thus the
equations of the line in the symmetrical form are x + 1 /3 _ y + 2/3 _ z -1 2
~^1 * Example 3.36. Find the distance of the point (l, - 2, 3) from the plane
x - y + z = a measured parallel to the line x y z 2 = 3 = -7> {Cali rut, 1999)
Solution. The line through P(l, - 2, 3) having direction ratios (2, 3, - 6) is jf-
1 y + 2 z — 3 2 " 3 " -6 ' r Any point on this line is f2r + 1, 3r - 2, 3 - 6r).
This point will lie on the plane x —y + z = 5 2r+ 1— (3r-2) + 3-6r = 5 or r
= 1/7. .\ The point of intersection is Q( 9/7, — 11/7, 15/7) if
Higher Engineering Mathematics Thus the required distance = PQ
- . I ^ ] - 1 VU& 49 49^ x + 2y + 2z = 9, 4.r - 3y + 12 z + 12 = 0 and specify
the one which hisects the acute angle. Kx ;t in pie 3.37. (a) Find the image
{refl-cction ) of (he point (p, q, r) in the plane 2x + y + a - ft (A) Find the
image (reflection) of the tine - t - = - - - - - — in the name plane. (Delhi,
2002) 2 J 4 [If two points P, Pt be suck that the line PP" is bisected
perpendicularly by a plane then cither ofthe points is the image (or
reflection ) of the other in the plane.] Solution, (a) Let P' ip', q\ r') be the
image otPip, q, r). Then the mid-poinL of PP‘ must lie on the given plane. p
+ jo' q + q’ r + r' *"■ — “ — + — ~ — + — ~ — = 6 ...(i) 2 2 2 Also the
line PP' must be perpendicular to the plane. The direction ratios of PP1
being p — p\ q - q\ r - r', we therefore, have p-p q-q r-r 2 11 whence p’ = p -
2k , q' = q - k% r' = r — k. Substituting these in (i) and solving, we get - k
(say) k = - (2p + q + r - 6). Hence P1 is 1 3 “(12 - p-2q- 2r), -(6-2 p + 2g -
r), -(6 - 2p - q + 2r)l 3 3 J ...(H) (b) Any two points on the given line are
evidently P(l, 2, 3) and (on putting 2 = 7) Q(3, 3, 7). Their images are fby
using (ii)J P3 (1.5.S’| and 3 3. Q’ f — , — — , ~ | ■ The Line joining P' and
Q' is, therefore \ 3 o 3 / 3x - 1 _ 3y - 5 _ 32-8 1 8 5 y — z3 _ _ 3 _ 3 -1 11 1
I _ 6 H 8 3 3 3 3 3 3 which is the required image ofthe given line PQ [Fig.
3.4D(/j)]. Kscample 3.38, Find the angle between the line * - *1 _y - V; _Z-
Zj l m n and the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0. Solution. If 9 he the angle
between the line and the pianc, then 90“ - 0 is the angle between the line
and the normal to the plane (Fig. 3.41). Now the direction ratios of the line
are I. m, n and the direction ratios of the normal to the plane are a, 6, c. la +
mb + nc cos (90° - fl) = ^/(/£ + nt2 + n2)^/(tt2 +6^ + c2} Fig 3.4 J
Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry or sin 6 = Hence the required
angle 9 = sin- 1 la + mb + nc at + bm + cn Cor. If the line is parallel to the
plane . Bin B = 0 •\ a) + bm + cn - 0 If the line is perpendicular la the plane,
it will be parallel to itx normal. ** l fa =m/b = nfc* Example 3>39* Find
the equations oft he two straight lines through the origin , each of which
intersects the straight. line ~ (a - 3) =y - 3 = ? and is inclined at an angle of
60° to it Solution. Let AS be the given line so that any point A on it is (2r
+■ 3, r + 3P r)* (Fig, 3.42) Directing ratios of OA are 2r + 3 — 0, r + 3 - 0,
r — D. Angle between AO and AB has to be 60°, _ 2(2r + 3)+l(r + 3) + l.tr)
cos Q0 - ■ , _ - r. ^ ... Y or ^2* + l2 + la ) ^[2r + 3)2 + (r + 3)2 -f r 2 1 1 6r *
9 2 f[ S(6r2 + IBr + 18)1 or r2 + 3r + 2 = 0 i.e.t r = - 1 , - 2 Coordinates of A
and B are ( 1, 2, - 11 and (- 1, 1, - 2). t _,y Hence the equations of the
required lines OA and OB are — = ^ = — - and — = ^ = — PROBLEMS
3.7 j Prove that the points 13, 2, 4), (4, 5, 2) and C6, 8, 0) arc col I inear.
Find the equations of the line through them. i. Find the angle between the
line of intersection of the planes jc-i-4 y-3 z + 2 2r + 2y - z + 15 = 0. 4y 4- z
+ 29 = 0 and the line 4 - 3 l V. T. V., 2003 S) 3, Find the angle between the
line of intersection of the planes fix + 2y + z = 5 and * + y - 2s = 3 and the
line of intersection of the plane 2x -y t? and 7jc + lOy - 8?. 1, Find the
equation of the line through the point (- 2, 3, 4} and parallel to the planes
*2v + Sy + iz ~ 5 and f.v + 3y + 5z = fi. 5. Show that the line — — - Lr £
— 1 La parallel to the plane 2r + 2v - ? = 6, and find the distance between
them. 3 - 2 2 t>, Find the equation of the line through (1.2,- 11
perpendicular to each of the lines and £ = >=£. 30-1 345 7. Find the
equation of the lines bisecting the angle between the lines x - I y + 2 _ z - 3
x ~ I _ y + 2 _ z_— j3 ~~2~ ~ -2 " l ’ .12 “ 4 “ -3 3. Find the foot Of the
perpendicular from (1, 1. 1 1 to the line joining the points (1. 4, 6) and (5; 4,
4). iV.T.U., 2010) 9. Find the perpendicular distance of the point (1 , 1 , 1 )
from the line jc-2 ,vt3 z 2 ~ 2 - 1
106 M Higher Engineering Mathematics lih Find the distance of
Lhe ptiinL f3> - 4f 5) from the plane rZx + 5y — 6^ = i6# measured
parallel to the line x/2 - ytl = fV.T.U, 20f}2) 1 1. Find the reflection <
image) of the poinl (i) (1. 2P 3) in the plane x + .v + z = 9. (V- T.V., 2010)
iii) (2. - 1* 3) in the plane Ax - 2y -z - 9 = 0. 12, Find the angle between the
line * f l l a * - 3 and j he plane $x t v + 2 = 7, 2 a S J 3. Find the equation
of the plane through the points U. 0, - 1), C3t 2* 2) and parallel to the line
*- 1 = -y) = - (z - 2). 2 3 11. Find Lhe equations of the straighL line which
pusses through Lhc point (2„ - la - ] ), is parallel to Ihv plane 4 x + y + z +
2=0 and is perpendicular to the line 2ar + y = 0 = x - z + 5. ( V.T.U. f 2000)
3.13 CONDITIONS FOR A LINE TO LIE IN A PLANE To find the
conditions that the line — r’ ...d) ...(2) y - y\ . g - z j m n may lie in the
plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 Any point cm the line (1) is Ur + x,, mr + y[f nr
+ 2,1 which will lie on the plane 12), if a(tr + XjJ + 6(mr + y,) + r inr + £,)
+ d = 0. or if ( al + bin + cn) r + (ax, + hy, +■ C2, + d) - 0 ...(3} The line (
1) will lie in the plane (2), if every point, of the line lies in the plane so that
(3) is satisfied by all values of r. The coefficient of r = 0 and the constant
term = 0. al + bm + cn = 0 ax, + by, + cz, + d = 0 These are the required
conditions which state that (r) the line should be parallel to the plane, (it) «
point of line should lie in the plane, x-xx y-yx z-zx i.e., and ...(4) ...(5) is
Thus the equation of any plane through the line l m n a(x - x, ) + b(y - yt) +
c(z - z, ) = 0 where al ■+ bm + en = 0. Otis-. The equation of any plane
through the Line of intersection of the planes ax + by + ex + d = 0 and a'x +
b'y +■ e'z + d’ - 0. is ax +■ by + ex + d + k(a'x +■ b'y + c'z + d'J «= 0, For
(i ) is an equation or the first degree in x,y,z representing a plane and (if > il
is satisfied by the coordinates of the points which satisfy both the given
planes, i.e., it. contains all the points common to these planes. Example
3.40. Obtain the equation of a plane passing through the line of intersection
of the planes 7x 4y 4- 7z + 1 6 = 0 and 4x + 3y - 2z + 13 = 0 and
perpendicular fa the plane x - y - 2z *- 5 - 0. (V. T. (/., 2009 1 Solution. The
equation of any plane through the line of intersection of the two given
pianos is lx — 4y + Iz + 16 + ft(4x + 3y — 2z + 13) = 0 or (7 + 4 A lx + (-
4 + 3 k)y + (7 - 2 k)z + (16 + 13ft) - 0 The plane (i) will be perpendicular to
the plane x — y — 2z + 5 “ 0 if their normals are perpendicular, i.e., if (7 +
4ft) . 1 + (- 4 + 3ft) . (- 1) + (7 - 2ft) . (- 2) = 0 or if, ft = 3/S. Substituting
this value of ft in (i), we get (7 + 12/5k + (- 4 + 9/5 )y + (7 - 6/5)x + (16 +
39/5) = 0 or 47x — lly + 29s + 119 = 0 which is the required equation.
Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry 107 Example 3.11. Find the
equation in the symmetrical form of the projection of the line x — 1 z - 3 —
— = - (y + 1) = ~ on. the plane x + 2y + z = 12. Solving («> and Mi), we
get Fig. 3.43 Solution. Any plane through the given line is A(x - 1} + Biy +
l) + C(z - 3) * 1 where 2A — B + 4C = 0 . Mi ) The plane (f } will be
perpendicular to the given plane, if A + 2B +- C = 0 .MU) A_ _ B C -9 2 “ 5
' Substituting these values in (i). we get - 2y - 5z + 4 = 0 ...tie) which cuts
the given plane x + 2;y + z = 12 ...(e) along the required line of projection.
One point on this line is got by putting z - 0 in (ty) and (p) and solving, it is
(4/5. 28/5. 0). The direction ratios of the line are found, by solving / + 2m +
n ~ 0 and 9/ - 2m — 5n = 0 to be 4T — 7, 10. Hence the required equations
of the line of projection are *:-4/5 _ y- 2S/5_ z ~4 ~ 10 [The line of greatest
slope in a plane is a line which tics in the plane and is perpendicular to the
line of intersection of the plane with the horizontal plane. In Fig. 3.43, AB
is the line of intersection of the given plane a with the horizontal plane jc.
Then PM drawn perpendicular to AS, is the line of greatest slope on the
plane tt through the point P.| Example 3.42. Assuming the line x/4 = yl- 3 -
zi 7 as vertical, find the equations of the line of greatest slope in the plane
2x + v - 5z = 12 ami passing through the point (2, 3, - 1). Solution. The
equation of the horizontal plane through the origin is 4x - 3y + 7z = 0 „.(/)
|The direction ratios of the normal are those of the given vertical line.J If
l.m,n be the direction ratios of the line of intersection of the plane (/) and
2x+y~5z-12 then solving, 4/ - 3m + In - 0 and 21 + m — 5n = 0, we have
114 - m/17 = rt/5 ...(iii) Let l\ m\ n' he the direction ratios of the line of
greatest slope which lies in the plane (it), 2r+m'-5n' = 0 ... Solving(io) and
(y), — - - — . 3 “1 1 Hence the equations of the line of greatest slope
through (2. 3, — I ) and having direction ratios 3,-1, 1 are x-2 _ y-3 _ * + 1
3 -1 “ 1 * PROBLEMS 3.8 x — 1 z — 3 t , Find the equation of the plane
which contains the line — — - = y + 1 = * - and is perpendicular to the
plane x + 2 \y + z- 1 % {V TA/.. 2006)
108 Higher Emwzmm Mathematics 2. Find £h& equation oflhe
plane through the line x- l y 4 s 4 and parallel to the line x + 1 > 1 s + 2 3<
Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of inter section of
the planes and 2* + 3j- ? + 4 = 0 and perpendicular to the plane 2y - 3z = A.
4. Find the equation of the piano which contains the line of intersection of
Ihe planes x + y + s = 3 and SLx - v + 3? = 4 and is parallel to the line
joining the points (2. 1,1) and (3, 2,4). (Madras, 2006 i ii. Find in symmetric
Fortin the equations of the lino w hich lies itI the plane 2x -y - 3z = 4 and Is
perpendicular Lo the Line x t 1 y - I __ 2 +■ 4 3 = 3 55 2 at the point where
the line pierces the plane. 6. A plane is drawn through the line x + y - Us - 0
to make an angle sin L (1/3) with the plane x+y + ?s 0, Prove that two such
planes can be drawn and find their equations. Prove also Lhnt the angle
between the planes is cos 1 (7/9). 7. Find the equations of the projection of
the line Hjr - y + 2s - 1 - j: + 2y - z - 2 = 0 on the plane 3x + 2y - 0 in i he
symmelncal form, 8. Assuming the plane 4a - % + 7z - 0 to be hfimmiUd,
find the equations of the line of greatest slope through the point (2, 1, 1) in
the plane 2* + y - Es - 0, (Roorh% 2000} 3.14 CONDITION FOR THE
TWO LINES TO INTERSECT (OR TO BE COPLAN AR) Let the
equations of the lines be *-*i m y ~ >‘i = x-*\ A x x2 _ y _ g-ga "H A nht ^2
The equation of any plane through the line (1) is a(:e -x,) + b{y —y^) + r iz
-x,) = 0 .(2} where nf, + 6m1 + cn1 = 0 ,..(4) The line (2) will lie in the
plane (3), if it is parallel to the plane and its point (x„,y2, z2) lies on this
plane. al2 4- bm^ +■ cn2 - 0 ..,(5) and alx2 - Xj) + b(y3 -yf) + c{z2 —zj = 0
...(6) Eliminating a , b, c from (6), (4) and (5). we get ‘2-*i y-i-yi x2-zt - 0
which is the required condition. li u m. m. n2 Also eliminating a, b . c. from
(3), (4) and (5), we get x-x, y-yi z-*i la m, n, 1, m v = 0 which is the
equation of the plane containing the lines- (1) und (2). x-5 _ ,y-7 _ 3 x-8 _
y-4 _ a - fi Example 3.43. Show that the lines 4 4-57 common point and the
equation of the plane in which they lie. Solution. Any point on the first line
is (5 + 4r, 7 + 4r, — 3 - 5rJ -3 + 4r 3 + 4r - 8 - 5r 3 7 - 3 + 4r which lies on
the second line if From This value clearly satisfies the equation 7 3 = 3 + 4r,
we have r = - 1. 3 + 4r - 8 - 5r are copfunur; find their {Madurai, 2002) ~.(i)
...fit) 7 3 Hence the lines intersect, U.e., are co planar} and from (i) their
point of intersection is (1, 3, 2).
Vector Algebra & Souo Geometry 109 i.e.. The equation of the
plane in which they lie, is x- 5 y — 7 ? + 3 4 4 -5 7 1 3 = 0 17x-47y- 24? +
172 = 0. Example 3.14, Show that the lines x + 4 y + £> 2 — 1 — - — - —
- — - - — — and 3x - 2y + 2 + 5 = 0 = 2x + Jy + 42 ■ 4 ij 4 are coplatmr,
Find their point of intersection and the plane in which they lie. Solution.
Any point on the first line is P(3r - 4, 5r - 6, ~ 2r + 1), which fie in the plane
3x - 2y + z + 5 - 0 if 3(3r — 4J — 2(5r — 6) + {— 2r + 1} + 5 = 0 or r=2,
The point P will also fie in the plane 2x + 3y + 4? — 4 = 0 if 2(3r — 45 +
3(5r — 6) + 4(- 2r + 1) - 4 = 0 or r = 2. Since the two values of r are equal,
the given fines intersect, i.e.. are coplanar. Putting? = 2 in the coordinates of
P, we get (2, 4, 3) as their point of intersection. The equation of a plane
containing the second line is 3x-2y + ? + 5 + Jt(2x + 3y + 4? — 41 = 0
which will contain the first line if its point (- 4. - 6, 1) lies on it. -12+12 + 1
+ 5 + ki- 8 - 18 + 4- 4) = 0 i.e., k =3/13 Substituting this value of k, f/)
becomes 45x 17 y + 25? + 53-0, which is the required plane. Example 3.45.
Find the eig/alians of the line drawn through the point (1, 0, - 1) and
intersecting the lines X -2y ~2z and 3x + 4y - 1 , 4x + 5? = 2. ( V. T. V..
2007) Solution, The required line will comprise of (а) the plane containing
the first line and the point ( 1, 0, - 1). (б) the plane containing the second
line and the point ( 1, 0, - 1), The equation of any plane containing the first
line i.e., x _ y _ z_ 2 “ 1 “ 1 is nfx — 0) + h{y - 0) + c(z - 0} = 0 where 2a +
b + c = 0 Also (1, 0, — 1) lies on (£) a-e = 0 Solving i) constitute the
required fine. ...Hi) ...(Hi) ...(iv) ...(iv)
Higher Engineering Mathematics PROBLiMS 3.9 1* Prove that
the lines *zl *—A = y -j = £ z± 2 3 4 3 4 5 are to planar and find the
equation of the plum- containing them. 2. Pnivc that the lines x - = - * 3 = -
+ - and — — - = - 4_1 - intersect and find the coordinates of their point of
intersection. t -47 2-3 3C -q _ V -jj 2 - y 3 \ V.T.U., 2000 S ; Andhra. 1909 1
3. Find the condition that the lines - — — — - — — — - — - and ax + by
+ c.z + d - 0 = a*x + h'v + cfz +- d' are coplanar. I m n 4. Show that, the
lines — — - — - 1 and jr + ^y + 3a-8 = 0 = 2x + ‘Ay + 4? - 11 intersect.
Kind their point of 1 2 3 intersection and the equation of the plane
containing them. 5. Show that the lines x — 3y + ‘2z - 4 = 0 = 2x + v + -is
+ 1 and 3x * 2y + nz — I = 0 = 2y - *, are coplanar. 6. Prove that the lines x
= ay + b = cx + d and x = ay + p = ^ + 6 are coplanar if [y - cl (aP - bet) - («
- a) (<:8 dy="" obtain="" the="" equations="" of="" straight="" line=""
lying="" in="" plane.="" x="" and="" interesecting="" j="" at="" right=""
angles="" find="" equation="" perpendicular="" to="" both="" lines=""
v="" cr2="" t-="" y="" passing="" through="" their="" point=""
intersection="" .="" ft.="" a="" with="" direction="" cosines=""
proportional="" b="" is="" drawn="" intersect="" coordinates=""
lulevsection="" length="" intercepted=""> t Andhra . 2000 ) [Rajasthan,
200 0) 3.15 SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO LINES [Two
straight lines which do not lie in one plane are called skew lines. Such lines
possess a common perpendicular which is the shortest distance between
them. Let the given skew lines AS and CD be *-*i = _ g“*i and *-*2 _ - izli
h mi d.j 4 m'i ns so that .A a and C s (x,ity2, z2). Let l,m,n be the direction
cosines of the shortest distance EF. Since EF 1 to both AB and CD. U1 +
mm | +fln, = 0 and ll2 + mm2 + nn2 - 0. I rn n Solving. ^(/2 +ms + na) _ 1
..U) where 0 is the angle between the lines AS and CD. Length ofS.D. (EF)
= projection of AC on EF = l(x,2 -x^) + m(y3 -y.,) + n(z2 — zx) where l, m,
n have the values as given by (1)
Ill Vector Algebra* Solid Geometry To find the equations of the
line of shortest distance, we observe that it is coplanar with both AB and
CD. y-?i *-* h m-i «i |=0 ...(2) l m n Plane containing the lines AB and BF
is. Plane containing the lines CD and EF is x - x2 y-y2 z- z2 h ni ~ 0 ...f3) l
m n Hence (2) and (3) arc the equations of the l ine of shortest distance.
Obti. The condition for the given lines lo be mplanar is also obtained by
equating the shortest distance {EF) la zero Example 3.46. Find (he
magnitude and the equations of (he shortest distance between the finesl = =
,md Solving 2 -3 Solution. Let /, m, n be the direction cosines of the
shortest distance EF. v EF 1 to both AB and CD, 21 - 3m + n - 0, 3/ - 5m +
2n = 0. I _tn _n _ yja1 +■ + /i£ ) _ \ T”T"T ^(1 + 1 + 1) Length nfS.D. {EF)
■ projection of AC on EF = (2-0) -^ + (1-0)-^ + (-2-0)-^ = -^The equations
of the line of shortest distance ( EF ) are -0 (V.T.U., 2009 ; Cochin, 2005)
AjQ, C. 0) B F C(2, L, -2) Fig. 3.45 X y z x-2 y-1 z + 2 2 -3 1 = 0 and 3 -5
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Le., 4x + y — 5z - 0 and lx + y - &z = 3 1. Example 3.47. Find
the. points on the. lines x - 6 _ y -7 z — 4 ~~3 r x v + .9 z-2 ...(f) ..Mi) -3 2
4 which are nearest to each other, Hence find the shortest distance between
the lines and its equations. {V.T.U.. 2004 ; Bur d wan, 2003 ; Osman ia,
2003) .Mii) -(iu) Solution. Any point on the line (i) is £'{6 + 3r, 7 - r, 4 + r)
and any point on the line (ii) is F{- 3r', - 9 + 2r\ 2 + 4r' ) Then the direction
cosines of EF are proportional to 6 + 3r + 3rf, 16 - r - 2r', 2 + r - 4r' Since
EF _L both the lines (i) and (ii), 3(6 + 3r + 3r') - (16 - r ~ 2 r') + (2 + r - 4r')
= 0 and - 3(6 + 3r + 3r') + 2( 16 - r - 2r') + 4(2 + r - 4 r') = 0 or Hr + 7r' + 4
= 0, 7r + 29r' — 22 = 0, whence r = — 1, r' = 1. Substituting r = - 1 in (tit)
and r = 1 in (iv), we get E - (3, 8, 3) and F - (- 3, - 7, 6) which are the points
on (i) and lii) nearest to each other. .’. Length of the shortest distance (EF)
<= ^{(3 + 3)2 + (8 + If + (3 - 6>a I - 3>/30 x "3 j-8 s-3 The equations of the
shortest distance iEF) is -1 Ob* This method is sometimes very convenient
and ts especially useful when the points of in terser lion of the line of
shortest distance with the given lines ure required.
112 Higher EwflipiEEFutoG Mathematics lixaoipU* 3-48, Two.
control cables in the form of straight lines AB and CD are laid such that the
mordi nates of Af Bt C and D are respectively (]w % 3), (2t lt Uf i- /, /. 2)
and (2, - Jt -3). Determine the amount of clearance between the ca hies.
Solution, The direction ratios of AB are 1T - 1, - 2 and those of CD are 3, ~
2t - 5The amount of clearance between AB and CD is nothing but the
shortest distance PQ between the cables. If the direction cosines of PQ be /p
mw n then / - m — 2n = 0 and 3/ - 2m - 5n ~ 0 l m n •\ ~ - — - = y |v PQ ±
to both AB + CD]. Thus the clearance between the cables = shortest
distance between AB and CD - projection of AC (or BD) on PQ If- 1-1)
-1(1-2) + 1(2 -3) 2 r A x - - ' . - = - (m magnitude) 7a +■ i + 1) 73 Example
3.49. Find the equation of the plane through the line x — l y — 4_ z — 4
~1 ~~2 ” - 2 x + i y— 1 z + 2 and parallel to the line 2-41 Retire find the
shortest distance between them .. xi ) iliuzaribagh, 2009 ) = 0 or Solution.
The equation of the plane containing the line (i) and parallel to tii) is jc-1 y
— 4 z- 4 3 2 -2 2 -4 1 6.x + ly +16 x = 98 Now the shortest distance
between the lines (i) and (it) - Length of the perpendicular drawn from the
point (- 1, 1, — 21 of («) on the plane (Hi) -6 + 7-32-98 120 ...(iii) 7(6a +
72 + 162) 7(341) , numerically. Example 3.50. Show that the shortest
distance between z-axis and the line ax + by + cz + d = 0 = u'x + b'y dd - d'e
+ c'z + d* is ..XU) yjl(ae - ac)2 + (be’ - b'cfi Example 3.5 1 . A square
ABCD of diagonal 2a is folded along the diagonal AC, so that the planes
DAC and BAC are at right angles. Fin ’ the shortest distance between DC
and AB.
Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry 113 Solution. Let the diagonals
AC and BD intersect at O the folded position of the square. Let OB, OC and
OD bo the axes. Then equations of DC are jc - 0 y-c i 2-0 — — m 0 a 0“G a
- 0 0 - a x y-a z or — = - - = — a X q y ^ and those of AB are ' - = — = — a
a 0 The equation of the plane through DC and parallel to AS is X y - a z 0 a
-a = 0 or x— y — z + a = 0 a a 0 A point on the line AB is to, 0, 0). Hence
required S.D. = 1 distance of to, 0, 0) from the plane (i) a + a _ 2 u ~ Vl + 1
+ I _ W Fig;, 3,46 PROBLEMS 3.10 1 , Kind the magnitude and the
equations of the shortest distance between the lines. x - i _ y-2 __ z-3 x~2_y
- 4 _ z - 5 ^ ^ *jnd ^ iV.r.U,, 2008; Rajasthan. 2005 ; Madras, 2003 ) 2. Lind
the magnitude and equations of the shortest distance between the lines x-3 y
■ 5 z~ 7 . * + 1 .V + 1 2 + 1 — 'ir=_r aml (Anna, 2005 S ; Osmuma. 2000
S) Find ulsu the points where it intersects the lines. 3. Find the shortest
distance and the equation of the line of shortest distance between the line *-
l y - 2 z-3 2 3 4 and the y-axis. {V. T.U., 2010) i. Show that ihe shortest
distance between the lines v - mr = 0 = z - c and y e/nr = 0 = 2 + ciac units.
Iff VS y p* 6, If the shortest distance between the lines =- + = t, x = 0 and "
- - = i, y = 0 be 2d, Lhen show that d: * 1 = cr 2 + he a c ir2 + c_a* ft. Show
that the shortest distance between x-axis and the line ax + by + ez + d =■ 0
- arx + by + c'z + d* is da' - d'a _ sjliba' - Uaf + ica* - c'a)2 J 7- Show thal
the shortest distance between a diagonal of a rectangular para II el o piped
whose edges are a* h* c and the edges not meeting it* are hcKb2 -i- r3 *)^,
ca/{c7 + a®}1/2, ob/ia2 + b2)m. g, Show that Lhe shortest distance
between two opposite edges of the tetrahedron formed by the planes x + y ^
0, y + z - 0t .z + x = 0 and x + y +■ z = a is 2a/ ^6 ■ 3.16 INTERSECTION
OF THREE PLANES Any three planes (no twn of which are parallel)
intersect in one of the following ways : (1) 7’Ae planes may meet in a
point, if the line of section of two of them is not parallel to the third. (2) The
planes may have a common line of section, if the line of section of two of
them lies on the third (Figr 3.47). (3) The planes may form a triangular
prism , if the line of section of two of them is parallel to the third but does
not lie on it. (See Fig. 3.48)
114 HiGhgp Eras i meeting Mathematics Example 3.52. Prove
that the planet* x + z - 2, form a triangular prism and find the area of the
normal section of the prism. Solution. Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of"
the line of intersection of the planes (ii) and (Hi) so that l ~ m + 2n = Q, l +
n = 0, , l m n whence - — — ^ - — - . To find a point P on this line, put x = 0
in (ii) and (iii), -y + 2z = 4 and z = 2. Thus the point P is (0, 0, 2). Now the
line of intersection of (ii) and (iii) is parallel to the plane (i). I v 2 x 1 + 1 x
(— 1) + 1 x (— 1) = 0J Also the point P does not lie on the plane (i). Hence
the given planes form a triangular prism. Let A PQlt be its normal section
tli rough P. The equation of the plane through P perpendicular to the line of
intersection of the planes (/) and (iii) is, 1(jc - 0) - l(y - 0) - 1(2 - 2) = 0 or
x-y-2 + 2 = 0 „.(te) Solving the equations (i), (ii) and Ire), we get
Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry 115 Solving the equation (i),
(Hi) and (io), we get 3-2 1 Also PL J. from P on the plane If) = , — = —= ,
7(4 + 1 + 1} V6 Hence the area of A PQR — — QR x PL - — . , _L. = — 1
— . 2 2 3 76 6/3 PROBLEMS 3.11 1. f*rov« that the three plnnes 2x - 3 \y
— 7* - 0, 3jc - 14v - 13,? = 0f Sit - 3I> - BBz = 0 pass through one line. 2.
l*rove that the planes x = cy + &z, y - &£ + cx, z “ bx + ay intersect in a
line if a2 + h? + + 2 + 3z = 0 form a prism : obtain the equation of one of
its edges in the symmetrical form. 3.17 SPHERE (1) Def. A sphere is the
lotus of a point which remains at a constant distance from a fixed point. The
fixed point is called the centre and the constant distance the radius of the
sphere (2) The equation of the sphere whose centre is (a, bf c) and radius r,
is (x - a)2 + (y - b)a + (z - c)2 = r2. For the distance of any point P(x , y, a)
on the sphere from the centre C(u, ht
Higher Engineering Mathematics (5) The equation of any sphere
through the circle of intersection of the sphere S = 0 and the plane U = 0 is
S + kU = 0 For the equation S 4- kU = 0 represents a sphere and the points
of intersection of the sphere S = 0 and the pJane U = 0 satisfy it. Example
3.54. Fi nd the equation of the sphere through the points (0, 0, 0), (0, 1, - I ),
(- 1. 2, 0} and (1, 2 . 3). Locate its centre and find the radius. Solution. LeL
the required equation of the sphere be jra + y2 + zl + 2ux + 2vy + 2ws + d =
0 It. passes through (0, 0, 0), (0, 1, — 1 }, (- 1, 2, 0} and ( 1, 2, 3}. ...(*) d =
0, 1 + 1 + 2o - 2irr + d - 0 or v — w + 1 L - 0 .„(«) l + 4 - 2u + 4v + d - Q or
- 2u + 4y + 5 = 0 ...(iii) 1+4 + 9 + 2fc + 4u + 6u.; + d = 0 or u + 2i.’ + Zw +
7 = 0 Multiplying (ii) fay (iff ) and adding to (in), we get u + 5r + 10 = 0 —
(e) Solving (iii) and { v ), we get From (ti)T __ 15 _ _ 25 14 14 t -25 , -11 u;
= v + 1 = - + 1 14 14 Substituting these values of u, v, w, d in O'), we get a
o o 15 25 11 x1 + y2 + zl - — x - y - — z = 0 7 7^7 which is the required
equaton of the sphere. Its centre is (15/14, 25/14, 11/14) and the radius = [(-
15/14)2] + (- 25/14)2 + (- H/14)3 - 0| = ^971/14 . [(- u> - v, - to)] Example
3.55. (o ) Find the equation of the sphere which has (xv ,yj. and U^y2»
extremities of a diameter. {&) Deduce the. equation of the sphere, described
on the tine joining the points (2, - 1 , 4) and (- 2, 2, - 2) as diameter. Find
the area of the circle in which, the sphere is intersected by the plane 2x+y -z
= 3. {Anna, 2009 ; Razaribagh, 2009) Solution, (a) Let P(x, y, 2) be any
point on the sphere having AU,, yv 2,) and B{x2, y2, z2) as ends of
diameter (Fig. 3.50. (a ». Then AP and BP are at right angles. Now direction
ratio of AP arex -j c^y-y^z and those offlParcx -x2, y-y2,z-z2. Hence (x -x,)
(x-x2) + (y - y() (y-y2) + (z - z,> (z - z2) = 0 which is the required equation.
(6) The equation of the required sphere is (x-2)(x + 2) + (y + l)<.v-2 u-4=""
or="" x2="" y2="" z2="" u="" its="" centre="" is="" c="" and="" radius=""
j="" .="" let="" the="" given="" plane="" y="" cut="" sphere="" in=""
circle="" ppr="" having="" l.="" ah=""/>
Vegtw Algebra & Sdud Geometry p - perpendicular CL from C on
the plane (2) 1/2 - t - 3 7 ^4 + 1 + 1 2^6 If a be the radius of the circle PP
then (in magnitude) „ „ , 61 49 317 a4 = r — p - — - - = 24 24 Hence the
area of circle PPf = no2 = 317 24 - n. Example 3.56. A plant pauses through
a fixed point (a, b, c) and cuts the axes in A. B, C. Show that the locus of
the centre of the sphere OABC is a b c . — + — + - = 2, x y z IRT.U.,
2010} or Solution. Let the centre of the sphere OABC be P{f g, h ) so that
its radius OP = ^{f2 + g2 + h2) . .\ The equation of the sphere is (x -f)2 +
=:0 ,„(ij In order that (r ) may have the given circle as its great circle, its
centre [- ft/2, - ( 10 + k)/2, (4 - k\J2\ must lie on the plane x + y 4 z - 3 k 10
+ k 4 — ft m — - - - — - (- — 2 2 - 3, i,e.t k - - 4 whence (i) becomes, x2 +
y2 + z2 - 4x + 6y - 8z + 4 = 0 which is the required equation. Example 3.58.
Find the equation of the smallest sphere which contains the circle a? + y- +
r + 2k + % + 4z - 1 1 = 0 and 2x + 2y + z + 1 =0. or Solution. Equation of
any sphere containing the given circle is jr3+y2 + z2 + 2x + 6y + 4z-ll + X
(2x + 2y + z + 1) = 0 x2 + y2 + z2 + (2 + 2X)x + (6 + 250 y + (4 + X) z - 11
+ X = 0 Its radius r is given by ja«(H-JL)* + (3 + AJ» + C2 + £ JLP-0L-11)-
-\tf + 4X + — 1 = - fa + 2f + — ] 2 4[ 9 J 4 L 9 J ...{£)
IIS Higher Engineering Mathematics Now r2 has the least value

when X = - 2. Substituting X = - 2 in (i), we get x2 + y2 + z2 -2x + 2y + 2z
- 13 = 0 which is the required smallest sphere. Example 3.59. Prove that
the. circles x!y + y2 + r* - 2x + 3y 4 4z - 5 = 0, 5y + fls + I = 0 and x? + y*
* a3 - 3x - 4y + 5z - fi - 0, x + 2y - 7z = 0 lie on the same sphere and find its
equation Solution. Equation of any sphere containing the first circle is *2
+y2 + a2 - 2x + 3y + 4? - 5 + X (5y + 6? + 1) = 0 or x2 + y2 + z2 — 2x + (3
+ 5X)y + (4 + 6X)? - 5 + X= 0 Similarly equation of any sphere containing
the second given circle is x2 + y2 + 22 — 3* — Ay + 5z - 6 + X' (jc + 2y —
7z) ~ 0 or xz + ya + z1 + (- 3 + X')r + (- 4 + 2X')y + (5 - 7X') z - 6 = l) {()
and (it) wilt represent the same sphere when - 2 = - 3 + X' ..Mii) ; 3 + 5X =
- 4 + 2X' 4 + 6X = 5^7XJ ...(u) ; ~ 5 + X = -6 Now (iii) gives X' = I and (vi)
gives X = — 1. Clearly X = - 1 and X' = 1 also satisfy (ft?) and (o). This
shows that the given circles lie on the same sphere. Substituting X - — 1 in
(£) or X' = t in (ii), we get x2 +y2 + zl - 2x - 2y - 2z - 6 * 0 which is the
desired sphere. ...(f) -..(if) ..Mo) .Mvi) PROBLEMS 3.12 [ , Find the
equation of the sphere through the points (2, 0, I), <1.-5,- 1), CO. -2, 3) and
(4*- U 21. Also find its centre and radius. 2, Find the equation of the sphere
whose diameter is the Hue joining the origin to the point (2* - 2, 4). Also
find its centre end radius, 3. Obtain the equation of the sphere which passes
through the points ( 1 . 0, 0), (U, 1, 0 \< (GP 0t 1) end. («J has it* centre on
the plane jr +y + z = 6. (b) has its radius as small as possible, i. A sphere of
constant radius k passes through the origin and meets the axes in A , C .
Prove that the centroid of the ft) triangle ABC lies on the sphere Sftr3 + y*
+■ *3) i 4ft2. {Assam, 1999 ) (it) tetrahedron OABC lies on the sphere ** #
y- + z2 - k2/ 45. A plane passes through a fixed points (a, b, c), show that
the Locus of the foot of the perpendicular from the origin on the plane is the
sphere + y2 + z1 - ax — by — tz - 0, 6. A sphere of constant radium t
passes through the origin O and ruts the axes in At Bt C. Prove that the
locus of the foot of the perpendicular from O on the plane ABC is given by
(ar1 + y3 + z2)2 ix -t - y~* + r-3) = 4r*. If A plane ruts the coordinate axes
at A, C. If OA = a, OB - hA OC = cy find the equation of the ti)
dreumsphero or the tetrahedron OABCt (Assam, 1999} (ii) circum-cirde of
the triangle AfiC. Also obtain the coordinates of its centre. H, Find the
centre and radius of the circle x2 4 y2 + z2 - 2y - 4£ ^ 1 1 , x + 2_v + 2z »
15. (P. 7\ LLt 2009 S ; Bardwan, 2003 ; Cochin > 2001 J 9. Show that l he
points (2, - 6, 0), (4, - % (5T 0, 2), (7. - 3, 8) are concyclic. 10. Find the
equation of the sphere for which Lhe cirde x2 + y3 + za — 3x +>4$ - — 5 -
0, Bx - 2y + 4$ -i- 7 - 0 is o great cirde. 1 1. Find the equation of the sphere
having it* centre on the plane 4x - 5y —z = 3 and passing through the circle
x2 + y3 + ~ 3_y + 4* + 8 = 0, jc - 2y 4 z = 8. 2001) 12^ Prove that the plane
x + 2y—z = 4 cuts the sphere x2 -f-y2 + s2 - * - 2 - 2 = 0 in a cirde of radius
unity. Find also the equation of the sphere which has this circle as one of its
great circles, iNafipur, 2009) 13. Find the equation qf the sphere passing
through the circle x~ +y2 + z2 + 2x + 3y 4- 6 = 0T x - 2y + 4* ^ 9 and the
centre of the sphere x2 +y3 + z2 - 2i + 4y - fe + 5 = 0. (Anna, 2009)
Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry 119 3.18 EQUATION OF THE
TANGENT PLANE The equation of the tangent plane at any point (x(1 y p
2A) of the sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 — a2 is xxt + yy, + zz, = a3. IfP(jc,y,z)be
any point on the tangent plane at P ,(r1,y],z1) to the given sphere, the
direction ratios ofP,P are x -xt y -yl 2 — zv Also the direction ratios of'
radius QP% are jc1 - 0,y, - 0, Zj - 0. Since OP, is normal to the tangent
plane at P{, OP , J. P,P. xt(x-x,) + y,(y -J'j l + z^-z,) = 0 or xx,+yyl+zzi-x2 +
y2 + z2 = a2 [v z,) lies on the sphere. This is the desired equat ion of the t
angent plane. Similarly, the tangent plane atix^y,, z, ) to the sphere xz + y2
+ z2 + 2ux + 2uy + 2wz + d = 0 is xx, + yyj + zz( + ufx + Xjl + v(y + yx) +
w(z 4- Zj) + d = 0 Thus to write the equation of the tangent plane at (xt,y (I
z j) to o, sphere, change x2 to xx , , v2 toyy [( z2 to zz,, 2x to x 4- Xj, 2v fa
y + y p 2z to Z + Zy Ohs. 7 Vic condition for a plane (or a line) to touch a
sphere is that the perpendicular distance of the cent, re from the plane (or
the line) = the radius. Example 3.60. Find the equations of ihe spheres
passing through the circle xf + _v + z2 - fir - 2z + 5 = 0, y = 0 and touching
the plane 3y + 4z + 5-0. Solution. The equation of any sphere through the
given circle is x2 + y2 + z2 - 6x - 2z + 5 + ky = 0 or xa + y2 + z2 - 6x + ky
- 2z + 6 = 0 ...(/) Its centre = 13, - ft/2, 1 } and radius = ^9 + (/?2/4} + 1 - SI
= ,/(5 + A2 /4) ■ Tile sphere (f) will touch the plane 3y + 4z + 5 - 0, if J_
distance of the centre (3, - £72, 1) from the plane = radius. i.e.. 3{- hi2) +
4+5 _ i(r lff \ 7<9 + 16) vl° + 4'J - 27 ± J[(27f - 704J _ k - g Substituting the
value of k in ( 1), we get or if, 4k2 + 27 h + 44 = 0 11 4 or - 4 x2 + y2 + z2 -
Gx — -- y + 2z + 5 - 0 and x2 + y2 + z2 — 6x — 4y — 2z + 5 = 0 as the
two required spheres. Example 3.61. Find the equation of the sphere which
touches the plane x - 2y - 2z = 7 at the point L(3. - 1, - l) and passes through
the point M (1, 1. - 3). Solution. If C is the centre of the sphere, then CL is
perpendicular to the given plane x - 2y — 2z = 7. The direction ratios of CL
being 1, - 2, - 2, the equation of CL is £r2=>±l £±1 = h (say) 1 -2 -2 Any
point on CL is (,k + 3, — 2k — 1, — 2k — 1 J which will represent C for
some value of k . Since M lies on the sphere, therefore its radius CL = CM
or {CL J2 = \CM) 2 i.e. {k + 3 - 3)2 + (- 2k - L + l)2 + (- 2k - 1 + l)2 - (k +
3 _ i)2 + (_ 2k - 1 - V? + (- 2k - 1 + 3)2 or 4k = — 12 or k - — 3, The
centre C is (0, 5, 5) and rail i us CL - >/f 9 + 36 + 3G> = 9. i,-3> Fig. 3.51
120 Hsghe* Engineering Mathematics Hence the required
equation of the sphere is (x - OF + (y - B)2 + (2 - 5 )2 = (9)2 or x2 + y2 +
zs - IQy - IQz -31 = 0 | Orthogonal spheres. Two spheres are said to cut
orthogonally if the tangent planes at a point of intersection are at right
angles (Fig. 3.52). The radii of such spheres through their point of
intersection P, being i* to the tangent planes at P are also at right angles.
Thus two spheres cut orthogonally, if the square of the distance between
their centre = sum of the squares of their radii]. Example 3*62* Show that
the condition for spheres + jr + e* + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 and x2 ^y3 +
z2 + 2u'x + JJi/y + 2wfz + d' = 0 to cut is 2uii' + 2w' + 2wV = d + d' (Anna.
2002 S) Le or Solution. The centres of the spheres are C(— uw-vf- iu), CT
— - w') and their radii are T - yjtii2 + V2 + - d) f r’= J(u* + v'2 + id* -d').
Now these spheres will cut orthogonally, if (CC')9 = r2 + r'2 (h - a')2 + (e -
it')2 + (it* - w')2 = u2 + o2 + u,2 -c/ + tt'2 + i/2 + u/2 - d' 2i tu' + 2vv' + 2
luw' = d + d‘ which is the required condition. f ig. 3.53 Example 3.83. Find
the equation of the sphere which touches the plane 3x + 2y - s + 2 - 0 at the
point (1, - 2, 1) and cuts the sphere Rs - 2(21 - 3J) . R + 4 - 0 orthogonally.
{Roorkee, 2000 ) Solution. The given plane 3x + 2y — z + 2 = 0 ...(») will
touch the required sphere at A (1, - 2, 1) if its centre lies on the normal to (t)
at A (Fig. 3.53}. The equations of the normal to ft) at A arc x-l_y+2_s-l 3 ~~
2 ~ -1 Any point on this line is C (3r + 1, 2r - 2, ter + 1) Also radius (AC) of
the required sphere. = >/[(3r)2 + (2r)2 + (- r)2l =rjl4. Since the required
sphere cuts the given sphere x2 + y3 + x2 - 4x + f>y + 4 = 0 [Centre = (2, -
3, 0} and + radius = 3 orthogonally, therefore (distance between their
centres)2 = X of squares of their radii i.e.t <3r + 1 - 2)2 + (2r - 2 + 3)2 + ( -r
+ l)3 = Hr2 + 9 orr = - 3/2. Thus centre C is (— 7/2, — 5, 5/2) and radius =
, 2 Hence the required sphere is (x + 7/2 }2 + (y + 5)2 + fe - 5/2)2 = (3^14/2
)2 or Xs + y2 + x2 + 7x + lOy — 5z + 12 - 0. PROBLEMS 3.13 I . Find the
equations of the tangent pianos to the sphere (t) x2 +,y2 + z2- 4x + 2y - & +
11=0 which are parallel to the plane x - 0. (Anna, 2009) (it) x2 +y2 + 2* = 9
which pass Lh rough the line x + y ^ 6. x - 2s = 3, (Madras, 2006 )
Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry 121 2. Find the equations of

the spheres which pass through the circle x2 +■ z2 = fir + 2y + 3z = 3, and
touch Che plane 4x ■+ 3y = 15* {Anna , 2009 ) 3, Find the equation of the
sphere which is tangential to the plane x — 2y - 2z = 7 at (3, —1,^1) and
passes through U, 1,— 3). 4h (f) Prove that the equation of the sphere
which lies in the first octant and touches the coordinates planes is of the
form (jcs + y2 + ?2) - 2X(x -r y + 2) + 21? = (J (ri) Find the equation of the
sphere passing through (1, i, 9) and touching the coordinate planes. 6.
Tangent plane at any point of 1 he sphere x a + y 2 +z f - r7 meets the
coordinates axes at A p C Show that the locus of the point of intersection of
Che planes drawn parallel to the coordinate planes through A* Br C is the
surface x~2 + y 2 + 2~7 = r~2, { H ajostha n , 2006) fi- Find the equation of
the tangent, line to the circle x2 + y- + z? = 3, 3r - 2y + 4z + % = 0 at the
point E l, 1,-1 ). 7* Show that the sphere x2 +■ y2 + z2 - 2x 4[ By + 14* +
3=0 divides the line joining the pointy (2* - 1 . - 4) and ( 5, 5\ 6) internally
and externally in the ratio I : 2. ft* find Che shortest and the longest
distance from the point (1* 2, - 1) to the sphere _\2 + y2 -t sP = 24. 9*
Show that the spheres xz + y3 + z2 +- 6y + I4z + 8 = 0 and xz +y2 + z2 +
6x + By ¥ 4 z + 20 = 0* intersect at right angles. Find their plane of in
tersection. HI. Show that Lhe spheres x~ + y 2 + z2 ^ £5 and x 3 + y2 + z2
— 24* - 4(*y - IB* + 225 = fl touch externally and find their point of
contact. 3.19 (1) CONE Dcf. A t om is a surface generated by a straight tine
which passes through a fixed point and satisfies one more condition e,g., it
may intersect a given curve (called tlie guiding curve). The fixed point is
called the vertex and the straight line in any position is called a generator.
The degree of the equation of a cone depends upon the nature of its guiding
curve. In case the guiding curve is a ennic* the equation of the cone shall be
of the second degree. Such cones are called Quadric cones. In what
follows* we shall be conncemed only with quodrir cones. Example 3*04,
Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is (3, lt 2) ami base the circle
2xr + 3f = 7,2- L Solution* Any line through (3t 1* 2) is * - 3 = y - 1 / m x -
3 y - 1 -1 n -2 n It meets z — 1+ where / m whence x = 3 - l/nfy = 1 - min.
Substituting these values o(x and y in 2x2 + 3y2 = 1, 2(3 -lfn}2 + 3(1 -
m/n)2= 1 Eliminating /, m, n from (i) and ( f r >T the locus of the line ii) is
\2 f ^2 nr 2(3-H]+3(>-7^) 2.x1 + 3 y2 + 2Qz2 - 6yz - 12xz + 12x + 6y - 38?
+ 17 = 0 which is the required equation. Example 3.65. Find the equation of
the cone whose vertex is at. the origin and guiding carve is 2 T + *9+T ='-
i+j+i = ;.„{i) ...(ii) .(i) Solution. Any line through (0, 0, 0) is x/l = ylm = z/n
Any point on it is Ptlr, mr , nr). If (i) intersects the given curve, the
coordinates of P should satisfy its equations.
122 Higher Engineering Mathematics /V 2 2 m r 2 2 - - 1 and Ir +
mr + nr = 1. 1 Eliminating r. e which passes through the axes is of the form
fyz + gzx +■ hxy - 0Solution, Any cone which passes through the axes will
have origin V as its vertex. The general equation of a cone of the second
degree having vertex at the origin is of the form ox2 + by2 + ez2 + 2 fyz +
2gzx + 2hxy - 0 ...(/) Since it passes through x-axis .*. The direction cosines
of x-axis (i.e., 1, 0, 0) must satisfy (i). This gives a = 0. As the cone passes
through y-axis, 6 = 0. Similarly, as the cone passes through z-axis, c - 0.
Hence (i) reduces to fyz + gzx + hxy = 0. (2) Right circular cone. Def. A
right circular cone is a surface generated by a straight line which passes
through a fixed, point (vertex) and makes a constant angle with a fixed line
{Fig. 3.54). The constant angle (ZAVC) is called its semi-vertical angle and
the fixed line (VC) is called the axis. The section of a right circular cone by
a plane perpendicular to its axis is a circle. Example 3.68. Find the equation
of the right circular cone whose vertex is me origin, whose axis ir the line
x/1 =y/2 = z/3 and which has semi - vertical angle of 30°. f Anna, 20Q9)
Solution. Let P(x, y,z) be any point on the cone with vertex Q and axis (OO
T = £ = 4 . so that ZPOC ~ 30°. 1 A d VfVertex} (Fig. 3.55)
123 Vector Algebra 4 Soi.ro Geometry or Now the direction ratios
of OP are x, yt z and those of OC are 1, 2, 3. cos 30° = _ J(jr2 + / + z*) .
^<1 + 4 + 9) _ x + 2y + 3z 2 JH4(x2 +yz + z2)\ Squaring 3 x 14 (x2 + y2 +
z2) = 4(x + 2 y + 3z)2 or l&c2 + 13y2 + 3z2- 8xy - 24yz - 1 2zx = 0 which
is the required equation of the cone. Example 3.69. Find (fie equation of the
right circular cone generated when the straight line 2y + Sz - 6, x-0 revolves
about z-axis. {Httzaribogk, 200,9 i Solution. The vertex is the point of
intersection of the line 2y + 3r = 6,jr = 0 and the z-axis i e x - 0 y = 0 (Fig.
3.56). Vertex is A(0. 0, 2). A generator of the cone is x _ y _ z - 2 0 " 3 = -2
Direction ratios of the generator are 0. 3, - 2 and the axis (z-axis) are 0, 0, 1.
The semi -vertical angle a is, therefore, given by 0 . 0 + 3 . 0 + (- 2) . 1 -2
cos a = - 1= - d— = -= Vl3 Vl3 Let P(xyy , z) be any point on the cone so
that the direction ratios of AP are x, y, 2-2. Since AP makes an angle a with
AZ, we have x . 0 + y . 0 + (z - 2) . 1 cos a = - - ^[x2 + / + U - 2? | Th us U -
2) •i x2 +y2 + (2 - 2 f 2 4 - cos'1 a = 13 or 4x2 + 4y2 - 9z2 + 36z - 36 = 0
which is the required equation of the cone. Example 3,70. Find the
equations to the. hues in which the plane 2x + y - z = 0 cuts the cone 4#- y*
+ 3!*= Q. Solution. Let x// = ylm - zfn be one of the two lines in which the
given plane 2x + y -z - 0 cuts the given cone 4r2 — y2+ 3s2 = 0 v This line
lies on (i), 2/ + m - n = 0 and it lies on (it ), 4 12 - rn2 + 3n2 = 0 To
eliminate n from (iii) and (iv), put n = 21 + rn in (iv). 4 12 — ma + 3(2/ +
m)2 = 0 or (4/ + m ) (21 + m) = 0 Either 4/ + m = 0 or 21 + m = 0 ...(f) ...(it)
...fiti) ...(to) From (iii) 21 + m ~ n = 0 _L -1 rn n 4 " 2 Hence the required
lines are and 21. + m - it = 0 _L -I rn _ n 2 = 0 JL = and = £ - 1 4 2 - 1 2 0
Example 3.7 1. Find the equation of the enveloping corte of the sphere xf +
v; +■ z:: -- a 5 with vertex at the point (Xj. yp 2jl
124 Hit. he k Engineering Mathematics Solution. The equation of

any generator through V tv^.v^Zj) having direction ratios I, m, n is or
^L=y-yL = £-iL=Hsay) I m n Any point on (/) is P(xi + lr,yx + mr, zt + nr).
It lies on the given sphere if (x, + ir)2 + (yt + i mr)2 + U, + nr)2 = a 2 (l2 +
m2 + n2> r2 +■ 2 (/jr1 + myl + nz,) r + x,2 + y,2 + z 2 — a2 = 0 ...(/} .-fir)
ji) The line ( i ) will touch the given sphere if {it ) has equal roots. f/jtj +
my, + nzj)2 = {l2 + m'2 +■ n2) (jc,2 + yt2 + zx2 -a2) The locus of all such
lines is the enveloping cone of the given sphere which is obtained by
eliminating /, m, ft from (0 and (it/). Thus [(*-*,)*, + (y ~yi)y1 + (z~z1)zl]2
= \(x -xtf + iy -y^ + (z -*,)21 {x2 +y2 + z2 -a2) which is the equation of the
enveloping cone. (Fig. 3.57) Obs, It can be reduced to the form SS, = TJ
where S = xz + yz + z1 - a", St - Xj2 + VjS + - ft5, T = i'jr , + yy x + zzt~
a2. Thus the enveloping cone of the surface S - 0 with vertex fxr y z}) is
$Sf = TPROBLEMS 3.14 L Find the equation of the cone with vertex (oq
J5, J) and base y2 - tax = Q* * - 0. 2. Find the equation of the con e whose
vertex is (3, 4t 5 J and base is the conic 3y5 4 4z.2 - Ih, 2 + 2* = 0. 3* Find
the equation of the cone whose vertex is f l* 3. 3) and whose guiding trurve
is the drrie x* + y2 + r = 4, x+y+z = i. (p.T,a,mm 4* Thegenerators of a
cone pa^s through the point (1, 1, 1 }and their direction cosinu xLm, n
satisfy the relation h mP - 3 n2. Obtain the equation of the cone. Si Find the
equation of the right circular cone whose vertex is at the origin and angle
i_^ o and having axia of z as its axis. ( V,T. U .* 2006 ; Rajasthan, 20QS) 6.
Fi mi the equation of the cone whose vertical angle fe */2, which ha$ its
vertex at the origin and its axia along the 1 i m x = “ 2y = z. iV*TM.20m
Also c-dww that the plane ? =^0 cuts the cone in two straight lines inclined
at j - 0 in perpendicular lines if a~ 1 + b~l + r_1 = 0 1 4W Find the equation
of the enveloping cone of the sphere x2 + y2 t z* + 2# - 4 y t2z- \ =0 with
vertex at it. 3 . IK 3.20 (1) CYLINDER Def. A cylinder is a surface
generated by a straight line which is parallel to a fixed line, and satisfies
one more condition e.g., it may intersect a given curvn (called the guiding
curve). The straight line in any position is called the generator ami the fixed
line the axis of the cylinder.
Vectoh Algebra & Solid Geometry 125 Example 3.72. Find the
equation of a cylinder whose generating lines have the direction cosines I.
m, n and which puss through the citctiinference of the fixed circle r + z2- (d
in the ZOX plane. Solution. Let P(xv y (1 zx) be any point of the cylinder
so that the equation of the generator through P is * - *1 y “ -Vi * ~ l m n
Given guiding circle is x2 + z2 = a2, y = 0 The generator (f) cuts the plane y
■ 0, where -yi z_ l m n Le., where x = x, - ™ and z = z. — 1 m 1 m But
these values of x and z satisfy x2 + z2 = a 2 = ti2 1 I l Fig. 3.58 Hence the
locos of (x]tyv {mx - lyf2 + (m2 — ny)2 = a 2 m2, which is the required
equation of the cylinder. (21 Right circular cylinder. Def.,4 right circular
cylinder is a surface generated by a straight fine which is parallel to a fixed
tine and is at a constant distance from it. The constant distance is called the
radius of the cylinder * Kxample The radius of a normal section of a right
circular cylinder is 2 Units ; the axis lies along the straight line - = y±* _ f
—A w find its equation . (P. 7' U., 2005) 2 - 1 5 Solution. A point on the
axis of the cylinder is A(l, — 3, 2} and its direction ratios are 2, - 1, 5. ,\ Its
actual direction cosines are j— , . v/30 -M y/30 Let P(x, y, z) be any point
on the cylinder Draw PM X to the axis AM. Then MP - 2, Now AM =
Projection of AP on AM (axis) or or = (x - 1) 2 So + 0 + 3) f + (z-2) & 0 5
2x - y + 5z - 15 Also AP = - l)2 + (y + 3 f +{z~ 2)2 ,\ From the rt. Zd A
AMP, (AM)2 + (MP)2 = (AP)2 J-(2x -y + 5z - 15}3 + 4 = tx - if +
Higher Engineer if ig Mathematics Axis of the cylinder is Also
QL JL from O (0. 0, 0) on (t) x y z 1 — 1 1. = V3. JoTT+d r, radius of the
circle = ^(OAa - OlF) = v/(9 -3) = v'6 Thus radius of the cylinder {= r) = Jq
If P ( x , y, z) be any point on the cylinder, then OP 2 -- OhP + MP 2 i.e U„
+ yz + z3 = ljs{x-w-jsty-0,+js{‘-°\ n2 + 6 Fig. 3.60 + y3 + za + xy + yz - zx
- 9 - 0 which is the required equation. Example 3.75, Ft fid the equation of
the enveloping cylinder of the sphere xf +yz +Z2 = 9 having generator
parallel to the line x ! 3 =y/2 - zl 1. Solution. If Ptej, yj, Zj) lie n point on
the enveloping cylinder, then the equation of the generator is x~xi y-yi , v
— g-*- = — ~ = — “ = r(say). ...(1) Any point on (j) is + 3r,yj + 2r, z, + r).
It lies on the sphere .r2 + y2 + z2 - 9. ...fit) Then (x1 E Sr)2 + (yj + 2r>2 +
(z1 + r}2 = 9 14r2 + 2(31, + 2y , + zt) r + x,2 + y ,2 + z,2 - 9 = 0 In order
that O’) touches (it), the equation (iff) must have equal roots for which
4(&r, + 2yt + zj1 = 4* 14 (xt2 +y12 + z2 - 9) Stfj2 + lQvj" + 13zj2 + iSaijyj
+ 4yJz1 + 62,*, = 126 The locus of Or,, yv zi ) is 5x2 + 10y3 + 13z2 + I2xy
+ 4yz + Gzx = 126 which is the required equation of the enveloping
cylinder. or or ...(iff') [v b2 = 4ac] PROBLEMS 3.15 I. Find the equation of
the right circular cylinder whose axis is Lhe line x = 2y — - z and radius 4 ,
{Anna* 200 f/ ? 2* Find the equation of the cylinder whose generators are
parallel to the line x =■ -y/2 = e/8 an d wha&e guiding curve is the ellipse
,t“ + 2 = 3, * Rajastha n, 2005 ; R&arkw, 2000 ) 3* Find the equation of the
right rimilar cylinder of radius 2 whose axis pusses through (lt 2, 31 end has
direction ratios (2, - 3, *). ( V. T. U.t 200& ; Anna, 2005 8) 4. Find the
equation of the right circular cylinder describe on the circle through L he
points (a, Ot 0)( ii), Oh (0, 6 pa) guiding curve. 5. Find the equation of the
cylinder whose directing curve is x2 + z3 - 4x ; - 2s + 4 = ihy = 0 and
whose axis contains the point m 3* Q)* Find also the area of the section of
the cylinder by a plane parallel Ln Ez-ptane: 6. Find the equation of the
enveloping cylinder of the sphere x2 + y2 + - 2x 4y - Gz 2 = 0 whose
generators are perpendicular to the tines — = - — and »■ ^ — = — , 3-10
12 0 7. Find the equation to the cylinder whose generators intersect the
conicru:2 + 2hxy + + 2fy + a 0. z - 0 and are parallel to the lint xtl = y/m =
z/n. 3.21 QUADRIC SURFACES The surface represented hy general
equation of the second degree in x, y, z is called a quadric surface or a
conicoid.
127 Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry Thus the general equation
of a quadric surface is of the form ax2 + by 2 + cz2 + 2 fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy +
2ux + 2 vy + + 2 -plane f.v - 0) is the ellipse. (ie) The surface is generated
by a variable ellipse Fig- 3-61 - k : (as h varies from - r to e) and is limited
in every direction. Hence its shape is as shown in Fig. 3.61 which is like
that of an egg. (2) Hyperboloid of one sheet : — + X. — — = 1. a3 b* c2 (t)
It is symmetrical about each of the coordinate planes for only even powers
of x, y, z occur in its equation. (ii) It meets the jc-axis at A(u, 0, 0), A' (- a, 0,
0) ; they-axis at B (0, b, 0), B ‘ (0, - b, 0) ; and the 2-axis in imaginary
points. Cm) Its section by the yz- plane (x = 0) is the hyperbola = 1, (t.er.,
DE, DfE ') b2 c2 2 2 Us section by the 2x-plane (y = 0) is the hyperbola *
— — =1. (i.e., FG, F'G') a2 c2 2 £ Its section by the xy- plane (z - 0) is the
ellipse = 1. a’ bl (io) The surface is generated by a variable ellipse 3 ? k 2
— + = 1 + tz = k (as k varies from — “ In «>) and extends to infinity on
both sides of the xy-plane. a* b 2 c Hence its shape is as shown in Fig. 3.62
which is like that of juggler's dubru. 2 2 2 (3) Hyperboloid of two sheets : +
— - — = — 1. a2 b2 c2 (i) It is symmetrical about each of the coordinate
planes for only even powers of x, yt z occur in its equation. (t/ ) It meets
thez-axis at C(0, 0, c), CTO, 0, — cj and the x andy-axes in imaginary
points. 2 va (iii) Its section by the ya-plane (x - 0) is the hyperbola ~ = 1.
(i.e. t ACB , A‘C'B’) c b 2 2 Its section by the 2x-plane (y = 0) is the
hyperbola 1 _ = 1 . c1 a* (i.e., DC.E, D'C'E')
128 Higher Engineering Mathematics Y V Its section bv the xy-

plane U - 0), is the imaginary ellipse — — ^ = - 1. aT bA 2 2 JC V Its
section by the xy-plane O = 0) is the ellipse — + =1. a b~ xs v2 k2 (id) The
surface is generated bv a variable ellipse — + — — = — - 1, 2 — A, a2 b4
c2 (as A1 varies from - « to — e and r to + «) and extends to infinity on
both sides of the xy-plane. Hence its shape is as shown in Fig. 3.63. 2 2 2
(4) Cone : — + = 0a* bs c4 (i) It is symmetrical about each of the
coordinate planes. Fig. 3,52 Z* Fig. 3.63 (ii) It meets the axes only at the
origin, (fir) Its section by the yz-plane (x - 0) is the pair of straight lines Fig.
3.64 y*± h z ( i.e., DOE ' and D'OE). € Its secLion by the -plane (y = 0) is
the pair of straight lines J C = ± i£ 2 (i.e. .FOG' and F’OG ). 2 v2 Its section
by the jx-plane (z = 0) is the point ellipse =0. a2 o „ , y2 t2 iw) The surface
is generated by a variable ellipse — ^ + ^- = — ,z = kllt varies) bA eand
extends to infinity on both sides of the xy-plane. Hence its shape is as
shown in Fig. 3.64. 2 2 (5) Elliptic paraboloid : — +^- = — a* b3 c (f ) It is
symmetrical about yz- and sx-planes for only even powers ofx and y occur
in its equation (ii) It meets the axes at the origin only and touches the xy-
plane threat. Uii) Its section by tlieyz-planu (_r - 0} is the parabola y2 “ z*
(t.e , DUD'), c
Vector Ai.qe&ra & Solid Geometry 2 2 Its section by the 2x-
phme {y = 0) is the parabola x2 = =^— z EOEfli, e x2 v2 Its section by the
ay-plane (z = 0) is the point ellipse - + ~- = 0 a b* _2 or £it>) The surface is
generated by a variable ellipse — + =L_ = — , z = k (as k varies from 0 to
«■} and it a3 h 2 f extends to infinity above the xy-plane. Hence its shape is
as shown in Fig. 3,65 and is like that of tabla. (6) Hyperbolic paraboloid :
x2 _ y^_ _ 2z a2 b2 "" c (() It is symmetrical about the yz and zx-planes for
only even powers of x and y occur in its equation, (it) It meets the axes only
at the origin and touches thexy-plane threat. 2b2 tiii) Its section by theyi-
plane (x = 0) is the parabola y2 = - z. (i.e., DOD') n 2 Its section by the zx-
plane (y - 0) is the parabola xz = =x~ z {i.e„ EOE'), c I ts section by the .ay-
plane (z - 0) is the part of lines . y = * ^ x (not shown in Fig. 3.66.) 2 2 iiv)
The surface is generated by a variable hyperbola ■- - ^_ = ^ , z - h a 1 b2 c
and it extends to infinity on both sides of ary-plane. Hence its shape is as
shown in Fig. 3.66. (7)- Cylinder. An equation of the form fix, y) = 0
represents a cylinder generated by a straight line which is parallel to the 2-
axis and its section by the ay-plane is the curve fix,y) = 0 (Fig. 3.67). In
particular (i)y2 = 4ax represents a parabolic cylinder. x2 yl x 2 v2 (ft) “ + ttt
- 1 represents an elliptic cylinder, (m) —r - - 1 represents a hyperbolic
cylinder, a b" ' a b 3.22 SURFACES OF REVOLUTION Let Fix. y) be any
point on the curve y = fix) in the xv- plane. Draw PM J. to x-axis so that
OM - x and MP = y. Thus the equation of this curve can be written as MP =
f\OM) ...(1) As this curve revolves about the x-axis, the point P describe a
circle with centre M and radius MP. Let Qtx, y, z) be any other position of
P. Draw QN ± to ax-plane and join MN so that OM = x, MN - z, NQ - y and
ZMNQ = 90°, MP2 = MQ2 = MN2 + NQ2 = z2 +y2. Fig. 3.68
130 Higher Engineering Mathematics Now substituting the values
of MP and MO in (1), we have ^(y2 + z*) =/bf> or y2 + z8 = (f(x)]2 which
is Me equation of the surface generated by the revolution of the curve y -
fix) about the x -axis (Fig, 3,68) Similarly, Me surface generated by the
revolution of the curve (0 Jf — f(y) about y-axis is z8 + x2 = [f(y)F, (it) x =
f z) about 2-axis is x2 + yl = (f(z)l2 The given revolving curve is called the
generating curve. Some standard surfaces of revolution : Let the generating
curve bey = fx) in the xy-plane and the axis of rotation be the x-axis ; then
the surface generated is y2 + z2 — \f (x)]2. (1) Kight-circular cylinder.
WVierf fix) ~ a, the generating curve is a straight line (y = a) parallel to the
x-axis. The surface generated is y2 + z2 = a2 which represents a right-
circular cylinder of radius a and axis as x-axis (Fig. 3.69), (2) Right-circular
cone. When fx) - rnx, the generating curve is a straight line (y = rnx)
passing through the origin. The surface generated is y2 + z2 - m2x2 or y2 +
z2 = x2 tan2 a which represents a right -circular cone nf semi- vertical angle
a and axis as the x-axis (Fig. 3,70), (3) Sphere. When fix) - ^(o2 - x2) , the
generating curve is a circle (x2 + y2 - a2). The surface generated is y2 + 22
= u2 — x2 Le„ x2 + y2 + z2 = a2, which is a sphere of radius a and centre
(0, 0, 0), (4) Ellipsoid of revolution. When fix) = b*J< (l^x^/a2) , the
generating curve is an ellipse (x2 y2 _ \ ^ ^2 + The surface generated isy2 +
z2 - ft2( 1 - x2/a2) x* Va z* or ~2+£ir + ~s ~ which is called an ellipsoid of
revolution, a* b b If a2 > ft2, the major axis of the generating ellipse is
along the x-axis — the axis of revolution and the surface generated, in this
case, is called a prolate spheroid (Fig. 3.71). If a2 < ft2, the minor axis of
ilie ellipse lies along the x-axis — the axis of revolution and the surface
thus generated is called an oblate spheroid (Fig. 3.72), Fig. 3.70 Fig. 3.71
Fig. 3.72 (5) Hyperboloids nf revolution (i ) When fix) = b^jil + x2/a2) , the
generating curve is ^ =1 which represents a hyperbola having ft“ ct
conjugate axis along the x-axis. -% The surface generated isy2 f:2 = 62(1 +
x2/a 2) 2 2 2 +. - - * - = l which is called a hyperboloid of revolution of one
sheet (Fig. 3.73). b2 b2 a2 or
131 Vgctoa Algebra & Solid Geometry m (ti) When fix) = b^x2 la
2 - 1) , the generating curve is =1 which represents a hyperbola having o' b
transverse axis along the i-axis. .\ The surface generated is y2 + z2 -
b2ix2h2 - 1 ) or “ ^ which is called a Ayperfio/oirf o/refofttft*orc 0/ /u/n
sAettfs (Fig. 3.74). abb (6) Paraboloid of revolution- When fix) = ', z =c' y
+ d’ are perpendicular if fa)an'+rr' = l (b) aa' + Cc' - - l (c) bb' + dd' = 1 (d)
bb‘ + dd’ = - 1. 2. The coordinates of 1 he poin L of intersection of the line
*+l_y+3?+2 1 " ’ 3 ' " -2 (a) 0, 15, - 14) ( b ) {3, 4, 6) (c) (1*3*- 2) Ui) (3,
12. - 10). 3. Tlie equation of a right circular cylinder, whose axis is the 8-
axis and radius a is !«j>*2+y4+ra = a2 (A)s=«+y2 = a2 (c)x2+y2 = a2 (d)
Xs + JC* = d®. 4. The equation Jfe + Jgy + Jhz = 0 represent a (a) sphere
((j) cylinder (c) cone (d) pair of planes with the plane 3x + 4y + Bz = 5 is
1J2 HjGJhEF* ENGSNE&FJNG MATHEMATICS 5. The plane

as 4 by + cz = 0 cuts the cone xy 4 yz 4 zx - 0 in perpendicular lines it la) a
+ b 4 c - 0 (6) l hi + Mh +- 1/c = 0 tel a2 + 6Ur2 = 0 id) abv = 0. 6. The
equation of the cylinder which intersects the curve x' + + z* - 1, x + y 4 z =
1 and whose generators are parallel tu the axis of is In) x1 + y? + xy - x - y
= 0 £6) a-2 + y2 + xy + A + y = 0 tel + y - ior -x-y s 0 xy £ x f y = $, 7* The
uqutôn x* 4 y2 + + xy + yr « - t> represents (a) a sphere with jc5 4Y- + zJ
=9,r-y + i‘t j aa a great, circle (£0 a cone with x* + y2 + ^ - 9t a - y + z = 3
as a guiding circle te* a cylinder with a3 4#? 4 =■ R. x — y + £* = 3 as a
guiding circle Id) none of the above. 8. The Sum or the direction cosines of
a straight l ine is in) zero C6J one (c) constant id) n one of Ike above, < 8,
The angle between the planes x — y + 2s — 9 = 0 and 2x + y + ^ = 7 is fa)
3U° ll>) 90° (c) GO* (rf) 120° [V,T.U., 20iflS) 10, The equation of the right
circular cone whose axis is x =y - z. vertex is tfee origin and the -semi-
vertical angle is 45G is given as (a ) sr + ya 4 z* ^ 0 (h) 2U2 4 y2 + = ,%r +
> + te) 3(r* + y* + z1) - 2ix + y + zlr1 (d ir - y2 -h + xy 4 y^ 4 zx = 0. 1 1.
The equat ion of a straight line parallel to the x-axis .-is given by ter) x - a y
- 6 1 1 c -c ~r g_- tf I “ 1 = y ^ * o 12, The equation of the plane passing
through \4t — 2, 1 ) and perpendicular to the line with direction ratios 7, 2,
— 8 h in ) x '+ Sy - %z - B lb ) 2x + 7y - 3^ - 24 = 0 Ec ) 7x 4 2y -Zz-21 0, ,
id) lx 4 3y - 2z + 21 « 0. i\\T. tt, 2008 S) 13, The equation to the axis of the
right circular cylinder whose guiding circle is xz tya 4 - 9, a - y 4 z = Hi s
given hy fa)A=y=^ (fc>A--y-2 (c)A-y=-3 (d)x--y--z. 14* In three
cUmertEions* the equation x2 — ya ^ a2 represents (o ] a pair of straight
lines (6) & hyp^bula ic) a cylinder id) a cane* 15. Section of a sphere by a
plane is la) parabola (6) ellipse (c) circle16, A line makes angles a, J}t y
with the coordinate axeph then cafe 2a 4 cos 2^ + cos 2y is equal lo (a) i (h>
2 fci i id) - 2. a; r.t7,P 20 jo .sr] 17, Three lines are. copianar if ivi they are
eoncurrem (6> a line is perpendicular to each of them tel they are con
current and a line is perpendicular u? each of them, 18, The distance
between the planes 2x + 2y 4^ — 6 k 0 and 4a +- 4y + 2x — 7 ” 0 is uo i/s
mm ic)\m ; 1 r “ 2 ? - 3 10. The Hue <1 3 and the plaiie a + y — z = 0 are
u/j parallel tb J perpendicular ted such that the line lies in the plane 20. The
radius of a great circle of a sphere is greater than the radium ol‘ the sphere
(b i less than the radius of the sphertir l c% equal to the radium of the
sphere. 21* Which of the following lines arc* generators of the mme yz 4
4zx + 3jcy - 0 ? t nix - y - x ( b \ x = - y = z (c) x = 2y = - z.
Vfctor Altera & Soup Geometry 133 M- The semi-vertical angle

of the cone generated by revolving the line a + y = 0, - fi about the r-oxis is
ia) x2 + y2 + z2 — yz - zx —xy - 0 fc) fiyz + hzx + cry - 0. (l>) «a2 +■ hy
+ cz2 - y? -zx - xy = 0 %L (a) a = '2b, 6 = 3r (5) '2c i = b, b - 3c { c } 2fi - 6,
3b = 2r MS c * 36 , 2f> = c. ■I. The eguftliph 2ix- + yl + &*) - 2xy + 2yx +
2tx = Hu* represents a (a) cone Ic } sphere (b) riftlit^cirt ular cylinder id)
pair of planes. M. The equa tion of the plane through the point (2, 1) and
parallel to the plane 3* - 4y + Zi- = 5 is to') 3x - 4y + 2s - 20 d 0 (c}3x - 4y
^ 2* + 20 = 0 C6> Sx + 4v -2* + 20 = 0 (1 , The plane x - 2y - 2? - k
touches the sphere x2 + y2 +■ 52 - ,2a: + 4y - li? +- 5 =■- G for fr = (
j\Tjr.:mw ) M. The conciitJoit for the three concurrent lines to he copten&r
fi ,y™ t«s The equation of the cone whose vertex is at the origin and base
the circle x = a, y + t* = b2 is given by 34u The plane through points (2> 2.
1 j. (9> 3. 6) and perpendicular to tbo plane 2x + 6y + Gz - 9 is ... Mp
Volume of the sphere x 2 +_y® +!z^ + 2* — 4_y + fe - 2 = 0 is ...... M*
Angle between the planes x — T and 2x - 3y + 7 7 is . .+ 4l. The distance
between the planes 4x + 3y +5+4=0 and Sx + Gy + 2s + 12 = 0 is ... 4|, The
centre and radius of the sphere 2x2 + 2y2 + 2^ - 6x + By - fe - I = 0 are . 44.
The radius of the circle x2 + y'2 + z2 — 2x - 4y — 11 = 0B x + 2y + - 15 is
. 4i The symmetric form of the line x t y +« +■ J - i) - 4x + y - 2* + 2 ......
4f* The equation y 2 - 4z - 8 represents a . . 4T. The equation x2 + y'* = - l
repre^nta a 44. Angle between the lines whose d.r.s. are 1, 2T 3 and - 1, 1T
2 ip . .... 4§t The intercepts of the plane 2r 3y + r = 12 on the coordinate
nxes are . ftO. The radius of the sphere whose centre is (4* 4, - 2J and
which passes through the origin ia ... The points <0, 4, 1)„ f2,.3f 1). (4. 5, 0i
find <2, 6. 2) are the vertices of a square (True or False 1 It The poinLs C3,
- 1, II, (5+ - 4, 2) and (11. - 13 1 5 lire rnlitnear, fTcue or P^lêJ li The pi
(tne fix + 6y + 7^ =± ] 10, 2x + 3y - 4- = £9 are perpendjeutar to each other.
(True or Fake) |4* In three dimensional space., 9x2 + 16y2 - 144 represesits
41, Equation of 1 he right circular cone wtth vertex n c origin and parsing
thmngh the cum x2 + y 2 + = fh x + y + z^l is ,*.......+ . It, A unit vector
perpendicular to the vectors - 21 + 3J + K find 41 + 2*1 is . .
Differential Calculus & Its Applications I 1. Successive
differentiation ; Standard results. 2, Leibnitz's theorem. 3. Fundamental
theorems : Roile's | I theorem, Lagrange's Mean-value theorem, Cauchy’s
mean value theorem, Taylor's theorem. 4. Expansions of | , functions :
Maclaurtn’s series, Taylor's series. 5. indeterminate forms, 6. Tangents &
Normals— Cartesian curves, , Angle of intersection of two curves, 7. Polar
cuives. 8. Pedal equation. 9. Derivative ot arc. 10. Curvature. . 1 IT. Radius
of curvature. 12. Centre ot curvature, Evolute, Chord of curvature. 13.
Envelope. 14. Increasing and ' decreasing functions : Concavity, convexity
& Point on inflexion. IS. Maxima & Minima, Practical problems. I I IB.
Asymptotes. 17. Curve tracing. 18. Objective Type of Questions. ECTI m
SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION _ The reader is already familiar with
the process of differentiating a function y - fix). For ready reference, a list
of derivatives of some standard functions is given in the beginning. The
derivative dy/dx ist in general, another function of x which can be
differentiated. The derivative of dyldx is called the second derivative of y
and is denoted by d2y/dx2. Similarly, the derivative of tPy/dx* is called the
third derivative of y and is denoted by tPyfdx3, In general, the nth
derivative of v is denoted by dny/dxn. Alternative notations for the
successive derivatives of y ~ fix) are Dy , D'^y, D3y . Dny ; 01" )f]r r or
f'{x)J"(xhff"{x)^r(xl The nth derivative of'y = /Tjc) at x = a is denoted by
{dnyfdx*l)at (yfl)n or f(cl Exam pk- 1.1. Ify - sin bx, prove that y3 - 2ay} +
(a? + bs)y - 0. Solution. We have y — ^ sin bx yt = tcos bx , b) + sin bx * a
) = be^1 cos bx + ay or yy - ay = btfx cos bx Again differentiating both
sides, y2 - ay! = bdtx (- sin bx * 6) + 6 cos bx (e“ * a) = - + a(yl - ay) or y2
- 2ayL + (a2 + = 0* Example 4*2* Ifx-u (cos t + t sin t), y = a (sin t - t cos
ih find d-y/dx*. j Snlutinn. We have — = a {- sin t. + t cos t. + sin f}= ot cos
t dt and = a ( cos t + t sin f - cos t } = ot sin l dt ( Cochin, 2005 ) .M) iBy an
...(«) 134
135 Differential Calculus & Its Applications or dy _ dy / dx _ at
sin t _ dx dt j dt at cos I dAy rf = ^ftan - sec2 t . — — — ax at cos t — Vat
cos3 t. dx2 dt Example 4,3. Given ys = fix), a polynomial of third degree,
then evaluate d ( *1' dx‘) Solution. Differentiating .y2 = fix) w.r.t. jc, we get
* § =**> Differentiating (i) w.r.t. a again, we obtain (dy dy d2y) Again
differentiating, we get j2 4. 4L±z+2%-!ix+2y*i -r~to d^ dx~ dx dx1 ffx' dx
rfx2 dx Hence Af y3 «&’) =1 fix)f'”{x). dx{y dx2) 2* ' ...{(> [Multiplying
byy2l |v y2 = /?x)| hy by un Example 4,4, If ax* + 2hxy + hy3 = 1, prove
that ~ - U^~ dx2 (hx + byf Solution. Differentiating the given equation
W.r.t. x, 2f (x + 2h j x + y ] + 2by^Y~ =0 or ^ + l, dx J) J dx dx hx +
Differentiating both sides of(t) w.r.t. x, d7y _ (hx + by) (a + hdytdx) - (ax +
hy) (h + bdy/dx) dx2~ (hx + byf [Substituting the value of dyldx from till
(hx + byf (h2 — ab)(ax2 + 2/txy + by2) (hx + by r -(h2-aby(kx + byf [v ax3
+ 2 hxy + by3 - 1| PROBLEMS 4.1 I. IT y - {vx y bVwc + d)* show that 2y
. (jf^y dy 2* if y - sin (sin Jr), prove that — ~ + tan x + v cos- x - (i. cTV
t/X2 3. If y = e1*' cos lit + r)t show lliat + 2/f--- + n*y = 0, where it ' - Jfl +
l2. dx
136 Higher Engineering Mathematics 4, Ifjy = sin/i I m log U +

i/(xS + 1 .) ]], show that (a2 + I I l[ ^ + x = tW*y. l». If ,y a sin 1 ,r( show
that ( 1 -JC*)y5 - Tiiyk - Rtva = 0. «. *»-&+*).»- |(l -)). fa* * dx‘ dy dx dx
7. if jc = 2 cos t — cos 2£, y - 2 sin / - sin 2t, find the value nYrf^yfdx*
when t - ti/2, 8. If j: - n (cos t + Icj* tan t( 2), y - n sin t, find d^/rf*2. (/2y
dy 8. if i = sin !.,y = sin pt, prove that < 1 — v2) — — a:~ + py - 0. 10, If
*3 i- y3 - 3oxv. prove that = - ^ dx* *'■* V-«*r>3 1 Mtsdnm. 2000 S i
(fViiifi, 50£U>} (2) Standard Results We Aai/e (i) D" (ax + b)m = mlm - 1)
(m - 2) ... (m - n + 1) a" (ax + b)ra-n {2) D” f_L_U< l ax + b / -l)p (n !)a£ +
1 (5) D“ log (ax + bj = (n -l)lan (ax + bj {4\ Dn (a™*) = mn (log a)d . a*1*
(6") D" sin (ax + b) = an sin (ax + b + nid 2) { 8 ) Dn [cJl* sin (bx + c)] -
(a^ + b2)d/s e** sin {bx + c + n tan-1 b/a) (9) Dn [e“ cos (bx + c)] = (aa +
b2)^ eajc cos (bx * c + n tan*"1 b/a) To prove (1), Jet y = (o_v + bY'* y1 =
m ♦ aiax + b)m ~ 1 y2 - mim — Ikz2 (ax + hYn ~ 2 y3^m(m-1)(m-2)a3fax
+ fa^ 3 (ax + b)“ (5) D° (em3t) = m“ emK (7) Dn cos (ax + h) = a" cos (ax
+ b + nx/2) Hence yfi = mim - 1) (m - 2) (m - n +■ I) an {ax + 6)m ~N In
particular, Dn (xn) = n !. (2) follows from (1) by taking m - — lr The proof
of (3j is left a? an exercise for the student. 7V) prove (4), lei y = a"“ yx - m
log a . AirtJ, y2 - (m log a )2 a^, etc. In general yn - (m log a)fi amjt. (5)
follows from (4) by taking a = e. To prove (6)^ let y - în fnx + h) *\ yt = a
cos (nx + fc) = a sin (ax + fa + rt/2} y2 = a 2 cos (ajc + fa + nJ2) = a2 sin
(ax + fa + 2nf2) y3 = c:i cos (a* + fa + 2k/2) = a 3 sin (am: -k fa + 3rt/2) In
general yn ~ a* &in (ajc + fa + nic/2)+ The proof of (7), is lefL as an
exercise for the reader. To prove (8^ let y = e*tx sin (fax + c) y , = e fW cos
( hx + c ) , fa + ae™ sin (fax + c ) = ettx I a sin (fax + e) + fa cos (fax + c) 3
Put a = r cos (x, b = r sin a so that r = ^{a2 + fa2) #
Diwerential Calculus & Its Appucat^ns 137 In general* yn = r'1
p“* fin {6* + r + net) (V.TltA, 2000) where r =s ^(fl2 + 62) and « = tan 1
6/a, Proceeding as in (8)s the student should prove (9) himself. (3)
Preliminary transformations* Quite* often preliminary simplification
reduces the given function to one of the above standard forms and then the
nth derivative can be written easily. To find the nth derivative of the powers
of sines nr cosines or their products, we first express each of these u$ a
series of sines or cosines of multiple angles and then use the above
formulae (6) and (7). Example 4.5. Ify - x log * - . show that yn = (~ l)’' -'2
(n - 2) / X + 1 Solution. Differentiating y w.r.t. x1 we have x - n xxn lx If (x
+ If U’.PT.U., 2003) x + 1 X - 1 X + 1 = log (x - 1) - log (x + 1) + — ^ + 1
X - 1 x + 1 Now differentiating (£) (n - 1) times w.r.t. x. _ (- If _ 2 fn — 2) !
! ; x - n X + n (x-lf (x + If ...ft) Example 4.0. Find the nth oft i) t an x cos 2x
ens 3x Hi) ff1 COfir x sin x (. S.V.T.U 200.9) Solution, (t) y = cos x cos 2x
cos 3x = F cos x Icos ox + cos x) M = | (2 cos x cos 5x + 2 cos2 x) = ^ |(cos
fix + cos 4x> + ( 1 + cos 2x)l = j ( 1 + cos 2x + cos 4x + cos fix ) yn = j 12"
cos (2x + nid 2) + 4rt cos (
Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. ] -3/2 (x - l)(2x + 3) U

-1H2.1 + 3) (- 3/2 - 1){2* + 3) _ 1 +2. Hence Dft — (cos 9 + i sin 0)-f" 4 1
’} (-If n ! 2zn (- If n! 2mr" * 1 (- if n J 2ior'J + 1 (- If n ! 2 iarn 4 1 (- If n ! rj
4 2 . 2 i sin in + 1)0 sin (« + 1) B sin" 4 1 0. [By De Moivre’s theorem! Put
1 = 5^ r a PROBLEMS 4.2 Find the ftth derivative of (1 to 111 : 1. log I4xa
- 1) (V.T.U..20W) 2. x+ 2 . X +■ 2 - 4 log X + 1 x+1 3. sin3* cop® Jr
(V.T.U.. SQQ6) 4. COSBX (Mumbai, 2008) 6. sinh 2x sin 4x (V.T.U., 2010
Si 6. i?£,c cos x cos 3x (Mumbai. 2007 ) 7. x + 3 (V. T.U., 2009) a. x* I
V.T.U. . 2005) \x - l>(x + 2) 2x2 + 7x + 6 9. 1 {Mumbai. 2009 ) to. X
(Mumbai, 2007) 1 + X + x2 + x3 2 2 x* -e-a 11Find the /*Lh derivative of
tan"1 — — ^ in term? of r and 0. (U.P.TAL. 2002)
Differential Calculus & frS Applications 139 EiBM LEIBNITZ'S
THEOREM for the nth Derivative of the product of two functions* If u, v
be two function ofx possessing denualwes of the nth order, then (liv)n = tl„
V + "C, tl„ _ , V, + "C2 u„ _2 VB + ... + ftCfUn . r Vr + ... + ftCn uv„ Wc
ahull prove this theorem by mathematical induction. Step L By actual
differentia lion, (iW)L = UjV + uvY (f*a)2 — t U2V 4 Lf|) + + uv2) = I/2iJ
4 2Cl lijti, + 2C2 uv2 Thus we see that the theorem is true for n = 1,2. Step
//- Assume the theorem in he true fi>rn - m (say) so that [v 2=-*e„i=*c9i
(U0)m = u,n *J + mCl Um- 1 U1 + "C2 Um-Zv2 + - + ™Cr - lum o vr I +
'nCr«m-r'>r+» + mCmUVm Differentiating both sides. (Uf )m «!-(■.*!» +
um t'i> + wCl {um u, + um _ j u2) + "Ca (um _ L v3 + um_2 r3) + ... + '"C^
i _r* a 4V-1 + “« -r* 1 ur> + "*Cr r * 1 *V + “m -r*V ♦ 1> + »• + mcm m *
1 = *CI *mVl + * + ‘C2 + - + " * 'Cr “m , 1 -A + - + “ * * l“"« * l which is
of exactly the same form as the given Formula with n replaced by m + 1.
Hence if the theorem is true for n - m# it is also true for n = m 4 1. Step III.
In step I, the theorem has been seen to be true for n - 2T and by step II, it
must be true for n = 2 + I i.e. , 3 and so for n =3 + 1 Le„ 4 and so 00^ Hence
the theorem is true for a LI positive integral values of n . Emmple 4*9, Find
the nth derivative of e' (2x + 3)$. Solution, Take u = eJ and v ^ (2x + 3):\ so
that = e* for all integral values of n, and vt - 6 (2x +■ 3)£f u2 = 24(2* +- 3),
l?3 = 48, v4, vh etc, are all zero. By Leibnitz’s theorem, {uv)n - Un V +
“C1 tln _ J l?1 + "C2 , 2 v2 + "C3 Hn _ 3 u3 i.e., f 2x + 3>1jn = e1 (2x +
3)3 + ne*[6 (2a; + 3)al «(n-l)(n-2) + -- -x- e' I24i2x + 3)| + - j-5- 3 - e1 [48
1 1 . i - = e1 |(2k + 3)3 + 6M2r 4 3)2 4 12/i In -1)<2i + 3)+ 8«(rc - 1) in - 2)
[. KsaaipU' 4.10. If y = (sin~l x)2, show that (I - x*J yn - (2n 4 l)xyn^( n s
ya = 0. Hem, find (U.P. T. U„ 2008) Solution. We have y = (sin - 1 x)2
Differentiating, ^ 2 sin 1 x or (i _ x2) y 2 _ 4 (^-1 x)b = 4y ...U) Vu-x2)
Again differentiating, a - x3) 2y ,y2 4 (- 2x)y2 = 4 yt Uii) Dividing by 2yp
fl - xt‘t)y2 — xyl “2 = 0 Differentiating it n times by Leibnitz’s theorem,
*Named after the German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716) who invented the differential and integral
calculus independent of Sir Issae Newton.
140 Higher Engineering Mathematics U-**)jJi + 8 + ii0 = 2.2^
Wo = 42 (v6)0 = 2. 22 , 43 OA = 62 = 2. 22.42.63 In general, if n is even,
(yM)n - 2 . 22 . 43 , & ... (n - 2)*, (n * 2). ...(Hi) Example 4-11. If y - ea t
'Gibe of I-,, when .t = 0. , prove that (>2 - x~) y s- (2n + 1) x y , - (tr + or} y
- 0. Hence find the {V.T.U.. 2003) Solution. We have D liter en ti at i ng. _ e
«V or y' 1-jTl ’Jd-x2) (1 -xz)y^ ~a£ y1Again differentiating. ( 1 -x2> 2yjy2
+ (- 2x)y2 = 2u2yyr Dividing by 2yJT ( 1 - X2)y2 - *y ( - d^y = 0
Differentiating it n times by Leibnitz's theorem, t 2 + n . (- 2x)yn + , + n(”2
- . o = a> (vA = °s Putting n - 1, 2, 3, 4 in (AO, Cya)(j = (l£ + «2) c vA) =
“U2 + «2) (y4 >0 = (22 + a2) Cva)0 = 02(23 + n3) (y5)0 = I32 + a2) Cv3)0
- aU2 + a2) f 32 + a2) (y6)0 = (43 + a2) (y4)0 = a2(22 + o2) (42 + o2).
Hence in general, (yn)0 = u(l2 + a2) (32 + u2) ... |(>i — 2)2 + a2], - aH2 2
+ a2) (42 + a2) . t(n - 2? + a% when n. is odd. when n is even. ...(H) ..Mii)
,Mv) Example 4.12. Ifylim + y~stm - 2x. prove that 1 fr2 - llyn + :, + (2n +
1) xyfl + , + (n2 - nr) yn = 0. tV.T.U.. 2008 S ; Mumbai 2007, S.V. T U ,
2007) or Solution. We have Hence Taking logarithm. VUm + — — = 2r X
1/JT! (yWn)*^2x(y“") + 1 = 0 2x± Ji4x* -4) yUm = = X ± û2 - D y = k±
,]ix2-l)r logy - rn log |x ±
DtFPtRENTiM. Calculus & Its Appucatioivs Differentiating both
sides w.r,i. x, A 1 yy i«m- — ; g > X ± yj(X2 - IK Squaring. .Vj2 (x2 - 1} =
rn2 y2 nr 1± J(x2 - 1) m v/(x2 * 1) Again differentiating, (x2 - 1) 2y, y2 +
yt2 (2x) = m2 . 2y , yl Dividing by 2y)( (x2 - I ) y2 + xy , - m^y = 0
Differentiating it n times by Leibnitz’s theorem, (*2 - Uyn +2 + n^+ i t2jr) +
ntl2 11 (2) + *** + i + " ■ -V„ + b sin dog x), show that Xs y2 + x.Vj + >’ =
0 and + 2 + <2n + 1 1 yyl( 4 1 + (rjJ + 1 ) yn - 0. t U.P.T.U., 2004 : Madras,
2000 } Ify = ain-1 x. prove that U - x2J yn > 3 -42n * 1) xyn t , -n* ,vr, = 0
Also find (y^l. If cos-1 (y/b) = log (xJn)", prove that x2yfl + ,, + (2n + I )
ay(i , , + ihi2y - 0. Ify = tan-1 x. prove that < l + x~)y,r , , -*j 2/tyy, + nUt -
l)yr[ , = 0. Findyrri0.. Ify » cos (m sin'1 x), prove that i 1 - xîy, . 2 ~ I2n +
1) xyF( . , + (m2 - = I). Ify - sin (nt sin-1 r), prove that 1 1 - r2! y2 -xyi +
m3y = 0 and {1 ■■ xJi)yn , j~ 2* ' ' . prove that (i) ( 1 - xa) ys - xyt - m*y
(j„ = 0. Ify - log |x + \/(l + x2) |-, prove that [l *-x?)yn , 2 r < 2n t I lxyn + , f
nfy* - 0. Hence showr that f •y2JS. >„ = ( id 1 . 2k . |U - D !l2, where k is
positive integer. (V.T.U.. 2001 ) (V.TJU, 2006) (f J.P T.U., 2003) '.Raipur.
2005 ; V.T.U.. 2005 > (V.T.U., 200?; fthillai. 2005) Ify = [x 4 i/lx' f i) prove
that (/) fx2 + 1 J y2 tyy, - m^y - 0, iii) y(| , 3 ■* («*•- ai"!'yn = 0 atx - 0, i V.
T.U., 2009 S) Hence find y„ (Of (Madras, 2000 i If y — sin log (x2 + 2x +■
lr, prove that (i.) (x + I ^ y2 + ix + 1 )v t + 4y = 0 Iff) ix + l)ay, , + [2n. t IJ
fx 4 lly , t * W* + 4)yft =• 0- ftbRT.U., 2006)
142 HiQNER ENC»rN££fiiNG M^THEJYWTIGS sinh 1 x 19.
Ify *= 7““ r show 1, lift I Cl + *a) vJt+, + (2 n * :t}^ft + 14 * + 1)*^ - 0
(V.TJL, 2010 ) VU+jf2) 20. If y = sinh i/ri log ix 4 i J )l, prove that i.x2 +
l)jn 4 * + (2/1. + It xyn + , + fn2 - m2) = 0. £ V. T. U 5 1 ggl
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS (1) Rollers Theorem If (i) fix) is
continuous in the closed interval [a, bf, (ii) f '(x) exists for every value of x
in the open interval fa, ft) and (Hi) f (a) =f(b), then there is at least one
value c of x in (a, b) such that f ‘(c) = 0. Consider the portion AS of the
curve y = fix), lying between x - a and x - b, such that (i) it goes
continuously from A to B, 07) it has a tangent at every point between A and
B, and 070 ordinate of A = ordinate of B. From the Fig. 4.1, it is self-
evident that there is at least one point C fmay be more) of the curve at
which the tangent is parallel, to the x-axis. i.e., slope of the tangent at C {x -
c ) - 0 But the slope of the tangent at C is the value of the differential
coefficient of fix) w.r.t. x thereat, therefore fie) = 0. Hence the theorem is
proved. Example 4.13. Verify Holle’s theorem for ( i ) sin x/e* in t 0, x).
(J.N.T.U., 2003) I (ii){x-ti)"1 (x -ft)" where m, /! are positive integers in fa,
ft/. ( V.T.U. . 2010 ; Nugarjumt, 2008) Solution, (i) Let fix) = sin x/e * fix)
is derivable in (0, jt}. Also /TO) =/Iji) = 0. Hence the conditions of Rolle’s
theorem are satisfied. ex cos x - e1 sin x f'(x) - - 2i - vanishes where e* fees
x - sin x) = 0 e or tan x = 1 i.e.t x = n/4. The value X = Ji/4 lies in (0, Jt), so
that Rohes theorem is verified. («> Let fix) = {x-aYn (x - ft)". Since every
polynomial is continuous for all values, /lx) is also continuous in [a, ft]. fix)
= mix — a)m ~ 1 ix — by + (x — a)m . n(x - ft)" ' 1 = (x - a)m ~ 1 (x —
b)R~ 1 [fm + n)x — (mb + na )) which exists, i.e., fix) is derivable in (a, ft).
Also flu) = 0 = fib). Thus all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem art satisfied
and there exists r in (u, ft) such that f‘(c) - 0. (e — «)"' " 1 {c - by1 ~ 1 l(m
+ a} r - (mb + na)] = 0 or c - (mb + na)Km + «). Hence. Ro lie’s theorem is
verified, (2) Lagrange’s Mean-Value Theorem* First Form. If (i) fix) is
continuous in the closed interval fa, ft/, and (i.i)f\x) exists in the open
interval (a, ft), then there is at leust one value c of x in (a, b), such that f
Differential Calculus & Its Applications 143 Consider the
function Since fix) is continuous in (u, 6] ; Since/'' lx) exists in (a. b) ; b - a
(x) is also continuous in [u, ft]. f (x) also exists in (o, ft) and = f (x)f(b) - f(a
) Clearly, $ (a) = b — a ft f(a ) - c /(ft) ft -a ^4) (ft). Thus i|>(x) satisfies all
the conditions of Rolle’s theorem. There is at least one value e of x between
ti and ft such that Q' (e) = 0. Substituting x = c in (1), we get 6-a which
proves the theorem. Second form. If we write 6 = 0+6, then since a < c < ft,
c = a + 0ft where 0 < 0 < 1, Thus the mean value theorem may be stated as
follows : If { i) fix) is continuous in the dosed interval la, a + hi and (ii) f
(x) exists in the open interval lu,a + Aft then there is at least one number
QW < 9 < 1) such that f(a + h) = Ra) + hf'(a + Uh> Geometrical
Interpretation. Let A . B be the points on the curve y - fix) corresponding to
x = a and x = ft go that A = In , /in >| and B = [b, fib)). (Fig. 4.2) Slope of
chord AB = ^—r — — — b - a By (2), the slope of the chord AH = f'fc),
the slope of the tangent of the curve at C(y = e). Hence the Lagrange’s
mean value theorem asserts that if a curve AB has a tangent (it each of its
points, then there exists at least one point C on this curve, the tangent at
which is parallel to the chord AB. ( 'nr. Iff (x) - 0 m the interval {a, h) then
f(x) is constant in [a, bj. For, ifr1(x2 be any two values qfx in fa, ft), then by
(2), /t*2) - ftx,) = (x2 - xt> fV) = 0 (j, < c < xa) Thus./Ixj) = fix.j) i.e., fix)
has the same value for every' value of* in (a, ft). Example 4.14. In the Mean
value, theorem f(b) - f (a) = (b - ti) f(c), determine c lying between a and ft,
if fix) = xfx - l ) (x - 2), a = 0 and ft = 1/2. ...(ft) ( Gorakhpur , 1 999 1
Solution. f\a) - 0, f'(x) ~ 3x2 - 6.r + 2, Substituting in (i), ^ - 0 = " o) (3c2 -
6c + 2) f(c) = 3r* - 6c + 2 ur 12 ic2 - 24c + 5 = 0 whence Hence 24 £ ±^.24f
-12x5x4 _ i f 764 = 1.764 ; 0.236. c - 0.236, since it only lies between 0 and
1/2. Example 4.15. Prove that (if 0 < a < b < 7ft — — %■ < ta n~ 1 ft - tan1
a < ^ u Hence show that 1 + ft it 3 . -/ 4 tt 1 — + — — < tan 4 25 34 6 $ 1 +
u“ (Mumbai. 2009 ; V.T. U„ 2006)
144 Higher Engineering Mathe^ttcs Solution. Let /lx) = tan-1 x,
so that f* (x) ~ By Mean value theorem, N o w a < c < hr tan 3 b - tan 1 a i
+ x 1 b- a l + c 1 + aB < 1 + c* < 1 + 62, -,a a f Mumbai , 2008) 1 + x
Solution. Let /lx) = log (1 + x), then by .second form of Lagrange's mean
value theorem f\u + h) ~j\a) + h f'(u + Oh), we have f ( x ) = f[0) + x f'i&x)
or Hence Since or or or log ( 1 + x) = log ( 1. > + x , 1/(1 + Gof ) log (l + x)
= jc/U + (hr) 0 < 0 1. 0 < 0*- < x for x > 0, 1 IO<0< 1) [Taking a = 0, h = *]
[v f'lx)=l!\+x) — (*) fv login = o l 1 + ftv 1 + x x > X X > 1 + x i + ex i + x
< log ( i + x) < x, x > 0. [By (£)] (3) Cauchy’s Mean-value Theorem* If U)
fix) and Û) be continuous in fa, bl (it) f'ix) and^'tx) exist in (a, 6) and iiii)
g'ix) £ 0 far any value of x in (a, b), then there is at least one value, c of x in
(a, b), such that gib)-g{a) f (c) f*{ 6) - fio.) Consider the function Mx) - fix
} - — tt - - — g{x) g(b)-gla)* Since fix) and g(x) are continuous in 6] ■\ (x)
is also continuous in J at 61. Again since f'ix) and^'tx) exist in iaT b I.
*Namt?d after the great French mathematician August in -Louis Cauchy
(1789-1857) who is considered as the hither of modem analysis and creator
of complex analysis. He published nearly 800 research papers of basic
importance, Cauchy is also well known for his contributions to differential
equations, infinite series, optics and elasticity,
Differential Calculus & Its Applications 145 0' (x) also exists in
(o, 6) and = f' {x} - #'(x} gib) - gia) Clearly, 0(h) = 0(6). Thus, 0(.r) satisfies
all the conditions of Ro Lie's theorem- There is therefore, at least one value
c of x between a and 6, such that 0'{c) = 0 Le. , 0 = no - — — , , g\0
whence follows the result. gib)-g(a) {P.T.U., 2007 S ; V.T.U., 2006) Ohs.
Cauchy’s mean value theorem is a generalisation of 5 Jigr tinge’s mean
value theorem, where g(x ) = x. Example 4.17. Verify Cauchy’s Mean-
value theorem for the functions e* and ecx in the interval (a, b). Solution,
fix) ~ e* and#(x) = e~x are both continuous in la, 61 and both functions are
differentiable in (u, b). f'(x) = e*,g’ix) = -e r* fly Cauchy's mean value
theorem. fib ) - fia) ^ fXQ gib) -gin) g'ic) b a £ ^ — - — = — — Le., c. = ^
(a + 6} Thus c lies in (a, b) which verifies the Cauchy’s Mean value
theorem. <41 Taylor's Theorem*' {Generalised mean value theorem! ff Cl)
fix) and its first (n - 1) derivatives be continuous in /a, a + hi, and Hi) fn (x)
exists for every value of x in (a. a + h), then there is at least one number ti
(0 < Q < 1), such that >-2 h" fla + h) * f + hf'ta) + — V + .... + f11 (a + Oh)
2 ! n ! which is called Taylor's theorem with Lagrange’s form remainder, the
remainder R being l!_ f* {a + Qh ), n ! ...d) Proof. Consider the function
0U) = fix) + ( a + h - x) f (jc) + {it + h — XT 2! f (x) ■+■ ... + ia + h- xf K
where K is defined bv fia + h) = fa) + hT (a) + tL f" Ue> + .... + K 2 ! n !
».t2> (i) Since f(x)tf* (x)t fn ~ 1 be) are continuous in [aw a + ft], therefore
§{x) is also continuous in [a, a + ft|. (it) exists and = (a + ft - x) n - 3 \fn (x)-
K\ (n-l)l (Hi) Also
146 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 4.18. Find the

Macltmrin 's theorem with Lagrange's form of remainder fur fix) -co sx.
iJ.N.TJJ.,2003) *.e.. Solution. fn (x) = (cos x) = cos f + x\ so that = cos (njt/
2) dx11 ^ ^ ' Thus/10) = 1, f2n (0) = cos {2/inJ2) = (- 1)° f** + 1 (0) = cos
J(2fi + 1) lt/2| = 0 Substituting these values in the Madaurin’s theorem with
Lagrange's form of remainder i.e., J2 „2 n r“ r2n m - m * mm + ¥ rm + .... +
^ m ♦ ■ + w + 1 s (Gbe) Example 4,19- If f(x) = log (1 + x). x >0, using
Macla urin’s theorem, show that for 0 0, Solution. By
Maclaurin’s theorem with remainder R^t we have J X3 fix) = f( 0) + X fm +
|j no) + 37 r(Qx) Here fix ) - log (1 + x>. fl 0) = 0 /V)- _ 1 , 1 + X no> = i
ru)-— * (1 + X)1 rm = and ru)= — — t, riBx) = (1 + xf 2 a X X
Substituting in (i), we get log (1 + x} - x - + - - ; z 3(1 + Qx) Since x > 0
and 0 > 0, Qx > 0 (1 + 6x)3 > 1 i.e., _ L_ < 1 (i + Bxr 1 a x . x x - ~tr + - 7 2
m +0xf x2 ^ x3 ...(«} I By (ii)] PROBLEMS 4.4 1 . Verify Rohe’s theorem
for (i) /lx.) = (x + 2)3 (x - 3)4 in (~ 2, 3) («> .V = c' (si n x - cos x) in
DlFFEBEhfTtAL CALCULUS Sl \tS ApPUCWOHS 147 2.

Using Bolle’s theorem for fix) = x_2m ” 1 (a — find the value pf‘-x
between o and a where fix) - 0, 3- Verify Lagrange’s Mean value theorem
for the following functions and find the appropriate value of c in each case :
(0 fix) = (x - 1) lx - 2) l* - 3) in CO. 4 ) (V.T.if 2009 ) (ill f(x) - sin x in 10,
n] \Na^ntrt 2008) filr) fix) = logcx in 1 1. cl. (Bat'd wan, 2003) tiv) fix) -tf*
in 10, It- CV1 r, % 2007) lly applying Mean value theorem to fix) — log 2 j
sain + log x* prove that — log 2 . cos ~ + — = 0 for some x between 1 and
2,1. In the Mean value theorem : fix + h ) -fi.x) + h f U + 6ft i, show that 6
= 1/2 for fix) — axz + hx + c. in f 0, 1). jl2 6. If fUi) = fid) + h r (0) + ‘ - f~
{dh\. 0 < fi < 1, tinrt 0 when h - 1 and fix) = U - jc)m. Z 3 7, If x is
positive* show that r > log i 1 + x) > x g, If / U> - sin-1 xf 0 < a 2\ 1 4 l Hence show
that — c log - < 4 3 3 Q/fwnbait 2008) U N.TJf 2006 S ) 1 0, Verify the
result of Cauchy's mean value theorem for the Ibnr tmna C/I sin x and coa x
in the interval [a, AL (it) Jogr x and 1/r in the internal |l+eh I I, IF/^jcJ and
gix) are respectively and c_xa prove that V of Cauchy's mean value theorem
is the arithmetic mean between n and 6. (Mumbai, 20tlS) 12. Verify
Maclauiin-S theorem /t«x> = ( l - x)^? with Lagrangafe form of remainder
upto 3 terms where x = 1. 13. Using Taylor's theorem, prove thai far* > 0,
x3 x3 x - - < sin a < x — —~ 6 6 120 * ECT EXPANSIONS OF
FUNCTIONS (I) Maclaurin’s series. If fix) can be expanded as an infinite
series, then a 3 f
148 Higmeh Engineering Mathematics = 16 tan x (1 + tan2 x) +
24 tan3 x <1 + tan2 x) = 16 tan x + 40 tan3 x + 24 tans x flv( 0) = 0 /'■'(O) -
16 sec2 x + 120 tan2* sec2x + 120 tan4x sec2x. = 16 and so on.
Substituting the values of/lO), f\0), etc. in the Mad aur in's series, we get x2
jc3 x4 if® ^ 5t® tan x = 0 + x . 1 + — + — .2 + — y.0 + — - ■ 16 + ... =*
Differential Calculus & 1t$ Applications 149 Example 4.22.
Expand tog (1 + sin - x) in pouter? of X a? far as the term in x6. \l2 ( Hissar
, 2005 S) x *3 + *i _ 1 *V* _ fxi _jeLh 3! + 5 ! ~J _ A — ! 6 120 :2-2x fx3
*5 + in 'x3 l6 ' 120 ■" l6 ■ - + 120 v-4 v6 y* Jr , X i = XT - 1 .. 2 X4 3 + 60
+ 36 + ,"“^'~3~+^S + “‘~f,say' Now log (1 + sin2x) = log (1 + f) = f - V + V
' V + — ■ f2 . t3 f4 Substituting the value of /, we get log ( I + sin2 x) - x2 -
-L- + + ... - ^x2 - + ... j — ^ Cat2 — ...)a - ... ‘l2-T+^-|(3r4-¥ + “H 1 in
attending powers of x. y - eamn x , In Ex. 4 .9, we have shown that
Solution. Let (y)0 = I, Cyt>0 = a, (y2)0 = a2, (y3)0 = all + a3), (y„)0 = a2
(22 + «2) and so on. Substituting these values in the M a cl auxin's series v
_ (y) + 1^2°* +. 1^=2° ** +q 3 Wo/ + y~\y?o+ n 2! 3! 4! 4. nsin"1 x 1 Cl“ £
fl{l 4- O ) j U (2 +11 ) 4 we get e = 1 + ax + — x +* - ^ - x h - — - x + ...
(3) Taylor's series. If fix + h) cun, be expanded us an infinite series, then f(x
+ h) = fix) + h rix) + |i nx) + |ir(*> + - If fix) possesses derivatives of all
orders and the remainder/^ in (1) on page 147, tends to zero asn-i“ then the
Taylor’s theorem becomes the Taylor’s series {1). Cor. Replacing x by a
and h by (x — a) in (1), we get ■g flx)=fit*) + (x-a)f'(a)+ lx~f r(u)+ix-°y
f"\a) +...» Taking a = 0, we get Marfa win's series. Example 1.24. Expand
loge x in powers of lx - l)and hence evaluate tog 11 correct to 4 decimal
places. (Bhopal, 2007 , Kuruksketra 2006) ...U> Solution. Let fix J = log,*
rix) = l , X /U) = 0 n u=i r (*) = 2 ' n u="i
ISO r't*)= 4, x3 fi0 {*) — ™ X etc. Substituting these values in
the Taylor’s series Higher Engineering Mathematics = 2 /■"' (OJ--6 etc.
/*r)=/U) + fjc-l)rtl)+ t3C~L) HD+ U~ 1? /w'U? + -» 2 ! 3 ! . - , {a-- 1)2
(x~l>3 (x~l)4 we get logic = U- 1) - - - + — - — - - - 1- ... J* *$ 4 Now
putting a: - 1.1, so that x — 1 = 0.1, we have Idg(Ll) = 1.1 — §(0.1)2+
i(O.l)3- i(0.1)4 + ... = o.l - 0.005 + 0.0003 - 0.00002 + ... = 0.0953.
Example 4.25. Use T ay tar's aeries, to prove that tan 1 (x +■ fj) - tan~} x +
l7i sin z) . — ~ - (h sin z>2 . Sl" ^ + (/, tf,TK z)$ J! where z - rot' * x.
Solution. We have cat z - x - cosec2 z. dzidx = 1 or dz/dx = — sin2 z Now
let fix + h)~ tan 1 (x + h)t so that /la) - tan-1 x 1 1 sin 3z f fa) = 1 + X4 1 +
cot"1 z dz - sin2z f"
Differential Calculus & Its Applications 151 11. sin-1 (3x - 4x3) -
I X + ••• ■ + + . 3 40 12. «?’ cos* = 1 + x 2*3 2V 3 ! 4 ! 13. e1 ‘in* = l + x7
+ 4r + * 120 (Raipur, 2005 ) ( Ku rtt k shetra, 2000 ) 14. f'™' 1 a f rri 1 - X
+ {Mumbai, 2008) 1 5. log sin x _ f n? xA x ~ { G + ISO -I" , t 3 4 is. l(*n
+si&x) = jf- + ... 2 6 12 .7. fvriSTy*!. is. k*u.^ = l0g2, § + ^-f^ 2ff3h (S,
V.T.U. 2009 ; J.N.T.U., 2006 S) f V.T.U.. 2006) 19. e* + 1 48 a****® 20-
i(4rr)',4 fr-S) fr (Jihvpal, 2008) (Mumbai, 200?) a s 21. sin x cosh * =x + ^
By forming h dilTcrentiol eg u a Li on, show tiiat 22. (sjo 1 x)2 = 2i- + *-
2.2*|1.2.2».4» •£+. g 23. log [1 + yja + X2) I = x ^ ■ 3 xB 1 3- fix' 245 2-4-
67 2-1. Ify = sin lm sin"1 x), show that (1 - x7) y^-xv, + m2y = Q Hon co
expand sin mO in powers of sin 0. 23. Using Taylor's theorem, express the
polynomial 2x3 + lx2 + x - 6 in powers of tx — 11 26. Expand (i) e*
(CocAin.. 2005) (ii } tan J x, in powers of (x - 1) up to four terms. 27.
Expand sin x in powers of . Hence find the value of sin 91 * correct to 4
decimal places 28. I-Tove that log sin x = log sin a + tv - a) cot a - | (x - o)2
cosec2 a + ... 29. Find the Taylor's series expansion lor log cos x about the
point n/3, 30. {Compute to four decimal places, the value of cos 32% by the
use of Taylor’s series. 31. Calculate approximately tf) logut 404. given log 4
= 0.6021. (h) (1.04 J3M (S.V.T.U, 2008) (Burdwajt. 2002) (Rnhtak, 2003)
(Kurukshetru, 2006) {Rahtak, 2005 S, [Mumbai, 200 7) ill
INDETERMINATE FORMS In general Lt |/'(xJ/tjr)| = Lt f'(x}J Lt 4*x) .
But when Lt f(x) and Lt (ftfx) are both zero, then the J -Ml * — Ml Jf-tfl Jf-
*« X — Ml quotient reduces to the indeterminate Form 0/0. This does not
imply that Lt is meaningless or it r-»fl does not exist. In fact, in many cases,
it has a finite value. We shall now, study the methods of evaluating the
limits in such and similar other cases : (1) Form 0/0. Iff (u) = $ (u) - 0, then
Lt f(jc>- Lt 0^ ac — • a "(a) + ...
152 Higher Engineering Mathematics ^ f'(ti) + £ (x - «) f\a) + ... *
-m* 3! -Ml = = ... = p- 1 (a) = 0, but (a) * 0, then from (1), ...(1) Lt f(x) r Lt
fn(x> x->a$(x} *-*“ 0n(x) I Rule to evaluate Ll T/brV$fr)1 in 0/0 form :
Differentiating the numerator and denominator separately as many times as
would be necessary to arrive a determinate form]. Example 4.26, Evaluate
(i) Lt xe’ - log (/ + x ) {V.T.U.. 2001 ; Osnui.ru a. 2000 S) (ii) Lt x* -x tx - I
- log x Solution. (i) (m) Lt x ~>0 xe* - log (1 + x) = Lt x -»0 - Lt 31 -*0 x2
(xe* +ex ■ 1) — 1/(1 + x) 2x xe* + e* + e* + 1/(1 + xf _ 0 + 1 + 1 + 1 i xx
- x Lt ^ , nir-1- log x T i dtxxVdx- 1 1-0 - l/.V = Lt x‘(l + logx)-l *-»l 1—1/
X (formS Lety = x* so that logy = x logx • I* = x.i+l.Iog. y ax x or (x*>
=x* (1 + logx) = Lt x-» 1 d(xx)/dx . (1 4- log x) + x*(l/x) - 0 1/xJ = Ll xr(l
+ log xf + Xxill x) id + or + 1 ■ i -2. (fon“ff) (form 5 (form?) M) [By (i)]
Example 4.27. Find the values of a and b such that Lt — — f* “ - — - = 1.
(Mumbai., 2007 ) K^0 -6
Differential Calculus & Its Applications 153 Solution. Lt x ->Q
x(n + b cos ar) - c sin x (form 2) = Ll x -fO a 4 b cos x - bx sin x - c cos x
5x4 -.(() As the denominator is 0 for x = 0, (i) will tend to a finite limit if
and only if the numerator also becomes 0 for x - 0. This requires a + b - c =
0 ...iii) With this condition, it ) assumes the form 0/0. — b sin x — b {sin x
+ x cos x ) 4 c sin x tO = Lt = Lt x — * 0 _ Lt x -*Q 2 Ox (c - 2b) sin x - bx
cos x 20x3 (c — 2b) cos x - 6(cos x - x sin x) 60x‘ c ~ 26 - 6 c - 36 = 1
Now tiii) 0 0 c - 36 = 0 i.e., c = 36. 6 cos x — 6 cos x + 6x sin x (form g)
(Given) = Lt x -» 0 60x‘ = Lt L. (2HU=1. r -* o 60x 60 r-to^ x } 60 i,e,, b -
60, and c - ISO. Form (ii), a = 120. (2) Form ««>. It can be shown that
L'Hospital's rule can also be applied to this case by differentiating the
numerator and denominator separately as many times as would be
necessary'. Example 4.28. Evaluate* Lt hgx l-((t cot X Solution. Lt Lt j: -• 0
Cot X * — 0 _ Ux cosec x = - Lt sin" x *-*o x (ibrtn 2) 2 sin x cos x _ —
— Lt — 1/ x -+ 0 1 Ohs, Use of known series and standard limits. In many
cases, it would be found more convenient to use expansions of known
Functions and standard limits for evaluating the indeterminate forms. For
this purpose, remember the seriCR of § 4,4 (2) and the following limits : Lt
= 1, x -»0 * Lt Q + st}1'* = e x ->0 Example 4,29, Evaluate Lt X ’ S e stn x
- x - x *->o xs +xlng(l- x) Solution. Using the expansions of er, sin x and
log (1 -x>, we get Lt a* sin x - x - x5 * X1 4 X log <1 - X) l2,1('z'r "i*3
“■■■) = Lt X — ► (>
Higher Engineering Mathematics - Lt x -*0 Example 4,30.

Evaluate Lt * (* + ** + ^3-0V+.,.) *3~(* + \x* + \x* + *") U + x)lfx - e *-*'
L3 - O-*4 +... = Lt -a- - - - = Lt 1 3 *-*0 tj1 l j_ *-To _ 1 _ 1 2 3 *“ 2 3 2 3'
Solution. Let nr ,V = (1 +x)Vz 1 if log 3' = i lng(l + s) = “ x x x 2 3 3 2 2 3
*"J 2 + 3 y - f? * d = # - e ^ 3 — e 1 + (- ~* + L2 JUirl ' i a* ■_ f + 1 = ef 1
- * + 11 jc2 + ...1 \ 2 3 J 2! 1 .23 ; t 2 24 J Lt 0 +xil * — -= Lt X 'I1 2 +
24y2+“) * J 1,11s \ £| — 7i% + +w. l „ „ x I- \ 2 24 / T + ( - £ II \ e x -* D x
xô{ 2 24 J 2 PROBLEMS 4.6 Evaluate the following limits 1. Ll 3. Lt x-
*0 x 0 — sin 0 tV.T'U., 2008) 2. Lt a -* o sin 0(1 - cos 0) 0. Lt x-+0 . -1 2
sin x 5U1 - X - 3 0. ] i xJi- “ log fl -*- *) a * 0 COab X — COS X log (x a)
*-*0 logte1 -etf) 12, Lt IS, Lt mbx sin x £ - e x -.I) x “Sin x {l + x)U* ~e +
iex x cos x - Bin jc 7. JO, Lt t -frO x2 sin j; finx u Q ~a x — » Tt/'z logt. sin
JC ] t x COS Jl - jog 11 + jc) sc-m x2 COS X - tog (I + jc) 1 + s . 2 J3ITJ JC
13. Lt tan x - x r *-*o jt tan x tfi \ t sin {flog <1 + * -»o log 1 1 + sin j;) 18.
Lt J — ► 0 X* If). If Lt — — ,,tJ ~ *n X is finite, find the value nf a and
the limit. x — *0 xA 20. Find a. b if Lt *-»C a sinh x + f>Stt) * 5 v3 ~ 3 r,. j
, „ . , , fM*X - 6 COS Jt + ce x 21. Find ti. i, c an that Lt - = 2, S. Lt x-rO a
Lt II* Lt x 0 U.N.T.LK. 2008 S) 2 sin jc - sin 2s log sec x - l xz 7 e1 ■+ 2
sin x — e" 1 - 4s 14. Lt e1 - a*5* - 2* JC-fO x — Sill i 17. Lt e* + sin jc —
1 * . o log U + s) x -,o x sin * (Nagpur, 2009) (Mumbai, 2000) (Mumbat.
2008)
Differential Calculus & Its Applications (3) Forms reducible to
(VO form. Each of the following indeterminate forms can he easily reduced
to the form (VO (or ™/~) by suitable transformation and then the limits can
be found as usual. I. Form 0 x «. If Lt fix) = 0 and Lt 4>{_tj = «, then .t —
►« Ll l/Tx) . (f»(x)l assumes the form Ox™. X — * p To evaluate this
limit, we write fix) - = /'(jt)/ I l/d> (.v)l to take the form 0/0. = fl?
(xVfJV/LOl to take the form «/«>. Example 4.31. Evaluate Lt {tan x fog Stl
x-*Q Solution. ^ lot: x 1 Lt (tan x log x) = Lt — i-»D nfl ^ COt X j = Lt 1/x
- cosec x = ~ Lt sin2 x '' (V.T.U., 20W) (form 3] (fonn |) j t 2 sin x cos x n
Ll “ — — iJ. a —i G J II. Form m -w. If If fix) = «> = Zj/ then Lt — 0{a‘)|
assumes the form » » ». * o jf — j b x^tcr It tan be reduced to the from 0/0
by writing fix) - - r_i — |>w ft* Example 1.32. Evaluate Lt I — — - ■ — 1
. i -.o^sin x x J Lt fj-.l)- Lt r-j 0 l^sm X x) x -» i 1 fix) $(x) Solution. x —
sin j; = Lt 1 - cos X = Lt o x sin x * cos x + sin x sin x 0 (fo™5) = 0. r-*o
x(- sin jc) + cos x + cos jt 0 + I + 1 m. Forms 0°. I««°, If y= Lt [fu)f 11
assumes one of these forms, then logy = Lt $(x) log f (x) takes x x — fr o
the form 0 x ™, which can be evaluated by the method given in 1 above, [f
log y - /, then y - ef * V/jr Example 1.33. Evaluate (i) Lt isin x),rc>' T (i7)
Lt T m/2 x a tO + C Ti {V.T.U., 2011) (lii) Lt J-kO Sol u linn. U) Let lan * y
= Lt fsin xf x Jt/2 i , t , ± lug sin x logy - Lt tan x log sin ,v = Lt - - jt -» ft/2
jc-fft/2 COt X , . (1/ sin x ) cos j: t . , . . = Lt - - - - ■ Lt (sin x cos jc) =0 x—
*n/2 „ cosec X r -*n/2 y = - 1, (*™s) Hence
Higher Engineering Mathematics { ii ) Let so that y= L‘ log v =

Lt x — > 0 o’ + b* + C* .l/j log (a + b + c } log 3 T t (aA + bx + cx ) 1 (ax
log u + bx log b 4- cz log c) *-*o 1 = (1 + L + l)-1 (log a + log b + logo) = -t
log iabc) = log (a6r)lw. a y - ( abc)m IV** Lt | ' tan x 3J II N £ f*4*i*M < x
. 1 J = Lt g vUlC 1 4- — 4 — X4 4- 1 3 +15* +"J = Lt (1 4 -tx2f*' X form
© = Lt [(1 + te2)1^ f = Lt e‘ = jsÔ x~*Q 2 where t - i + — r* + ... 3 15 [- ;
Lt (1+ 2)Vt = e 0 PROBLEMS 4.7 Evaluate the following limits 1* Lt f -t
— — L — * -*0 \ x sin xj 3. Lt I2x Ian x - nsix x) M X X Lt X 0(7-“''*) if*
7. Lt (&* + x) #-*0 9. Lt (1 4 ain xf0* * 11. Lt i -?■ lt^2 ia Lt (co8^)2 x -►
nt2 Ifi. Lt *-+0 17. Lt (l2--l jf -* u K £ / tan (itt/Sff) 1R Lt a-*0 2 (cosh ar -
U 20. Lt *-*0 V + 2* + 3X ii /s CV.T.t/., 200tf) (KT.C/.t 2007) f V.T.lf,,
2004) (V.T.U. 2001) 2. Ll jr-*0[ 4. Lt { T->0\ 6. Lt (, i — 3—1 i e* — 1 J
R. Lt (sec i)“tA JT -) k/2 19. Lt, (cos*) jmO ,J/xs 12. Lt (cot*)1'10** jr-tO f
- \ltx 14. Lt i sin x I a -»Q \ x ) (Burdivati, 2003 1 18. Lt (I-**'*11-* 19.
xl*2\x - 2 ~ log (* - 1)} {V.T.U. , 2010 . Nagpur. 2009 ) (Osmania, 2000 S)
(V.T.U., 2008 )
Deferential Calculus & Its Applications 157 E TANGENTS AND
NORMALS - CARTESIAN CURVES ...(2) (1) Equation of the tangent at
the point fjc, y) of the curee y = fix) is Y-y= ^(X-*). dx The equation of any
line through Pix\y) is Y - y - miX - x ) where X, Fare the current
coordinates of any point on the line (Fig. 4.3L If this line is the tangent
PT% then m = tan y = dy/dx Hence the equation of the tangent at ( xty ) is
Y-y= ^f(X-x) tlx t’ur. Intercepts. Putting Y = 0 in (2) «-•*> /. Intercept
which the tangent cuts off' from x-axis i- OT) = x - y dx/dy Similarly
putting X - 0 in (2J, we sec that the intercept which the tangent cuts off
from the y-axis (=on = y-x^ dx (2) Equation of the normal at the point (x, y)
of the curve y — fix) is Y - y = - ^ (X- ?c) dy A normal to the curve y - fix)
at P (x, y) is a line through P perpendicular to the tangent there at. Its
equation is Y-y = m' (X— x) cfv where m' ■ dyidx — — 1 or m‘ — — V—
— — dxfdy Ox Hence the equation of the normal at (r, y) is Y-y = — “ (JT
-x). dy Example 4.34. Find the equation of the tangent at uny point (x. y) to
the curve x^ + y^ =■ crl:\ Show that the portion of the tangent intercepted
between- the axes is of constant length. Solution. Equation of the curve is
xz/3 +- y2'3 = am. Differentiating (/) w.r.t x, 2 ...
158 HlGHEft Ew&INEEfWNG MATHEMATICS - + >*'*11 =
a2" VW57F IBy «)] - o, which is a constant length. Example 4*35. Show
that the conditions for the line .r cos ct + y sin a = p to i ouch the curve
(xJar + (yib)m = 1 is (a cos + (6 .vm ~ or or or ra Solution* Equation of the
curve is — — -f - — = 1 si) Differentiating (i) w.r.t, x, mx a in— l my m - 1
dy ni dx = o Slope of the tangent at ] whence follows the required
condition. Example 1i8. Find the equation of the. normal at any point 9 to
the curve x = a (cos 0 + 9 «f« Bh y = a (sin 9-0 COS B). Verify that these
normals touch a circle with its centre ut the origin and whose ratlins is
constant. Solution. We have -• = a{- sin 9 + sin 9 + 6 cos 0) = oO cos 9 c/0
— - c/(cos B - cos 0+0 sin 9) = o0 sin 0 «0 sin 0 cos 0 dy _ dy jdx dx d%j
dB .\ Slope of the normal at 0 = - — sin 0 Hence the equation of the normal
at 0 v — a(sin 9-0 cos 0) - - 006 ^ |x - a(cos 0 + 9 sin 0)1 sin 6 i.e., y sin 0 -
a sin2 0 + u 0 sin 9 cos 6 = — x cos 9 + a cos2 9 + ci 0 sin 9 cos 0 i.e., x cos
0 +y sin 0 = a(cos2 9 + sin2 9) = «, Now the perpendicular distance of this
normal from (0, 0) = a, which is a constant. Hence it touches a circle of
radius a having its centre at (0, 0).
Differential Calculus & Its Applications 159 (3) Angle of
intersection of two curves is the angle between the tangents to the curves at
their point of intersection . To find this angle 6, proceed as fallows : (i) Find
P, the point of intersection of the curves by solving their equations
simultaneously. (it) Find the values ofdy/dx at P for the two curves (say :
m,, m2). (iii) Find Z0, using the tan 0 = "!l nt'-- , 1 + When m^m2 = - 1, 6 =
90° i.e.. the curves cut orthogonally. Example 4.37. Find the angle of
intersection of the curves x2 = 4y ...(/) and y2 = 4x. ...(h) Solution. We have
x4 = 16ys = 16.4 x = 64x or xOc3 - 64 ) s= 0 whence x = 0 and 4.
Substituting these values in (i), y = 0 and 4. The curves intersect at (0, 0)
and (4, 4). For the curve (i), dyfdx ~ x/2. For the curve (it), dy/dx = 2/y At
(0, 0), slope of tangent to (i) ( = = 0/2 - 0 and slope of tangent to Hi) (= tn2)
= 2/0 = ». Evidently the curves intersect at right angles. At 14, 4), slope of
tangent to ( i ) (= m,) = 4/2 = 2 and slope of tangent to (ii) (= m2 ) = 2/4 = ^
Angle of intersection of the curves = tan -l 1 + m, m2 - tan'1 2 — i _± _ 2_
1 + 2 i = tan-1 3 4 Example 4.3S. Show that the condition that the curves
tut5 + bys = 1 and a'*2 + b'y2 = 7 should intersect orthogonally is that l l_J_
1 a b a' b ' Solution. Given curves are cue2 + fry2 = 1 and a'x2 + 6'v2 = 1 ...
(h) Let P(h, A) be a point of intersection of li) and Iii) so that c/i" + bkl - 1
and a'h2 + b'k2 - 1 or ue,. ft2 fe2 1 -b + b'~ -a'+a ~ ab'-a'b h2 = {&' - b]/iab'
- a'b), k2 - (a -a' )/(e,b' -a'b) Dilferen dating (i) w.r.t. x, 2ll\ + 26y dy/dx = 0
or dyfdx = - ax /by. Similarly for (ii), dy/dx = - a'xfb'y tn , = slope of
tangent to (i) at P = - ah/bk ; m2 = slope of tangent to iii) at P - — a'hfb'k
For orthogonal intersection, we should have tn^mz - - 1. — T^x-Zf- = l i e.,
aa'h2 + bb'k2 = 0 bk b k Substituting the values of h2 and k2 from (iii),
oaW-b) bbXa-a ) „ b'-b a -a ah’ - a'b ab' - a.'b bb' aa ...(iii) i.e.. - — = - -
which leads to the required condition. b b a a
160 Henss EN&NEeftfNfc Mathematics (4) Lengths of tangent,
normal, subtangent and subnormal. Let the tangent and the normal at any
point P(x, y) of the curve meet the x-axis at T and N respectively. (Fig. 4.4).
Draw the ordinate PM. Then FT and PN are called the lengths of the
tangent and the normal respectively. Also TM and MN are called the
subtangent and subnormal respectively. Let ZMTP = v so that tan y = dy/dx.
Clearly, 2MPN = y. (1) Tangent - TP - MP cosec y - y -/(l + cot* \\>) = y /[l
+ (dy/dx)2) (3) Subtangent = TM = y cot v = y dx/dy (4) Subnormal = MN
= y tan vy = y dy/dx. Fig. 4.4 Example 4.39. For the curve x = a f cos t +
log tan 1121, y = a sin tr prove that the portion of the tangent between the
curve and x-axis is constant. Also find its subtangent. Solution.
Differentiating with respect to t. dx dt — a ■ * . i 2 1 i — sin t + - sec — ■
— tan t/2 2 2 = a sin t + cos t/2 2 sin ( / 2 cos2 y ( . . , 1 1 ct(l - sin11 t) 2,. -
. dy = a - sin f h - - - - a cos^ f/sm t ; — = a cos t sin / sin t dt dy dy jdx , sin
t ; = ; / = o cos t - 5— = tan t. dx dt ! dt a co a t Thus length of the tangent
between the curve and x-axis - y ^(1 + (dx f dyjl\ = a sin / ^(1 + cot2 t ) = ti
sin / . cosec t = a which is a constant. tlx Also sub tangent = y— = a sin t
cot t - a cos t. dy PROBLEMS 4.8 1. Find the equation of the Ungon l and
the normal to the curve y{* - 2) (x - 3} - jf + 7 = 0 at the point where it ruts
the x-axis. 2+ The straight line x/a + y/b - 2 touches the curve \xfaY +
iyfhY1 = 2 for all values of n. Find the point of contact, {Bhopal, 2008 \ x y
:i. Prove thtu + - 1 touches the curve y - be 1 at the point where ihe curve
crosses the axis of v a ft (Pt opal, 2009) 4. Up = x eos a h v Erin ft, touches
the curve ix/aYl/Ui ~ 1 1 ^ (yfbYlf{H~ lf = 1, prove that pn = (a cos a)n ■+
ib sin a T* f>. Prove Uml Lhe condition for the ILnex cos a + v sin a = p to
touch the curve xmyrt - am * q, is pm ■+ rf . nn - (m + p + fj + n a £jna a tL
Show that the sum of the intercepts on the axes of any tangent to the curve
Jx + v/y - a is a constant, 7* If x. y be Lb* parte of the ases of x and y
intercepted by the tangent at any point fjct y) cm the curve ix/a + UJbP® =
l* then show that (xjnf + - 1. '(Bhopal, 2008) B* Jf the tangent at bcvy^ to
the curve x3 + y3 - n3 meets the curve again m C $&y2^ eôw *i y%
DifFEHtNiiAi Calculus & (ts Applications 161 9. If the normal to
the curve =? makes an angle ^ with the axis uf.r, show that its equation is y
eos f — a sin = rj COS 2$1 0, Find the nngle of interred ion of the curves
x2 - y* = q 2 are t2 + y1 = a- -/2 11. Show that the parabolas y2 - 4cur and
2xJ - ay intersect at an angle tan-1 iSJ5). 1*2* Prove that the curves — + —
_ 1 and — + = — - ] will cut orthogonally if a h = u - fef a b a a Kk Show
that in the exponential curve, v = 6tf™, the sub tangent is of constant length
and I hat the subnormal varies as the square of the ordinate* i Madras, 2000
Si 14* Find the lengths of the tangent, nunnal, subtangefU and Subnormal
for the cyduid: x - n U + sin i )t y = a i I - cos f ), 1 5, For the Curve X = «
cosLl 6. y = a sin* ©, show that the portion of the tangent intercepted
Ixnween the point of contact and the .v -axis is .v cosed 0, Also find the
length of the subnormal. WWM POLAR CURVES (1) Angle between
radius vector and tangent. If $ be the angle between d0 the radius vector and
the tangent at any point of the curve r = f(B), tan 0 = r dr Let P(r, 6) and Qlr
+ 6r, 0 + 601 be two neighbouring points on the curve (Fig. 4.5). Join PQ
and draw PM 1 OQ. Then from the rt. angled AOMP MP - r sin 50, OM - r
cos 60. MQ = OQ - OM = r + Sr - r cos 68 = Br + K 1 — cos SB) = 8r + 2r
sin2 60/2. MP rsin 60 If ZMQP ~ a. then tan a = MQ Sr + 2rsin= Lt (tana)
— Lt - — — — Q +p $e -*o Sr + 2rsins 60/2 = Lt r(sin 50/50) (5r/60)+rsin
60/2 (sin 60/2 + 50/ 2) r 1 dQ {dr/ cfe) + r ■ 0 ■ 1 dr ('or. Angle of
intersection of two curves. If§,, 2 be the angles between the common radius
vector and the tangents to the two curves at their point of intersection, then
the angle of intersection of these curves is 4>j - 2. (2) Length of the
perpendicular From pole on the tangent. If p be the perpendicular from the
pole on the tangent, then (i) p = r sin $ From the rt. Zed hOTP, p = r sin ~ “
~ cosec2
Let ZOTP — 0 so that tan 0 = rdB/dr Clearly, ZPNO = 0. fi) Polar
sub tangent Higher Engineer i no Mat hematic & 162 - OT - r tan 0 = r ■
rdBhir = Hi) Polar subnormal - ON ~ r cot 0 = r . 1 dr dr r de ' dB Fig. 4.6
Example 4.40. For the cardioid r - ad - cos B), prove that (i) 0 - 0/2 (n l p -
2a sin 3 0/2 (m i polar subtongent - 2a swa ^ tan .Solution. We have — = a
sin 0 da tan 0 = r- — = o{l — cos 6) * dr a sin 0 - 2 sin2 0/2 + 2 sin 0/2 cos
0/2 = tan 0/2. Thus 0 - 0/2 Also p = r sin 0 = ai 1 - cos 0) ■ sin 0/2 = a ■ 2
sin2 0/2 ■ sin 0/2 = 2g sin1 0/2 Polar subtangent - r2 dB/dr = lct( 1 - cos
&)|2 + a sin 0 = 4a sin4 0/2 ■* 2 sin 0/2 cos 0/2 = 2a sin2 0/2 trtn 0/2. ...(«)
.MU) Example 1,41 - Find the angle of intersection of the curves r = sin 0 +
cos 0, r = 2 sin B, Solution. To find the point of intersection of the curves r
= sin 0 + cos B and r - 2 sin 0, .„(«), we eliminate r. Then 2 sin 0 - sin B +
cos 0 or tan 0 = 1 i.e., 0 = re/4. dr For (i)„ — — - cos 0 - sin 0 O0 tan 0 ■ r
— - ^ + L°S ^ which -* ™ at 0 = re/4. Thus 0 = re/2. dr cos 0 - sin 6 d H n
H For (it). dr/d& = 2 cos 0 tan 0' = r — - — - - = 1 at B = re/4. Thus 0' =
re/4 dr 2 cos 0 Hence the angle of intersection of (t) and (it) = 0 - 0' = ji/4.
PROBLEMS 4.9 xy — y 1* For a curve in Cartesian form, show that tan 0
= - x +• yy 2. Show that in the equiangular spiral r = n, the tangent is
inclined at a constant angle to the radius vector. 3. Show that the tangent to
the cardioid r ~a (1 + cos 0) at the points 0 *» rc/3 and G = 2 ni‘& are
respectively parallel and perpendicular to the initial line. (V.T.t/.. 2006 } 4.
Prove that , in the parabola 2a/r = I cos 0, (i) 0 = a - 0/2 l ri )rt = a cosec 0/2,
and (fit) polar subtangent = 2 a cosec 6. i». Show that the angle between the
tangent at any point P and the line joining P to the origin is the same at all
points of the curve logfjt2 + .y2) = A tan1 (y/x).
DfFF£PEf4TJAL CALCULUS & ITS APPUCATfONS 163 (I.
Show that ill the curve r = o0, the polar subnormal is constant and in the
curve r Q = a Lhe polar subtangent is constant. 7. Find the angle of
intersection of the curves (t) r = 2 sin &, and r = 2 cos fl {Bhopal. 1991} (u)
r - oAl + cos 0) and r = M 1 - Cos 8) (V.T.U., 2008 S) s. Prove that the
curves r = o(l 4 cos 0J and r = bll - cos 0) intersect at right angles. (V.T. U.,
2011 S) 9. Show that the curves r” = o'1 cos nO and tJI - b" sin nQ cut each
other orthogonally. 1 0. Show that the angle of intersection of the curves r -
n log fl and r = a/log 0 is tan-1 |2e/(l - e2)| (V.T, U-, 2005) PEDAL
EQUATION If r be the radius vector of any point on the curve anti p, the
length of the perpendicular from the pole on the tangent at that point, them
the relation between p and r rs called pedal equation of the. curve. Given
the cartesian or polar equation of a curve, we can derive its pedal equation.
The method is explained through the following examples. ** y2 Example
Ll 2. Find the pedal equation of the ellipse — + = 1. b" Xx Yy Solution.
Equation of the tangent at (x,y) is — + - =1 a 6" ..,(i) ...(H) p, length of 1
from CD, 0) on (ii) - 1 Vt U/o2}2 + (y/d>2)2! or 4 + h4 p a Also r2 = x2 +
y2 Substituting the value ofy2 from (iv) in (r). ■ Mv) a ..2 Then from (t), a2
-b a2- r* 2 ‘ a* -6l Now substituting these values of jc2/a2 and y2/b2 in
(iii), 1 j _ (V-rM 2 — 2 p a [ o2 -b2 J b2 or r,2*2 r2 b2 - b4 + a4 - u~ r2 = vf
+ b2 - rl Hei ‘e required pedal equation. Example 4.43. of the curves U)
2u/r- I r" = nK cos n f) (V.T. U„ 2010 ) Solution. Taking log 2a
164 Higher Engineering Mathematics Different! at in i* bath
sides with respect to 0, we got 1 dr 1 . n , 0 - — ■ - sin 0 — tot — r dO 1 —
cos 0 2 dO Also or tan j|) = r — = - tan 0/2 - tan (n — 0/2) i.e., = 7t - 0/2 dr
p = r sin 0 = r sin (it — 0/2) i,e,f p = r sin 0/2 p2 = r2 sin2 0/2 = r2 j = r3. air
|By (i)l Hence pl - ar , which is the required pedal equation. (it) From the
given equation, nr"'1 — - = - na” sin n0 d6 so that U„ tan «f> - r dOidr = rnr
,ji-i = - cot nft = tan d+"9) — na" sin rc0 4i - n/2 + n0 p = r sin '), Q(x +
Sx,y + By) be two neighbouring points on the curve AB (Fig. 4.7). Let arc
AP = s, arc PQ = 6s and chord PQ = Be. Draw PL, QM Xs on the x-axis
and PN 1 QM. From the rt. Zed APNQ, PQ2 - PN2 + NQ2 Sc2 = Sx5 + 6y3
(ij-ei fbsS1 _ / 5s 6c " l&tj l6c'&r 5s ^ 6c; Taking limits as Q — » P ( i.e 6c
— > 0), i.e.f or {&v\s = 1+ f i \5xJ j 1 + *.ll Idx J vdx) ^ L j If s increases
with x as in Fig. 4.7, dyfdx is positive Thus ds dx I + dy dx , taking positive
sign before the radical. ...Uj for. I. If the equation uf the curve is x = ffy).
then
Differential Calculus & Its Applications 165 ds dy I + ( dx f 1 dy j
,(2> Cor* 2. If the equation of the curve is in parametric form .t = fU), y -
fyft.h then ds _ ds dx dt dx dt f dx V f dy dx \ IrfFj \dx"di] -f dt \f Ldt j IdtJ
..(3) Cor. 3. We have ds dx 1 + ffi-* + Um" y) = see dx cos ds Also fiin i|/ =
tan cos 141 = dy dx dx ds sin \|r dy ds ...(4) ...(5) (2) For the curve r - f(Q ),
we have — = ^1 r + do \| I do Let P{rr 0), Q(r + br, B + 80) be two
neighbouring points on the curve AB (Fig. 4.8). Let arc AP = s, arc PQ - Ss
and chord PQ - 8c. Draw PM 1 OQ, then PM = r sin SO and MQ = OQ —
OM - r + 5r - r cos 80 = 5r + 2r sin2 80/2 From the rt. Zed A PMQ, PQ 2 =
PM* + MQ2 or 8c2 = (r sin 80)2 -t (5r + 2r sin2 SB/2)2 2" r 8s 'j f 8s Sr j (
Ss V ir sin SB ^ + | 8r lSB.J _lsc' sej -{&) l 50 j + ( 60 + ■ 2r sin" 60/2 56 +
r sin 80 sjn 56/2 60/2 Taking limits as f? — > P (sr- ■- ••■•(*) As s
increases with the increase of 6, ds/dQ is positive. Thus ds dQ r2 + (8) ...(1)
Cor. 1. If the equation of the curve is 6 = fir), then
166 Higher Engineering Mathematics l or. 2. Wfi have Also ds fa

•Jll + tan^ ty\ ^ dr cos $ = dr ds sin ft = tan ft . cob ft = f/e dr fa di i . do Hin
0 = r — ds ,<2> ftl - sec <5 ...(3) ■■ (4) PROBLEMS 4.10 Prpve that the
pedal equation of : 1. the parabola y2 = 4o(x + u) is pa = nr. ^8 Ji — - the
hvperhola — , — ‘ — =1 isa26s/ps - ra- a~ + b2. a b H. Lhe astroid .x = ii
cos3 tty = « sin3 t is r2 = a2 - 3p2. Find the pedal equations of the following
curves : -L r = a f 1 + cos 01 (V.T. U., 2009 ) B> r* = c2 em2 0 0- r"1 cos
Mti = o'". (V.T. C7., £004) 7. rrn = a"1 (cos m© + sin ni6i H. /■ t aem(>. 9-
Calculate t As Air lor the following curves : (i) ay2 = x3. (ii) y = c cosh xk\
I < 1 Find ds/dft for the curve r = ul cos © + 0 sin S), y = « (sin 0 — 6 cos
0) I I ■ Find dsfdO for the following curves : { f ) r = o < 1 - cos 0) fV.r. U.,
2004 ) (w) r2 = n2 cos2 20 (iii)r- sec2© I -■ Far the curves 0 = cos’ 1 (r/A)
- Jif^ - r2 ) / r , prove that r ~~ = constant. v dr < V.T. IK, 2010) (V.T, a,
200?) W.T.V.,2007 ) (V.T.U., 2007 > (V.T.U., 2005) I With the usual
meanings for r, s, 0 and $ for the polar curve r =* f
Differential Calculus & Sts Applications 167 Obs. Since 6 y is
measured in radians, the unit of curvature is radians per unit length e.gr,
radians per centimetre, (2) Radius of curvature, The reciprocal of the
curvature of a curve cl any point P is called the radius of curvature at F and
is denoted by pt sn the p = ds/dy. (3) Centre of curvature. A point C on thr
normal at any point P of a curve distant p from it * is culled the centre of
curvature at P. (4> Circle of curvature, A circle with centre C (centre of
curvature at P) and radius p is raffed the circle of curvature at P. 4.11 (1)
RADIUS OF CURVATURE FOR CARTESIAN CURVE y = f (x), is given
by a + y,y y 2 We know that tan y = dy/dx = yx or v|J = tan-1 (y ,)
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. j.-, d\jf _ 1 efty^ _ y2 dx 1 + y,2 ' dx 1 + y*
„ _ ds ds dx l,t , .,2 s 1 + .Vi" d + .Vi 2 .3/2 (2) Radius of curvature for
parametric equations * = A*)i y ~ . Denoting differentiations with respect to
t by dashes, u')2 Substituting the values ofyj andy£ in (1) P = 1 + iff 3/2 xY-
y'xT _ u4 + y*ff2 xY-yx? (3) Radius of curvature at the origin. Newton’s
formulae* (t) tf x-axis is tangent to a carve at the origin, then (xf ). 0) = Lt (
J~ * >ol 2yJ p at (0 Since x-axis is a tangent at (0, 0}, (dy/dx )0 or (yj)0 = 0
A1‘S<> fio ( 2^) = Po (afy/dr) = Fo dly!dx'K = W2 u + (yiV/E )n p at (0, 0)
= 1 ^ J-= Lt f-o 2y o
HrGHEft Engineering Mathematics ( { Hi ) in case the curve
passes through the origin but neither tf-axis nor y-axis is tangent at the
origin, we write the equation of the curve as a y = m = /ro) + xfm + 2j n 0>
+ .. = px + qx2/2 + ... [By Maclaurin’s series] lv fiO) = 0! where p - f*{ 0)
and q - f"( 0) Substituting this in the equation y — /tx)T we find the values
of p and q by equating coefficients of like powers of x. Then p (0, 0) = (1 +
p2)m/q. i )b*. Tangents at i tin origin to a curve ore found by equating io
sent the lowest degree terms in its equation. or or or Example 4-44. Find the
radius of curvature at the paint fi) (3a / 2, 3a/ 2} ofth# Folium Jt* + y 1 =
3axy. (Anna, 2009 ; Kuruk&hetra, 2009 S ; V.T.U., 2008 1 («). (u, 0 ) on the
curve xy2 = a'1' x3. {Anna, 2009 ; Kerala , 2005 ) Solution, U)
Differentiating w ith respect Iojc, we get a**.+ V ^ =3a I y + x¥dx dy dx
(y2-ax) =ay~x2 Ui) dx ^ at(3o/2, 3o/2)-- 1 da: Differentiating fi), ( 2?7T ~
a)lf + - ax> ^ - 2jc «* /d* tfar2 fix [l + ftfr/tfa)*!3'* U + (- iVT'* _ 3a d2y
dx* at f3a/2, 3a/2> = - 32/3a dryfdjr -32/3u 8j2 y 2 = as x -< Hence p at
<3a/2, 3a/2) (if) We have 2y dyidx = - a3jrz- 2x ur dyldx = - a3/{ 2x^y ) -
xly At (a, 0), dyldx — > «>, so we find rfr/dy from xy2 - a3 — jc3 x-2y + =
-3z2^ dy dy (in magnitude). dx 2 xy Hence . 2 2 l>r l/z (a' 0) = 0* dy 3jc2 +
y2 dy dy 2 (3 xz+y2f d2x t, m {3a2 +0H0- 2«)-0 -2 dy * (3a2 + Or 3« p at
fa, 01 = 1 + (£] 3/2 (1 + 0}3/Sf _ 3a ; d2x' dy\ (-2/3 d) ’ 2 la, B) Example
4.45. Show that the radius of curvature tit any point of the cycloid x = a (9
+ sin 0). y-a(l- cos 0) is 4a cos 0/2. ’ iV.T.U., 2011 ; P.T.U., 2006) Solution.
We have ~ - a (1 + cos 0), ^ - a sin 0. dQ d0
Differential- Calculus & Its Applications 169 dy_ dy dx x _ a sin
0 2 sin 0/2 cos 0/2 dx dB 8 a(l + cos 0) 2 cos2 0/2 d2y d (dY — - - sec2 0 1
dx 2 ~ d.e l dx , ’ dx ~ 2 sec 2 all + cos 0) = tan 0/2 1 2 0 1 1-10 = -sec - * -
= — sec 2 2 2a cos“ 9/2 2 P“ [1 + (^y/dr)af '* 4a{l + tan2 0/2>'V2 d2yi dx2
sec11 6/2 = 4a - (sec2 e/2)3'2 • cos1 0/2 = 4 a cos 0/2. Example 4.46. Prove
that the radius of curvature at any point of the aMroid .r2/s + y2i3 = is three
times the length of the perpendicular from the origin to the tangent at that
point, ( J.N , T. U„ 2005 ; Bhopal , 2002 S) Solution. The parametric
equation of the curve is x = a cos3 /, y = a sin3 /. x' (- dxJdt) = — 3a cos2 /
sin /, y' = 3a sin2 1 cos t, x" = - 3a (cos3 t - 2 cos t sin3 t) = 3a cos t (2 sin2 /
— cos3 fj y~ - 3a (2 sin t cos2 t - sin3 1) = 3a sin t <2 cos2 t - sin2 /} jf's +
y^s 9a2 (cos4 t sin2 ( + sin4 t cos3 f) = 9a2 sin2 1 cos2 / x' y" -y* x" — -
9a2 cos2 t sin2 / (2 cos2 / - sin2 t) - 9a2 cos2 / sin2 / (2 sin2 / - cos2 /) = —
9a2 sin2 / cos2 t (x* + y*tn 27a3 sin3 f cos’1 / = - 3a sin / cos /. Since i.e..
xy -yx — 9a2 sin2 / cos2 t dyidx = y'lx' - - tan /. Equation of the tangent at
(a cos3 t,a sin3 ( ) is y - a sin3 t - ~ tan t (x — a cos3 t ) x tan t + y — a sin /
= 0 ...(£) then p, length of X from <0, 0) on (r) = 0 + 0 a sin / __Q gjn ^ ^
Thus p = 3 p. y/ftan2 t + 1) E Ex ample 4.47. If p, and p2 be the radii of ett
nature at the ends of a focal chard of the parabola Y = lax, show that Of-1 +
p3_27,v = (2ar~'^. (Rohtak, 2000 S ; Kuruhshetra, 2005) Solution. Given
parabola isy2 - 4ax or x -at2,y - 2 at. If dashes denote differentiation w.r.t. t,
then x' = 2a/, / = 2a ; jc" = 2a, y" = 0. p at (of2, 2crf ) (x'2+/l3/(4a2 t2 + 4a2
f2 = 2o(l +t2f/2 xY - x"y' 0 - 4a2 If Pt/,) and Q(/3) be the extremities of the
focal chord of the parabola, then /| /2 = - 1 Le., f2 — — 1/tj Pi at Pit ft = 2a
(1 + f^)3/2; pa at Q(t2) = 2a 1 1+ tp^ Thus Pl2/3+ P3_a/a = (2 a)~2a = !(1 +
f2)-1 + (1 + tp~l | = (2a)_2/3 (Numerically) ,..<0 1 + tf 1 + tt |Bv (t)| - ( 2o
rm Example 4.48. Show that the radius of curvature of P an an ellipse
x~/aL‘ +ys fb~ - 1 is CMP tub where CD is the semi-diameter conjugate to
CP . (J.N.T. U., 2002)
Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. Two diameters of an
ellipse are said to be conjugate if each bisects chords parallel to the other. If
CP and CD are two semi -conjugate diameters and P is ( a cos 6, b sin 0)
then D is a cos + y-> ^ s’n f B + ^ j i.e., (- a sin 6, b cos 8), Also C(0, 0) is
the centre of the ellipse. CD - yj((P sin"' 0 + b ' cos2 0) At P, we have *■ - a
cos 0, y = b sin O. ^ = -^4 = Z± eot l0jA = A eo-c* e .f- = ^ «.Mc38. ax
dx/dB — a sm 0 a dxl a cfx c2 2,3/2 P H < idy/dxff d2y i dx2 2 ^ i + -w cor
b i b 3 n - -^-cusec 0 a2 a (a2 sin2 B + />2 cos2 0)'V2 b cosec 0 t i sin3 0
(Numerically) (a2 sin* 6 + b cos2 Or ab CET ab Example 4.40. Find p at
the origin for the curves y3 + x.— +a ■ — + y -o2 = 0 y [ y Let a- — > 0,
so that Lt (x2/ 2y ) = p. x—t*+ 0 + Q.2p + o(2p + 0) - a2 = 0 or p=aJ2 .
Ui) Equating to zero the lowest degree terms, we get y - x, as the tangent at
the origin, which is neither of the coordinates axes. Putting y = px + c/x2/2
+ ... in the given equation, we get px + qx2/2 + ... - X = x2 + 2x {px + qx2/
2 + ...) + {px + qx2f 2 + ...)2 Equating coefficients of x and x2, p - 1 = 0, ql
2 =1 + 2 p + p2 i.e., p - 1 and q - 2 + 4 1 + 2 13=8. p fO, 0> — (1 +
p2)™/q = (1 + - l/2yf2. ( 4 ) Radius of curvature for polar curve r - /IB) is
given by (r2 + r?)m P= -* - r + ^ - rr2 With the usual notations, we have
from Fig. 4.10. Tj/ = 6 + if Differentiating w.r.t. s, 1 _ dxp _ d& d< |) _ cf0
d t/B p ds ds ds ds dB ds de (x d
Differential Calculus & Its Applications 171 as Also we know that
tan = sin $ + r cos dr ds - r Hence d®_ + r dr ds ds dr (de + d that the
radius of curvature at any point of the cardioid r - a (I - cos G) varies
J?. (V.TM.,2003) Solution. Differentiating w.r.t. B, we get r, = a sin 0, r2
= a cos 6 (r* + r,2)372 = [u2( 1 - cos B)2 + a2 sin2 ft]3/2 = a3 {2 < 1 - cos
B),3/2 r2 — rr2 + 2r j2 = as(l - cos G)2 — a2 ( 1 - cos 6) cos 0 + 2a2 sin2
0 = 3a2 (1 - cos G) (r2+r?):vs a3 2^2(1 -cosS)3'2 Thus P = r2 — rr2 + 2
r2 2^2 a(l — cos 0)1'2 = 3az(l - cos B) 2%/2 a 3 . 3 Otherwise, The pedal
equation of this cardioid is 2 up2 - r* Differentiating w.r.t, p , we get 1/2
& a a o_2 dr , dr 4 ap 4ar'tU r 4 ap - 3/^ whence p = r -r- = -= — = - , -
**■ yr . dp dp 3r 3r . I v p = r572 / Ji2 a) from (01 that
172 Higheh Engines™© Mathematics PROBLEMS 4.11 1 . Find

the radium of curvature at any [join! < j > iat7, 2a f) cif the parabola y* =
4qx UH (o, c) of the catenary y ~ c cosh xk< {Hi) {a, 0) of die curve y = **
lx - aX 2. Show dial for (i) the rectangular hyperbola xy = r2, p = (,-2 * /)**
2 c2 4. 5. 071 the cum y = ael/n, p = a sec3 S cosec ft where 0 - tan _1 (y/a
1. Show that the radius of curvature at 0) la, 0) on the rurve y1' - cr (n - xtfx
is at 2. Of > (a/4, a/4) on the curve Jr +- Jy - -Ja is at J2 . (tit) .r = ic/2 of the
curve 3' = 4 sin x - sin 2x is 5 %/fe 14. For the curve y = - , show that | j ~(^
I + j a + x iv/r.v . 20 1 m (Rnhttik, 2000 . MadhiSt 2000) (Rajasthan, 2006)
{v:r,U-, 20m S) (J.N. T.U., 2006 S) (V T.ll, 2009 S) (V T.b\, 2008) 7. 8. 9.
m 11. 12. 13. II. ts. IB. Find the radius of curvature at any point on the (i)
elUpte : x = a cog ©, y - b sin 9. (ti i cycloid : x - a (0 - sin 0). y - a ( 1 —
cos 0). Of i) curve : x - a (cos t + t sin t),y - a (sin f - t cos f). Show that the
radius of curvature (il at the point (a cos3 0. a sin3 0) on the curve xm +
ir,a/a = eîe 3a sin 9 cos 9. lit) at lire point / on the curve x = e‘ cos t,y = et
sin t is J'Zc*. If p be the radius of curvature at any point P on the parabola, 3
3 = 4o.r and S be its focus, then show that p* varies as ISP)3. *
(Kurukshetru. 2006) IV.T.U., 2003) tAnno, 2 009 1 (Calicut, 2000) 1 Frcve
that for the ellipse in pedal form -V = -j* +■ -V 1 — — , the radius of
curvature at the point fp, r) is p - a2 hVj rK tib p~ a~ b [V.T.IL 2010 S)
Show that the radius of curvature at an end of the mfyor axis of the ellipse
x2fa2 + y2fb2 = 1 is equal to the scmhlatus rectum. tOsmanm, 2000 S)
Show that the radius of curvature at each point of the curve x = n f cots t +
log tan £/2>, y - a sin t, is inversely proportional to the length of the normal
intercepted between the point on the curve and the r-axis. (JMT.tfr 2003 )
Find the radius of curvature at the origin for U) Xs* ^y3 - 2x7 t C5y = 0 (ti
I2x* + By4 + 4 x*y + xy -y7 + 2* ~ 0 tiii )y7 = x* in + x Yf{a - * ). Find
the radius of the curvature at the point lrt 0) on each of the curves : fi) r = a
fl “ cos 0) (ii) r" = ofl cos n 0. Fur the cardioid r = ail + cos 0)t show that
p^km is constant. Find the radius of curvature for the parabola 2aJ r = t +
cos 0. If pv p3 be the radii of curvature at the extremities or any chord of
the tardioid r = ti { 1 + cos 0) which passes through the pole, show that p/ +
p23 - 16 vV9. J Witrdwanj 2003 ) IKuruktoh&irtti 2005) { P TM .*
20W;J,N:r.Ur> 2006) (ETM, 2005 j (Kurukshi^.m, 2005) For any curve r - /
(0), prove that — - sin ^ I 1 t -- \ . p \ 30 1 4.12 (1) CENTRE OF
CURVATURE at any point P (x, y) on the curve y = f (x) is given by X = X
y,a+yf> - i + yf . y =y + y 2
Differential Calculus & Its Applications Let C lx, _y) be the
centre of curvature and p the radius of curvature of the curve at P(x,y) (Fig.
4,1 1 ). Draw PL and CM Is to OX and fW_L CM. Let the tangent at P
make an with the x-axis. Then ZNCP = 90° - ZNPC = ZNPT = y x = OM -
OL - ML - OL ~ NP x - p sin y = x (1 + y2)3'2 y i = x Ja i/(l tv tany = ylf sin
y yA + y±) y% + *?> yi JS+rf) and y = MC = MN + NC - LP + p cos y fv
sec V - ^T+ tan^ y) = /(! + y ) =y + (1 + y\)m = y + i + y y2 i/(l + y ) Cor,
Equation of the circle of curvature at P is (x - x )2 + (y — y l2 = p2. (2)
Evolute. The locus nf the centre of curvature far a. curve is called its e
volute and the curve is called art involute of its evolute. (Fig. 4. 12)
Example 4,51 . Find the. coordinates of the centre of curvature at any point
of the porn bo/a y- ~ 4ax. Hence show that its evolutc is 27ay2 = 4(x - 2a f.
( V.T.U. , 2000 ) and Solution. We have 2yyx = 4a i.e., y, = 2 a!y 2 a 4 a2
y% ~ % ■y‘\- 3 y y If (x, y ) be the centre of curvature, then j'iO+jf)- 2a!
y{l + 4a~ty“i X — X . — x — — ^ Ja - 4a fy v2 4- 4gT 4cix + 4a _ « x + -
= x + - - - = 3x + 2a ! v y2 = 4axl 2a .2 2a and 1 + y 1 + 4a2/y2 y = y + -
LJ_ = y + y2 - 4a*/y2 , J4/4 4^)_-yi 4a2 4a2 3/2 2x fa ...(«) To find the
evolute, we have to eliminate x from (i) and lit) \3 i y)!t= = =— 1 Of 27 a (
j/ )z - 4( x — 2a)3, a a{ 3 J Thus the locus of (x, y) i.e., evolute, is 27 ay2 =
4(x - 2a)3.
174 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 4.52. Show that
the evalute af the cycloid sin 0),y -a{l - cos 0} is another equal cycloid.
{Madras, 2006 ) Solution. We have y, = % + % = M a sin 0 , 0 - - — — =
cot — . cos 0 J 2 y*= *J dx dG dx - cusec j 8 1 2 ‘ 2 ' ct(l - cos 0) If" (x, y)
ba tho centre of curvature, then ,2 4a sin 0/2 -x- + ,>'1 ' = «(0 - sin 0) + cot |
j^- 4« sin11 | j^l + cot“ | = n(9 - sin 0) + . 4u sin4 ^ . cosec2 ^ sin 0/2 2 2 =
a(0 - sin 0) + 4a si n G/2 cos 0/2 = a(6 — sin 0) + 2tf sin 0 = a(0 + sin 0) y -
y + 1 _ >2 = a(l — cos 0) + ^1 + cot2 ^ j j^- 4a sin4 = a(l - cos G) - 4a sin4
0/2 . cosec2 0/2 = a O - cos G) - 4a sin2 6/2 = u(l - COS 0) - 2a (1 — cos 0)
= — a(l — cos 0) Hence the locus of (x, y) i.e., the evolute, is given by x =
a(0 + sin 0), y= - a (1 — cos 0 J which is another equal cycloid. (3) Chord
or curvature at a given point of a curve (i) parallel to x-axis = 2p sin y (ii)
parallel to y-axis = 2p cos y Consider the circle of curvature at a given point
P on a curve. Let C be the centre and p the radius of curvature at P so that
PQ - 2p. (Fig. 4.13) Let PL, PM be the chords of curvature parallel to the
axes of x and ,v respectively. Let the tangent PT make an Zy with the x-axis
so that ZLQP = ZQPM = y. Then from the rt. Zed APLQ, PL ~ 2p sin yo
and PM = 2p cos y. 4,13 (1} ENVELOPE The equation x cos oc + y sin a =
1 represents a straight line for a given value of cl If different values are
given to ou we get different straight lines. All these straight lines thus
obtained are said to constitute a family of straight lines. In general, the
curves corresponding to the equation ft: t\ yr a) = 0 for different values of
a¥ constitute a family of curves and a is called the parameter of the family.
Tho envelope of a family of curves is the turn1 which touches each member
of the family. For example, we know that all the straight lines of the family
(1) touch the circle x2+y*= 1 _(2) r.e.T the envelope of the family oflines
(1) is the circle (2J — Fig, 4,14, which may also be seen as the locus of the
ultimate points of intersection of the consecutive members of the family of
lines ( 1). This leads to the following :
Deferential Calculus & Its Applications 175 Def. If fix, y, t() = 0
and fix. y, (x + 6 - * — - = 0. da. or Example 4.153. Find the envelope of
the family of lines y = mx + fl + ) , m being the parameter. Solution. We
have {y — mx)2 — 1 + ml Differentiating (i) partially with respect tu m,
2(y — mx) (- x) = 2m or m = xyf(x* - 1) Now eliminating m from (i) and
(it) Substituting the value of m in (i), we get Ui) -XU) x2y x2 -1 = 1 + f J2L
x2-l OF y2={x2„ l)2+X2y 2. ,2 x 2 + y2 - 1 which is the required equation
of the envelope. ( lbs. Sometimes the equation to the family of curves
contains two parameters which are connected by a relation. In such cases,
we eliminate one of the parameters by means of the given relation, then
proceed Lt> find the envelope. Example 4 .fid. Find the envelope of a
system of concentric a /id coaxial ellipses of constant area. Solution. Taking
the common axes of the system of ellipses as the coordinate axes, the
equation to an ellipse of the family is 2 2 = 1 where a and ft arc the
parameters. a2 ft2 The area of the ellipse = imb which is given to be
constant, say = m 2. ab -c1 or ft - c2/a. jl ,f2 = 1 or x2 cr2 + iy2/cA) a2 = 0
x~ v Substituting in (i ), + — / ,, a ' (r/fl2) which is the given family of
ellipses with a as the only parameter. Differentiating partially («7> with
respect to a, — 2x2 a-3 + 2 (y2/c4) a — 0 or a2 - c2 xly Eliminate a from
(iti) and (tv). Substituting the value of a1 in (in), we get xHylc*x) + iyVtA)
{c2xly) = 1 or 2xy = c'1 which is the required equation of the envelope. P
(3) Evolute of a curve is the envelope of the normals to that curve (Fig.
4.12) Example 4.55. Find the evolute a f the parabola y* = -lax. Solution.
Any normal to the parabola iay = mx — 2 um - am3 Differentiating it with
respect to m partially, 0 - x — 2a - 3am2 or m = l(x - 2a )/3 a 1 1/2
Substituting this value of m in (?'), v 1/ 2 I r-2°-ax - 2 a 3a Squaring both
sides, wc have 27«y2 = 4(* - 2a)3 which is the evolute of the parabola, (cf
Example 4.51). Ui) .-.O'i) ...(Hi) Uiv) (Madras, 2003) .M)
176 Higher Engineering Mathematics PROBLEMS 4.12 L Find

the coordinates of the centre of curvature at (at2\ 2. IF Cx, Cy be the chords
nf curvature parallel to the axes at any point on the curve y = ae7^f prove
that 1 X 1 w*tm (Annu, 2009 1 (Anna, 2003) f Anna. 2009 S) iQsmariia,
2002) (Anna, mm S) (,'i k L,y 2 a.Ct 10. In l-hf curve y - a cosh x/a . prove
that. Lhe chord of curvature parallel to ;y- axis is the double the ordinate.
Find the envelope of the following fa mi 1 y uf Tines : 11. y = mx + aim, m
being the parameter. (Madras, 2006) X V 12. cue a > ' sin tx = 1. u being the
parameter. a h 13. y - mx - 2am - am9. 14- y = mx + yjj(a9rrt 3 + if ), m
being the parameter. I Anna. 2009) A ■tfy 15* Find the envelope of the
family of parabolas y > = x tan tie - | 2ir cus u s a l*dng the parameter ► 1
G. Find the envelope of the straight line xfa +■ y/£> = I, u here the
parameters u and b are connected by the relation : (L) a 4 b - c. (ii J a6 = Hu
) a2 + fc2 - c2 1 7, Find the envelope uf the family of ellipse* x2fdA + y?
fb2 = 1 for which o 4-6 = c. (Madras 2006) Prove tlmt the evolute of the 2 2
x . y )8. ellipse — + ~“77 = 1 is + (byf2^ - ( a 2 - h2)?^. h 19. hyperbola ^ -
4= 1 is (tor)**- (6yl^ = (n« + b* P9. a b* I J.N.T.U.. 2006 ; Anna, 2006) C
Anna , 2009} 20. parabola j:2 ; 1 by is 27/ua - 4(v - slhfi. 4.14 (1)
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS In the function y =
/Tx), if y increases an x increases (a.s at .4), if is called an increasing
function of x. On the contrary, if. y decreases us x increases (as at C), it is
called a decreasing function of x.
177 Differential. Calculus & Its Applications Let the tangent at
any point on the graph of the function make an Z iy with the x-axis (Fig. 4-
15) so that dykix = tan \fi At any point such as A, whore the function is
increasing Zy is acute i.e., dyfdx is positive. At a point such as C, where the
function is decreasing Zy is obtuse i.e. , dyldx is negative. Hence the
derivative ofun increasing function is + re, and the derivative of a
decreasing function is - ve. fig. 4.Jt5 Ob* If the derivative is zero (as at B or
D), then y is neither increasing nor decreasing. In such cases, we *ay that
the function is stationary. (2) Concavity, Convexity and Point of Inflexion
If) If a portion of the curve on both sides of a point, however small it may
be, lies ubove the tangent las at D), then the curve is said to be concave
upwards at D where d^yfdx2 is positive. (tt) If a portion of the curve on
both sides of a point lies below the tangent (as at B), then the curve is said
to be Convex upwards at. B where d2ytdx2 is negative. {Hi ) If the two
portions of the curve lie on different sides of the tangent thereat {i.e., the
curve crosses the tangent (as at C), then the point C is said to be a point of
inflexion of the curve. *% d3 y d? = 0 and 5? At a point of inflexion = 0 and
— ~ * 0. 4.15 (1) MAXIMA AND MINIMA Consider the graph of the
continuous function y = fix) in the interval (x3, jfg) (Fig. 4.16). Clearly the
point is the highest in its own immediate neighbourhood. So also is P,y At
each of these points Pv the function is said to have a maximum value. On
the other hand, the point P2 is the lowest in its own immediate neigh hour
hood. So also is Py At each of these points P2, PA the function is said to
have a minimum value. Thus, we have Def. A function fix) is said to have a
maximum value at x = a, if there exists a small number h, however small,
such that fia) > both flu - h) anti f(a + h). A function fix) is said to have a
minimum value at x - a, if there exists a small n timber h, however small,
such that f(a) < both fia - h) and fia + h). ffhs. |, The maximum and
minimum values of a function taken together are called its extreme values
and the points at which the function attains the extreme values arc called the
turning points of the function. < M)'-'. 2. A maximum or minimum value of
a function is not necessarily the greatest or least valtu* of the function in
any finite iniertxd. The maximum value is dimply the greater value in ilia
immediate neigh bo urhaod of the maxima point or the minimum value is
the least value in the imnKîiate neiglibciurliood of the minima point. In
fact, there may be several maximum utid minimum values of u function in
tin interval and a minimum value may be even greater than a maximum
value. Oh*. 3* U is seen from the Fig. 4.16 that maxima and minima values
occur alternately r (2) Conditions for maxima and minima. At each point of
extreme value, it is seen from Fig. 4.16 that the tangent to the curve is
parallel to the x-axis t Le,9 its slope (- dyfdx) is zero. Thus if the function is
maximum or minimum at x - af then (dyfdx)u = 0. Around a maximum
point say, Px (x = a)y the curve is increasing in a small Interval (a — h9 a )
before Lt anil decreasing in (u, a + h) after L, where h is positive and small.
i.e., in lu - hw a )9 dyfdx > 0 ; at x = ar dyfdx - 0 and in (ur a + h \ dyfdx <
0. Thus dyfdx (which is a function ofx) changes sign from positive to
negative in passing through Pv i.e,t it is a decreasing function in the interval
(a - hT a + h ) and therefore, its derivative d2yfdx2 is negative at PL(x - a).
Similarly, around a minimum point say P.2f dyfdx changes sign from
negative to positive in passing through P2, i.e. , it is an increasing function
in the small interval around L.t and therefore its derivative dPyfdx* is
positive at PT
178 Higher Engineering Mathematics Hence (0 fix) is maximum
at x - a iff (u) = 0 and f(a) is - ve fi.e., f(a) changes sign from + ve. to - vel
iii ) fix) is minimum at x- a, if f (a) = 0 and f(a) is + ve fi.e., f(a) changes
sign from - ve to + ve] Obi. A maximum or a minimum value is a stationary
value but 8 stationary value may neither be a maximum nor a minimum
value. (3) Procedure for finding maxima and minima U) Put the given
function - ftx) (it) Find fix) and equate it to zero. Solve this equation and let
its roots be a, b, c, ... Uii ) Find fix) and substitute in it by turns x = a, b. c,
... Iff(a) is - ve, ftx) is maximum at x = a. Iff* (a) is + ve, fix) is minima at x
= a. Hu) Sometimes f"{x) may lie difficult to find out or fix) may be zero at
x = a. In such cases, see if f(x) changes sign from + ye to - ve as x passes
through a, then, fix) is maximum at x = a. If fix) changes sign from - ve to +
ve as x passes through a, fix) is minimum at x = a. If fix) does not change
sign while passing through x = a, fix) is neither maximum nor minimum at
x — a. Example 4 .56. Find the maxim urn and minimum values ofSx4 -
2X3 - + 6x +• / in the interval (0. 2). Solution. Let fix) - 3x4 - 2x3- for2 + fa
+ I Then fix) = 12*3 - 6x2 - 12x + 6 » 6(x2 - lM2r - 1) fix) — 0 when x = ±
1T | . So in the interval (0, Z)^(ar) can have maximum or minimum at x = ^
or 1. Now fix) - Sfo:2 - 12r - 12 = 12 (3xa - x - 1) so that f = fix) has a
maximum at x = ^ and a minimum at x = 1. Thus the maximum value + + ^
= and the minimum value = f{\) =s3(l}4 - 2d)3 -6(l)a + 6(1) + 1 - 2. - 9 and
f"il) = 12. Example 4.57. Show that sin x (1 + cos x) is a maximum when x
= jl/3. [Bhopal, 2009 ; Rajasthan, 2005 1 Solution. Lei fix) = sin x (1 +
cosx) Then fix) ~ cos x ( 1 + cos x) + sin x (- sin x) - COS X (1 + COS Jc) -
<1 - C0S2X) ~ (1 + cos *) (2 cos x - 1) /. f'ix) ~ 0 when cos x = ^ or - 1 i. e.
, when x = tl/3 or re. Now fix) = - sin x (2 cos x - 1) + (1 + cos x) — - 3 J2 /
2 and /'"(re) = 0. Thus fix) has a maximum at x - rt/3. Since f(ji) is 0, let us
see whether fix) changes sign or not. When x is slightly < a, f'ix) is - ve,
then when x is slightly > it, fix) is again - ve i.e., fix) dues not change sign
as x passes through a. So fix) is neither maximum nor minimum at x — n.
(4) Practical Problems In many problems, the function (whose maximum or
minimum value is required) is not directly given. It has to be formed from
the given data. If the function contains two variables, one of them has to be
eliminated with the help of the other conditions of the problem. A number
of problems deal with triangles, rectangles, circles, spheres, cones,
cylinders etc. The student is therefore, advised to remember the formulae
for areas, volumes, surfaces etc. of such figures. Example 4.5th A window
has the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semi- circle. If the perimeter is
40 ft, find its dimensions so that the greatest amount of light may be
admitted, f Madras, 2000 S )
Differential Calculus & Its Applications 179 Solution. Thu
greatest amount of light may be admitted means that the area of the window
may be maximum. Let x fl, be the radius of the semi circle so that one side
of the rectangle is 2* tl. (Fig. 4.17). Let the other side of the rectangle y ft.
Then the perimeter of the whole figure = jut + 2.x + 2y = 40 (given) and the
area A - ^Ttx2 + 2xy. „.(i) Here A is a function of two variables x and y. To
express A in terms of one variable x (say), we substitute the value of y from
(?) in it. Then A - îtx2 + xMO - (it + 2)x\ = 40 je (La —— - 40 - (n + 4)i
dx ~ + 2 | jc2 or For A to be maximum or minimum, we must have dA/dx =
0 i.e., 40 - (re + 4)x = 0 x = 40/(it + 4 ) From (/), Also y = 4 |4i> - (ti +2)jtl
= A |40 - (ti + 2) 40/(rt + 4)1 = 40/(jt + 4) i.t?., x -y d2A dx~ = — (tl + 4),
which is negative. Thus the area of the window is maximum when the
radius of the semi-circle is equal to the height of the rectangle. Example
4.59. A rectungular sheet of metal of Length 6 metres anti width 2 metres is
given. Four equal squares are removed from the comers. The sides oft/us
sheet are now turned up to form an open rectangular box. Find
approximately, the height of the box , such that the volume of the box is
maximum. Solution. Let the side of each of the squares cut off hex m so
that the height of the box isx m and the sides of the base are 6 - 2x, 2-2xm
(Fig. 4. IS), /. Volume V of the box = x(6 - 2x) <2 - 2x) = 4(x3 - 4jc2 + 3x)
dV Then dx = 4(3** - 8x + 3) = 2,2 or 0.45 m. For V to be maximum or
minimum, we must have dV/dx - 0 Le.t 3x2 - 8x + 3 = 0 8 ± ^164 - 4 x 3x3|
* ~ 6 The value x = 2.2 in is inadmissible, as no box is possible for this
value. d2V Also — s- - 4(6x - 8), which is - ve for x - 0.45 m. dx Hence the
volume of the box is maximum when its height is 45 cm. Fig. 4. IS X j 6 It i
1 i 2 - 2arj j}.t Example 4.00. Show that the right circular cylinder of given
surface ( including the ends) and maximum volume is such that its height is
equal to the diameter of the base. Solution. Let r be the radius of the base
and A, the height of the cylinder. Then given surface S = 2tu7i + 2ju,a „.(t)
and the volume V = ttr^h ..,(«> Hence V is a function of two variables r and
A. To express V in terms of one variable only (say r), we substitute the
value of h from (i) in (it ). Then V = Jtr2 S - 2nr2 1 1 2rer = -Sr- ter3 2 ^- =
is-37tr2. dr 2
teo Higher Engineering Mathematics For V to be maximum or
minimum, we must have dV/dr - 0, i,e.t ^5-371^ = 0 or r= ^(S/Git). d2V , »
r~ Also — 5- = — 6itr, which is negative for r = ,/(S/6rt). dr Hence V is
maxim um for r = f{S /6k). Le. , for enr2 -S - 2nrh + 2 nr2 i.e., for h - 2 r.
which proves the required result. IBy (i)l Example 4.61 . Show that the
diameter of ike right circular cylinder of greatest curved surface which can
he inscribed in o given cone is equal to the radius of the cone. Solution. Let
r be the radius OA of the base and fit the semi-vertical angle of the given
cone (Fig. 4.191. Inscribe a cylinder in it with base-radius OL = x. Then the
height of the cylinder LP = LA cot tl = (r - x) cot a The curved surface S of
the cylinder = 2n.r. LP - 2itx(r - x) cot a = 2it cot a (nr — x2) dS dx d2S =
2n cot a (r - 2x) = 0 for x = ri 2. and dx 2 - - 4a cot a Hence S is maximum
when x = r/2. Example 4.62, Find the altitude and the semi- Vertical angle
of ti cone of least volume which run he circumscribed to a sphere of radius
a. Solution. Let h be the height mid a the semi-vertical angle of the cone so
that its radius BD = h tan a (Fig. 4,20). The volume V of the cone is given
by V = ^ 7t {h tan a)2 h = ^ n h3 tan2 a. J u Now we must express tan a in
terms of h. In the rt, £d AAEO, EA — ~-nir — — - - - = -Acr (fi - 2a? Ui -
2a )2 dV Thus - =0 for h = 4a, the other value ( k - 0) being not possible. dh
Also dVidh is - ve when h is slightly < 4«. and it is + ve when h is slightly >
4 a. Hence V is minimum [i.e. least) when h - 4o and . .if « 1 . _i ( a \ 1 a =
sin - = sm = sin — . lOAj U
Differential Calculus & Its Applications 181 Example 4.63. Find
the volume of the largest possible right circular cylinder that, can be
inscribed in a sphere of radius a. Solution. Let O be the centre of the sphere
of radius a. Construct a cylinder as shown in Fig. 4.21. Let 0.4 = r. Then AB
= ^j(OB2 - OaF) - J(a2 -rz) Height ft of tlie cylinder = 2 > AB = 2 -J{a2 —
r2 ) . Thus volume V of the cylinder dV dr — nr2h ~ 2nr'i - r2) = 2n (2 r -
r2) + r2 ■ ^ (ua - (- 2r)) 2m2a2 - 3r2) * a2-r2> The dV/dr - 0 when r2 - 2
a2/3, the other value (r = 0) being not admissible. ’Jia2' - rJ U2u2 — 9ra) —
r(2aa - 3ra) x ±{0* — r2)~i/a . (-2r) Now' d2V dr2 — 2n = 2n (a2 -r2) (a2 -
rs}(2a4 - 9r2) + rs (2n2 -3r2) (n2 -r2)3'2 Hence V" is maximum For r2 = 2c
^3 and maximum volume which is - ve for r2 = 2a.2 13. = 2 nr2 ^/(a2 - r2)
= 4ltaal3 -Js. Example 4.64. Assuming that the petrol burnt (per hour) in
driving u motor boat fortes on the cube of its velocity, show that the most
economical spate) when going against a current of c miles per hour is J-c
miles per hour. ■ • Solution. Let v m.p.h. be the velocity of the boat so that
its velocity relative to water (when going against the current) is (u — c)
m.p.h. Time required to cover a distance of s miles v-c hours. Since the
petrol burnt per hour - ftp3. k being a constant. The total petrol burnt, y, is
given by ,.3 . f3S , IT y = ft - = fcs dy , (if - c)3u2 - v3 ■ 1 — 1 — = ks ■ =
ks v — c v~c v2C2v - 3c) dv (v - C) [v - cf Thus dy/dv = 0 for v = 3c/2, the
other value (v - 0) is inadmissible. Also dy/dv is - veT when e; is slightly <
3c/2 and it is + i/e* w hen v is slightly > 3e/2. Hence y is minimum for v =
3c/2, PROBLEMS 4.13 1 . (t) Test the curve y - sf for points of inflexion ?
(Burdimn, 2003) (if) Show that. the points of mil exion of the curve y2 —
Sx - a A (x — ft ! lie on the straight line 3x + a = 46. (Rajasthan, 2006)
182 Higher Engineering Mathematics 2, a. 4. 5. 6. 7. B. 0. ID. 11.

12. la. 14. 15. 16. 17, The fuuctiwn fix) delmerl by fix) = ah + bx. ft 2) = 1,
has an extremum at,* —2 Determine a and b. Is this point 12, 1 ►, a point
of rruixiimim or minimum on the graph of fix) V Show that Sin''D cu^B
attains a maximum when 0 - tan 1 (j>/q I. ■ Rajasthan, 2008') If a beam uf
weight t# per unit length is built-in horizontally at one end/, and rests on a
support 0 at Lite other end, the deflection y fit a distance .v front O is given
by Ely = + is when.- / is lhe distance between the ends Find x for y hi be
maximum. The horse-power developed by an aircraft travelling horizontally
with veloci ty t1 foot per second is given hy V where o, h and w are
constants. Find for what value of it the horse-power is maximum. The
velocity of waves of wave- length K nn deepwater proportional to *J{Xfa f
a fX), where a is a certain constant, prove that the velocity is mini mum
when X = a In o submarine telegraph cable, the speed of signalling varies as
x2 logr f 14 h where x is the ratio of Lhe radius of the core to that of l he
covering Show that the greatest speed ia attained when this ratio is v4v>
The efficiency s of a screw-jack is given by e - tan 6/tan { & + a), where a
is a constant. Find 0 if this efficiency is to be maxi mum Also find the
maximum efficiency. Show that of all rectangles of given area, the square
has the least parameter. Find die rectangle of greatest perimeter that can he
inscribed in a circle of radius a. A gutter of rectangular section (open at. the
lop) is to be made by bending into shape of a rectangular strip of metal.
Show that the capacity of ihe gutter will be greatest if iU width is twice it*
depth Show that the triangle of maximum area that can be inscribed in a
given circle is an equilateral triangle. An ope it box is to be made from a
rectangular piece of sheet metal 12 ems * 18 ifinas, by culling out equal
squares from each comer and folding up the sides. Find the dimensions of
the box of larges l volume l.hiti can be made in this manner. An open tank is
to be constructed with a square base and vertical sides to hold a given
quantity of water. Find the ratio of it* depth to the width so that the cost of
lining the Umk with lead is least, A corridor of width b runs perpendicular
to u passageway of width «. Find the longest beam which ran foe moved in
a horizontal plane along the passageway into the corridor 9 One comer of a
rectangular sheet of paper of width a is folded so as to reach the opposite
edge of the sheet. Find the minimum lengt h of the crease. Show that the
height of dosed cylinder of given volume and leant surface is equal to Its
diameter. IB. Prove that h conical vessel of a given storage capacity
requires the least material when its height is 42 Umm the radius of the base,
(Wanmgal, 1996) 19- Show that the semi-vertical angle of a cone of
maximum volume and given slant height is tun 1 42 . *Mh The shape of a
hole bored by b drill is. cone surmounting a cylinder. If the cylinder be of
height h and nidi us r and the semi -vertical angle of the cone be cr where
tan a = h/rt ^how that for a total fixed deplh H of the hole, the volume
removed is maximum if ft V7>. {Raipur, 2005 ) 21, A cylinder is inscribed
in a cone of height h _ if the volume of the cylinder is maximum, show that
its height is hfd 22. Show that the volume of the biggest right circular cone
that can be i risen bod i n a sphere of given radi us is 8/27 tunes that of the
sphere. 22. A given quantity of metal is to be cast into a half-cylinder with a
rectangular base and semi -circular ends, Slow that in order that Lhe total
surface area may be a minimum* the ratio of the length off the cylinder Lo
the diameter of its semi -circular ends is tc/(k 4 2 ). 2 L A person bein^ in a
boat a miles from the nearest point of Lhe teach* wishes to reach as quickly
as possible a point b miles from LhaL point along the shore. The ratio of his
rate off walking to hi* rate of rowing is see a. Prove that he should hind at a
distance b - a cot « from the place to ho reached, 25 , The cost per hour of
propelling a steamer is proportional to the cube of her speed through water.
Find the relative speed at which the steamer should be run against a current
of 5 km per hour to make a given trip at the least cost
Differential Calculus & Its Appucations 183 4.16 ASYMPTOTES
(1) Def. An asymptote of a curve is a straight line at a finite distance from
the origin, to which a tangent to the curve tends Inclined asymptotes. Let
the equation of the curve be of the form xh^niy/x) + x*1-1 (y/x) + x* ~ 2$B
_2(y/x) + ... - 0 ...(1) where ~ functions by Taylor’s series, x" + —-j + ... ^ +
xn 1 1(™) + ^ ¥„ - yitn) + c zTs c or x **i|in(m) + x” " 1 + n (m) - 0 ...(4)
and c 'n (m) + ^ L (m) = 0 ...15) If the roots of (4) he mv m2. ... mn, then
the corresponding values of c {i.e. clf c2, . cn) are given by (5). Hence the
asymptotes are y = m1x + Cj,y = m2x + c; ,y = mnx + c„.
1 04 Higher Engineering Mathematics Oh#, If r'4) givos Iwt*
equal values of m, then the rorresponding values of c cannot tx* found from
(5L Thrn i is determined hy etiu&tiug tu ssero the ctwfficient ofV! 2 i,e.*
from ~ 3 _ 0 3 - 12m2 - 0 when m~l,~ ^ form when m = - t . Thus (when m
= - -b) c is to be obtained from c2 — 4"3 ini ) + c 4'^ (m 1 + 4j (m ) = 0 c2
or — (- 24m) 4- c . 0 + (- I 4- rn) = 0 2 Putting m = - 1/2, 6c2 - 3/2 = 0 w
hence c = ± 1/2. Hence the asymptotes are y = jc, y = - ^ x + ^ , y - - j x - \ .
(tii) Putting x = 1 andy = m in the third degree terms, 43 («r ) = (1 + m)3.
4.i (m ) = 0 gives (m + 1 )s = 0 whence m = — 1, — 1, — 1. Similarly,
4z(pl^ =2(1+ m)2, 0j (m) = — 1 - 9m,
Differential Calculus 6 Its Applications 185 tS 2 77yV# . ** U -
y)- - tx2 + y*). - 0 7. b +y)* (x + 2v + 2) tx + Sly - 2) 8. Show that the
asymptotes of the curves x2?2 - ra2 U“ + y?) farm a square of £?de 2u 9.
Find tJhe asymffj^tes of the? curve xS" -xy2 + xy ■+ y2 + * -y = Oand
show dial they cut the curve aâin in three points which lie an the line x = 0.
(KWii&sfo/oi. 200$) Find the asymptote of the following curves : l IX r = o
tan G. fffd/i/aA!h S) Itr-fl (sec 8 + tan 12, r sin B = 2 ®0* SCfrP 5) IS* r sin
n 0 = a. (O&ntariiti* 2002 } aLP.T,U.t200n £ ifr «■ rr nu, 2006 )
(Rajasthan* 2QQH) 4.17 (1) CURVE TRACING In many practical
applications, a knowledge about the shapes of given equations is desirable.
On drawing a sketch of the given equation, we can easily study the
behaviour of the curve as regards its symmetry asymptotes, t he number of
branches passing through a point etc. A point through which two branches
of a curve pass is called a. double point. At such a point. P, the curve has
two tangents, one for each branch. 2f the tangents are real and distinct, the
double point is called ti node [Fig. 4.22(a)). If the tangents arc real and
comer dent, the double point is called a cusp [Fig. 4.22 (Ml. If the tangents
are imaginary, the double point is called a conjugate point (or an isolated
point. ). Such a point cannot be shown in the figure. (2) Procedure for
tracing cartesian curves. t. Symmetry* See if the curve is symmetrical about
any tine. (i)A curve is symmetrical about the x-axis, if only even powers of
y occur in its equation. ( e.g y2 = 4ax is symmetrical about jr-axis). Nr.
4.22(0) Fl«. 4.22(b)
186 Higher Engineering Mathematics (it) A curve is symmetrical
about the y-axis, if only even powers of x occur in its equation. ( e.g ,, x7 =
4 ay is symmetrical about y-axis). (Hi) A curve is symmetrical about the
liney - x, if on interchanging x and 3 its equation remains unchanged,
(e.g.'X1 +y7 = 3axy is symmetrical about the line y = x). 2. Origin- (i) See
if the curve passes through the origin. (A curve passes through the origin if
there is no constant term in its equation). (ii ) If it does, find the equation of
the tangents thereat, by equating to zero the lowest degree terms. (in) If the
origin is a double point , find whether the origin is a node, rusp nr conjugate
point 3. Asymptotes, (t) See if the curve has any asymptote parallel, to the.
axes (p. 183). (it) Then find the inclined asymptotes, if need be. (p. 183). 4.
Points. 2a, yz is again -ve, so that no portion of the curve lies to the right of
the line 3x = 2a. Hence, the shape of the curve is as shown in Fig. 4.23.
This curve is known as Cissoid . Example 4.89. Trace the curve y1 (a x) =
xs(a + x> (V.T.U., 2010 ; B.P.T.U., 2005) Solution, (i) Symmetry : The curve
is symmetrical about the x-axis. (ii) Origin : The curve passes through the
origin and the tangents at the origin are y7 = x7, Le. y = x and y = —x. ,\
Origin is a node. (Hi ) Asymptotes : The curve has an asymptote x = a (to)
Points : (a ) When x = 0, y = 0 ; when y = 0, x = 0 or - a. /. The curve
crosses the axes at (0, 0) and ( - a, 0). We havey = Fig. 4.24 r = a X When x
> a or < — a, y is imaginary. No portion of the curve lies to the right of the
line x = a or to the loft of the line x — - a. Hence the shape of the curve is
as shown in Fig. 4.24. This curve is knowrn as Strophoid. Example 4-70,
Trace the curve y = x2/(l- x3). Solution, (f } Symmetry : The curve is
symmetrical about y-axis. (ii) Origin : It passes through the origin and the
tangent at the origin isy = 0 (r.e.T x-axis).
Differential Calculus & Its AppuCatioms 187 (Hi) Asymptotes :
The asymptotes are given by 1 — x2 = 0 or x = + 1 and y *“1fie) Points :
fa) The curve crosses the axes at the origin only, (h ) When x —> 1 from
left.y — > ™ When x — » 1 from right y — » - 1 , y is — ve Hence the
curve is as shown in Fig. 4.25. Example 4.71. Trace the curve aPy2 = jc^cr -
Xs). (P. T. f/„ 2009 ; V. T. U., 2008 S > Solution, (i) Symmetry. The curve is
symmetrical abou t x- ax is , y- axi s and origin. Hi) Origin, The curve
passes through the origin and the tangents at the origin are (iay2 = a%2
i.e.,y - ± x. (iii) Asymptotes. The curve has no asymptote. (iu) Points, (a)
The curve cuts x-axis (y = 0) at x = 0, ± a. and cuts y-axis (x - 0.1 at y - 0
i.e., (0, 0) only. ff>) dy - ~ 2r > dx aly at (a, 0) Fig. 4.26 i.e., tangent to the
curve at (a, 0) is parallel toy-axis. Similarly the tangent at (— a, 0) is
parallel to y-axis. (c) We have y = — Ja2 - xJ which is real for x2 < a2 i.e., -
u < x < a. a ’ »*. The curve lies between x = a and x — — a Ho nee the
shape of the curve is as shown is Fig. 4.26. Example 4.72. Truce the citrus y
= x3 - 12x -16. (P.T.U., 2008 ) Solution, (i) Symmetry. The curve has no
symmetry. (ii) Origin. It doesn’t pass through the origin. (Hi) Asymptotes :
The curve has no asymptote, (iu) Points, (a) The curve cuts x-axis (y = Q) at
{- 2, 0), (4, 0) and cuts y-axis (x = 0) at (0, — 16). (6) ^ =3x2- 12 ax dy At
(- 2, 0). = 0 i.e, , tangent is parallel to x-axis at f— 2, 0). dy At <4, 0), -j- =
36 i.e. , tan 6 = 36 i.e. , tangent makes an acute ax angle tan-1 36 with x-
axis at (4, 0). Fig. 4.27 Also & = 0 at 3.x2 - 12 = 0 or x = ± 2 i.e. , tangent is
also parallel to x-axis at (2, — 32), dx {c)y -* “ as x — * « and y — » — ™
as x -» — " ; y is + m for x > A and y is — ve for x < 4. Hence the shape of
the curve is as shown in Fig. 4.27. (J.N.T.O., 2008) Example 4.73. Trace the
curve flay3 = (x - 2a) fx — ho)2 Solution, (i) Symmetry. The curve is
symmetrical about the x-axis, («) Origin , The curve does’nt pass through
the origin. ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
188 Higher Engine ewe Mathematics (ill) Asymptotes. It has no
asymptotes, (iu) Points, in) The curve cuts the x-axis {y = 0) at.x = 2fi , and
x - 5a. ie.% at A (2u, 0) and B(5a , 0). It cuts they-axis he - 0) at y2 - - 50
a2! 9f i.e+fy is imaginary. So the curve doesn’t cut they-axis. (b) y = — —
— i.e*ty is imaginary forx < 2a. So the curve exists only for x > 2a, 3ya
fc)& = ± X~3a dx 2-Ja yj( jc - 2a) A1 A (2a, 0), t/,x tangent is parallel toy-
axis. At B (5a, 0), -- = ± -i? i.e., there are two distinct tangents. dx X Sn
there is a node at B (5a, 0). Hence the shape of the curve is as shown in Fig.
4.28. or Example 4.74. Trace the curve x3 + y3 - 3axy So tf in G cos 0
(Kurukshetru, 2005 ; U.P.T.U., 2003 ) s in 3 0 + cos1 0 Solution. Origin : It
passes through the origin and tangents at the origin are xy - 0, t.e., x = 0,y -
0 Origin is a node. (Hi) Asymptotes : (a) It has no asymptote parallel to the
axes. (hi Putting y = m and jc - 1 in the third degree terms, 2 (at) _ _ ( -
3am _ a 4>a(m) \ 3 f„2 ) m = - a, when m = — 1. \ = I is an asymoptote. - a
— a (in) Points : (a) It meets the axes at the origin only. (6) When y = x, 2xy
= 3ox2, Le. x = 0 or ‘Aai 2. i.e., the curve crosses the line y = x at (3a/2,
3u/2>. Hence lhe shape of the curve is as shown in Fig. 4,29, This curve is
known as Folium of Descartes, Example 4,75. Trace the curve xJ + y3 =
Sax2. Solution, (i) Symmetry1 ; The curve has no symmetry. f*0 Origin :
The curve passes through the origin and Lhe tangents at the origin are x =
0 and jc = 0. .*■ The origin is a cusp. (m) Asymptotes : (u) The curve has
no asymptote parallel to the axes, (h) Putting x = l,y as m in the third
degree terms, we get 1 = m3 + 1 ; ;, 03(m ) - 0, gives m = — 1. -3a 'Am2 =
a for m - 1. Fig. 4.30 Thus x + y = a is lhe only asymptote. The curve lies
above the asymptote whence is positive and large and it lies below the
asymptote when x is negative.
Deferential Calculus & Its Applications 169 (iu) Points - (a) The
curve crosses the axes at O (0* 0) and Cilia, 0). It crosses the asymptote at
Afn/3, 2a/3), (ft) Since y2 dyidx - x(2a - xh dyfdx = 0 for x - 2a. (c) Nowy
= \x2(3a~x)}y3. When 0 < x < 3a, y is positive. As x increases from 0T y
also increases till x “ 2a where Lho tangent is parallel to the x-axis. Asa
increases from 2a to 3a, y constantly decreases to zero* When x > 3 c* y is
negative. When a < 0,y is positive and constantly increases as a varies from
0 to Combining all these facts we see that the shape of the curve is as
shown in Fig. 4,30. Example 4*76. Trace the curve y2 lx - a) = x2(x + a).
Solution, (i) Symmetry : The curve is symmetrical about the A-axis, Hi)
Origin : The curve passes through the origin and the tangents at the origin
arey2 = - x2 Le^y = ± ix, which are imaginary Lines. /. The origin is an
isolated point. (Hi) Asymptotes : (a) x = a is the only asymptote parallel to
they -axis. (ft ) Putting x = 1 andy - m in the third degree terms, we get (m )
= m2- 1* (m) - 0 gives m - ± 1 ,,= - a(rn2 + 1) 2m — ± a for /it - t 1. Thus
the other two asymptotes are y = x + n ; y - — x - a. (iv) Points : (a) The
curve crosses the axes at (- a, 0) and (0, 0). It crosses the asymptotes y - x +
a and y = — a; - a at (- a, 0), When x < a and x > - at y is imaginary. no
portion of the curve lies between the lines x = a and x = - a. Thus the
vertical asymptote must be approached from the right. W*-t- **-°* + °* (ix
(X afrUx + a)in dyidx - 0, when x - 1 (1 + )a = 1.6a approx [rejecting the
value 1(1 - 4§)u which lies between - a and a| and dylilx — » », when x —
± a. Thus the tangent is parallel to the x-axis at x = 1.6a and perpendicular
to the x-axis at x = ± u. Hence the shape of the curve is as shown in Fig.
4.31. 4*17 (3) PROCEDURE FOR TRACING CURVES IN
PARAMETRIC FORM ; x =J{t[ and y = 1. Symmetry. See if the curve has
any symmetry. (i) A curve is symmetrical about the x-nxts, if on replacing t
by - 1, f(t) remains unchanged and tft) changes to - tft). (it) A came is
symmetrical about the y -axis if on replacing t by - t. fit) changes to - f(t)
and q \(t) remains unchanged. ini) A curve is symmetrical in the opposite
quad ran ts, if on replacing t by - t, both fit) and (W remains unchanged.
190 Higher Engin£ER)wg Mathematics 2. Limits. Find the
greatest and least values of x and y so as to determ ine the strips, parallel to
the axes, within or outside which the curve lies. 3. Points, (a) Determine the
points where the curve crosses the axes. The points of intersection of the
curve with the x-axis given by the roots of = 0. while those with the y-axis
are given by the roots of ft) - 0. ih ) Gitnng t a series of value, plot the
corresponding values nfx andy, noting whether x and y increase or decrease
for the intermediates values of t. For this purpose, we consider the sign of
dxfdt and dy!dt for the different values of t . (e) Determine the points where
the tangent is parallel or perpendicular to the xâxis, (i.e., where dy/dx = 0
nr — > «■). (d) When x and y are periodic functions oft with a common
period, we need to study the curve only for one period, because the other
values of t will repeat the same curve over and over again. Ohs. Sometimes
it is convenient to eliminate t between the given equations and uw the
resulting cartesian equation to trace the curve. Example 4.77. Trace the
curve, x = u cos3 t, y = a sin3 1 or x~ 13 + y2/-? - a2*3, ( P.T.Ll , 2009 S ;
U.P.T.U., 2005 ; V.T.U,, 2003 > Solution, it) Symmetry. The curve is
symmetrical about the x-axis. \ v On changing t to- 1, x remains unchanged
buty changed to -y] (ii) Limits. v | x | «, when t = n/2. The following table
gives the corresponding values of t, X, y and dy/dx. Fig. 4,32 As t increases
X ■X dy / dx varies Portion traced from (3 to n/2 +ve and decrease from a
to 0 +ve and increase from 0 to a from 0 to «» A to B from fdZ to it + ve
and increases numerically from 0 to - a +va and decreases from a to 0 from
M to 1) B toC As f increases from n to 2jt, wc get the reflection of the curve
ABC in the x-axis. The values of t > 2n give no new points. Hence the
shape of the curve is as shown in Fig. 4.32 and is known as Aslroirf.
Example 4,7h. Trace the curve x = a (9 + sin 9), y a (l + cos 0). (J.N.T.U.,
2009 S) Solution. C/J Symmetry. The curve is symmetrical about the y-axis.
t v On changing B to - 6, x changes to - x and y remains unchanged! (ii)
Limits. The greatest value ofy is 2a and the least value is zero. Hence the
curve lies entirely between the lines y =r 2a andy - 0. (iii) Points. We have
($Y //v //v -777 = a(l + cos 0), -j- = a sin 0 and -j- = - tan 0/2. aft dx y c^fe =
o> as = 2r> \ * / V/ X' B'tO = -id o 23(0 = it) X Fig. 4.33
Deferential Calculus & Its Applications 191 dy/dx = 0 when 0 = 0
or 2n and dy/dx — > “3 when B = ir. The following table gives the
corresponding values ofG, x7y and dy dx : As 0 increasps X y dy/dx varies
Portion l ratted from 0 tu rt increases from decreases from from 0 to « A to
B 0 to an. 2a 1&0 from n to 2n iiicrciisus from increases from from » to 0 P
U>C OK to 2rt7T f) to 2o As & decreases from 0 to - 2nt we get the
reflection of the curve ABC in thejvaxis. The curve consists of congruent
arches extending to infinity in both the directions of the jc-axis in the
intervals occur in its equation, (i.e., it remains unchanged when 0 is
changed to 7t- 0) e.g. ,r-a sin 30 is symmetrical about OY. (Hi) A curve is
symmetrical about the pole , if only even powers of r occur in the. equation
(i.e.., it remains unchanged when r is changed to — r) eg., r2 = a2 cos 20 is
symmetrical about the pole. 2. Limits. See if r and 6 are confined between
certain limits. (i) Determine the numerically greatest value of r, so as to
notice whether the curve lies uhthin a circle or not e.g., r- a sin 30 lies
wholly within the circle r = a. a ) (Hi) Asymptotes. It has no asym ptotes.
(fid Points, (a) tan $ = r ^ tan 30 dr 3o cos 30 3 Fig. 4.3$
192 Higher Engineering Mathematics (f> = 0, when 0=0, Jt/3,
...... leaves (loops) when n is even. Example 4.80. Truce the curve r = a sin
26, (Four Leaved Rose ) {V.T.U., 20091 Solution, ii) Symmetry. The curve
is symmetrical about the line through the po)e,X to the initial line. (ft)
Limits : The curve lies wholly within the circle r = a (til) Points : (a ) As G
increases from * jt 4^2 it 3n 2 t0 T (v r is never > a) r varies from Loop 0 to
G no : 1P a to 0 0 to - a no : 2W -a tot) etc, clean x rr — to 4 2 16) tan Q —
r ^ tan 20 ; ctr z = 0, when 0 = 0, — , tt, 3 ^ , 2n ... 2 ^ ~ ,when0 = 2 4 4 4 4
Hence, the shape of the curve is as shown in Fig. 4.36. Example 4.81. Trace
the. curve r* = a'J cos 26. (V.T. U.t 2007 ; Kttrukshetm, 2000 ; fi.P.T.V..
2005) Solution. = f + w i|> = 0, when 0 = - n/4 ; t|> - n/2 when 0 = 0.
Thus, the tangent at O is 0 = - ?r/4 and the tangent at A is 1 to the intial
line.
DieiffefffcMTiAL Calculus & Its Applications 193 (6) The
variations of r and 0 are given below : As 0 norites from r varies from
Portion traced 0 to re/4 a to 0 ABO 3ji/4 to a 0 to u OC'D As 0 increase
from n to 2k, we get the reflection of the arc ABOCD in the initial line.
Hence the shape of the curve is as shown in Fig. 4.37. This curve is known
as Lem niscate of Bernoulli. Example 4*812, Trace the curve r - a + h cos 0
\fimacon) Solution, (i) Symmetry. It is symmetrical about the initial line.
(it) Limits ; The curve wholly lies within the circle r = a + h ( v r is never >
a + b) (Hi) Points ; (a) when a > 6, As 0 increases from 0 to n/2 ; r decreases
from a + b to a As 0 increases from n/2 to a ; r decreases from □ to a - b The
.shape of the curve is as shown in Fig. 4.38 ft), (p) when a < b. As 0
increases from 0 to n/2 ; r decreases from a + b to a As 0 increases from n/2
to « ; r decreases from a to 0 As 0 increases from a to it ; r decreases from 0
to u - £> Fig. 4.3B when ix - cos 1 In this case, the curve consists of two
parts, one of which forms a loop within the other and the shape is as shown
in Fig. 4.38 (ii). Example 4.83. Trace the curve rfi - a. (Spiral) Solution, (i)
Symmetry. There is no symmetry. (ii) Limits : There are no limits to the
values of r. The curve does not pass through the pole for r does not become
zero for any real value of 0. (Hi) Asymptotes : — - — ~ flB) r a A01 = 0 for
6 = 0 ; f (0) = 1/u, HO) = l/o Asymptote is r. sin (0 — 0) = l//'(0) i.e., y = r
sin 0 = a is an asymptote. Uo) Points : As 0 increases from 0 to «>, r to
positive and decreases from « to 0. Hence the space of the curve is as
shown in Fig. 4.39. Example 4.84. Truce the curve x f + jp = Scurfy3.
Solution, [£} Symmetry. The curve is symmetrical about the line y - x . v
On interchanging* and y, it remains unchanged.] (ti) Origin ; It passes
through the origin and the tangents at the origin are given by X2 y2 - 0, i.e.
t x — 0, x — 0 ; y — 0, y « 0. Hence the curve has both node and the cusp
at the origin. (Hi) Asymptotes : (a) It has no asymptotes parallel to the axes.
(6) Puttings: = l.y = m in the fifth degree terms, we get (m ) = 1 + m5. ij>&
(m) = 0 gives m = — 1. Fig. 4.40
194 HlGher Engineering Mathematics 4>.j (ffl J - K L- — 5 am -

a fur m - - 1. '3=ial«-jr> 6. .vV = a2 (y*- x'J) 7. x - u <0 - ein 8), y - a (1 -
cos 6) (0 < 0 < 2ji) US. V.T.lf. 2008 ; UJP.T.U., 2008 : Rajasthan, 2005) 3. =
iKtinthsi fi/rn. 2009 .S V.T.U., 2004 > 6. a o cos3 9, y = b sin3 9 ft. x - C«
cos t 4 log t an if 2), _v = a sin (. 9. r - a ccrEt 29 10. r = a cos SO 11. r - n
(1 - cos B) 12. r = 2 + 3 cys 9 13. cro 29 = a2. (S.V 7*. U„ 2009) lllint.
(.'hanging to Cartesian form a2 — ya - a1 This is a rectangular hyperbola
with asymptotes x + y = 0 and * v = 0| 4.18 OBJECTIVE TYPES OF
QUESTIONS PROBLEMS 4.16 Select the correct answer or fill up the
blanks in each of the fallowing questions : 1* The radius of curvature of the
eaten*]? y ~ r cosh xfc at the point when; i l crosses the .v-nxis is ...... 2.
The envelope of the family of straight lines y - mx + am2, is ...... 4. The
value of Lt _J°P 5‘n jg ± ^n/2 In72 xf (»] zero (6 J 1/2 (c) - 1/2 (tf> - 2.
(V.T.IL2010) 5. Taylor's expansion of the function fix) — — - — is 1 4 X2
Differ ent LAi Calculus & Its Applications 195 (a) ^ I 1)M x2*1
for - 1 < x 
(bHVeY M (tJJ1/p (tf) 1fL The percentage error in cum putlog the area of
an ellipse when an error of 1 per cent is made io measuring the major and
minor axes is (a) 0,2% (6)2*fc ie)G,02%. 9, The length of subtangent of the
rectangular hyperbola x2 -y2 - a1 a t t he point (ft, J2a ) is (a) V2 a (6)2o (c)
W) 2a V5 10, The length of subnormal to the curve y = x2 at (2f 8) is (a)
2/0 (6)32 (c)90 kf>64, J I, If the normal to the curve y2 - Sx - 1 at the point
( 1, - 2^ is of the form ax — 5y + b = 0+ then u and b are (a) 4P 14 (b) 4, -
14 JC + y + a=0 id) x -.y - a = 0. 14. Iff be the angle between the tangent
and radios vector at any point on the curve r = yr(fi)> then sin $ equals to
(a) $ (e)r^. d> ds ds 15, Envelope of the family of linos X - my 4-1 im is *,*
16, The chord of curvature parallr] to y-axis for the curve y = a log sec xfa
is .... 17* sinh x = ... x + ... x3 + *«* IB, The nth derivative nf (ros x cus 2x
Cos Xx) = . 10. If a* + y3 - &lvv = 0, then at (Sfc/2p 3cs/2) 5S0- When the
tangent at a point on a curve is parallel to .t-axis, then the curvature at that
point \s same a,s the second derivative at that point. < True or Fn hi ) 21, Ifx
= at2ty = 2a/, / being the parameter, then xy ri^y/rfx2 = . . 22. The radi us of
curvature for the parabola x =
196 Higher Engineering Mathematics f Jy Y 29, I I v- = I* U), r

polynomial of degree 3* then vL' — ^ I equals dx I *f ) fa) F" far) + F fed
(fcj r tx) t F" U) CO Bx) F" (x). 30. The envelope of the family of straight
line — coa B + 7 sin 0 = 1 tr 0 3L Curvature of a Straight line is {A 3 » fi?)
zero {£ 7 Both (A) and (B) UJ) None of these 32. The value of V of the
Cauchy's Menu value theorem for jflS) - c and gf.vi - in |2+ .'i| te ......... 33.
If the equation of a curve remains unchanged when .1 andv are
interchanged* then the curve is symmetrical about . . - ■ ■ j in ( 1 ' p f *•' i •
•* # 34. For the curve y? (1 + xV = x'2 ( 1 - xK the origin is a . f node/cusp/
conjugate point J. 35. The number of loops of r = a shi 20 ore . and these of
r =0 cos 30 are SB, Tangents at the origin for the curve t x 2 + y z) + a 2 f
x1— y2} = b are ..r* . 37, The asymptote to the curve y:r (-1 - ,x 1 = x3 is .
. . SB, The points of in flexion of the curve ya = U - a)2 (*— M lie on the
line Sr + a = .+* . . ■■ ■ r « , *» 39. The curve r ^ ufi I + cos 0) intersects
orthogonally with the curve lA) r = hfi I — cos 03 (B)r = 6/(1 + sin D) (C) r
^ Ml + sin2 b) ID) r = 6 A 1 +; cos* &L [V.T.t/., 40- The region where the
curve r - a sin 0 dues not lie is . 41. If /he) is nvotinuuus in I he closed
ifllervul |nf 6 L differentiable in fop b) and /\a ) - f(bh I hen there exisj^ .it
lea si line value c of* in b*. 6} such that f (c) is equal to (A) 1 IB) — 1
(G),2 (fi) Cl ■ <1£T„U. 2«»> 42- if two curves intersect orthogonally in
cartesian form, then the angle between the stama two curves in polar farm is
(A ) n/4 (B). Zero [O 1 radian ( D ) None of these. , / £ 43- If the angle
between the radios vector and Lhe tangent is constant* then the curve is* (A
1 r - n cos 0 ( «) ra = r/£ cos3 0 [Cl r = ac^ f V Y1, f ?. f 2009 1
Partial Differentiation and Its Applications j 1. functions of two or
more variables. 2. Partial derivatives, 3. Which variable is to be treated as
constant, | I 4, Homogeneous functions— Euler's theorem. 5, Total
derivative— Diff. of implicit functions. 6. Change of j variables, 7.
Jacobians. 8. Geometrical interpretation— Tangenl plane and normal to a
surface. 9, Taylor’s theorem for functions of two variables. 1 0. Errors and
approximations; Total differential. 11 . Maxima and minima l of functions
of two variables, 12. Lagrange’s method of undetermined multipliers. 13,
Differentiation under the ' 1^ integral sign— Leibnitz Rule. 14. Objective
Type of Questions. EW1 (1) FUNCTIONS OF TWO OR MORE
VARIABLES _ We often come across quantities which depend on two or
more variables. For example, the area of a rectangle of length a and breadth
v is given by A = .vy, Fora given pair of values of a andy,A has a definite
value. Similarly, the volume of a parallelepiped (= xyh) depends on the
three variables x(= Length), y(= breadth) and A( -height). Def. A symbol z
which has a definite value fur every pair of values of x and y is called a
function of two independent variables x and y and wc write z - fix, y) or
(J/a, y). We may interpret (x, y) as the coordinates of a point in the AY-planc
and z as the height of the surface z - f{x, y). We have come across several
examples of such surfaces in Chapter 4. The set R of points (A,.y) such that
any two points Pl and P? of R can lie so joined that any arc P YP2 wholly
lies in /?, is called as region in theXY-plane. A region is said to be a closed
region if it includes all the points of its toundary, otherwise it is called an
open region. Aset of points lying within a circle having centre at (a, h) and
radius 5 > 0, is said to be neighbourhood of (a, b) in the circular region R :
(x - a)a + {y - bfi < Bf When z is a function of three or more variables a, y,
t, .... we represent the relation by writing z fix,y, t, For such functions, no
geometrical representation is possible, However, the concepts of a region
and neighbourhood can easily be extended to functions of three or more
variables. <21 lam its. The function fix, y) is said to tend to the limit l as .r
— > a and y — > b if and only if the limit I is independent of the fxith
followed by the point (x, y) as x — ► n and y — ► 6 and we write Lt
f(x,y)=l J-Wf y-*l i In terms of a circular neighbourhood, we have the
follow! ng definition of the limit ; The function f (x, y) defined in a region
R, is said to tend to the limit l as x -> a and y — * h if and only if
corresponding to it positive number £, there exists another positive number
8 such that \ f (.r, y) - l \ < £ for 0
198 Engineering Mathematics If a function is continuous at all
points of a region, then it is said to be continuous in that region. A function
which is not continuous at a point is said to be discontinuous at that point. «
Mis. Usually, the limit in the same irrespective of the path along which the
point (x, yj approaches frt, />.) and U j Lt A*,.V)U U j LI /Xk.y)j xâ ly-t 6
J >^.6 [r-*o J Hut it is not always so, as the following examples show . (
'^T>:J aJS Or, y) ■-> (0, 0) along the liney : mx - Ll - — — = ^ — —
which is different for lines with different slopes. *■ . > 0 x + ttix l + (» Also
Lt r u (,-v) ]- Lt [-) *-io| [y -*0 lx + y) ■> As {x, y) is made to approach 50,
0) along different paths, fix, ,y) approaches different limits, Hence the two
repeated limits are not equal and /"U, y) is discontinuous at the origin. Also
the function is not. defined at (0, 0) since fix, y) = 0/51 for x = 0, y — 0. (4)
As in the cose of functions of one variable, the following results hold ; I. If
Lt fix , y) = f and Lt glx, y) = m. X -► H y -+6 x — y-*b then li) If Lt [fix,
y) ± g lx, y)) = t ± m Hi) Lt [f(x,y) ■ glx, y)] = f - m X -^*(| y -*b x a y^b
HU) Lt \flx,y)fglx,y)\ =H™ y b (m * 0) II. Iff{x,y),g lx,y) are continuous at
(a, b) then so also are the functions f lx, .y) ± g lx, y ), fix, y) . g (jt, y) and
fix, yVglx, y) provided g lx, y) * 0 in the last case. PROBLEMS 5.1
Evaluate the following limits ; I. Lt 2*y xy * -» l X2 + ya + 1 y^2 2, Lt n rp
t -* o x + y y-ti> 3. Lt xy + 1 *-*“ ** + 2y2 y -* 2 ■i. Ll xly - 1) r.,i y0 Also
show that the function is discoiintinuous at the origin, fi. Show that the
function fix , y ) — x2 + 2y, lx. y) ^ li, 2) 3fx,y) = 51, 2) =0 is
discontinuous at(l, 2). 7. Investigate the continuity of the function rixtyi=xy/
Partial DiTfliREftTT avion aml» Its Aph.iummws 199 TIi us dz _
, , f(x + Sx,y)-f(xty) dx Jto Ex Similarly, the derivative of z with respect toy,
keeping .v as constant, is called the partial derivative of z with respect, to y
and is denoted by one of the symbols. dz df Thus ^ = Lt f(x, y + 6y) - f(x, y)
c >>'
Similarly, and dau a f a. * -i x] _ , 1 1 . 2 y2 x -j a* l y J i + (xfyr y
x2 + y x + j - 2x tan"1 y/x —y dx ~ = t^-| 2x tan" 1 — - y 1 = 4- — —, 7- .
Hence the result. dx ciy l x 1 Higher Engineering Mathematics 2 22 - -y
dydx 2 'i x +y Example 5-3- If 2 - f(x + cl.) + ' fx — cf) -^-ix -ct) = f* (x +
ct) + ' (x -cf) dx dx dx and i-f. =r(x + ct) + $"{x-ct) dx4 -0) Again ^ = f' (x +
ct) ^ (x + ct) + ({>' {x - cf) (x — ct) = cf' (x -cf) — ctf (x - ct) and i2 ^-4 =
c2f” (x + cf) + c 2 if' (x - ct) = c2\f'ix + ct) + (x - ct )1 ...(if) dt4 From (£)
and (it ), it Follows that ^-4 = r2 ^-4 dr dx' Ohs. This is an important partial
differential equation, known as uwinr cquntum <>£) =
201 Partial Dif ferentiation and Its Applications Solution. We
have ^ 1 (x2 + y2 + z2^2 . 2* = - x(xz + v2 + z2Ym and Similarly, Hence ^
= _ 1! 1 . (x2 + y2 + z2) + jr(~ 3/2) (x2 + y2 + . 2x) fix* - - (x2 + y2 +
22)-5/2 [jcs + vz + z2 — 3.t21 = (x2 4- y2 + zz}~5/2 (2x2 — y2 - z1) 2" g
= (x2 4- y2 + a2)-6'2 I- 12 + 2v2 - z2) and = ( x 2 + v2 + a2)- 5/2 l~x2 - y*
+■ 2zE) dy dz" + ^ + ~ =(i2+j-2+z2TM!.(0) = 0. ZL l.*ftt* dy£ a?* Oba. A
fanctwn c satisfying the Laplace equation is aedd to be a harmonic function.
Example 5.6. If it -Jog (x3 + yT + z'3 - 3xyz), shew that \ ~ + -fL + ■ u = -9
,2 * ay m (X- + y + ;) < P.T. tJ., 20 w ; Anna , 2009 ; Bhopal, 2008 .
UJ>.TM„ 2000) Solution. We have — = 3x2 - 3yz du 3 y1 - 3zx die 3z2
-3xy Now d* x3 + y3 4 z3 - 3xyz ^ X3 + y3 4- z3 - 3xyz dz + y3 + z3 -
3xyz du du du _ 3( x2 + yl + z_ - xy - yz - zx) Sjf dy d? jc3 +• y 3 + z3 — 3
xyz 3ix2 + y2 + z2 - xy - yz - zx) (x + y + z) (x + y + z -xy - yz - zx) x ■¥ y
+ z (V.T.U.. 2009) (1 + i_ + ±)*u- 1 fi. + ± + A] du du) Idx dv a?J 1 v dx dy
l ebr dy + 5z) 9 ( x + y + zf (x + y + zf fx + y + zf (x + y + z) or or v£
Example 6.7. If —? — + - J, prove that «r *(sr *®y I a ' 4- it b + h r' + a ,a /
^ >3 _+vi i + z*L] ydy* dz) Solution. We have x2 (a2 + it)"1 + y2 {b2 +
n)~l + z2 (r2 + u)"] = 1 Differentiating (t) partially w.r.t. x, we get 2x(£ia 2x
+ i*)-' - x2 (a2 + u)~z -y2 f h2 +- u)~2 — ~z2 ox av z2(c2 + ti)-2 i*- =0 (>Z
2 du a 2 + u |{o2 + u)2 (h* + u)2 ( c 2 + u)2 j where v = — - — (a2 + u)u
(aa + «)2 (b2+uf tf + uf Similarly differentiating (t) partially w.r.t. y, we get
2 y _\ x2 , y2 . z2 \du.„ du _ 2v ±y _ I jc . y . g L or _ _ h2 + II 1 1«2 + uf
lb2 + u)2 (c2 + « I2 j ^ dy r/)2 ijVpi (£/.AT.[;..2W3l ...(E)
202 HjGHER EnGIMEERIMS MATHEMATICS Similarly,

differentiating f i ) partially w.rt* we get 2z (ft2 + u) i2 J-* 1(<.2 du=""
or="" u="" ib2="" uf="" also="" .=""> (ft2 + u)t/ ( c 2 + u)f *■ .+^1_+. *s
”[(a3+ii) (ft2 + u) (c2 + u) | Hence the equality of (it) and (Hi) proves the
result. 4 v Example 5,8. If u = xs, show that h?u 3*u dx^dy dxdydx IBy (- 1
(y log x + 1)1 ffor3dy bx Again — = yxv ~ 1 and lt!i. - 1 . x^1 + y f— xy
logxl = xy~1(l +y logx) ax (5y f(ax - by), prove that ft = 2abz. Ox ty 4.
Given u - e "* 0 cos (r si n B), y = er 9 sin (r sin U) ; prove that - I and -r - -
I £*S Or r Or r 0& 6. If z = tan iy + ex) - (y - ox)®54, show that - 3 - ^ - .
Ox2 r)y2 6. Verify that fiy = fy, . when f is equal to (i) sin' 1 (y/x) ; (/i’l logx
tan _1 (x2 + y2). 7. It fix, y) = (1 - 2xy + y2)'1'2, show that J-| ti - x~) ^ j ^ I
= w8. Prove that ~ 4 a 0 if(i) 0 = tan-1 — (11 1 a - logy‘ i; J & - y 9. If v - T
■4fl 1 , prove that . ' ■ fe5 rtf lV.T.U.,2003) I.V.T.U.. 2010) [Mumbai, 2009)
(Rohtak, 200(i S) (Anna, 5009)
Partial Differentiation and Its Applications 203 3 10. The equation
= g — ^ ritfers to the conduction of heat along a bar without radiation, show
that if u = Ac*1 sin * dx2 (n( -gx ), where A, g, n are positive constants
theng = . I l . Find the value of n so that the equation V = r" £3 ws2 0-1)
satisfies the relation AY a av1) t i a ( . _ av) ,, &X Sr) sin 0 30 l8m 9 ae J °
12, If ir - log {e* 4- er), show that r/ - s2 = (j where r - ffiz/ijx2* s =
^s/doc^yt ( ~ 3^^/rh^13, Ifii* i+* , show that x ^ + y%- + z — =0, - - ^ da z
x a* % 14. Let r2 = jc51 + yz + ?* and V = r™, prove Lhat + V:- = m (m +
1)^’ 2 15, I f v - log (.r? */ + za), prove that ix1 + >•* + "2) fa2o . A i**vV
i£ 16. Iff =xy prove lhnt t f y =^' = v{x + ,y ^ logo). di* dy 1 ?. i f = r , show
that at * =y =z, -.3 18. If u = e'yj, find the value of _ f 12 _ Sxtfydz A ixdy
~~(x log at)-1. (Raipur, 2008) (Anna, 2005) (Bhopal, 2008) (Rajasthnn,
2008 ; Osman it: , 2003 S) 5.3 WHICH VARIABLE IS TO BE TREATED
AS CONSTANT (1> Consider the equation x = r cos 0, y - r sin 0 „,(1) To
find drfdx, we need a relation between r and a;. Such a relation will contain
one more variable 0 or y, for we can eliminate only one variable nut of four
from the relations (1). Thus the two possible relations are r-jrsec0 ,„(2) and
rz=x2+yz ,„(3) Now we can find drAV either From (2) by treating 0 as
constant or from (3) by regardingy as constant. And there is no reason to
suppose that the two values of dr/d* so found, are equal. To avoid confusion
as to which variable is regarded constant, we introduce the following :
Notation : ( dr/Dx)9 means the partial derivative of r with respect to x
keeping G constant in a relation expressing rasa function of x and 0. Thus
from (2), ( dr/dr )0 - sec 0. When no indication is given regarding the
variable to be kept constant, then according to convention (d/d.v) always
means {dfdx)y and d/dy means (d/dy)^. Similarly, d/dr means (d/dr)0 and
d/dG means (d/d0)r. (2) In thermodynamics, we come across ten variables
such as p ( pressure), i» (volume), T (temperature), W (work), (entropy) etc.
Any one of these can be expressed as a function of other two variables e.g.,
T = ftp, o), T = g(p, <>) As we shall see, these respectively give rise to the
following results : dT - ¥f-dp+ ~ dv dp ilu Ui) dT = ^fdP+ ^ dp d ...(«) Now,
dTfdp appearing in (i), has been obtained from T as function of p and u,
treating tf as constant, we write it as (r)77d/?)y. Similarly, dTidp occurring
in Hi), is written as (dTYdp)^. Example 5.0, If U = f(r) and x = r cos 0, y =
r sin 0, prove that SJ± + lJL =r(r)+ l (S. V. T. U., 2008 ; Rajaghag 2008 ; l
I.P . T. U. , 2005 ) dx‘ dy2 r
Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. We have **. = f‘ (r) .

^ and = f” r 5 3 3 Lr *- J r r =rwt Example 5.10. if x * ' "w 0 eos (V si« 61
and y - erCvS 0 sin tr sin Hi. prove that i*T = rJ0 Hence show that + rS = 0.
39* ** Solution. We have x - e'™H > «™ a sin (0 + r sin 0) ..Si) and dx _
ms H cofi 0 cog ( f. sjn 0) _ imp H g[n g (r RjR g J gjn g dr _ pjr BF ft cos
(0 + r sjn 0) —(«) Similarly, y = er ”’B ® sin (rsin 0) gives - re' TO|i ** cos
(0 + r sin 0) - Siii ) and cy _ e”(,s#sin (B + rsin B) 3r ..Aw) From (£) and
(w), **0. _ r ^ 30 dr ...(e) From (££) and (tit), ^ = ;• — 30 3r From (v).
From (of), A _ agy _ A 30dr dr 30 ebr _ 1 dy dr r 30 which gives i2_ n2. A.
= 3y , l _A dr2 j-2 ,>0 /• 3r30 2. i£+r^+r2i*.=_rlJL+^_^+riJL =0 af)2 dr ar2
rjrdfl d« dft drdB
PflHTlAt DIFFERENTIATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS 205

PROBLEMS 5.3 1, Jf x = r cos B.y = r sin &. show that (i) ~ (ii) - ^ -- r —
2. IF x* = an -1- 6*1, y2 = 5£“;f rie " ar-,,,l’(a»] t(§'] _1, * bu- pTVV* lh*‘
(s), *Mf), (I), ■ M [3*1 _ t‘ (ii m (i k'l +Tn’ LaJy UJ, ;2+m2’U \v)x u W."
/2 4. If a = r cos B,y=r sin B, prove that ur*f+4*i a*2 dj r r ' \dy) J ^,2 5- If a
few log U + p) - r where r1 - x- + yl. prove that (jfl . _ _ } _ t'fs __ __ . fe2
rV '*+.vW~ r3 6. II I/ -f(r) where r = ^/(j;2 + ~y* + *2) , show that “ +■ -h -
| = f * ir) * - f’ (r). i)jf‘ Ay* cl? r fSorifuwo, 20$3) (A/umfrai, 5-4 (1)
HOMOGENEOUS FUNCTIONS An expression of the form ct^x" + a
1JcjnL “ 1 y +o2xn_2 y£ + ... + any" in which every term is of the nth
degree, is called a homogeneous function of degree n. This can be rewritten
as x" la(r + a, (y/x) + «2(y/x)2 -+■ ... + an (y&y*j. Thus any function fix ,
y) which can he expressed in the form x" 4>(v/.rJ, is cat led a homogeneous
function of degree n in x and y. For instance, x3 cos (y/x ) is a
homogeneous function of degree 3, in x and y. In general, a function fix.y,
z, t, ...) is said to be a homogeneous function of degree a inx,y,2, t, if it can
be expressed in the form x"tji (y/x, six, tlx, ...). (2) Euler’s theorem on
homogeneous functions*. If it be a homogeneous function of degree n in x
and y, then
206 Higher Engineering Mathematics .\ z is a homogeneous

function of degree 2 in x and y. By Euler’s theorem,, we get dz dz „ x — +
v — = 2 z dx ~ dy .(£) But &=jLau and ^ = 3i uctv dy u dy Hence (i)
becomes 1 da - - + y a. t Jx a rH1 Example 5.12. If a- sirr1 1 du 1 dll 7)f> rl|
J X * - — + y ■ 7 ^ = 2 log u or x— + y — = 2u log u. dx dy x + 2y + 3g _
. , f . , dn du du — - - - find the value of x— + y~ + z— . xb + y + zs dx dy
dz cap, 71 U., 2004) Solution. Here it is not a homogeneous function. We
therefore, write x + 2y + ‘6z _ _7 1 + 2{y/x) 4- 3(z/x) 1 + (y/x)s + dm co “
sin u - -= — ^ - tt = r" Xs + ys + z8 —
Partial Differentiation and Its Applications 207 i.e. i.e.. Example

5.14, If z is a homogeneous function of degree n in xandy , show that x‘—
+ 2xy^- + r - - - n(n - 1) z. (Anna. 2009 ; V. T. U., 2007 ; U.P.T. U„ 2006)
d2z 0 d2z ->d2z , #1 + 2xyz—r + y- ~ -= - n(n - 1) z. the* dxdy dz4
Solution. By Euler’s theorem, x — + y = nz dx dy n«‘ . ■ - .. 3'!2 , dz d^Z
ds Differentiating (i) partially w.r.t. x, we get x — - + ~ — E y - ~ n dx4 dx
‘ dxdy dx d2z tilz dz d2z dz 32z i)z Again differentiating ( i ) partially w.r.t.
y, we get x . + — + y — — = n— dydx dy dy1 dy d2z d2z x — - — + y
dxdy dy Multiplying (ii) by a and iiii) by y and adding, we get 2 dlz X feT +
d2z 2 d2z f dz dz 'j + SV0* - T* + ** J " ...(e) ...(h) ...(in) |By (i)] Example.
5,1 5. //u = sin .r +■ y du , die 1 ■ •• prove that X - + y--- - - tart u. Jx + yj y
da: dy ^ and 2 d2u d” x ■ — s- + 2xy a? s _ s ds» dxdy 'V 3/ siii u cos 2u 4
cos ' u f Rajasthan, 2006 : Caficut. 2005 ) (P.T.U., 2006 ) Solution. Here u is
not a homogeneous function but z = sin u - 3 — 'V— ■Jx + 4y degree 1/2
in x andy. By Euler’s theorem, x — + y — - —z dx ' By 2 is a
homogeneous function of or or x cos 3 u dr du sin u Thus is it — — by cos
u- — = — s *1*' dy 2 du 6u 1 x— + y— = — tan u dx dy 2 Differentiating
ii) w.r.t. x partially, we get d lu du d2u 1 2 du x - — y ~E — + y = — sec u
— dx2 dx ' dxdy 2 dx Again differentiating (i) w.r.t. y partially, we get d2u
d 2u du 1 2 du x—— + y — ~+ — = — sec* u — dydx ^ dya dy 2 dy
Multiplying (it) by x and Uii) by y and adding, we obtain 2 a2 x — dx o
d‘4u or or d2u d 2u x — ^ + ydx4 i)2u d £u ( 1 2 t\3« dxdy a2it * . , dit sec
u - 1 dx “ n d2|t adait 1 2 ,V du 2 + Zxy^-r + y rr = - sec a ~ 1 i x—- + y —
2 dxdy dy2 V2 A dfii- dyj . o ^2“ + 2a^ - + ’ dxdy Hence s d2„ x- — + 2xy
2 d~u „ d u a d u dx 4 dxdy + y dy 2 1 sin et 1 sin u 4 cos3 it 2 cos it sin u
los 2tt T + 4 cos* u sin u ( 2 cos2 u ~ 1 ) 4 cos'* u -.(i) ...(ii) (ByliH
208 Higher Engineering Mathematics 5.5 iM TOTAL
DERIVATIVE If« =■ fix, y), where x -
209 Partial DiFf-ERtwriAnciN ano Its Applications Giving
increment fif to /, let the corresponding increments ofx,y and u be Sr, 8v
and 5u respectively. Then u + 5u = fix + fix. y + Sy) Subtracting, Su - fix +
Sx, y + fiy) -fix, y) - !/(x + fix, y + §y) -fix,y + 5y)} + \f(x,y + 5y) - fix, y)J
6r* 5f fix + fix, y + 5yJ - fix, y ■) Sv) 5x + fix, y + 8y) - fix, y) 6y 6* ’ 5/ +
&y fif" Taking limits as fit — > 0, fix and 6y also — * 0, we have du ~di Lt
[ Lt | fte t 53;’ y + 6v) - [bfi y + foM [( f fix, y + fiy) - /~(x,y)| isf-tO |_^y—
»o \ fix J dt | fiy i^L 7 dt = Lt 6v-.0 dfix, y + $y) | dx | dfiy^y) t/y &y J dt dy
dt [Supposing df (x,y)/dx to be a continuous function ofy] dfix, y) dx dfix,
y) dy . . . j t. , - -1— - + — : - — which is the desired formula. dx df tfy dt _
m . . .... du du du dy Cor. Taking / = x, (c) becomes, — = — — i- - — * —
— dx dx c)y dx Ohs. II u - fix. y. z). where r, y, ? ore all functions of a
variable f, then Chain rule is du _ du tlx du dy du d* dt dx ' dt fty ' dt dx dt -
Mi) tit ) (2) Differentiation of implicit functions. Iff (x, y) = c be an implicit
relation between x and y which defines as a differentiable function of x,
then Hi) becomes 0=V = # + K.*L dx dx dy dx 'This gives the important
formula — = - ^ dx dx/ dy for the first differential coefficient of an implicit
function. V °J Example 5.16. Given u - sin (xfy), ,t - ef and y ~ t2, find
dutdt os c function oft . Verify your reau.lt by direct substitution. ( X 1 i , ^
x) (_ _x] = l cos — L y ) — ■ el + y r>J { y2 j „ . . , ... , du du dx du dy dt
dx dt dy dt = cos ieW2) - eclt2 - 2 cos (e'/f2) * dtfi = |(f - 2)!t2\ei cos id it2 )
Also u = sin {.r/y) = sin (eVf2) du ~dl = cos ■f ^ fV -ef ■ 2t t-2 u3. e1 cos
iV] U3J as before. Example 5.17. If x increases at the. rate of 2 cm f sec at
the instunt when x = 3 cm. and y — 1 cm., at what rate must v be changing
in order t hut the function 2xy - 3x~y shall be neither increasing nor
decreasing ? Solution. Let u - 2xy - 3x^y, so that dt dx dt dy dt ’ ‘ dt dt
whenx - 3 and y - 1, dx/dt = 2, and u is neither increasing nor decreasing,
Le.* du/dt - 0. — (ij (i) becomes or dv (1-(2-6x3)2 + (2x3-3x9)^ at — ^ ^
cm/sec. Thusv is deirreasing at the rate of 32/21 cm/sec, dt 2l
Example 5-18. Ifu - x log xy where rf' +y* + iixy = 1 , fmd du/dx.
Solution. From f(x,y) = jr1 + y3 + 3atry — 1, we have dy dx dx f dy 3 y du
dw du dy _ df jdf m ~ 3x* +3 y __ xa + y dx/ dv 3v" + 3r yA + x Also
Hence _ + - — -f- = ( 1 ■ log xy + x • l/x} + (jc/y) ■ dy/dx. dx ox ofy tlx
Example 5.19. If a = u duldx = 1 + log xy - xix2 + y)Iy{y2 + x) ' ' f. J-.r ^Jcl
, , i Hu )w ^ 3& - . show that x — + y— +z — = 0, xz J eh- ‘ dy dz
Solution. Let so that or y - x 1 1 , z - x 1 1 v - - - =® - and u* = - - xy x y xz
x z u = u(u, w) du _ du dw du dw _ du f 1 ^ du f 1 \ dv dr dr the dx dr [ x" /
did i, x2 J a du a* du du dr dw Also du _ du du ^ du dw du ■ 1 ^ + du ^ dy
do dy dw dy do ( y1 ) dw or Similarly or ’> du _ du V dy ~ & du du dv + du
du,1 _ du ^ + dz do dz dw dz do dw l z1 du dw du M dw l z 2 dz du1
Adding iii), (Hi.) and tie), we have Hasher Engineering {V.T.U., 2009) Ui)
(By U) J (U.P.T.U,, 2005) ...(() [Using (ill ...(if) lUsing (/)] ... dw ^ =0. dr dy
rte Example 5.20, Formula for the second differential bfefficient of an
implicit function If fix, yt = 0. show that dL> y q'r - 2pqs + p2t dx 2 i jf
Solution. We have — - - — dx df/dy d~y ±( dy dx2 ilx\ dx d j' dy \ d p
Pam 1*1. DireEftEOTflti^ AND I T5 APPLICATIONS 211
Substituting the values oHdptdx and dij/dx in (iij, we get. d-y dx1 I ys - pi
qlr - 2 pqs + plt CHANGE OF VARIABLES If u = fix, y ) ...(1) where x -
0ts, t ) and y = Tfs, ( ) ,..(2j it is often necessary to change expressions
involving u , x,y. du/ dx, dti/dy etc. to expressions involving u , *?, t. dull
Is, du/dt etc. The necessary formulae for the change of variables are easily
obtained. Iff is regarded as a constant, then x,.y, u will be functions of a
alone. Therefore, by (i) of page 208, we have du du dx du dy . ds dx ds dy
ds where the ordinary derivatives have been replaced by the partial
derivatives because x,y are functions of two variables s and t. Similarly,
regarding s as constant, we obtain = '',U . — ■ + ^ ' dt dx dt dy dt ...I4J On
salving (II) and (1) as simultaneous equations in du/dx and dtt/dy. we gel
their values in terms ofdit/ds, du/tif, ti. s, t. If instead of the equations (2), x
and t are given in terms ofx and y, say; g - ^(x, y ) anti / = T|(x,.v), ,A . . . . ..
. d U du i)s (in dt then it is easier to use the formulae — = — , — + dx dx
dx
212 Higher Engineering Mathematics du du ds t iu bt .(7) dy bs

by bt by The higher derivatives of it can be found by repeated application of
formulae £3) and (4) nr of (6) and (7). Example 5.21. If u = F(> y, y -z, z -
jc), prow that bu 6u c iu — + — + — _ n the sin^ u) — = e — by Now
squaring ii) and (ii) and adding, we get. \2 bz_ + (bz_ . bu ) vdu ! Y 2v ( bz .
bz 1 2u( bz bz' = e cos o - h sin v — + e — sin v - £■ cos a — ij bx by) \ dx
by ) or -2 u (iNU s? ^ + 2 sin v cos v - 6 z &r Wy(£) +Sin2y(|) , , (bz)2 2
fazf , , + sur v J + 0014 1 I ^ j ™ ^ sin u cos v = Wo* sin* f— f + f-f t bx )
by ) bzbz bx dy
Partial Differentiation and Its Applications 213 (dx)2 ( dx ' • 2 -

%u Vfef f&fl UrJ - e [du] iduj J Hence Example 5.23. If x + y - 2r’ rostyund
x -y = 2i<>s sin show that dsu d"u _ d2u 30:; dtp2 ‘ dxdy Solution. We have
x - e6 (cos 0 + i sin $1 = . ejai and ,y = (cos $ - i sin §) - „ eHere n is a
composite function of 0 and d.v 3y fly = - x _ d2u. •> d 2u du du 2 xy —- -
y ~y - x — - y — drdy Av dr dy ae~ + a^2 7T = 4xy d2u dxdy -^2 ~}“tA
Example 5.24. Transform the equation — =r + — — = 0 into polar coon ft
no tns . cur ar Solution. We have x = r cos 8, y = r sin G and r - ^jix2 + y2l,
0 - larr 1 ( yfx ) y sin G —(f) .Jit) .(n't) ...(ini (P.T.U., 2010) dr__ r}x ~ ^ Ua
+ ys) n J ao = COS G and — = Ac x + y“ d u du dr du rJA rt du am 0 du
1*1?., and Higher Engineering Mai hematics 3 *,3 sin 0 9 — =

cos 0 - - — «&c r)r r 30 32u 3 ( du a? Similarly, — -sin G — + . dy dr r 3B
3 { du\ I „ 3 sin G 3 V „ Hu sin B i)n i = — H — I = I cos 0 - - - cos 6 - - —
3x ^ dx/ \ dr r 30 ) t dr r 30 / 5„ 3‘h 2 sin 0 cos 0 3“u sin'fl dzu stnz6 du 2
sin 0 cob G r In = COP 0 ■— 3T - H - - - H - + dr" r 3r3fl r~ 3B“ r dr r2 30
i ru _ 3 3>' 2 dy rao | f d cos 0 = sin 0 — + 31 f . „ 3fi cow B 3h \ am 0 — +
- - - — , 3j- .. l dr r aej l dr r 3B ) . ,. d’u 2 sin 0 cos© 3®ii cop^ 0 }fu cosa
B du 2 atn 0 cob 0 3u + - - - _+__+__ - - - (if) Adding i i) and (ii), we get (i
■' + --j = c>-~ t ~ ^ ^ . dxA ch’“ dr~ r" 3U~ r dr Hence tlie transformed
equation is + - — + = O. dr1 r dr rA 302 PROBLEMS 5.6 ^t v ■N 1 . in =
f(x,yt and j = e* + e‘\ y = »? - . prove that =- - 4- = x =■ - v ~ • . (\\T. U. ,
2006) fli/ tb dfc ’ dy 2. I f u = fir, s). r - x + at, s - y + hi and x, v, t arc
independent variables, show that i h — ■ . di Str 3v . *1 1, ;l. If itte/r^y/xl -
0. prove that x — + v _ -‘dr. Ox 3y (Mumbai, 2007) 4, If it - f (r* y) and v =
r cos a., . r - * p™, that ( |')\ 1 1] .(0)' iV.T U . 2010 , Matlrus i!0Q(> .
Rohuik, 2006) (U.P.T.U., 2006 ; Raipur, 2006 1 If u -fi 2x - 3,v. 3v - 4z - 2,»
I, prove that - --- -i- - — + ] -- = o. 2 dx 3 3y 4 t)i ft. -,tf \e? ■'>, prove thai
— i:v + r>'J =u dr 3y 3s (Mumbai. 2006 S) 7. If u ~f(r, a, t) and r - xfy. s =
yh, i = z/x, prove that x r° f y $*- + r ~ = 0, (Anna, 2000 ; Kurukshitru.
2006) ax ay dz ft. If X = a + i: 4 ti\ y = pic + u’« + nr, ’ ? uviv and /■" is a
function ofr ,y, zt show that OF HF i)F 3F , riF , i)F u — + v-~ +hi--=.v— -
+ 2y — — . du tJu rfro dx ify az 9. Given that, uix, y. z\mf (** + yA *■ *a)
where x = r cos B cos y = r cos 0 sin 4 aud g-r sin 0. find — and . 30 v 3$
ID, If the three Ihcnnodynuroic variables P, V, T tire connct bal by a relation
fiP. V, T) - 0, show Lhal, (agua-v 11. If by the subalillitian u - r- -y* r = 2*y,
f (r, y) = 0 fu, o), show i hat 3rs v ■ Ut* an*/ f i ™ ? f i? tj 1 2. 1 inform —
-- 4- 2_rv * + 2 (v - v 1 1 — + jcy~s - fl Siv the ^b^tilulion x - m\ y - l/u,
Heiu-tt sJiow that tiir iâuie m fix tty function nj u and u ns ofx and y.
Partial DrFFEREwnmow mb Its Applications (1) JACOB IANS

If u and y are functions of two independent variables x and y, then the
determinant duldx duldy dvfdx dv/dy is called the Jacobian* of u, v with
respect to x, y diu, Lf, w) dU. y, z) d(u.U) f utv) arm 1$ written as — - or J -
. dfx. vi Vx, y) Similarly the Jacobian of u. y, w with respect to .x, y , z is
duldx dufdy du/dz dvfdx dv/dy du/dz dwfdx dwfdy rkv/Hz f .ike wise, we
can define Jacobi anu of four or more variables An important applicat ion of
Jacobian* is in connection with the change of variables in multiple integrals
7.7). (2) Properties of Jacobians. We give below two of the important
properties of Jacobians. For simplicity, the properties are stated in terms of
two variables only, hut those are evidently true in general. /. If J = d(u, y)/d
M) du/dx duldy fbc/du dx/dv dufdx du/* h i dxidu dyt'dit dvfdx dv/dy X
dyfdlt tfyfdv ch/tlx dv/dy ' dx/dv dyfdv JJ‘ = Ovtux tiv/Oy tiy/tiu o
(Interchanging rows and columns of the 2nd determinant). = 1. IBy virtue
of (/)] //. Chain rule for Jacobians. if u, v are functions of r, s and r , s are
functions of x, y, then diu, o) d(u, u) d (r,s) 1 0 0 1 y) d(r, s) dUv, y)* d(«, y)
d(r, $) _ 'dir, s) d(r, y) duidr duldti dol'd r dy/ds dr/dx ds/dx dr/'dy ds/dy
[Interchanging rows and columns of the 2nd det.l dy dr du ds du dr dr dr ds
dx dr dy du ds ds dy dy dr dy ds dy dr dy ds dr d.v ds etc dr dy ds dy du/dx
duldy dvldx dv/dy d (u, y) dix, y) * Called after the German mathematician
(‘or! Gustav Jacob Jacobi \ 1804-1851), who made significant
contributions, to mechanics, partial differential equations, astronomy,
elliptic functions and the calculus of variations.
216 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 5.26. (i-J In polar

coordinates, x = rcos 6,.y = r sin 0, show that aoc,.v) = r. {U-P.T.ll, 2006 ;
V.T.U., 2(104 . Andhra, 2000) iKr, e) Ui i In cylindrical, coordinates (Fig.
8.28), x ~ p cos $, rv - p sin z = z. shout that 5. zl P' Hit) In spheriml polar
coord idtmt.es (Fig. 8.29). x = r sin 0 cos v = r sin 0 sit) z-r cos 0, show that
d(x, v_, z) a) = rJ sin (i. (Anna, 2009 : Ilazuribagh. 2009 ; Rohtak, 2063)
Solution, (i.) We have (it i We have (iti) We have and — = cos 0. ~ = — r
sin 0 and — = sin 0, % = — r cos 0 dr ae dr d0 d(x,y) f)(r, 0) cos 0 - r sin 0
sin 0 r cos 0 dr - r fte |.njS«, = .-pSiQ |> tte dp d dz d(.r. y, zS d(p, <>, z) cos
- p sill 0 0 sin (i p cos ij> 0 0 0 1 = Pcbc ch- dr . . — = sin ft cos 0T — = r
cos 0 cos , = r cos 0 sin , — = r sin 0 cos 4>, dr c!0 d(t> dz _ ik . _ Bz — =
cos M, - — = - r sin G, — = 0. dr df) difi d(x,.y,2) d(r, G, ) Example 5.26. If
yt sin G cos ij> r cos G cos (p — r sin 0 sin p sin 0 sin i|> r cos 0 sin (|) r sin
0 cos cos 0 — r sin 0 0 - r 2 sin ft. ^*2*X „ _X3rl ,, x2, x9 is- 4. yt ~ — — .
ya = -:-±- , show that the Jacobian ofyt, yT y3 with respect to x,, {U P. T O..
2006) and S..luUo„.Wohovc|!- = -Vl, rir1 xf 0^2 (JAa £, dVa _ *3 ^2 _ fafi
dVa _ Xy «3bCi x% dx2 jcf ’ 3b% x2 dv;i _ x2 dft = £i dy3 _ x,xg dxj x3'
3x2 x2 ’ d.v3 xi a^.Viy2.V3> df^XoX,) dy, 3>'l ckj dx.£ tk;j
Part*. Dimiflei-mmoN and frs ArniCAnot* 217 “*2*3 *3*1 *1*2

222 -1 1 1 *2*3 “*3*1 *1*2 *1*2*3 2 _2 2 i -1 1 *2*3 X$X% 1 H tJ
*1*2*3 1 1 -1 444 = -1(1-1) -!(-!-!) + 1(1 + l) = 0 + 2 + 2 = 4. Example
&27. In n =x + 3yJ -z". v = 4xryz, w n-2tr -xy, evaluate dfu, o, ui)fd(x,y, zj
at (1, ~1. 0 ). iV.TJL, 200ft} Solution. dill, v, Etf> 3(X, _V, z) 3u du du the
dy bz dv dv dv dx dy dz dll' dto dm dx dy dz 1 1 fiy -ZzSxyz 4 x2z 4x‘.y -y
-x 4 z At the point (1, - 1, 0) 3(li, v, in) cK.v, y, z) 6 0 0 0-4 1 -1 0 = 4 (- 1 +
6) = 20. «Hrt, pi Example 5.28. tf u = xr - y2, v = 2xy cmd x - r con ft, y - r
sin 6, find '^(r g ■ tV. T. U., 2009 ; Madras, 2006) Solution. We have vl —
a(ut e) - - X (Kx, y) d{ r,fl) atx, ,y) 3 (r, W) Since it - x2 -y 2> it - 2xy du bit
d(u, e> dx dy 2.v d(x,'y) ~ "dv dv 2y dx dy Since x = r cos 0, y = r sin 0, dx
dx 3(x, .y) dr 30 COS 0 a "
c easily generalised. It bears analogy to Lhe result • ^ ^ . where x,.v are

connerlcd by the relation fix, yl - 0, Example 5.29. If u ~x, y, 2, v - x~ + y >
2s. tv = x + y + z, find d(x, y. z)!d(u, t.\ w). \ UJ\T. if., 2003) Solution. Let fi
- u - x y z, f2 - v - x2 - y2 - z2, f,s = iv - x - y - z.
We have Now, ^*1 .Vt g) _ (_^j3 [22 l’ ^3' ^3 ) 3(u, l>, til) (j(w,
IT, fir) cK.t, y, z) Wu fa>fi\‘i _ d{x,y,z) HtCiMLA EWGINBEfllNO
MATHEMATICS ...(f) df,/dx Wyffy dfildz -yz - xz -xy df/dx df/dz = - 2x -2
y -2* bfijdx df^fdy df/dz -1 -1 -1 and d* /i » /a > /» ) d{u. i\ «j) = - 2(x -yHy
- z)(z -x) 10 0 0 10 0 0 1 = 1 ...Hi) ..(iff) Substituting values from (if) and
iiii) in (7), we get dl3C,-V’Z) - (-1 ) x l/|-2(.v - jpXv ~z*z -x)I = l/20c - yty
-ztz -xl fKw, L\ w ) (4i Functional relationship. If up u2r u { be functions of
xr x2. jt? then the necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a
functional relationship of the form fhiJr u2, u.4) - ih is =0 Kx^x^xu)
Example 5.30. Ifu -x ^f( 7 - yL‘ ) + y fa - xs\. v = s/n~! x +sitriy, show that
n, v are fund umaUy related ami find the relationship. (J Kurttkshi’tru.
2006) du C - fa;. y f, h i;r, yV3 (r, OS :irirl prove 1 hat (r) fr, fit r) t.v. vfj. id
4. Ifx * e" «ec v,y - «*" lan e, find J - difi.iiViMt. y). J = d j x.ytfrHu, i>).
Ilrnui t.hnw JJ* \. 5. If a = x' - 2y3. r = ‘i*3-- y7 where v = r cos 0, v = r sin
0, show that ’ = ftr'1 sin 2fl. (V.T.U., 2W0S, IS VT.tr. 2007, IV.T.Ll, 2007 S)
fKr.W 6. If u -x’“ i- ya + tr - .\y 4 yz + zx, w - ft' + y + z, find 9; V.T.U
.20Q8)
PAHTIJM, DIFFERENTIATION AND |TS APPLICATIONS 219
7. If F = xit + !■ v, G = tv + vy + w, if = m - v + mu, compute d, if 8. If p
*x+y + i, ho = y * if mu = ?, show liiai iK*, y, z)/iHu, l', w>. = u’ti,
iKurukxhelrn, 200$; P.T.U „ 2W9 S. V.T.U., BOOS) 9. If If*. ■+ v3 -x + y
and w2 + ra®x3 ev3, show that ‘*U’ ' ' = * — — — cKx, _yj 2 iiclti - i»)
iU. P.T.U, 2000 MCA) 10. tftt A- + V uml if - Ian 1 x + tan 1 y. find tHa, u)
Aj'u u and < functionally related. If so. find tliis relationship, 1 . dtx. .vi I
Nagpur, 2008) 11. If a ■-* Jjr + 2.y -2, v = x- 2y + z and w ~x(x + 2y - a),
show that they are functionally related, anil find the relation. (Nagpur.
2009) (1) GEOMETRICAL INTERPRETATION If Pixt y, ? i be the
coordinates of a point referred to axes OX, OY, OZ then the equation z =
fix, y) represents a surface. (Fig. 5.1) l>et a plane y - b parallel to the XZ-
plane pass through P cutting the surface along the curve APB given by 2 ~
fix. b). As y remains equal to b and x varies then P moves along the curve
APB and dzfdx is the ordinary derivative of f (x, b) w.r.l, .v. Hence dz/Sx of
P in the tangent of the angle which the tangent ttf P to the section of the
surface z - /tx.y) by a plane through P parallel to the plune XOZ, makes
with a line parallel to the x-axis. Similarly, tte/dy al P is the tangent of the
angle which the tangent at P to the curve of intersection of the surface z = f
(x, y) anti the plane x - a, makes with a line parallel to the y -axis, (21
Tangent plane and Normal to a surface. Let Ptr, y, z ) and Q(x + Sx,y + By,
z + 6f) be two neighbouring points on the surface Fix, v, z) = 0. (Fig 5,2) ...
(/) Let the arc PQ be &t and the chord PQ be Br, so that (as tor plane
curves) Lt r tw-i fir fjv & . Sr 6s 5v Ss & Bs The direction cosines ol PQ are
— , — j.p., — . — — ._ — 8r Sr 5c 6s 6c & 5r 6s fir When 6s -» 0, Q —*
P and PQ tends to tangent lineP?’. Then noting that the coordinates of any
point on arc PQ are functions of s only, the direction cosines of PT are dx
dy dz ds ' ds ' ds ri. „ dF dx dF dy dF dz Di norcnl latrng (/ > with respect to
s, we obtain , + . ' + — . - =0dr as dy as dz ds This shows that the tangent
line whose direction cosines are given by (if ). is perpendicular to the line
having direction ratios dF dF DF dx'dy'dz Jiii) Since we can take different
curves joining Q to P, we get a number of tangent lines at P and the line
having direction ratios (Hi) will he perpendicular to all these tangent lines
at P. Thus all the tangent lines at P lie in a plane through P perpendicular to
line (i7/). Hence the equation of the tangent plane to (i) at the point P is F(x,
y, z) = 0 dF dF dF — (X - x) + _Jr (Y ~ y ) + — (Z - z) = 0 dy dz dx where
(X, Y, Z) are the current coordinates of any point on this tangent plane, Fig.
5.2
220 Higher Engineering Mathematics Also the equation of th e

normal to the surface at P (Let, the line through P. perpendicular to the
tangent plane at P } is X-x Y-y Z-z dF/dx “ rJF/rJy “ fJF/rJz ' Example &S1
. Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal to the surface z2 =
4(1 + xs + r) u.t (2, 2. 6)r Solution. We have F(x, y, z) = 4x2 + 4y2 — z2 +
4. i W/dx - 8.v, dF/dy - 8y, dFtdz - ■ 2 z, and at the point (2, 2, 6) HFtdx =
16. dF/dy - 16, i dFtdz = - 12 Hence the equation of the tangent plane at (2,
2, G> is 16(X- 21 + 16(Y - 2) -12(Z - 6) = 0 i.e., 4X + 4Y-3Z + 2 = 0 Ui)
Also the equation of the normal at (2. 2, 61 [being perpendicular to fill is A'
-2 _ Y-2 _ Z -6 4 ~ 4 ~3~‘ PROBLEMS 5.8 Find the equations of the
tangent plane and normal to each of the following surfaces at the given
points : !, 2n- 4 y- ■= 3 - at f2f J* - 3) iAb&atn, IBBH) 2* x? + y* + $XyZ
- 3 ul (1, 2, — l) Ôamantn, 20(Xi S) 3. xyz tint{x}ryvz{l 4. 2x£2 - 3 xy -
4x = 7 at (1 , - 1. 2h ft- Show the plane $x + 12\f — 6? - 17 ^ 0 lurches the
ourtkozd SxJ - 6 y2 4 + 17 = 0 Find also the point of contact. n2 b2 6, Show
that the plane ax + by * cz + d 0 touches the surface nx:' + m1 + *2z = 0. if
— + — + 'led j= 0. p 7* Find the equation of the normal to the surface x2
+■ y2 + z2 = a2, iP.T. U.. 2009 S) TAYLOR'S THEOREM FOR
FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Considering/ (x + A, v + A) as a
function of a .single variable x, we have by Taylor's theorem* r if(x,y+h) tr
iffix,y + k) f(x + h,y + k) = fix,y + k) + h iix 21 dr ...(it Now expanding fix,
y + ft) as a function of y only, ft .. . I.s r, i.i k~d2ftxty) f(x,y + k) = f(x,y) +
h — - - 1- — — ■ + ... dy 2! dy2 ,-w i ^ r, , , , ,, , r Y k2 d2f(xt y) (i) takes
the form f (a- + /i,_y + ft) = flx,yi + h — ^ - + — — — — + ... dy 2! ** td\
» , f}f(x,y) h2 i)2f(x,y) ,|2 i|2 if, , I . y) + h — - - + ... dy Hence, fix + h. y +
k) = fix, y) + h~ + k*0- + — dbc dv 2! rf. + k 2 df + 2hh ¥ + ... (. a t a) r i /
0 t b)* In symbols wo write it as fix + h,y + k) - fix, y) + ^ + k — J f + — j
h — + ft — J f + ... Taking x = a and y = h, (1) becomes fiu + ft, b + k) =
fia,b)+ f hfx in, b) + hfia, b) 1 + ~ \h2fja, b ) + 2hhfy (a, b) + k2 fja, b) 1 +
... ..(11 rSoo footnote on pape 145
221 Partial Dif fea bouton ano I is Applications Putting a + h = x
and ft + ft = y so that h - x - a, ft - y - ft, wo pet f(x, y) - f(a, b) + l(x - a) fK
(a, b) + + ] + . (2) This is Taylor's expansion of fix, y) in powers of (x a) and
(y - ft). It is used in expand f(x, y) in. the neighbourhood o f (a, ft). Cor.
Putting a = 0, b = 0, in (2), we get fix, y) = HO, 0) + |xfs(0, OJ + yfy (0, 0)1
+ — lx* fM 10, 01 + 2xy fay (0, 0) + y'J fyy (0, 0» + „ Jk » This is
Madaurin’s expansion of fix,y\. ..m Example 6.32, Expand tp log tl + y) in
powers of x and y upto terms of third degree. (V.T.&., WW ; P.T.U., 2009 ;
J.N.T.U.. 2006) Solution. Hero ftx,y) = ex lop (1 + y) fx(x*y) = ef log(l + y)
f (x, y) = e* — - 1 + y 4(X,y} = tf* log(l + y) f^(x,y) = e* ^ fyy(x,y)=-e*{l
+ ,y)-2 fxxx(x,y)”^ loffd +>> 4y{*,yJ--eJf(l +y>-2 Q(x,y) = 2e*(l +yt*
Now Maclaurin’s expansion of fix, y) gives f( 0, 0)= 0 fx{ 0, 0) = 0 fyi
0.0)=1 4 (0, 0)^0 /;/0, 0) = 1 4,10, o> = — i 4,(0, 0) = 0 4,(0, o) = i 4v(o,oi
= -i 4;. + ^44.(0. 0J + 3ay24,(0. 0) + y3 fm( 0. 0)1 + ... e* log (1 + y) = 0 +
jc(Q) + y(l) + ;}; |.v2 (0) + 2ry(l) +y2 (— 1 )) + + 3x^y(l) + 3jqy2(-l) +
y3(2)| + ... =y+xy- p2 + 2 {*2y ~ xy2) + 3 y* + Example 6.33. Expand xfy
+ 3y 2 in powers of (x - H and ( y + 2/ using Taylor's theorem. if\T.U.. 2010
; V.T.U. , 200& ; V.P.T.U., 2006; Anna , 20015) Solution. Taylor’s
expansion of f{x,y) in powers of Ijc — a ) and t.T - ft) is given by
flx,y)=fia, ft) + f lx-a)fx(a, ft) + (y-ft)/y(a,6)| + ~ [(.r- af 4 la, ft) + 2 {X-
uXy - ft) 4(0, ft) + 4v(a, 6) + 3 (x - o)(y - ft)2 f^.la, ft) + (y -6^4 (o,ft)l + „.
...(£) Hence a - 1 , ft = - 2 and f {;c, y) - jr^y + 3y - 2
222 Higher EisjQiNEEftLNG Mathematics /(l, - 2) = - 10, f = 2
ry, fi 1, - 2) = - 4 ;f = + 3, m, - 2) = 4; f = 2y, 4< 1, - 2) = - 4; 4 = 2x, 1 1, -
2) = 2-, fyy = 0. fj 1, - 2) = 0; = 0, = U, - 2) = 0; O (!■ - 2> - a. O1’ - 2> = °’
4/!. - 2) = 0 All partial derivatives of higher order vanish. Substituting these
in (7), wc get x-iy + 3y - 2 = - 10 + ]d- 1) t- 4) + (y + 2> 41 + ~ | +
approximately. (V.T.U., 2010 ; J.N.T.U., 200(1 ; U.P. T. U„ 2000) Solution.
Here a = I, b = 1 and f{ 1. 1) - tan-1 1 1} = n/4. -y f X XT +y~ 2xy 2 y3
-6x\y f m ~ “ l! . TeT ' f ~ •*vy (*" + /r 6.r2y - 2/ ix* + y2f l.D = - 2^ 4c*1-
1)- 2 ’ 0-1.1) = /jrfyl l| 11 — ^ t fy = '> 2' ■ x £ + y f„ = 2 2 y - x XY i 2 y)
= /■(!, 11+ ^! + tv - 1 12 4U, 1 ) + ^ |U - 1 9 fxJl, 1) + 3(x - 1 )2 (y - 1 ) 4y(
1 , + sa*- i)(y - 1 i:!oa* i> + <>■ - i>s O1’ 1)1 + ■■■ 1) + 3te-!Hy-iJa^ +
(>-iri -j + »« = 1 -- Ux - 1} - iy - 1)1 + 4 ((* - 1)2 - iy - \f) - Jl ta - l)3 + 3(JC
- 1)- iv - 1) •12 4 12 - ;j(x - l)(y - l)2 - (>■ - u3} + ... Putting x =1.1 and y -
0.9, we get fi 1.1, 0.9)= ^ - l- (0.2) f (0) - ~ KO.l)^ - 3(0. 1)3 - 3(0. 1)3 -
0.1)a| 4 2 4 12 = 0.7854 - 0.1000 + 0.0003 = 0.G857. (1) ERRORS AND
APPROXIMATIONS Let/'(x}y) be a continuous function nf.v and y. If and
Sy be the increments of A and y. then the new value of fix, jy) will he f (x +
fix, y + Sy). Hence
Pascal Difffpfsuiatiqn anu It& Applications 223 Sf = fix + Sr, y +
Sy) - /" <>, y >■ Expanding fix + &r, y + fry) by Taylor’s theorem and
supposing &e, 6y to be so small that their products, squares and higher
powers can be neglected, we get Rf - 5x + fiy, approximately, dx dy
Similarly iff he a function of several variables x, y, z, t, ..., then V ^jj ■ Yf
vr &f - 5r + -- + _ Sr + — St + ... approximately. ox dy dz dt These
formulae are very useful in correcting the effect, of small errors in
measured quantities. (2) Total Differential If ti is a function of two variables
x and y, thu total differential of u is defined as fhl , flu , du=Tr-dx + — dy
...111 fix dy The differentials dx and dy are respectively the increments fix
and Sy in x and y. If x and y ere not independent dx (fv variables but
functions of another variable t oven then the formula f 1 ) holds and we
write dx - — — dt and dx - — dt Similar dt (it definition can be given for a
function of three or more variables. Example 5.35. The diameter and
altitude of a can in the shape of a right circular cylinder are measured as 4
cm and fi cm respectively. The possible error in each measurement is 0.1
cm. Find, approximately the maximum possible error in the values
computed for the itof.it me and the Lot era! surface. Solution. Lot ,r be the
diameter and y the height of the can. Then its volume V = — x2y 8V = &v
+ 8y = — (2ry&e + x2 8y ) dx dy 4 When x = 4 cm., y = 6 cm. and Sx = 6y
= 0. 1 cm. 51r = — (2 x 4 x 6 x 0.1 + 42 x 0.1) = l.6n cm3 4 Also its lateral
surface S = nxy SS = jdy fo+iEj’l When x — 't cm..y = 6 cm. and Sx = Sy =
0. 1 cm., we have 8S = jt( 6 x 0.1 + 4 x 0. 1) = it cm2. Example 5.36. The
period of a simple pendulum is T = 2k $lfg) . find the maximum error in T
due to the possible error u pto 1% in f and 2.5% m g. 1 U.P. T. V., 2004)
Solution. We have T - 2n.yf{Jtg\ or log T = log 2n + ~ log / - - logg 1 11 11
rOT-0+27«-27 T 2 1 U 100 - -2-100 l 8 Thus the maximum error in T =
1.75% 'I 1 = 2*1 *2.5)= 1.75 or -0,75 Example 5.37. A balloon is in the
form of right circular cylinder of radius 1.5 m and length 4 rtt and is
surmounted by hemispherical ends. If the radius /s increased by 0.01 m and
length by 0.05 m, find the percent age cha nge in the volume balloon , ( U.
P. T. V 2005)
HlEftfcR ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Solution, Let the

volume of the baUunn {Fig. 5.3 J be V, so that 2 2 4 V - 7 tr2h + - kt* + 7
rcr* = nr h + — nr5 a a 3 4 6 V “ 2tet5Wj + TU^Bh + — nSr2br u or 6V V
Jtr|2/i6r + r$h H 4r8H w2* + V3 i5 2( /i + 2r ) Sr + rfi/i 2(4 + 3) {.01 } + 1
.5( .05) , 4 v 0.14 -+ 0.075 _ 0.215 6T3 “ 9 1.5 x4 + f- (1.5)^ 3 4 m BV 21.5
Hence, the percentage change in V - 100 — - ■ - 2,39% V kJ Example 5.38.
In estimating the cost of u pile of bricks measured, as 2 m x 15 m x 1.2 m,
the tape is stretched 1% beyond the standard length. If the count ifr 450
bricks tv 1 cu. in. and bricks east ? 530 per 1000 . f in d t he up prvxi n t ate
en x>r in the cost . ( V.T.l L . 200 1 1 Solution, Let jc, y and z m he the
length, breadth and height of the pile so that its volume V* ‘ xyz or Since
.... . . BV &r 6y & log V = log x + logy + log r — = — + — + — V x y z
V"= 2 x 15 x 1.3 = 36 irP, and — = —= — = x y z 100 W=36 3 .100 = l.tlB
m3. Number of bricks in 5V = 1.Q8 * 450 = 486 Thus error in the cost =
436 * 530 1000 - ? 257.5R which is a loss to the brick seller. Example 5.39.
The height h and semi-uertuat angle, ul of a cone are measured and from
theta A. the total area of the surf ate of the rune including the base, is at lea
luted. Tf it and a are in error by small quantifies hh und 8a respectively, find
the corresponding error in the area. Show further that if u -- nW, an error
of* 1% in h n il/ be approximately compensated by an error of - 0.33
degrees in a. Solution. If r be the base radius and l the slant height of the
cone, (Fig. 5.4), then total area A = area of base + area of curved surface -
nr* + it rl — tcr(r + / ) - jih tan u {h tan a + h sec tx) - idt* (tan- « + tan a
sec a) ivl - -r-- oh + — OK bit ba - 2nMtnn- tt + tnn a sec u.)5/i + nh* {2
tan a sec2 a + sec:i a + tan u sec a tan u)6a which gives the error in the area
A. Putting oh - h /W0 and n = nlO, we get V i * 1 + 2 IV3 } h 2 + IT ft 100
8 2 1 1 4 8.4 = 2 k/i
225 Pah dal Differentiation and Its Applications 100 2^3 nfi2 See
The error in h will be compensated by the error in a, when SA = 0 i.e. , 2tiA
+ 2\f3nh2 Sot = 0 100 or 8a - 1 iooS radians = .01 1/732 x 57.3“ = - 0.33“.
Example 5.40. Show that the approximate change in the ungle A of a
triangle ABC due to small changes So, 88, 5e in the sides a, b, c
respectively, is given by 5A ~ _5L (ha - 56 cos C - Sc cos B) 2A where A is
the area of the triangle. Verify that 8A + SB + SC = 0. Solution. We know
that a2 = 62 + c2 — 26c cos A so that 2o6a = 2666 + 2c6c — 2(c66 cos A
— 68c cos A + 6c sin A 6A> 6c sin A SA = a8a — (6 — c cos A) 66 — (o -
6 cos A) 6c or 2 ASA = aSa - (c cos A + a cos C — c cos A) 66 - (a cos B +
b cos A — b cos A) Sc [ v 6 = c cos A + a cos C etc. ...] - a5a - a cos C 66 -
a cos B 6c or a &A = ^ (6a - 66 cos C - 6c cos B) By symmetry, we have SB
- J"L {66 - 6c cos A - 6a cos C) 2A 6 C - — (6c - 6a cos B - 66 cos A) 2A 1
6A + SB + 5C = —
226 Higher EihGiNEEAIno Mathematics PROBLEMS 5.9 1. 2.

3. 4. 6. «. 7, 6. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Ifi. 17. {Anna, 2009) {Hisstir, 2005
S ; V.T.U., 2003) (U.T.U., 2002) Expand the full owing functions as far as
terms of third degree : 1 II si n x cos v (V//1, U., 2009) Hi > e* sin y at (- 1 .
a/4 ) iff i ) xy1 + cos xy about U , tt/2). Expand fix, y) = rv in powers of (.r -
1) and (v 1 1. Iff Ijr, y > — tan-1 xy, compute f f 0,9, ■ 1.2) approxi mately.
If the kinetic energy If = uv'H2g, find approximately the change in the
kinetic energy as to changes from 49 to 49.5 and v changes from 1600 to
1590. (V-T-T/.. 2000) Find the possible percentage error in computing the
resistance rfroro the formula Iff = l/rl + t/r^, ifr,, r2 nre both in error by 2%.
The voltage V across a resistor is measuri'd with an error A , and the
resistance R is measured wit h an error Show Lhat the error in calculating
the power W V. /?) = V-/fl generated in the resistor, is VR ~ (2 Rh - VAl
(v.r.r./., 2mm Find the percentage error in the area of an ellipse if one per
rent error is made in measuring the major and minor axes. (V.T.tf. 20U) The
lime of oscillation of a simple pendulum is given by the equation T= 2
nJUfg) . In an experiment carried out to Find the value or#, errors ofl .5%
and 0.5% ore possible in the values of / and T respectively. Show' that the
error in the calculated value off* is 0.5%. (Cochin, 2005) If pu2 = k and the
relative errors in p and v are respectively 0.05 and 0.025, show that the
error in k is 10%. (Mysore. 1999) If the H.P. required to propel a steamer
varies as the cube of the velocity and square of the length. Prove that a 3%
increase in velocity and 4% increase in length will require an increase of
about 17%' in H.P The range if of a projectile which starts with a velocity v
at on elevation a is given by if = (a* sin 2aVg. Find the percentage error in
if due to an error of lrl in i> and an error of % in r*. ju {Knnkkshstni, 2009)
In intimating the ctigt of a pile of bricks measured as 6 m * fiO Lhe tape is
stretched 19 beyond the standard length. If the count is 12 brinks in 1 m3
and bricks cost ? 100 per 1000, find the approximate error in the tost.
(ILT.IL 2010 ; ILRTJJl, 2005 ) The delleelion at the centre of a rod uf length
l and diameter d supported at its ends, loaded at the centre with a weight ut
varies at wPd^. What is rhe increase in the de flection corresponding to pW
increase in wt q'J* decrease in / and r% increase in d ? The wurk that must
be done to propel a ^hip of diipl act-men LZ) far el distance in lime t is pro
portion a I U> Find approximately the increase of work necessary when the
displacement in increased by 19- , the time is diminished by 1% and the
distance diminished by 29 . The indicated horse power / of an engine is
calculated front the formula / = PLAN/XAS\Q[\t where A = nd2/ 4.
Assuming that error of r pur cent may have been made in measuring Pt L, N
end dr find the greatest possible error in 1. The torsional rigidity of a length
cjf u i re is obtained from the formula A = Bn llfPrA. If / is decrease! by
2%, r is increased by 29, f is increased hy \J5fikt show that ihe value of /V
is diminished by 139 approximately (V.T.tt, 2003 ) If x2 + + e3 - 2 xyz = 1,
show that . ^ ^ = 0, y(l-jt3) fil-y2) y/n-?2) I Hint . 2(.v - yz j dx +- 2ty - 2X
1 dy + 2{z -xy\dz - ©, Also (x - yz)2 — 1. 1 — y2) (1 - ... I 5.11 (1)
MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF FUNCTIONS OF TWO VARIABLES Def.
A fun ti inn f (x, y) is said to have a maximum or minimum at x = a, y = 6.
accord i ng as fia + A, b + k) < or >f(a 1 fo), for oil positive or negative
small values of h and k. In other words, if A = fia + h, b + k ) -fia, b >, is of
the some sign for all small values of h, k , and if this sign is negative, thru
fia, b ) is a maximum. If this sign is positive, fia, b) is a minimum.
227 Partial Different iation and Its Applications Considering z =
fix^y) as a surface, maximum value ufs occurs at the Lop of an elevation
ic.g+f a dome) from which the surface descends io every direction and a
minimum value occurs at Lhe bottom of a depression (v,g. , a bowl) from
which the surface ascends in every direction. Sometimes the maximum or
minimum value may form a ridge such that the surface descends or ascends
in all directions except that of the ridge. Besides these, we have such a point
of the surface* where the tangent plane is horizontal and the surface looks
like leather seat on the horse’s hack [Fig, 5.5 (c)l which fulls for
displacement in certain directions and rises for displacements in other
directions. 8uch a point is railed a saddle point. Fig. 5.5 Note, A maximum
or minimum value of a function is called its extreme value. (2) Conditions
for f(x* y) to be maximum or minimum Using Taylor's theorem page 235,
we have A = f(a + A, 6 + k) — f (a* 6) -(*♦*1 dx* dxdy ...a) For small
values of ft amd ft , the second and higher order terms are still smaller and
hence may be neglected. Thus sign of A = sign of \hfxia, ft) + kfy(a, 6)].
Taking ft = 0 we see that the right hand side changes sign when A changes
sign. Hence f{xty) cannot have a maximum or a minimum at (a, b) unless
jfy{a, b) - 0. Similarly taking ft = 0, we find that/foy) cannot have a
maximum or minimum at (a, 6) uniess£,(a,6)- 0. Hence the necessary
conditions for ft x, y) to have a maximum or minimum at (a, b ) are that
fx(a, b) = 0, fv(u, b) = 0. If these conditions are satisfied, then for small
value of ft and ft, (i) gives sign of A = sign of Jj-fftV + 2ftfts + ft2/) | where
r - fXxia , ft), s = fxJa . ft) and / = fâ, ft). Now hlr + 2ftfts + k2t = ^-j (ftV"
+ 2/iftrs + ft2r/)J = ^(ftr + ksf + ft" In' - s2.)J Thus sign of A = sign of ^{(Ar
+ hsf + ft2(rf - s2 >] In {tt ), (ftr + ksfi is always positive and kHrt - s2 )
will be positive if r/ - > 0. In this case, A will have the same sign as that of r
for all values of ft and ft. Hence if rt — s2 > 0, then f{xt y) has a maximum
or ct minimum at (a, ft) according as r < or > ft, If rt- s2 < 0. then A will
change with ft and A and hence there is no maximum or minimum at (a, ft)
i.e., it is a saddle point. If rt - s2 = 0, further investigation is required to find
whether there is a maximum or minimum at (a, ft) or not. Note. Stationary
value. f{a, ft) is said to be a stationary value of fix, y), if fjui, ft ) = 0 and
fjla, ft ) - {J i.e. the function is stationary at (a. ft). Thus every extreme
value is a stationary value hut the converse may not be true. (3) Working
rule to find the maximum and minimum values of f(x, y ) J. Find iifldx and
dfldy and equate each to zero. Solve these as simultaneous equations in x
and y. Let (o , ft), (c, d), ... be the pairs of values. 2. Calculate the value of r
- d2f/dx2, s = d2fl ckfly, t = iftf/dy2 for each pair of values.
22a Higher Engineering Mathematics 3. (t) If rt - s2 > 0 and r < 0
ut (ti, b), f{a, b) is a wax. value. (ii) If rt - 4}a > 0 and r > 0 at {a, 6), f (a, b)
is a min . value. (iii) If rt - s2 <0 at (a, b),f{a, b) is not. an extreme value,
Le., (a, b) is a saddle point. (tt') If rt - a1 = 0 at (a, 6), the case is doubtful
and needs further investigation. Similarly examine the other pairs of values
one by one. Example 5,42. Examine the following func tion for extreme
values : fix, y) = x1 + y* -2x* + 4xy - 2ys. UJV.T, U., 2003) Solution. We
have fx = 4X3 - 4x + 4y ; f = 4 y3 + 4x - 4y and r = fm. = 12x2 - 4, s = = 4,
t » =* 12y2 - 4 ...(t) Now fx - 0, fy - 0 give x3 - x + y = 0, ..,(*) y3 + x -y - 0
...(ii) Adding these, we get 4(x 3 + ya) = 0 or y = - x. Putting y = - x in (i),
we obtain x3 — 2x — 0, Le. x = 42.- 4% , 0. Corresponding values of y are
- 42 , 42 , 0. At {42, - 42), rl -s2 - 20 x 2fl - 42 = + ve and r is also + ve,
Hence f{42, - 42) is a minimum value. At (- 42, 42 J also both rt - s2 and r
are + ve. Hence/* (— 42, 42), is also a minimum value, At ( 0 , 0), rt - s2 =
0 and, therefore, further investigation is needed. Now fit), 0) = 0 and for
points along the x-axitr. where y = U ,f{x,y) = xi - 2x2 - xHx2 - 2), which is
negative for points in the neighbourhood of the origin. Again for points
along the liney = x, ftx,y) = 2X4 which is positive. Thus in the
neighbourhood of ft), 0) there are points where ftx,y) fit}, 0). Hence f (U, 0)
is not an extreme value i.e., it is a saddle point , Example 5.43- Discuss the
maxima and minima affix, y) = xPy%( 1 - x - y). {Anna, 2009 ; J.N. T. U.,
2006 ; Bhopal, 2002} Solution, We have fx - 3xaya - 4x3y2 - 3x^3 ; f —
2x3y - 2x4y - Sx^y2 and r = fa = 6xy2 - 12xV - 6xy3 ,s-fxy- 6x*y - 8x3y -
9.t 2y* ;t=fyy = 2x3 - 2x4 - 6x:V. When fx - 0, f = 0, we have x2y2( 3 - 4x ~
3y ) = 0, x^(2 -2x - 3_y) = 0 Solving these, the stationary points are (1/2,
1/3), (0, 0). Now rt - s2 - x^y2! I2( 1 — 2x — y) ( 1 — x — 3y) — (6 —
fix — 9y}2| At {1 12, 1/3), Also -s2 = 3) 14 >0 2 4 1 2 27 = — — < 0
Hence f fx, ,y) has a maximum at ( 1/2, 1/3) and maximum value = ^ ^ o y
At \0, 0), rt — s2 = 0 and therefore further investigation is needed. For
points along the liney = x, f(x,y ) = x^ 1 — 2x) which is positive for# = 0.1
and negative forx = - 0.1 i.e. , in the neighbourhood of (0. 0) there are
points where fix, y) > f{ 0,0) and there are points where f (x, y ) < /HO, 0).
Hence fiO. 0) is not an extreme value. Exampic 5.14. In a plane triangle,
find file-maximum value af eos A cos B cos C. ( V.T.U. , 20.10 ; Nagpur,
2009 ; Anna , 2005 S) Solution. We have A + B + C = Jt so that C = n - (A +
B). cos A cos j3 cos C - cos A cos B cos In - (A + ZJ)J = - cos A cos B cos
(A + B) = f(A , B), say.
Pa mm DiF-i-i=M6NTi*nON awd Its Applications 229 Wt' get
and df -J— = cos B Isin A cos (A + B ) + cos A sin (A + iJ }] d A = cos B
sin (2A + B) ■3(3 - cos A sin (A + 2Z3) dts - 0, ~~ - 0 only when A = R =
ji/3. M dB r = ~ 2 cos B cos {2A + B), t - i—r - 2 cos A cos (A + 2 B) cH2 3
^2 r s = _ “ — sin B sin (Z A + jB > + cte ZJ cos (2A + B) = cos (2A + 2 B)
aA (.r, y. z) = O. The values ofx, y, z so obtained will give the stationary
value of fix, y, 2). Obs. A! though the Lagrange's method is often very
useful in application yet the drawback nt that we ran not determine the
nature of the statiotury point. This ran sometimes, be determined from
physical considerations of the prcbletn. " See footnote page 142.
230 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 5.45. A
rectangular box open at the top it: tv ha or volume of 32 cubic ft. Find the
dimensions of the box requiring least material for its construction . (
Kurukshetra, 2006 ; P. T. U., 2006 ; U. P. T. U., 2005) and Solution. Let a-,
y and z ft. be the edges of the box and S be its surface. Then S = xy + 2yz +
2>jc xyz = 22 32 Eliminating z from (i) with the help of (ill, we gel S = xy
+ 2(y + x) — - xy -r 64 9S/dx=y- 64/Jf2 - 0 and BSfdy-x- 64/y2 = 0.
Solving these, we get x = y = 4. Now r = d2S7d.v2 = 128/r3, s = 3*S/flbc5y
=1,1 = WSidy* = 128/y3. At j; = y = 4,rf — s2 = 2*2-1 = + ve and r is also
+ ve. Hence S is minimum for* =y = 4. Then from (til, z - 2, Otherwise ( by
Lagrange’s method ) : F = xy + 2 \yz + 2zx + \ixyz — 32) df „ M ) ..Mi)
[i.i] U y) Write Then - = y + 2z + Xyz - 0 dx dF = x + 2z + Xzx = 0 ^ = 2y +
2.r + Xxy = 0 oz .MU) ...iiv } Multiplying (Hi) by x and (iu) by y and
subtracting, we get 2 zx - 2 zy = 0 or x —y. [The value z = 0 is neglected, as
it will not satisfy (i£)[ Again multiplying (in) byy and (u) by z and
subtracting, we gety = 2 z. Hence the dimensions of the box are x = y - 2z =
4 ...(at) Now let us see what happens as z increases from a small value to a
large one. When z is small, the box is flat, with a large base showing that S
is large. As z increases, the base of the box decreases rapidly and S also
decreases. After a certain stage, S again starts increasing as z increases.
Thus S must be a minimum at some intermediate stage which is given by
(vi). Hence S is minimum when x =y = 4 ft and z — 2 ft. or i.e. Example
5.46. Given x + y + z = a, find the maximum valve of xjnynz*\ Solution.
Let f(x,y, z) = and $(x,y, z) = x + y + z-a. Then Fix, y, z) = f(x, y, z) + X y,
z) _ xmynzp + \{x + y + z - a 1. 3JT TilT 7iF For stationary values of F, -r
— = 0, -r— = 0, — = 0 dr dy d z mxn'~vyAzil + ^ = 0, nx'n ytt~l zp + X =
0, pxntynzi’~^ + Jt = 0 — X~ mxn~1ynzl‘ - nxniyn-1zt’ = pxmynzl‘~l m _
n _ p _ m + n + p _ m + n + p x y z x + y + z a The maximum value off
occurs when x - am/(m + n +p),y = antim + n + p),z ~ apiim + n + P> t
Anna . 2009} tv x+y + 2 = o Hence the maximum value of fix, y,z) = (hi + «
+ p)m+«+t‘ Example 5.47. Find the maximum and minimum distances of
the point (3, 4, 12) from the sphere x~ + y+ z*=4. iU.T.U., 2010) Solution.
Let Fix , y,z) be any point on the sphere and A(3, 4, 12) the given point so
that AP* = {x - 3)2 + (y - 4? + {z - 12)2 = f (x, y, z), say .M)
PaHTIAI. DlFFEOENllAl lON AND !t$ APPLICATIONS Wo
have to find the maximum and minimum values of fix, y, z) subject to the
condition 0(.v, y , 2) = x2 +■ y 2 + 22 - 4 = 0 Let FXx,y,2)-f(,x,y, z) +
l$(,x,yt z) = (* - 3)a + (.v ~4f + <2- 12)2 + Ux* + y2 + z*- 4) Jtii) Then
which give ^ = 2{x - 3} + 2^, = 2(y - 4) + 2?.yT ~ = 2(2 - 12) + 2te dr dV
dz =0give dr dy dz * - 3 + Lr - 0, y - 4 + Ay = 0, 2 - 12 + A2 = 0 x-3__y-4_
2-12 ..Xiii) L ,/lto - af *ty- if + (z- 121*1 ^jf_ J< 77777)'~ = 1 Substituting
fur A in (m), we get 3 jr = x2 + y1 + iz = 9 + 16 + 144 169 {l ± 4f? ~i\±4ff
.2 = 12 i±# Using Then Fix, y, z) = fky2 + k(x2 + .v3 + z2 — R2) and dF/dx
= 0, bF/dy = 0 and bF/bz - 0 give Sya + 2xX - 0, &zx + 2yA = 0, 8xy + 2eX
= 0 or 2x2X ~ — fijvyz - 2y2X = 2?2A Thus for a maximum volume x -y =
2. i.e.t the rectangular solid is a cube. Example 5.49. A tent on a square base
of side x, has its sides vertical of height y und the top is a rcgular pyramid
of height Is, Find x and yin terms ofh, if the canvas required for i/s
construction is to bn mini mum for the tent to have a given capacity.
Solution. Let Vhe the volume enclosed by the tout and S he its surface area
(Fig. 5.6). Then V = cuboid iABCD , A'B'C'Dl + pyramid (K, A'B'C'D') =
.r53-+ \x2h = .v2
232 Higher Engineering Mathematics For constant V, we have 2
8V = 2x(y + ft/3) Sx + x2{6y) + £-&ft = 0 O For minimum Sy wt* have
&S= \4y + y[(? + 4ft2) + x-±(x2 +4A2>'1/2 ‘2x]8x + 4 xfy + x hx2 + 4ft2
Tin • SftSft = 0 £t By Lagrange's method, 14 y + ft? + 4A2} + *2 (*2 +
4h2Ti,2i + X 2*( y + ft/3) = 0 4x + X ■ x2 = 0 4ftx(x2 + 4 ft2)’ 1/2 + X •
x2/3 = 0 (ii) gives X = - 4/x. Then (m) becomes 4ftx(x2 + 4 ft2)“l/2 - 4r/3 =
0 or r - V& ft Now putting * - n/5 ft, X = — 4/x in f i >, we get 4y + 3ft +
|ft - i ■ 2x(y + A/3) = 0 or 4y + ^ft - 8y - ~ o jc 3 ' 3 = 0, t.e.f y = ft/2, Fig.
5.6 Example 5.50, 1/k = aV + ftV tc-V* leftere Jr* + y_/ +2"/ =t 1, sftou; A
An A the stationary value of it is given by x * la /a, y = la f bf z = Let / c.
{Kerala, 2005} Solution. Let u - f(x,y,z) - a3x2 + 63y2 + eV5 and (x, y , z)
= xr 1 + y" 1 + z~ 1 - 1 Let FXx, y, z) ~ f(x,y,z) + X
Partial Differentiation and Its Applications 233 = 8 xy + h ^ = 82*

+ ?l f = 0 ...Cm) fly b2 J & Equating the values of X from (if) and Cm), we
get x2/a2 — y2/h 2 Similarly from iiii) and (it* 1), we obtain y2/b2 = zVc?
x2/a2 = y2lb2 - z2k2 2 ’ 2 2 Substituting these in (i), we get x2/a2 - ^ Le. ^
— = ^—=^— = ^ 2z •i = 0 These give x = ct/J 3 , y = b/dS ,z = c/js When x
= 0, the parallelopiped is just a rectangular sheet and as such its volume V =
0, As x increases, V also increases continuously. Thus V must he greatest at
the stage given by tu). Hence the greatest volume = . 3v3 -Mu)
PROBLEMS 5.10 1, Find the maximum atid minimum values of (i)*3* .v3
- Zttxy ( U.P.T, U„ 2005) xyz* ra3 {P.T. CL 2009 ; Osmanm 2003) a) of
Lwo variables x and ot (called a parameter), be integrated with respect to x
between rb the limits a and b, then I fix, ix) dx is a function of a : F(a), say.
To find the derivative of Fid), when it exists, it is not always possible to
first evaluate this integral and then to find the derivative. Such problems are
solved by the following rules : (1) LeibniU's rule* If fix, a) and fl/Xx, ct) 3a
bn continuous functions of x und a, then da dx where, a, b ore constants
independent, of a. *See fool note on p, 139.
234 Higher Lmginceming MATHSdWtCB Let then | f(x,a)dx =

Fia), J[| FiI^. C . LeibniU’s rulfe enables ur to derive from the value af a
simple definite integral, the value nF another definite integral which it may
otherwise be difficult* or even impossible, to evaluate. Ohs, 2. The rule for
differentiation under She integral augri of an infinite integral is the same as
for a definite integral. [i ^ j Example 5,52. Evaluate I — - da,- a > 0 Jo log x
r1 x™ -l dx Solution, Let F(a) - f Jo then «cc) = f* * IfjliU - f‘ Jo da {lag x
) J„ |ng * log x :l d f xa - i) = JV Jo dx = 41+1 a + 1 1 1 + a Now integrating
both sides w.r.t. a, F(a) = log ( 1 + a) + c From (i), when a = 0,FT(0) = 0
From (i(), fXO) = log {1) + c, i.e., c = 0. Hence lii) gives, Jâ) - log (1 + a).
Example 6.53. Given f Jo evaluate Solution. We have Differentiating both
aid f* d i.e. j; r— Jo (a + dx It - i a + bcos x iasb s) p dx rr~ einrt I lo (a + b
iKis . xf Jo r* dx 1 ft a + b cos x -&ai off/} w.r.t. u. 1 j dx d i + b cos yj i)it -
dx - K i cos a)2 H) Co*dx 7LU - (a > b). cos x + b cos i) dx (a + b cos a*)2
hi2 Now differentiating both sides of (i) w.r.t. b, f - {n + h cos x)~2 ■ c«s .r
dx - tc( — ) id1 - b2)~3/~ (J° l 2) 2b) iV,T,U.r 2010 ) ...ID v (n i) = ni logo
...(H) ^Madras, 2006 > ,..(0
235 PflFmAL Differentiation and Its Applications rJo (a cos x
■dx = + 6 cos*)2 1 p — {f f(x,a)dxl = j da [ Joia) J J* f(x, a)dx[ = ^ dx + ^ f
[y(a?, a] - ^ f l(a), a] »*(a) and \)/(a) possesses continuous first, order
derivatives w.r.t. «. [ts proof is beyond the scope of this book. Example
5.54- Evaluate f (d + dx and hence show that Jo 1 + x2 fJ log(! + x) , n, —
z^-dx = - loge2 Jo 1 + xd 8 (Hismr, 2005 S) fri log (1 + ax) , Solution. Let
F(a) = I — - ~ — dx Jo 1 + x2 Xi) a 3 ( log (1 + cuc)l ^ + rffa) log(l + a2)
Then bv the above rule, F (a) = f f — i ng + ax' dx Jo da I, 1 +■ Jr J da 1 +
a2 -0 _ f “ X _ . log a + a2) Jo (l + aiXl + x2) 1 + a2 . Xii ) Breaking the
integrand into partial fractions, x dx r« j: dx _ a j*n dx + 1 ra 2x ^ + a fa dx
Jo (1 + arXl + x2) 1 + a2 Jo 1 1 coc 211 + a2) Jo l + x2 1 + a2 « 1 + 1 + a2
log(l + our) j” + 2d + a?) x logd + jc2) + a 0 n/l i —2 \ | i . „2 1 + a tan" x
logd + a2} logd + a2) atanlu — - ■ - — - + - - - - + - - — 1 +«■* 2(1 + a ) 1
+ a" Substituting this value in (£i), F (a) = * ** + K ân 2(1 + ) 1 + cr ■ a
tan-1 a Now integrating both sides w,r.t. a, F(a)=i f logd + a2) - + fa tan L a
^ 2 J 1 + a2 J 1 + a2 [Integrating by parts] i/i s, , -i f 2a . _i , 1 ratan-ta, logd
+ or ) • tan « - 1 - - - tan a da +1 - - — da + J 1 + a2 J 1 + a2 - — log(l + a2)
• tan" 1 a + c But from (i)t when a = 0, F(0) = 0. From (iii)f F(0) = 0 + c,
Le., c - 0. Hence (Hi) gives, Fla) = - log(l + a2) tan"1 a 2 Putting a = 1, we
get +2** dx = F(l) = ^log, 2. .-(Hi)
236 Higher Engineering Mathematics PROBLEMS 5.11 t* dx I x

- . Cx dx 1. Different tin ting — tail — under the integral sign, find the
value of I —5 - . , . Jo jr + er « n Jij (*4 + n- )“ 2. By successive
differentiation of [ xm dx - — - — w.r.t. m, evaluate f xm (log *)" rfjr. Jo m
+ 1 Jo r rt Evaluate log< X + a cub x) dxf using the method of differential
inn under the sign nf integration. Jo Jrn fix it rn - - r . evaluate I fl a cos *
JlBz _ 13 Jo (a cos xT (v.TMJ&am Prove that : _ * si n fix dx - tan-1 a. \
Hint. Use c®* cos bx dx - a2+bz r~nx *n 1 dx = tan 1 — . Hence show that
f fl'-n x = n x o Jo x 2 (« cos bx + b sin bx} (Rohttik, 2003) 2005 S) «. r Jo
e. r Jo 7. f tan ‘ a;’~ fix - log(l * a) where a > 0. f V.T.U.. 2010 : S.V.T.U.,
2009 : RohUih. 2006 S : Anna, 2 Jo *<1+*3) 2 8. f — ( 1 - r“> dx = log {1
+ a), - l). Jo X St. f log(a2 cos2 ft + fJ2 sin2 fl> = 71 log a 4 ^ Jo 2 10. T" 1
If v = fit) - r>lr/r, prove* that y satisfies the differential equation — : j +
h2y - kfix). Jo dar 5.14 OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS PROBLEMS
5.12 Select the correct answer or fill up the blanks in each of the following
problems ; , t , . ... h2u d2u 1. If u = e*(i cos y ~y sin y}, then — j 4 — , =
tk cfy” 2. If* = liu. y = u/v. thou j is (a ) — 2uiu i)(u, u) f61 -2 v/u (c)0 (rf)
L (V.T.U.,20tQ)
ParTj ajl DfFFEJÊNTIATION AND tTS APPLICATIONS 237 *

If J, then JA Sti, y) ' 0t«,w) 4. If ti = f(ylx), then . . da du t°> s0 03C w> „ ,
01/ 0W G. If it - xy, then tifaefc t is fa) 0 (6) yx^1 6. Ifx = r cos B,;y = rein
(J, then , . cJu 0U fa) x— + } — =2u ax qy (c)xy log A . ... du, du id) = 1 ik
dy m y=~ t)r (k , . 3* .Sir *■* aT“"fc 7. If u = xy, then du/by is to) y*rwl
d2u K, If u = x3 + y3r then — — - is equal to ctedy (6)0 m | =o. or fa) #
log*. fa) - 3 (6)3 fa) 0 fa) 3x + 3 y ( V.T.U., SOWS) 7^ ^£| 3. If u = X* +•
2a y + y* + X + y, then a - + v — - is equal fa (hr ' qy fa )2u (6) u III. If u -
log — - , then x-— + y --- is equal to y dx qy (a) 2u (i b ) 3 u 11. If x = r cos
0, > = r sin 6. then ^/Y> ^ is equal to (a) 1 dfa.G) (Mr (c) n (c) U fa) 1 Jr fa)
none of these. t d) 1. fa) 0, (V.T.U., 2010 S) (V.T, U.t 2010 S) 12. If A =fXI
(a, 6), B - fjyia, b). C =/^fa, 6), then fix, j1) will have a maximum at fa, b) if
to) fx = 0, /y = 0. ACÛ-andA^ fa) / = 0, fy = 0, AC > fia and A > 0 . , V*2
+ yl — ci n 1 — (&)£ = 0,^ = 0. AC = fi*andA>0 {d)ff = Q,fy = 0, AC >
BS and A < 0. 13. If a - sin 3z tte . , then x — + y- — is * + y ck ' dy id) 2.
(Bhopal, 2008) fa) 0 fa) V2 fa) 1 M, If ti ~ sin-1 (xJy) + tan-1 (v/x), than x
dafdx + y thi/dy equals fa) sin-1 (xJy) + tan"1 Ofa.tj) fa)- 1 a-ii , equals •Tx
+ fy (fe) 1 (c) zero is a homogeneous function of degree ...... < d ) none of
these. 3z 3? 18. If 2 - log (jc3 + r;i -xv2)* tlien — + — is equai to ......
238 Higher Engineering Mathematics 22. If u and u art; funct ions

of r, s where r, s arc functions of .v, >‘, then dim, (i? f)(r, a) dtr, s) iKx, y)
2:i. The necessary conditions for a function flz.y) to have an extreme at (4,
then — + t — is the Sy 3s fa) 1 (b)u (c) 4 u (d! 0. tV.T, 11, 2010) du 25. ] f n
is a composite function of t , defined by the relations u -f{x.y)\x = y = \)(t\
then total derivative y dt 26. 1 f u = cos 1 ix/y) + ta n 1 iy/x), then + 2 xyu,^
+ ; is fa) ti (6) 2w ■ = cosh (Aat) cosh f- A. at) is a solution of g. = a* * y .
dr dx2 I V T. U., 2010) (True or False I
Integral Calculus and Its Applications I 1. Reduction formulae. 2.
Reduction formulae for J sin" xdx, J cos" xcfx and evaluation of sin" xdx, I
| |^2 cos" x dx . 3. Reduction formula for J sin"1 xcosn x dx and evaluation
of f ^ sin”1 xcqs" x dx . | I I | 4. Reduction formulae for [ tan" x dx | cot" x
dx. 5. Reduction formulae for j sec" x dx, J cosec" xdx . j J 6. Reduction
formulae for j x" eH* dx, J xm (log x)n dx. 7 . Reduction formulae tor j x*
sin mx dx, J ! | x" cos nx dx and j cos'" x sin nx dx. 8. Definite integrals. 9.
Integral as the limit of a sum. 10. Areas of I I curves. 11. Lengths of curves*
12. Volumes of revolution. 13, Surface areas of revolution, 14. Objective
Type of I I Questions. l - - - 1 REDUCTION FORMULAE The reader is
already familiar with Home standard methods of integrating functions of a
single variable. However, there are some integral* which cannot be
evaluated hy the afore-said method*. In such cases, the method of reduction
formulae proves useful A reduction formula connects an integral with
another of the same type but of lower order. The successive application of
the reduction formula enables us to evaluate the given integral Now we
shall derive some standard reduction formulae. 6.2 (1) REDUCTION
FORMULAE for or (o) J sin" x dx (6> j cob" x dx, (ti ) J sin" x dx = j sin" ”
1 x ■ sin x dx = Bin'* - lx < (- cosx) - J {n - l)sinrt-ax cosx (- cos x) dx = -
sin" _ 1 x cosx + {n - I) J sin"-2 x (1 - smex)dx = - sin" " 1 x cos x + (n - 1 )
j sin" - 2 x dx — (n — 1) J sin'1 x dx Transposing n | sin" x dx =■ - sin" 1 x
cos x + (n - 1) J sin" 1 x dx sin" " 1 x cos x n — 1 | sin" x dx = j sin n-2 x
dx (Integrated by parts! M) 239
240 Higher Emghseerwg Mathematics cr i i r n , sinxcos" 1 x n-1

r n_2 _i {bj Similarly , I cos x dx = - 4- - cos x dx J n n J Thus we have the
required reduction formulae. Gb*, To integrate J sin" x dx or j cos'J * dx.
Ut) when th e tndex of sin x is odd put cm x = t whet i the index of cos x is
odd , put sin x ~ t (6) when the index is an even positive integer, express the
integrand as a series of cosines of mu Hi pie angles and integrate term by
term if n is small, otherwise use the. method of reduction formulae. r n/£
riva (2) To show that [ sin" xdx= cos” x dx Jfl Jo n/2 (n - l}(n - 3Mn - 5)...
fn . ^ ■ x | — , only if n ts even Prom (i), we have / = f sin" xdx = n Jo a m -
2) (o - 4) ... 1, 2 in72 sin" “ 1 x cos x n - 1 fH/H — P n J° sin" x dx i.e. I =
— I n „ * n -3 fl Case I* When n is odd Similarly ln-a a- 3 n- 2 ^n-4' ift-4 n
-5 n — 4 ln - 6 4 r ,2.2 r«/a , 2 5 3> 3 _ 3 _ 3 (n - l)(n - 3) (n - 5) ... 2 , % r -
x t ^ . , -a s fi 3 3 a 1 a Jo a Porm these, we get 1„ - cos x is/ a 2 «{« — 2)
(rt — 4) ... 3 Case II. When n is even We have j = ^ 11 = — _ - / n-8_ n-2 n
v n 4 n-4 r 3 , , 1 . rJt/2 * 0 j J- r*/2 1 Jt I. = h =“ln = sin z dx - — dx = - . 4
4 3 3 2 u Jo Jo 5 5! Form these, we obtain Z(i = 4 2 ■ Jo 2 t/i — 1) (n - 3>(n
— 5) ... 3 ■ 1 Jt n(n — 2) (n — 4) ... 4 < 2 2 r7t/Z Combining (ii) and (iii),
we get the required result for J* sin" x dx. Proceeding exactly as above, we
get the result for cos" x dx. Example 6.1. Integrate t i) j sin 4 x dx tfi) j*iS
cos6 x dx. Solution. (0 We have the reduction formula r ■ „ , sin" _ 1 x cos
x ji — 1 r . „_2 , } sin x dx= - + - sin x dx 3 n n 1 Putting n = 4,2
successively, [ sin4 x dx = — sin x cos x 3 + — f sin2 x dx A J Mi) MU) .
(a)
Integral Calculus and Its .Applications 241 r . 2 , Sill X COS X 1
f, , 0 . am jt dr = - _____ — + _ [ (sm x)u dx J 2 2 J Bui | lain x)° dx = J dir
= x. .-. Jsin23rdr = Substituling this in (a), we gel sin’1 x cos x 3 { sin x cos
x x^ i — 2) even sin x cos x x - + — 2 2 J sin4 x dx = . i*"'2 „ , (n - IMn -
3) (ft -5)„. ( rt . Ui) We know that I cos x dx = - - - — — - - - — if n is Jo n
(n - 2) (n - 4) ... 1,2 Putting ft - 6, we get ric/2 fi . 5.3,1 K 5lt (K,d 6 J cos x
dx JO 6.4.22 16 Example 6.2. Evaluate fo x7 dx *z Solution. (i) |c (V.T.U.,
2006) (it) j* sin-’ x dx + cos x (ui) l dx 0 + dx Put x = a sin 0, so that dx -u
cos 0 d0 Also when x = 0, 0 = 0, when x = a, 0 = x/2 f*/2 G7 gin7 0 n Jn 7 .
7 „ 7 6.4.2 16 — I - . a cos 0 d0 - a sin 0 a0 - a . - = — a ha cose J° 7.5. 3.1
35 (it) Putting x - 20, we get EE 1 + 008 X rn fa- COS x) , 2 f1t/2 1 - C0S
20> • 2™ n m - - sin xdx - I - - - — sin 20 - 2dB Jo 1 4- ms t JO l + c*>£ 20
= 2 p/I JdnS (2s.nBcosfl),rf0 _ f*'25inierf9 = = M JO 9 O ^0 O O (Hi) f“—
^ z dx 2.ti 2 cos 0 Put x = a tan 0, so that dx - a sec2 0 d0 Also when x = 0,
0 = 0, when x = «>, 0 = tl/2 = r Jo Example 6.3. Evaluate JJ Tit 2 a sec“ 0
dQ a2n sec 2,1 0 a = 1 r 2^1-1 Jo k/2 2,_2njB i (2h - 3) (2ft - 5) ... 3 . 1
«w",_
242 Higher Engineering Mathematics 1 f i *" + 1 (/l + 1) 2 J 0 (l-
*2) 1 [it n (n - 2) in - 4) ... 1 a} h + 1[2 (n + l)(rt-l) ... 4.2 (2n + 1) [2n — 1}
(2ft - 3) ... 5.3 Now replacing n by n - 1, we get n9rt^, (2a — 2) (2n — 4), „
4-2 1,-1 “ (2n - l) (2n — 3) ... 5.3 -ia- = a2 r„_! 2 n 2 ft + 1 or /„ = 2n 2n + 1
*2*n-V which is the second desired result. (1) REDUCTION FORMULAE
for J sin*" x cos" x dx J sin"1 x cos" x dx = J sin™ 1 * - cos" x ■ sin x dx '-
cos'1*1 x) f - - — ~ I (m - l)si n + 1 J ' = sinm 1 x sin™ “ 2 x cos x COS^V
n + 1 llntegrate by parts] dx. ■ - 1 ^fl+1 ^ m 1 SID X COS X f f i — 1 r cos
X m - 1 r . m_2 .. . , , _ , - - - + - - sin x { 1 - sin2 x ) cos'* x dx n + 1 m + 1
J sinm -1 x cos" 4 1 jc m-1 r . m_2 _ m - 1 r . . — + - sin £ x cos" x ax - I
sin jc cos" x dx ft + 1 J rt + 1-1 n + 1 Transposing the last terra to the left
and dividing by 1 + (m — 1 )l{n +1), i.e., (m + n)/{n + 1), we obtain the
reduction formula sin™ x cos" x dx ~sin™ 1 x cos'1 + 1 x m- 1 m + n m -Js
+ n J sin™ 2 x cos" x dx .(1) J sii Obs. To integrate J sm**x cos* x dx, (
Integral Calculus and Its Applications From 0), we have J.k/2
sin"1 x cos" x dx = o sin"1-1 * cosn+1 x m + n n/2 m — 1 r*/2 . - sin'71 2 x
cQs"x dx + n Jo m i.eri i = m~li m’n m + n m~2'n' Case I. When m is odd ,
m - 3 Similarly, - 2, n m + n - 2 / / = m~5 J ‘m-4. « m + n_4‘"i'6.n 4,«
n+673,» Finally 2 , 2 r*/2 , „ = - - -L ,, = - - — I sin x cos" x dx 3-" n + 3 1
n +3 Jo ti + 3 cos" + 1 x n + l k/2 in + 3){n + 1) ■..(it) From these, we
obtain ;m,« - (m + n)im + n - 2) im + n - 4} ... (n + 3) (n + 1) Case II- When
m ts even (m-l) im - 3){m — 5)... 4.2 We have. m - 3 m~2'n m + n-2 m~*
,rt’ ^m-4, fi m - 5 m + n 4 m~*'n From these, we have I 3 i 1 r"/2 “s" 1 * (m
- 1) tm - 3) (m -5)... 1 + n — 4) ... (n + 2) »( 1 im + nHm + n- 2) (m + n- 4)
... (n + 2) Jo (m - 1) (m — 3) ... 1 (n - 1) (n - 3) cos" x dx (m + n) (m + n -
2) ... (n + 2) n(n — 2) ... Combining (ti) and (tit), we get the desired result.
x (tl/2 only if n is even) ...(ut) Example 0.5. In teg rule (i) J sin4 x cos2 x dx
( Raipur , 2005) (fi) f — t—r^ -dt (Hi) f Jo U + ts? 1 0 il + x*f12 (V.T,U„
2010 S) Solution, (i) Taking n = 2, in (i) of page 241, we have the reduction
formula : Jsii sinm x cos2 x dx Putting m = 4, 2 successively, J sin4 x cos2
xdx-sin x cos x m-l - - - - m + 2 m + 2 sin3 x cos3 x 3 | sin"* 2 x cos2 x dx
+ f sin" x cos2 x dx 6 J ...U) f . 2 , , sin x cos3 x 1 r 2 , I sin x cos* x dx = - -
1- — | cos x dx J 4 4 J f cos2 x dx = — f (1 + cos 2x) dx = — j x + — si J 2
* 2 \ 2 sin 2x But
Higher Engineering Mathematics j sin2 .r cos2 x dx =

Substituting this in (1), we get sin x coslS x 1 - - - + — (2x + sin 2x} 4 16 f
. 4 *j , sin3 x cos3 x 1 I sin x cos" x ax = - — - ■ J 6 2 ' sin x cos3 x 1 + —
(2x + sin 2x> 16 (ii) Putting t - tan 0, so that f" f6 tan6 0 * fit's _ 5 -3- 1x5-3
jl ji 5ti f - *jdt~ I - fj — secs0tf0=[ sinc 6 cosB 0 d& = — o*o~onlft~ Je> (l
+ 12)1 Jo sec1J 0 Jo 12 10 8 G 4 2 2 2048 (iii) Putting x = tan 0, so that P
X'J > P'2 tan" 0 2 o in f"'2 - 2 Q uj0 1-2 2 - 7™rt& = — 5 — sec2 6 1/6 =
sirr 0cosJ 0cf6 =——=—. Jo (l + *2)7/2 Jo sec7 B Jo 53.1 15 Example 6.6.
tfua/uafe ; (0 J cos 1 3B sin3 66 dB I V. T. U. , 2003 S) (ii) £ x4{J~x*f**.dx
Hit) x2^2tix- f)dx. {V.T U.,2010) cos 30 sin' 6BdQ = [ cos4 36 (2 sin 30 cos
30 )3 d& o Jo = 8 [ sin3 30 cos' 30 dB Jo I-ti/G Jo 6 fn'2 . j O f*'- . ft 1 = —
I sin x cos x dx 3 Jo _ 8 2x6-4 2 L “ 3 10 8-6-4 2 " 15' Put 30=i so that 3c/0
- dx Also when 0 = 0, x = 0; when 0 = te/6, x = n/2. (ii) f1 x4(l- x^f2 dx Jd
Put jc = sin t so that dx - cog ( dt When x = 0, t - 0; when x - l, t - x/2 J-ie/z ,
„ _rt fit rt, , sin'1 t (cos2 t}3,2 cos i dt = I sin4 t cos4 t dt o Jo 3 1x3-1 ji 3n 8
6 4 2 2 256 (Hi) | xJJ(2ax -Tjc2) dx = J" xst2^j(2a-x)dx = f (2a sin2 0)s/2
J{2 aj cos 0 - 4a sin 0 cos 0 d& Jo Put jc = 2a sin2 0 c/jc = 4a sin 0 cos 0 dB
- 25a4 f sin*1 0 cos2 0 rf6 = 32 a4 - 1x1 n ^nQ Jo 8 ■ 6 ■ 4 ■ : B-6-4-2 2
PROBLEMS 6.1 Evaluate N L (ii P CG£S Ktfa Jo (ii } I tsin5 30 d© Jo 3.
U i [ 1) (V.T.U,, 200S S) Jo U + jT>n 2. (l) f 4.*— — -
Integral Calculus and Its Applications 245 I. If _ - f X cos" * f lx
(m > [}, n > 0), show that _ = — — - / * F,1J1 Je M1Jl m+n m~^n nfi I a
Hence evaluate sin x cos x dx Jn Evaluate : 5. (i) I *in4 x cos*1 xdx
{Cochin^ 2QQ5\ JQ 0. «) x€ Ja -x2)dx 7. U) f J( (»> I sinw.r cobj ,v rfx Jo
rn'2 . 4 fii) I corVSG sin' 60 t/§ Jo f 20 x3-iV 10. If n is a positive integer,
show that f x" J\2ax - .r') 'dx = ■ — T-- — - — — it Jo in + 2) ft! 2n 3EM
REDUCTION FORMULAE for (a) f tan" x dx (b) [ cot" x dx xl,‘i(2a -
xrl,J- dx (Madras, 2000 .%') ( V.T.IJ. . 2004) [ Marnihu-udn, 2008 1 (V.7&L
2007 > /n = | tan'1 x efx = J tan" " a x - tan2 x dx = J tan" " 2 x < (sec2 x - It
dx - j" tan" - 2 x sec 2 x dx - J tan" -2 x etc (ct ) Let Thus, (6) Let Thus
tan"-1 x n ~ n-1 - In _ 2 which is the required reduction formula. ln - J cot"
x dx = J cot" 2 x cot2 x dx - J cot" ” 2 x (cosec2 x - 1) dx - J cot"-2 x cosec2
x dx - J cot'1-2 x dx cot"-1 X ”4-2 which is the required reduction formula.
In n-1 Example 6.1. Evaluate (i> tan^x dx (it) J cotG x dx. Solution. (t)
Putting n — 5, 3 successively in the reduction formula for J tan" x dx, we
get I5 = — tan4 x - /a ; J;t = — tan2 x - / , 4 2 Thus Ir - tan4 x — - tan2 x +
I, J 4 2 1 i.e.. T tanp x dx - - tan * x - - tan2 x + f tan x dx- — tan1 x - —
tan2 x - log cos x. J 4 2 J 4 2 ( ii ) Putting n = 6, 4, 2 successively in the
reduction formula for J cot" x dx, we get 1 l I6 = - — cot6 - cotJ x - I2 ; 1.2
- - cot x - la Thus l* = - 1 cot5’ x + ^ cot3 x - cot x — \ dx
246 Higher Engineering Mathematics i.e.. f cot6 x dx = - ^ cot5 x
+ 77 cot3 a: - cot x ~ x. J 5 3 PI5/-I Example 6.8. Jfla = J tan" 0 rf0, prove
that n , + /, + = 1 pn/4 Solution. The reduction formula for tali'1 0 tf0 is Jo
{V.T.U., 2003 ) I _ - — - — I tan'1 x f ^ „ = — - - /. " n — 1 1 ’ io Changing
n to n + 1, we obtain At + 1 + At - 1 n-2 n- 1 n-2 or /* + /„_>« n - 1 (n + 1)
or (n + 1){/F1 + 1 + /„.1)= 1. REDUCTION FORMULAE for (a) [ sec" x
dx (b) f cosec" x dx (a) Let I n = J Bee'1 x d x = J sec" - 2 x . sec2 x dx
Integrating by parts, we have In = sec" “ 2x. tan x - J |(n - 2) sec" ' 3x ■ sec
x tan xj tan x dx = sec" “ 2 X tan x - (n - 2 ) J sec" “ 2 x - tan3 x dx - sec* -
2 x tan x-ln-2) j sec" “ 2 x ■ (sec2 x - i) dx = sec" “ 2 x tan x — (n - 21 In +
(n - 2) In _ 2 Transposing, we have Thus in - 1)/^ = sec" - 2 x tan x + (n -
2)1 n 2 sec" “ 2 x tan x n - 2 L/„ _ z which is the desired reduction formula.
n-1 n-1 (fr ) Let In - J cosec'’ x dx = J cosec" ~ 2 x - co sec2 x dx
Integrating by parts, we have ln = cosec" ‘ 2 x. (- cot x) - | [(n - 2) cosec" "
3 x ■ (- cosec x cot x) (- cot x) dx = — cot x cosec" ~ 2 x - (n - 2) J cosec" “
2 x (cosec2 x — 1) dx - - cot x cosec" “ 2 x — (n — 2 )f tl + (n — 2)1 n _ 2
or Thus [1 + (n - 2)lfn = - cot x cosec" ~ 2 x + in - 2)1, cot x oosec" ~2 x n-
2 l = n n - 1 which is the required reduction formula. pnf4 n - 1 n-2 sec x dx
(it) cosec* 0 d%. o h U3 Solution, (£) Putting it = 4 in the reduction formula
for J sec'1 x dx, we get /4 (V.T.K* 2008) sec x tan x fnM 4 ; sec x dx = Jo
sec x tan x nt 4 2 I*'4 2 ■ + — I sec x dx 3 Jo 3 Jo = - + - I tan x I*'4 = - (1
+ 1) = 4/3. 3 3 1 10 3
Integral Calculus and Its Applications (ti) Putting n - 3 m the

reduction formula for J cosec" x dx, we get , 1 * 1 r /, - - cot x cosec x ¥ —
I, 3 2 2 1 (iK/2 I JV3 cosec x , 1 | i ( JtA2 1 f1''2 , dx - — cot x cosec x H —
cosec x dx 2 2 hi 3 If 2 ^ 1 = - — 0 — + — I log (cosec x - cot x ) | 2\ 3J 2
=i+i[: 3 2 [ Jt/2 it/3 log 1 - log 1 1 . _ r— = - + — log 3. L73 3 4
PROBLEMS 6.2 1. Evaluate Ci> J tane xdx (V.T.U., 2007) JwM t Um7 xdx
= — *5- 6 log 2} 0 12 3* tf/r[ - tanrj x dxt prove that (n - 1) iln + ffl 2) = 1.
(ii) Joot^xcfo. Hence evaluate Jr J-n J4 cot'1 0 fiB {n > 2), prove that J =■
— - / _ r Hence evaluate L, n — 1 ii. Obtain the reduction formula for l
Mfcn & rfR Jo ■k/2 {V.TJ1. 2009) (Madras, 2000) (Marathwado, 2008)
(V.T.U., 2010 S) 6. Evaluate (i) feec60
Higher Engineering Mathematics REDUCTION FORMULAE for

(a) j x" sin mx dx (/> j | x" cos mx dx (a) Let ln - J xn sin mx dx (c) J coHm
x sin nx dx Integrating by parts, we get — cos mx ,n=xH (^^1- f nx*"' dx x
cos mx m xn cos mx m , n f n - 1 , + — x cos mx dx m I + \(n-l)xn-2 smm3r
dx m j m [ J m [Again integrate by parts] or # xn cos mx n i . n (n — D T ln
= “ — - - + — r * * Sin - 2 ln~2 m m m which is the desired reduction
formula, (fe) Let. In - J xn cos nix dx (Madras, 2003 ) Integrating twice by
parts as above, we get xn sin mx n , n^n “ ^ / = - -I- - ^ r-nu niv ^ m m cos
mx - 2 m ln -2 (c) Let /m fl = j cos"r x sin nx dx Integrating by parts, T _
cos nx r m~i , . , f- cos rat ^ . *rn, n = — cos x ■ — - - J m cos x {— sm x )
. I ■ - - - 1 dx 1 „ m m f , = - - cos x cos nx - cos x . cos nx sin x dx n n J i v
sin (n - 1) x = sin nx cos x - cos nx sin x or cos nx sin x - sin nx cos x - sin
(n - 1) x m r ~ - cosmx cos nx - — I cos™ " 1 x {sin nx cos x - sin (n — l)x|
dx n n J — - cos"1 x cos nx — — (/ — J , , ) jftji m 4 §m ^ X B fi> X
Transposing, we get ^1 + Im n — — — CQEm x cos nx + — / or n cos x
cos nx n m m- 1. a - I m* n m + n m + n which is the desired reduction
formula. - 1P n - 1 J.r/5 , m r*t2 t COS x fc os nx dx - - — | cos' ' x cosin -
11 xdx o m + 7i ip m + rn/x _ w Hence deduce that \ cos x cos nx dx - - . Jo
9*+* rn/2 Solution. Let /m „= J cos™ x cos nx Integrating by parts 2n dx iS
V T.U., 2008) m sin nx cos x . n ■if/ 2 — I m cosm “ x (“ sin x) x Jo sm nx
dx n
Integral Calculus anc Its Appucahons 249 r n/2 - — f cos"1 1 x

sin nx sin x clx n Jq ri^2 v cos (n - l) x - cos nx cos x + sin nx sin x or sin nx
sin x = cos (n 1) x - cos nx cos x - ™ £ «0SW_1 * fcos In | = £ cos" x cos
nxdxj - - j Changing n tu n - 1, l - -I n - 1 n n i f i/„ 2 V= 2=^4 3 . - - f 2 (c0s
y)fJ n 2 v2 n '*) 2* n~ 2 g3 K“3 g" 2 Hence j _ 1 IE = ft " 2n ' 2 2" + 1
Example 6.11. Find a redtutidn formula for J em Hn x dx. Hence evaluate J
ex sin9 x dx Solution. IjOI Jn = J sin” x dx = J - . - jj- dx integrating by
parts. ax l = sin" x . - — " a -j (n sin” e** sin" x n J (sin" " a a e*1* sin" x n
sin""1 a a dx [Again integrating by parts} ■ n — I C r I. / * \ * n — 2 x cos
x , — - \{n - 1) sm x a J x cos x cos x +- sin" _ 1 jc {— sin x)j — dx a ax ►
k - 1 — — — (« sin x — n cos x) + ™ f [in - 1) sin" 2 x x (1 — sin2 x) -
sinfJ x] eP* dx rt2 fi2 J a e°* sin"-1 jc a (a sin x - n cosx) + a n(n — 1)
/«-2_ «a Transposing and dividing by (1 + n2/a2\ we get / a e*1* sin" 1 x (a
sin jc - n cos x) n {n - 1) n „2 ’ 2 “ + ~~2 . 2 - 2 +■ /| +1T which is the
required reduction formula. Putting tr - 1 and n = 3, we get y O e sin ' x (sin
x - 3 cos jc} 3.2 , *3 “ 72 7 ’ + -a . M r + 9 r + 9 But r _o* /j = J e* sin x dx
= sin {* - tan-' 1) ^3 ” e1 sin2 x (sin x - 3 cos x) 3 e411 + ~ . sin (x - 7t/4). 5
& 10
250 Higher Engineering Mathematics PROBLEMS 6.3 (Madras,
2000) (Madras, 2003 ) ] . If /„ - | xn e* dx. show that In + a In , = *" e*.
Hence find Iv fit а. If**,,- j xn e * dx, prove that un - (it + a) *rw , , + a (a -
15 .. 0. 3. Obtain a reduction formula for J a'1 (log x}n dx. Hence evaluate j
i)og x)" dx. (S.V.T.U., 2009 ; Bhillai, 2005) 4. If n is a positive integer,
show that f xm (log je)fl dx = — — — — r- , m >- 1 . Jo (m+IF ffilZ 5. If
In = J x sin" xtlx in > I), prove that n?Jn - n (n - 1 ) la 2 + I . Hence evaluate
/a. fa/2 б. If !r - j je cos x dx (n > I), prove that Jn - — - / 9 — V- Hence
evaluate I.. * rT fK/a n 7. If uit - J x sin x dx, (n > 1 ), prove that un + n (a -
l) mf[ , = n (n/2F 1 Hence evaluate nT (.Madras, 2000 S) ft. If In - J xn ain f
ix dx, show that a2ln = - cud1 kis ax 4 cue'1 1 sin ax - n in - l) In _ 3.
[Marathwada, 2008) j.rt/2 Jo 9. Prove that j ms" ? x sin nx dx = , n. > 1_ FI
— 1 10 '■ UI™ » = L CW'" * «** 2 in the form Jo (i + -t = m (m — l) Im 2.
Hence evaluate /4. (Gorakhpur, 1999) DEFINITE INTEGRALS Property I .
| f(x) dx - J f(t)dt (i.tv, the value of a definite integral depends on the limits
and not on the variable of integration). Let J fix) dx = $t*) ; J f (*)dx Then
jf(t)dt ~Wl Hence the result. Property II. J f(x) dx = - fix) dx /. [ f{t)dt = Jn
(i.c. , the interchange of limits changes the sign of the integral). J fix) dx = ;
/. | f (x)dx = Let and - f f{x) dx = - |
Integral Calculus and Its Applications 251 Property III. f f £ Ja Je

Let Also = - 0(d)] + [ -
252 Higher Engineering Mathematics Then " fit - jc) sin3 (n - a-)
f" Ut_^j _ 1 + COS* (7t — a) dx [Prop. IV] J‘*t (w - x> sin3 x , r K si - - -
dx = nc — 0 1 + cos2 X Jo 1 + sin3 a cosa x dx - 1 Transposing, 21 = Tt f
Jo . 3 sin x 0 1 + cos2 x dx — * r1 a-t2)-^ h l + t2 • Itf1 - 2 + - 1 * - ] dt = -
2* r 1 -^-=- + n f ’ ' dt Ji i + r Ji i + r Ji — — 2ic | tan-1 t + x | t Ij”1 = - 2n ^
^ j - 27t. Hence, I = Put cos a - t so that - sin xdx = dt When x = 0, f = 1 ;
When x = x, t = — 1 ■, its/2 - ji. Property V. > f(x) dx = 2 f f(x) dx , if f(x)
is an even function, J- tf Jo = 0 if f(x) is an odd function, r f dx , if f (2a - x)
- f(x) = 0, if f(2a - x) = - f(x) 2a fZn j-ra fZa S fix) dx - f(x)dx+ f{x)dx Jo Jo
Ja r2rt fn I / (x> dx . put x - 2a - f* so that dx - - dt Jo Also when x - at t = a
; w hen x = 2a f t = 0. f f{x)dx = - f f(2(i~t)dt = f f{2a - t) dt = f f{2a — x)
dx Jf> Jii Jo Jo Hu bsilultng in (Us we get J-2a ftt ffi f(x) dx - f (x) dx H- f
(2a - .t) dx 0 j{} Jo i-x) = f (a), then from (2) J-2î fn *a ftt f(x)dx- f{x)dx+
f(x)dx = 2 fix)dx o Jo Jo Jo {Bhopal, 2008) ...(]) [Prop. II [Prop. Il| ...(2) . .
(1) (Prop. Ill] [Prop. II) ...(2)
fWTEGRAL CALCULUS AND ITS AppUC^VOHS [ii) If f [2a -
x) = -f ix\ then from (2) r2a f f (x) fit = f f(x)dx- f f{x)dx ^ 0. J D JO JO f *
£k/2 r * # „ „ Cof . I. If n is even, \ sin”1 x cos” x dx = 2 I sin™ x cos” x dx
and if n is &ddt sin x cos x dx = 0. Jo Jo Jo r£Tt Cor. 2. Ifm is odd, sin"“ x
cos" x dx = 0 JQ r TI and tf m is even. I smrn x cmrt x
254 Higher Engineering Mathematics and Obs. The following are

its immediate deductions : ■ jr/2 JO ■it j. i- jr/^s pH/ as log sin x dx ^ log
cos x dx = J0 Jo r* log sin x dx = - x log 2, id Example 6.17. Eou/unie
Solution. Put sin-1 x — 0 or x = sin 8 so that dx — cos 0 d0 Also when x =
0, 8 = 0 ; when x = 1,0 = n/2. r*î**. r,a«.£? Jo X Jo si cos 0 sin 0 f/0 = [0 .
log sin 0]Jj/2 - j* 1 . log sin 8 dd - — log sin 8 d& = - ^ log 2 j = ^ log 2
PROBLEMS 6.4 Prove Lhat : P*/ 2 log t&n x dr = (f 0 2, (,) P *' fI dx -0 Jn
(1 + : x) 28 3» (l) J**/£ 0 sin x . u) xdx 0 a2 - COB- x 2 av/(a3 - 11 C« > U
0)de = | log, 2 pllf £ (ii) sin 2x log tan r dx = 0 Jo I*kM UO I log (1 + tan Jo
.... fn dx K i T^TTr* m f - j; i "'2 _ sin" x Jjt. _ it Jo sin11 r + cos" x + sui x
dx - ji «•) r!^_£± — Jo sir x + cob x 2>/2 (ii) f cosfi x fir Jo J" ^ j e sin x
cos x iii" o (if) f x cos4 i sin* j: dx JO J>n/2 o x.dx 71* 0 2 sin" x + ecus2 x
^72 * r dr , . . r" x dr ic2 Jo T7b^ * 7M [Integrate by parts! Lt (x log x) - 0 J
(Mad fxur 2000) {Anna, 2002 S) (Maraihwatlrt, 2008)
ifriTEGftAL Calculus ane> Its Applications 255 JL f log fl + ccte
9) d& = - n log 2 JO 12* (i) f“ k*<1't*“) tlx = * log. 2 Jo 1 + x2 [Madras.
2003 ) (to r Jo log{j[ +l/x) - , ,, — - 2 - d* = je log,, 2. l + x£ (1)
INTEGRAL AS THE LIMIT OF A SUM We have eu far considered
integration as inverse of differentiation. We shall now define the definite
integral as the limit of a sum : Def, If fix) is continuous and single valued in
the interval }u, 6], then the definite integral of f (a:) between the limits a
and h is defined by the equation pb _ _ I f{x)dx- Lt h [fia) + f?a + h) + f(a +
2h) + ... + f la + n - I h) ), J* h — tO where nh = b - a. — (I) (2) Evaluation
of limits of series The summation definition of a definite integral enables us
to express the limits of sums of certain types of series as definite integrals
which can be easily evaluated. We rewrite £1) as follows : . n~l \ fix) dx= Lt
h y / (a + rh ) , where nh ~ b - a, J* r = 0 Putting o=0 and b - 1, so that h =
lfn , we get n-1 Lt 1 j; f(-) = J* 1 t(M) d* p i~t- n jf“[) \n/ Thus to express a
given series as definite integral: (i) Write the general term (Tr or Tr + l
whichever involves r) i.e., ftrfn) . Ifti (it) Replace rfn by x and Vn by dx,
£iii) Integrate the resulting expression, taking the lower limit = Lt (rfn)
where r is ae in the first term. and the upper limit = Lt (r/n) where r is as in
the last term. Example fl. 18* Find the limit , when n -4 of the series n nS
n2 + l2 n2 + r + ... + n Solution, Here the general term (- Tr + 1) n3 * + (n -
l)2 n n ;r + r2 1 + (r/nf n 1 + x^ dx [Putting rfn - x and lfn - dx] Now for the
first term r = (J and for the last term r = n - 1 the lower limit of integration =
Lt f — ] =■ 0 n - » - 1 n j and the upper limit of integration = Lt f — — - 1
= Lt fl — — ] = 1. n -4 - \ n J n -+ . - \ n j Hence, the required limit = f 1 fix
= j tan-1 x 1 1 = tan- 1 (1) - tan- 1 (0) = tl/4. Jo ^ ^ i l o
Higher Engineering Mathematics [To find limit of a product by
integration ; Let P - Lt igiven product) n Tnke lops of both sides, so Llml
log P = Lt (a series) = k (say). Then P = r*.[ htample 6,19. Evaluate Lt
Solution. Let Taking logs of both .sides, Its general term (’•3(-3«| p. Lt !(,.I|
(i.?|-(,,5'| [\ n}\ n J V n/ h log P= Lt j log [ L + + log ^ 1 + ^ j + ... + log ( 1 +
= log |"l + - j . - = log ( 1 + x) . dr (Bhopal, 2008) [Putting rfn = x and 1/n =
rfjc| Also for first term r - 1 and for the last term r = n. ,\ The lower limit of
integration = Lt (l// dr = J1 log (1 + x> . 1 dr = | log (1 + x). x |J - Jl - x tlx
J0 1 + x . ,-i M 1 + x — 1 . , _ f I , ft = log 2 - - dr = log 2 — j dx + Jo 1 + x
Jo Jo l Untegrate by partsl x dx + x = log 2 - | x |J + 1 log {1 + x) [‘ = log 2
- 1 . + log 2 - log 22 - log., e - log (4/e). Hence, P - 4/e. PROBLEMS S.S
Find the limit, as n — » *», of the series : — - — + — - — + — - — + . . .
+ . (Bhopal, 2000 ) Ktl n + 2 n >3 2 n 9 rtJ + l n3+t> ns + 27 ■ + ... + * ■ -*
+ ' 2 n n * r X u JiL.-JL — +->-^ — — — _ " - - VnM M + 3f 1 ilM 2 V 1j/|
F* Ji, (Bhopal. 2008) 6.10 AREAS OF CARTESIAN CURVES (1 ) Area
iwunded hv the curve y - f (x), the x-axis and the ordinates x - a, x - b is f y
dx. in Let AM be the curve y = fix) between the ordinates LA (r = a) anti
MB (r = /; ), {Fig. G.l) Let P (r.y), P' (x + Sxry + 6y) be two neighbouring
points on the curve and NP, N'P1 be their respective ordinates.
Integral Calculus and Its Applications 257 Let the area ALNP be
A, which depends on the position of P whose abscissa is x. Then the area
PNN'P' = 6A. Complcte the rectangles PN' and P'N\ Then the area PNN'P
lies between the areas of the rectangles PN' and PN. i.e., lies between y6x
and (y + Sy) 6a: ^ lies between y and y + Sy. os Now taking limits els P"
4Pi.e.,&-^0 (and fiy — > 0), dA/dx -y Fig. 6.1 Integrating both sides
between the limits x = a and x = b, we have \At = \lydx or (value of A for ,x
= b) - (value of Vi for x = o) = \l> y dx Jfl Thus area ALMB = {*’ ydx. Jfl
(2) Interchanging x andy in the above formula, we see that the area bounded
fit by the curve x = fiy), the y-axis and the abscissae y = a, y = b is J x dy-
(Fig. 6.2) Fig, i.2 Ohb< 1. The area bounded by a curve, the x~axie find two
ordinates is called the area under the curve. The process of finding the area
of plane curves is often called quadrature. Obs. 2. Sign of an area. An ana
whose boundary is described in the nntLchckwise direction is considered
positive and an area whose boundary fs described in the dock wise direction
is taken as negative, in Fig. 6.3, the area ALMB |= £ y dx J which is
described in the anti clockwise direction and lies above the x-axist will give
a positive result. In Fig. 6.4? the area ALMB |= j y dxj which is described in
the clockwise direction and lies below Lhe x-axis, will give a negative
result H - ydx t but their difference. Thus to imd the total area in such cases
the numerical value of the area of each portion must be evaluated separately
and their results added afterwards. Example 6,20, Find the area of the hop
of the curve ay2 = x£ (a - x ). (S. V.T: U.9 2009 ; Os mania, 2000) Solution.
Let us trace the curve roughly to get the limits of integration. (i) The curve
is symmetrical about x-axis.
258 Higher Engines wing Mathematics (ii) It passes through the
origin. The tangents at the origin are cry2 - cur2 or y = ±x. Origin is a node,
(rii) The curve has do asymptotes. (in) The curve meets the x-axis at (0, 0)
and (a, 0). It meets the y-axis at (0, 0) only. From the equation of the curve,
we have y = -t=- yjla — x) Vfl For Ar > a,y is imaginary. Thus no portion of
the curve lies to the right of the line x = a. Also x -» - oo, y -4 Thus the
curve is as shown in Fig. 6.6. Area of the loop = 2 (area of upper half of the
loop) = 2 £ y dx = 2 £ x^j| " ~ x j dx = -j= £ In - {a - x>] ,/(a - x> dx = -p [
|a(n - x)l/2 - (a - xf/ii dx = 24a 4a Jo C4 H 1 3 a 2 (a-x)5/E ° -3/2 i o -5/2 = _
gyg& _ #*) + _* (0 - a5'*) = la2 - ia2 = A a z. 3 5^ 3 5 15 Fig. 6.6 Exam pi
e 6,2 L Find the area included between the cun e - x) - .r? and its asymptote.
( V. T. U„ 2003} Solution. The curve is as shown in Fig. 4.23. Area between
the curve and the asymptote -r'*-rfcy dx = 2 r l (2a sin2 0)3 Jo y 2a cos2 G •
4o sin 8 cos 0 dO 31 it J-ioz . S . 1 tr sin4 0 f/0 = l6o3 ■ - 1 ■ — = 3na2. o
4 2 2 Put x = 2a sin2 0 so that fix = 4(2a-y) i a Vary < 0 ory >2 a,x is
imaginary. Thus the curve entirely lies between y = 0 (x-axis) and y = 2a,
which is shown in Fig. 6.7. Fifi. 6,7 /. Area of the curve 2 r*'2 . 9 - 2a sin2 a
J« £ y^/ly(2a - y)] dy Puty = 2o sin 2 0 dy - 4w sin 0 cos 0 dB B ij\2a sin3 6
(2a - 2a sin2 6)} x 4n sin 0 cos 0 d9 = 32 a2 rn/2 Jo sm 0 cos2 0 dB = 32
a~ 3-lxl 6 4 2
Integral Calculus and Its Applications 259 Example 6,23. FnW
the area enclosed between one arch of the cycloid x - ait) - sin 6), v = a( 1 -
eon ft) and its base. (V.T.U., 2000) Required area = ydx Solution. To
describe its first arch, ft varies from 0 to 2n i.e, , x varies from 0 to 2an (Fig.
6.8) where y = a( 1 - cos 6), dx = a( 1 - cos 0) dB. rnt 2 - a(l — cos 0) • a(l -
cos 0) dB Jb=o = 2aa f (1 — cos ft}2 (it) = 8a2 f sin4 — dB Jo Jo 2 r k/2 . -
loci'1 | sin4 dift, putting ft/2 - if> so that da = 2d§. Jo - 16az ■ i ■ — -
3ml2. 4 2 2 Example 6.24. Find the area of the tangent cut off front the
parabola x2 ~ 8y by the lines- 2y + S = 0. Solution. Given parabola is xl =
8y —(0 and the straight line is x — 2y + 8 = 0 -.-{«) Substituting the value
of y from (ii) in (i). we get *2 = 4{jc + 8) oii'3 - 4a - 32 - 0 or (x - 8) (x + 4)
= 0 x = 8, - 4. Thus (i) and (ii) intersect at P and Q where x = 8 and x = - 4.
(Fig. 6.9) M oT L X Fig. 6.9 Required area POQ (i.e., dotted area) = area
bounded by straight line (ii) and x-axis from x = - 4 to x = 8 - area bounded
by parabola (i) and x-axis from x = — 4 to x = 8. = J y dx, from (ii) - J y dx,
from
260 Higher Engineering Mathematics 2^q .3/2 3/2 3f i + 2 J4'1

7f4ca - (x - 2c)sl dx 1 i j 2 — (jc — 2a) ^|4ay — (jc — 2a)2 | + — - — sin"
1 = 4-JSa2 + 21(0 -ô^3o| + 2o2 (n/2 - n/6)l = 4-v/s a2— + ^-7to2= 1 3>/3
+ j aa< x — 2a 2 a -4ii -3a PROBLEMS 6.6 2 2 1 . (f..i Find the area of the
ellipse —*4 =4r = 1. G“ b IKemktr 2005 : V,T.U f 2003 S) iti) Find Lhe
area bounded by the parabola y2 - 4^v and its la tus- rectum, 2, Find the
area bounded by the curve y = xi.t; - 3) (a - 5> and the x-axi s. 3, Find the
area included between the curve ay* = x^t the x-axis and the ordinates x =
a, 4, Find the area of the loop of Lhe curve : (i> 3a v2 = x(x - a Yl
{Rajasthan, 2005) (it) x(x2 + y1) - a{x7 - y'A) (P, T, U., 2010} 5* Find the
whole area pf the curve ; tO u2x* = yH 2a - y) {Nagpur. 2009 > (:i . &zV =
x*{a2 - x2) fVV7h U. p 2006) G, Find the area included between the curve
and its asymptote? in each case : m = «2 2005} 9. Find Lhe urea bounded
by the curve Jx 4* v/y Vu and the coordinate axes. Ifl* Find the area
included between the cycloid x - a(G + sin 0]py = a(l - crus 0) and iU hast:.
Also Ond Lhe urea between the curve and the x-axis. ( Gorakhpur ; 19993 1
1- Find the area common to Lhe circles x2 + y* - 4 and x2 +■ y2 ~ 4x. 12,
Prove that the area common to the parabolas x2 = 4 ay and y2 = 4ox is
I6g2/3. (5. VT. U., 2008 ; Kuruk$hetrut 2005) 13, Find the area included
between the circle x2 + y2 = 2ox tind Lhe parabola y~ - dx . 14, Find the
area bounded by the parabola y2 - *Ulx and the line x + y = 3a , 15, Find
the area of the segment cut off from the parabola y = 4x - x? by the straight
lino y = x. (V.T U.. 2010 ; S. V. Z IL. 2008 ) (2) Areas of polar curves. Area
bounded by the curve r = /(0) and the radii vectors f ij 0 = a, 9 = Q is — f r2
d0. 2 Jn Let AB be the curve r -f{Q) between the radii vectors QA <0 = a)
and OB(d - p). Let P(r, fl), P*{r + &•, 0 + 60) he any two neighbouring
points on the curve. (Fig, 6.11) Let the area OAP = A which is a function of
0, Then the area OPP' = &A, Mark circular arcs PQ and P'Q' with centre O
and radii OP and OP". Evidently area OPP' lies between the sectors OPQ
and OP'Q' i.e. , 5A lies between ± rH 60 and ^ (r + 6r)2 50. ^ lies between
A/*2 and A (r + Sr)2 60 i 4 Fig. G.U
Integral Calculus amp Its Applications 261 or flA 1 Now taking
limits as SO — ► 0 ( 6r 0), — - = — r2 dO 2 0 f]? „ Integrating both sides
from 0 = a to 0 = P, we get | A | w = J ~ r dG (value of A for G = P) —
(value of A for 0 = a) = — f* r£ d6 2 Ja l r[1 -2 Hence the required area
OAB = — J r' d0. Exam pie 6.26. Find the area of the cardiaid r - ail - cos
0), Solution. The curve is as shown in Fig. 6.12. Its upper half is traced
from G = 0 to 0 = n. (V.T.U., 2004) de Area of the curve = 2 - — [ rA d0 =
n2 f (1 - cos 0)H 2 Jo Jo ~ aJ f (2 sin2 G/2)2 d0 = 4u2 f sin4 0/2 d0 Jo Jo =
8«3 f sin4 0 d<>, putting (V2 = 0 and d0 = 2d0. Jo = 80“ rnt‘2 Jo 3-1 tc
Sim2 4-2 2 2 Example 6.27. Find the area of a loop of the curve r = a sin
3B. Solution. The curve is as shown in Fig. 4.35. It consists of three loops.
Putting r = 0, sin 30 = 0 30 = 0 or tc i.e. , 6 = 0 urn/3 which are the limits
for the first loop. 1 fW 3 l fn/s ,,2 fn >3 Area of a loop - — I r2d6 = — n" [
sin“30d0 = — (l-cos60)i 2 Jo 2 Jc 4 Jo d0 o T g — sin 60 |"/a _ r2 lo _ qa f
7C p"! _ TUX2 Tu _ °J 12~* Ohs. The limits n! integration for a loop of r u
sin «0 or r = n cos nO are (lie two consecutive values of 0 when r = 0.
Example 6*28. Prove that the area af a bop of the curve x7 + y3 - 3axy is
3a3/ 2. 3o sin 0 cos 0 Solution. Changing to polar form (by putting x = r cos
0,y = r sin 6), r = Putting r = 0, sin 0 cos G = 0, .■. 0 = O, k/2, which are the
limits of integration for its loop. Area of the loop 1 r"/H j ^ _ 1 f"/2 sin2
0cos2 0 2 Jn r 2 Jo cos3 0 + sin3 0 (cos3 0 + sin3 G)2 de 9c2 tan2 0 sec2 0
9£2 tatr 2 Jo (1 + _ 3n2 r~ dt ~2 Ji ?■' tan3 G)2 d0 [Dividing num. and
denom. by cos6 0| putting 1 + ton3 0 = t and 3 tan2 0 sec2 0 d0 = dt. 3a2 - 1
-(-0 + 1) = — Example 6.29. Find the area common to the circles r - a and r
- 2a cos 0
Solution. The equations of the circles are r = u4 2 ...li) anti r - 2 «

cos 0 (i) represents a circle with centre at (0, 0} and radius a 42 . Fig. 6.13 =
2 2 S/-1 = f ia42f dB + f (2a cos 6)2 dO = 2a* I 0 |?M + 4a2 f Jo Jjt/4 ' 10 2
i-K/a i + cos 20 do “ 2a2 (ji/4 - 0) + 2al 0 + sin 26 7KEZ - 2 f It Jt 1 \ j. = -
+ 2a - -u(7[- 1). C4 2 {2 4 2) Example 6,30. Find the area common to the
cardinids r =a(l + cos 6J and r ~ titt - cos 01 (Kurukshetm. 2006: V T.U.,
2006) Solution. The cardioid r - a(l + cos 0) is ABCOB'A and the cardioid r
- a(l — cos 0) is OC'BA'B’O, Both the cardioids are symmetrical about the
initial line OX and intersect at fi and B' (Fig. 6.14) Required area (shaded )
- 2 area OC'BCO - 2 [area OC'BO + area OBCO J = 2 (rVdel +(r ir*4 1 ^!l
2 I r = a(l - COE, 0) 1 Jir/2 2 Jf_ fcCI + cti & 0) = a1 f * " (1 - cos 0)2 c/0 +
a2 f (l+cosO^dS Jo Jic^2 = as J f fl - 2 coe 0 + cos 2 0) rfB + f (1 + 2 cos 0
+ cos2 [Jo hi 2 - a1 \ f (1 + cos2 (J) f/0 - 2 f cos 8 tfB + 2 f cos 0 del l Jo Jo
Jr/2 = “2 { r (x + t 2ft) ^ ^ 2 1 sin e io/2 + 2 1 fiin 6 1 } -(t-4* = C 2 + sin 20
- 2(1 - 0) + 2(0 - 1) PROBLEMS 6.7 L Find the whole area of (i J the
cardioid r = a (1 + coa to! tV.Tlt/., 2008) i li) the lemm&Qp r2 = or cos 20 ;
i V. T.tL 2006} 2. Find the area of one loop of the curve (i) r *= a gin 20. i
ii) r = a. cos 30. 3. Show that the area included between the folium s? + j - =
Hftxy and its asymptote is equal to the area of loop 1 Prove that the area of
the loop of the curve x3 + y3 = 2axy is three times the area af the loop of
the eui'vc r2 = a - cos 2G. "k. Find the area inside the circle r = a sin 0 and
lying ouLside the cardioid r s ail - efts 01. {Anna, 2009 1 6 Find the area
outside* the circle r = 2a co& 0 and inside f he cardioid r = n( 1 + cos 0>.
[Kutiiksketru, 2006)
tf+TEGinAL Calculus and Its Applications LENGTHS OF
CURVES x = a and x = b is thm dx Let AB be the curve y - fix) between the
points A and B where x - a and x = b {Fig, 6,15) ofx. Then d s dx -f®
[(l)ofp- 1641 Fig. 6.15 £Mi) - {value of s for x = b) - (value of s for x = a) -
arc AS — 0 fix. Hence, the arc AS = (2) The length of the arc of the curve x
= f(y) between the points where y - a and y = b, is r -(a dy IUsg (2) of p.
165] (3) The length of the arc of the curve x - f(t), y - §(t) between the
points where t = a and t = b, is I Use (3) p. 1651 rpHl dt (4) The length of
the arc of the curve r - f(&) between the points where 6 - a and 0 = p. is rP
da [Use ( 1) of p. 165] (5) The length of the arc of the curve 0 =f(r) between
the points where r = a and r = b, is rh r ■•(■ dr [Use (2) of p. 166] Example
6.31. Find the length of the arc of the parabola xf = day measured fnm the
vertex to one extremity 6f the lotus- rectum. (Delhi. 2002) Solution. Let A
be the vertex and L an extremity of the l atus- rectum so that at A, x - 0 and
at L,x - 2a. (Fig. 6.16). Now v - x2/4 a so that ^ = — ■ 2x = — dx 4a 2 a
arc AL -f Mil dx -rMt)
264 Higher Engineer two Mathematics XyjU2af + xy] (2a)2 X 2a
1 2fiV(8n>2 , 2 2 2a ~ 2a 0 2 = J2a -a f V2 + sinh- 1 1| = a! 72 + log (1 +
>/2 )1 fv sinh-1 x = log \x + *[( 1 + x2 ) 1 Example 6.32. Find the perimeter
of the loop of the curve Say 5 = x(x - absolution. The curve is symmetrical
about the x-axis and the loop ties between the limits x - 0 and x - a. (Fig.
6,171 We have Jx{x - a) y‘~m~ — = h r - xui ~ — x~rn dx -J(Za) \_2 2 1 _
- _ J 2yf(Za) 3x — a /. Perimeter of the loop -rl dx £ {By symmetry) <3* -
a? = — C J(3n\ h I2ax 0 3x + a ( f“ v/(9x2 + 6a.r + a2) , dx = 2 - — — 7 - -
ax Jo Vnâxj 7(3a) Jo yfx dx = -=L= [“ (3x1/2 + ax~ 1,2 1 dx v/(3q) Jo
V(3c) 3x 3 n 3/2 + a ,1/2 1/2 = -7-<4a3,2) = ^. 0 yJiSa) Example 6.33. Find
the length of one arch of the cycloid x = a(t - sin t), y = a(l - cos t). (P.T.U.f
2009 r V.T.U., 2004 ) Solution. As a point moves from one end O to the
other end of its first arch, the parameter f increases from 0 to 2tc. [see Fig.
6.8] Also dx ,, dy — = ad - cos t\ — =a sm /, dt dt Leng,hofa,,arch -cm +(*)
dx J ^[[a (1 — cos f)]2 + (a sin f)2) tit — a
265 Integral Calculus ano Its Applications - 2 + cos 0)]2 + (- a sin
6)2) d& = 2 a j ^/[2 (1 + cos fl)] df) sin m • cos9/2cf0 = 4a J(i V2 - 8a (sin
n/2 - sin 0) - 8«. Length of upper half of the curve is 4a, Also length of the
arc AP from 0 to jt/3. J‘Fi/3 j— - — frt/3 J|2 (1 + cos 01) dB = 2u | cos 0/ 2
• ait) o Jo = 4a | sin 0/2 l^3 = 2a = hall" the length of upper half of the
cardioid. PROBLEMS 6.8 1. Find the length fiF the arc of the aemi rubicxtl
parabola ay 2 = *3 from the vertex to the ordinate v = 5a, 2. Find the length
of the curve (i ) y = Jog sec x from x ~ 0 to x = tt/3. (V. T. IL, 2010 8 ; P. T.
U., 2007) {«) y = log |(c* - 1 Vfe1 + 1 )J from x = I to x =2, 3. Find the
length of the are of the parabola y4 ~ 4 at (ft from the vertex to one end of
the lotus- rectum. (Li) cut ofTby the Une 3y = Bar (V,T, U., 2008 S ;
Mumbai, 2006) 4. Find the perimeter of the loop of the following curves : (i
) ay14 = Jfa(n - jc) («) By14 =
266 Higher Engineering Mathematics The 5V lies between the
volumes of the right circular cylinders generated by the revolution of
rectangles PN' and P'N, i.e. , 6V lies between ny2 5* and ic(,y + 5y )2 5x.
BV lies between Try2 and rc{y + By)2. fix Now taking limits as P' -* P, i.e,,
fix -> 0 (and rt ay et dV 5y -» 0), ~ = Jty2 dx f ^llfa=r^de or \V\” rfdx L dx
J
- 2k 2 X ax - — 3 - 2k cr “ ~ — (0 — 0) 3 - — KW 3 Enmpk
6.36. Find the volume formed by the revolution of loop of the curve y*(u +
x) - .r (3q -x), about the x-axis, < Mu raihwtida, 2008 ) Solution, The curve
is symmetrical about the ,v-axisf and for the upper half of its loop x varies
from 0 to 3c (Fig. 6.21) rZa x 1 (3a - x) Volume of the loop - f iry2 dx = k J
= 7T Jo dx a + x 3ti - x 3 + 3ojr2 dx x + a [Divide the numerator by the
denominator! f Jil = TC Jr. 2 j a 2 — it* + 4ojr - 4 a + - -dx ~ TT 3 2 — —
4- 4a ■ — - 4o2x + 4aA lag (x + a} JO x + a 3 2 3n - 7C r" 3 — + 2o ■ 9oa
— 4a2 - 3n + 40'* log 4a — (4n‘1 log n) - net3 (-3 + 4 log 4) = aa3(8 log £
- 3). Example 6.37. Prove that the volume of the reel formed by the
revolution of the cycloid x = a ft) + sin 0i. y - afl - cos 0) about the tangent
at the vertex is it ’a3. (V. T.U., 2003) Solution. The arch AOB of the cycloid
is symmetrical about they-axis and the tangent at the vertex is the x-axis.
For half the cycloid OA, 0 varies from 0 to n. (Fig. 4.31). Hence the
required volume = 2 r ™ rcy2 dx = 2n f* n2(1 - cos 0)2 . a (1 + cos 6) d&
Jh-o Jo
Integral Calculus amp trs Applications 267 - 2iht3 f" (2 sin2
H/2)2 -(2 cos2 6/2) cfG Jn = 16«a3 j; sin4 6/2 * cos* 6/2 * rffl [Put 6/2 = +,
di) = 2c/ct>l =■ 32xa3 L 4> cos2 ifi - 32rco3 - ^ ^ ^ . — - 7Czo3. J° 6.4.22
Example 6.38. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about x -
axis, the arm enclosed by the parabola y2 - 4ax, its wo lute 27 ay 2 - 4(x -
2a)3 and the x-axis. Solution. The curve 27oy2 = 4(x - 2a)3 „.(i) is
symmetrical about x-axis and is a semi-cubical parabola with vertex at A
(2u, 0). The parabolay2 = 4 a* and (0 intersect at B and C where 27a (4ax)
= 4(x - 2a)a or x3 - Sax2 - 15a2x 8a3 = 0 which gives x = - a, - a, 8a. Since
x is not negative, therefore we have x = 8a (Fig. 6.22). /. Required volume =
Volume obtained by revolving the shaded area OAB about x-axis - Vol.
obtained by revolving area 0MI30 - Vol. obtained by revolving area AD BA
pSlI ij iP^n a - i irr (= 4ax) dx - [ Try2 [for (t)l dx JQ 1'ltt - 4air 4 it fSu 27a
r (x - 2a)3 dx Js ti = I28aa3 4n 27a (x - 2a)4 2a = 128na3 - — <6ri>4 =
SOxa3. 27a (f>) Revolution about the y-axis. interchanging x and y in the
above formula, we see that the volume of the solid generated by the
revolution about y-axis, of the area, bounded by the curve x - f{ y), the y-
axis and the abscissae y = a, .y =b is \b n x3 dy. Ji t fig , 6.22 8a Example
6.39. Find the volume of the reel -shaped solid formed by the revolution
about the y-axis, of the part of the parubolu y2 “ 4ax cat off by the lulus-
rectum. (Rohtak, 2003) Solution. Given parabola is x - y2/4c. Let A be the
vertex and L one extremity of the latus-rectum. For the arc AL, v varies
from 0 to 2c (Fig. 6.23). required volume - 2 (volume generated by the
revolution about they-axis of the area ALC) -2 dy = 2rc /*“ * , dy = * J<> ’
Jc 16a2 8a 2a 40 a< ( c ) Revolution about any axis* The volume of the
solid generated by the revolution about any axis LM of the area bounded by
the curve ABr the axis LM and the perpendiculars ALt BM on the axis, is f
7t(PN)a d(ON) J OL where O is a fixed point in LM and PN is
perpendicular from any point P of the curve AB on LM. With 0 as origin,
take OLM as the x-axis and OY, perpendicular to it as the y-axis (Fig. 6.24).
Fig. 6.24
268 Higher BuMNEEriiNG MAthcmatics Let the coordinates of
P be U, v ) so that x = ON, y - NP If OL = a, OM - b, then required volume
= ny 2 dx = \ °W jtiPN)2 d{ON). Jr L Joi Example 6.40. Find the volume of
the solid obtained by revolving the cissoid y2 (2a - x) = x3 about its
asymptote, ’ (V.T.U., 2000) Solution, fiiven curve is y = 2a - x . H) It is
symmetrical about jr-axis and the asymptote is x = 2a. (See Fig. 4.23). If
Pfcr.y) be any point on it and PN is perpendicular on the asymptote AN then
PN -2a -x and AN = y = :i i 2 ,J{2a - x) diAN) = dy = 2a- x 3*fx(2 a - x) +
x3'2 . 3 ax1' 2 -x3/1 . - dx = - — — dx l From (i)J dx 2(2 a-xfIQ Required
volume = 2 j* ("U ni PN)2 d(AN) - 2k J2** (2a - x>; (2a - x)3'2 2« ,o
3ax1/2 - x3>2 . dx = 2k j; yj( 2a - x) (3a - x) %jx dx rnf 2 (2n - xft2 Put x =
2a sin" 0 then dx = 4a sin 0 cos 0 c/0 = 2n J“ -M*) cos 0 (3« - 2a sin2 6) x
sin 6 , 4a sin 0 cos B dB = 16na3^3 Jj( * sin11 B cos2 0 d0 - 2 j™2 sin4 0
cos2 0 = lftm»fa.— .--2.3'1*1 5 L 4-2 2 6-4-22 d0 = 2n2a\ (2) Volumes of
revolution (polar curves). The volume of the solid generated by the
revolution of the area bounded by the curve r = /"(©) and the radii vectors 0
= a. 8 = 3 (Fig. 6.25) (a) about the initial line OX (0 = 0> = fli r3 sin 0 d0 3
Si 2ji (b) about the line OY (to = n/2) = f — r3 cos 0 d0. J[i « ‘i 3 Example
6.41. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the card
told r = a (1 + cos 0) about the initial line. (V. T. U., 2010 ; Kurukshetra,
2009 S) Solution. The cardioid is symmetrical about the initial line and for
its upper half B varies from 0 to n. [Fig. 6.181. required volume = f " - jn*3
sin 0 d6 = — f K oa( 1 + cos 0)3 sin 0 d0 Jo a a Jo J > 3 3 3 - 3 (1 + cos 9)*
2tui rn + 0j3 . 8in @) d0 = - — ^ 3 Jo [0 — I6| = — nn3. 6 3 Example 6.42.
Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the Icmniscate n - a2
cos 29 about the line 0 - k 1 2. (V.T.U., 2006) Solution. The curve is
symmetrical about the pole. For the upper half of the K.H.S. loop, G varies
from 0 to te/4. (Fig. 4.34).
Integral Calculus and Its Applications required volume - 2(

volume generated by the half loop in the first quadrant) = 2 f r — Ttr3 cos 0
t/9 = — , V* 1 h3(cos 20)s/2 cos 0 dB in 3 3 Jo ( v r = a (cos 26)^1 4 JUT
rlt/4 [" a-2sins 6)3/2 cos 6 d0 3 J« 47KE3 r it/2 . J 1 4Tta3 r«'2 4 4n - 1 sin
d'2. cos QdQ- cos $ dB ,3 4JI 3 3 . 1 K _ 31 if 3^2 " 4?2 ' 2 ‘ W2
PROBLEMS 6.9 3 . Kind the volume generated by the revolution of the
area bounded by i-axis, the catenary y - > cosh xic and the ordinates jr
= ± c, about the of x. 2. Kind the volume of a spherical segment of
height h cut off trom a sphere of radius □ „ 3- Find the volume
generated by revolving the portion of t he parabola y1 = 4ax cut off by
its latu^-rectum about the axis of the parabola fV//1, IL 2009 ) 4. Find
lhe volume generated by revolving the area bounded by the cone 2010 ;
3. V. 71 U.f 2008) 11. Kind the volume of the solid formed by the
revolution, about the y-aadfi, of the area enclosed by the curve xy* = 4a
2 (2u - x) and its asymptote- {V.T, U.r 2006) 1 12- Prove that the volume
of the solid formed by the revolution of the curve I a2 + = a3, about its
asymptote is — n 3 erf 4 13. Kind the volume generated by the
revolution about the initial line of tO r = 2a cos 0 b} about lhe initial
line {Gorakhpur, 1999) 15* Find Lhe volume of the solid formed by
revolving a loop of the lemui scute r2 = a “ cos 20 about the initial line .
f J.N T a, 2003 i Delhi , 2002) 6.13 SURFACE AREAS OF
REVOLUTION {a ) Revolution about x- axis. The surface a?mea of the
solid generated by the revolution about x-axis a of the arc of the curve y
= fix) from x =s a to x » 6, is Let AB be the curve y = f(x) between the
ordinates LA (x - a) and MB = 6). Let Pix, y j, P' (x + Say + 5y) be two
neighbouring points on the curve and NPtN*P ' be their respective
ordinates (Fig, 6.19 ). Let the arc AP ^ $ so that arc PP* - Let the
surfaccârea generated by the revolution about x-axis of the arc AP be
S and that generated by the revolution of the are PPf be &S. Since fis is
small, the surface area 53 may be regarded as lying between the curved
surfaces of the right cylinders of radii PN and PW* and of same
thickness &.
Higher EwGrrcEEPuraG Mathematics Thus 8 S lies between 2n^

5s and 2k (j + By) 5s g s — lies between 2ny and 2te (y + &y) Taking limits
as Pf — > P * Le. , 8s — * 0 and — > 0, dS/dx - 2iry ?x = b dS ?*mb - —
*■ or or L„ L. or I s L-. = 2i*ds J*jf = & 2t^ fiat j; =a J.x= fj 2jry t/s, X *U
rx - fj Hence, the required surface area = I 2icy ds. Jjt =lt Ob*. Practical
forms of the formula S = J 2»y ds, .til Cartesian form [for the curve y = ftx)\
S= farKg *. where + (r i ) Parametric form \ for thr viirve x ~ fU ), y =
Integral Calculus and Its Applications Wtd&M Solution. The

astroid is symmetrical about the jc-axis, and for its portion in the first
quadrant t varies from 0 to vJ2. (Fig, 4.29J. Also ^2- — - 3a cosa t sin t , ^ =
3o sina t cos t . dt dt ds 'dt + ^") = cos4 t sin" f + 9a" sin"’ ~t cos' /I = 3a sin
t cos t feus? \ + sin" = 3 a sin t cos t fit fi ds fit/2 3 required surface ■ 2 2nx
-£- ■ dt - 4n a cos' t 3a sin t cos t Ju at Jo dt = i2na2 [ sin t cos* t. dt = I2rai“
Jd 3 ■ 1 12710^ 5.3.1 PROBLEMS 6.10 l , Find the area of the surface
generated by revolving the arc oT the catenary y " c co^Jh xh from x - o to
x -c about the x-axis. 2* Find the area of the surface formed by Lhe
revolution of„v‘ = 4«jc about its axis, by Lhe are from lhe vertex to one end
of the latuB-rectuin. 3* Find the surface of Lhe solid generated by the
revolu tion of Lhe ellipse x2/a2 + y2/ h2 - 1 about Lhe x-a&ifi. { Raipur f
2005 ; Bhopal, 2002 S \ 4. Find the volume and surface of the right circular
cone formed by the revolution of a right-angled triangle about a side which
contains the right angle. 5. Obtain the surface area of a sphere of radius a, 6.
Show that the surface area of the solid generated by the revolution of the
curve x - n cos3 1 , y a stir1 1 about thi.j x-axis* is \2n2/5. 7. The arc of the
curve + y~3 =* a2™ in the first quadrant revolves about x-axis. Show that
the area of the surface generated is timiVS. 8* Find the siiarfaee area of the
solid generated by revolving the tycloid x = « U - sin t)> y = a (1 - cos 0
about the base. {Mitruihunidu, 200B ; Cochin, 2005 ; Ku rukrJi i-lm* 2005)
9. Find the surface area of lhe solid got by revolving the arch of the cycloid
x ?n{8 + sin B),y == n(1 + cos 0) about the base. (VLT.Ul, 20 10 S) 10.
Prove that the surface and volume of the solid generated by the revolution
about thex-sxis* of the loop of the curve x = t2, y - i - !s/3, lor - x (x - 3 )%
are respectively 'Aft and An 14. 11, Prove that the surface of lhe solid
generated b}T the revolution of the tract nx x = a cos t + ^ log tan3 f/2+y
=■ a sin fT about v-axis is 4 m2. 12T Find the surface area of the solid of
revolution of the curve r - 2n cos 0 about the initial line, *V.TAJJt 2009)
VA, Find Lhe surface of the solid generated by the revolution or the
catdioid r - a ii ■ cos 0 ) about the iniLud line, 14, Find the surface of the
solid generated by the revolution of the lemniscate r* = uA cos 2fl- about
the initial line. (V/I\l2,20m 15* The pull of parabola y2 ~ 4
272 Higher Engineering Mathematics 2. f/i) f /‘f2a - x} tost £6) 2

f fix) dx Jn Jo p/z ^js'tn x i ( c ) ru Jsin x + Jcos x la) 0 dx is equal to (6) 1
to) | 4* 'Hie yaW of definite injtggr&I | x |fifce is eqtm\ to ii te) a (6)o2 to) 0
(to) 2e. lim il -r -* n n is equal to |V «2 + rJ «2.2a n? + toi-l)2J te>n 4 (6)0
4$ «® ! cos 2r dx equals Jo cor x + sin x tej-; l (6)0 to) I ( f? 35 (ci Kero,
10. The length of the arc of the equiangular s-pi ml r ^ ot,& wt Ci between
the points for which the radii vectors are rj and r.îg u. 12. 13. 14, 15* 16.
17. te) ir2 - r j) cokgc a ib) (r2 ~ rjt cos a (r) (ra - rx) sin a (dM/g - f\) see cl
The arcu of the region in the first quadrant bounded by the y -axis and the
curves y = nin x ?and y = co& x Ib id) & (6)>/2+t to)V2-1 ‘ (d)2j2-\. The
value of f‘ xV2{) x)zn dx is Jo (a) vfS2 S2 (6) £?, < S2 (e) = Sjj (to) can’t
predict The area of the loop of the curve r = a sin 30 is . If /„ = J tan” 0
toe, then n iln _ , 4 fJi) = _ IB. J jr3
273 Integral Calculus and Its Applications ■WMWJIAII -TfL'i*

L'«W!5F35Z^ ZrTin Ta, - Cl. »> \V C 17£i2TJm?^> câ 19. I sin 20 lug tan
0 c/0 is equal tu Jo (a) 1 «i)-t (c) 0 (d)n/2. 20. The aresi of the loop of the
folium of Descartes a3 + y3 - Say = 0 is (fl)it (iii rc/2 (c) 'LB (rf) a 21 . The
volume of the frustrum of a right circular cone whose lower base has radius
r1 and upper base has radius ra and altitude is h = . . 22. The length of the
arc of the curve y = log sec x from x ~ 0 to x = n/4 is (a) log, 2 (6> log, 3 tel
log; {1 + s/S) id) log, (1 + Jd). ( Bhopal. 2008 ) 2-i. If vx - volume uf the
$obd generated by revolving the area included between x-axis and x2 4 y2
= n2 about x-uxis ; v2 = volume of the solid generated by revolving the
entire area of the circle x2 +y* = a- about x-axis, then (a) vt = v2 { b ) oz =
2v% (c) = 4pt (d) v2 = 16wr 2 3. If fir t QJ = /(“ r, 0), then the curve is
symmetrical about the _ to) initial line (6} pole (c) origin (d) tangential line.
IV.T.t/.* 2010) 2S. The volume generated by the revolution of Uie curve y =
w3 to2 + x25~ 1 about its asymptote m (a) tz^/2 (b) mV2 (c) mV 2 id) mifo
(V.T, H7 2010 J
Multiple Integrals and Beta, Gamma Functions I t. Double
integrals, 2. Change of order of integration. 3* Double integrals in Polar
coordinates. 4. Areas enclosed j I by plane curves. 5. Triple Integrals. 6.
Volume of solids. 7. Change of variables. 8. Area of a curved surface. . 9.
Calculation of mass. 10. Centre of gravity. 11. Centre of pressure. 12.
Moment of inertia. 13. Product of inertia ; Principal axes. 14. Beta function.
15. Gamma function. 16. Relation between beta and gamma functions. * I
17. Elliptic integrals. 18. Error function or Probability integral. 19.
Objective Type of Questions. 7.1 DOUBLE INTEGRALS rb Thu definite
integral I fix) dx is defined as the limit of the sum /(a;,) fir, + f{ x,2) &ia +
... + f (Jtn) &c(l, where n -> °° and each of the lengths fir,, ... tends to zero.
A double integral is its counterpart in two dimensions. Consider a function
fix., y) of the independent variables x,y defined at each point in the finite
region R of tile ry- plane. Divide R into n elementary areas SAj, fi.4^, Let
{xr, yr) be any point within the rth element tary area Mr Consider the sum It
/'d£1,y1J &A, +f(x2,y2)&A2 + ... + ftxn,yn)&An,Le„ £ f( xr , yr ) 5Ar r-1
The limit of this sum, if it exists, as the number of sub-divisions increases
indefinitely and area of each sub-division decreases to zero, is defined as
the double Integra! of ft: t, y) over the region R and is written as fJL
f^y)dAThus ff f{xty)dA = Lt V f{xt,yr)hA, .,.(1) JJR n->** " The utility of
dou ble integrals would be limited if it were required to cake limit of sums
to evaluate them. However, there is another method of evaluating double
integrals by successive single integrations. i fix, y) dxdy. Its value is found
as follows : (ij When yvy2 are functions of x and xv x2 are constants, f (x,
y) is first integrated w.r.i, y keeping x fixed between limits and then
resulting expression is integrated w.r.t x within the limits xr x2 i.e.. '■ = ] rU
J f(x,y)dy J>i dx where integration is carried from the inner to the outer
rectangle. 274
275 Muchpue (integrals and Beta, Gamma Functions Figure 7,1
illustrates this process. Here AB and CD are the two curves whose
equations areyj - f^x) and .Vo = Or). PC? is a vertical strip of width dx.
Then the inner rectangle integral means that Lhe integration is along one
edge of the strip PQ from P to Q tr remaining constant), while the outer
rectangle integral corresponds to the sliding of the edge from AC to BD.
Thus the whole region of integration is the area ABDC. (ii) When xltx2 are
functions ofy and yv y2 are constants, fix, y) is first integrated w.r.t, x
keeping .y fixed, within the limits x3 and the resulting expression is
integrated w.r.t. y between the limits .Vj.jg, i.e., /,= r r*2 dy fix, y ) dx J7i
which is geometrically illustrated by Fig. 7.2. Q y=y$ X - X I Here AB and
CD are the curves jc t - fîy ) and = f2(y). PQ is a horizontal strip of width
dy. Then inner rectangle indicates that the integration is along one y, edge
of this strip from P to Q while the outer rectangle corresponds to the sliding
of this edge from AC to BD, Thus the whole region of integration is the area
ABDC. (Hi) When bulk pairs of limits are constants, the region of
integration is the rectangle ABDC (Fig. 7.3). In Iv we integrate along the
vertical strip PQ and then slide it from AC to BD, In I2, we integrate along
the horizontal strip P 'Q ' and then slide it from AB to CD. Here obviously /j
= /2. O P y = y i D x = x2 Q' B Fig. 7.3 Thus for constant limits, it hardly
matters whether we first integrate w.r.t . x and then w.r.t , y or vice versa. rJl
Example 7.1. Evaluate J J" x(x/ + y2 ) dxdy . Solution. / - [ dx [ (jc3 + jry3 )
dy — f Jo Jo Ju **>*«.£dx Jo = r Jo JC3 . xz + X . ~ O dx 6 a 5 r t (*-♦*)*±
_ i -5G 6 24 ■“ M 0 1 s^1 6 24 = 18880.2 nearly. Example 7.2. Evaluate j"J
xy dx dy , where A is the domain bounded by x-axis . ordinate ,i - 2a and
the curve x- - -Say, Solution. The line .r = 2a and the parabola jc2 = 4ay
intersect atL(2a, a). Figure 7.4 shows the domain A which is the area OML.
Integrating first over a vertical strip PQ, i.e., w.r.t. y from P(y = 0) to Q(y -
x2/4a ) on the parabola and then w.r.t. x from jc = 0 to x = 2a , we have
276 Higher Engineering Mathematics Otherwise integrating first
over a horizontal strip US, i.e., w.r.t. a: from, R(x = 2 'Jay') on the parabola
to S(jr = 2a) and then w.r.t. y from y = 0 to y ~uy we get IT xy dxdy = f dx [
xy dx = J y J Ja Jo Ja^njo Jo = 2a f (ay - y2 ) dy = 2o Jo dy 2 3 tty y Jo
Example 7.3. Evaluate JJ^ x2 dx dy where R is the region in the first
yuudrant bounded by the lines x—y, y =0, x - 8 and the curve xy - 16.
Solution. The line AL t.v - 8) intersects the hyperbola xy = 16 at A (8, 2)
while the line y — x intersects this hyperbola at B (4, 4). Figure 7.5 shows
the region R of integration which is the area OLAJ3. To evaluate the given
integral, we divide this area into two parts OMB and MLAB. ft 2 , , fiotM 2
J J f*« L rynv 2 , , 1 1 x£ dxdy = I I a. dxdy +1 | x dxdy J }R lâtO at P JidL
M *y at P* f4 f* y fG flS/x ^ = f f x2dxdy + f f x2dxdy Jo Jo J4 Jo ■r -c x2
dx x3 dx + £ 16x dx = lfiV* 4 4 2 X + 16 X 4 0 2 - 440 FiB 7-5 7.2
CHANGE OF ORDER OF INTEGRATION In a double integral with
variable limits, the change of order of integration changes the limit of
integration. While doing so, sometimes it is required to split up the region
of integration and the given integral is expressed as the sum of a number of
double integrals with changed limits. To fix up the new limits, it is always
advisable to draw a rough sketch of the region of integration. Tlie change of
order of integration quite often facilitates the evaluation of a double
integral. The following examples will make these ideas clear. Example 7.4,
By changing the order of integration of J £ e J' sin px dxdy , show that f jo
sm px , n — — dx x 2 (U.P.T.U.. 2004) Solution, £ £ e w sin px dxdy = £ e
xy sin px dv j dy
Multiple Integrals and Beta, Gamma Functions 277 r e~** = - s -
t ( p COS px + y sin px) dy Jo p + y |Q - f^= tan-'f2ir=5 Jo /> +/ VpJ|0 2 On
changing the order of integration, we have sin px i e”^ sin px dxdy = Jo Jo
Jo - JT Jo Thus from (i) and (ii), we have Jo sin px if--*! s[-r‘ sin px dx * 2'
Example 7,5- Change the order of integration in the integral ro flta? - y* >
/= f f f(x,y)dxdy. J~fl Solution. Here the elementary strip is parallel to x-
axis (such as FQ) and extends from x - 0 to x = - y1 ) (i.e., to the circles2 +
y2 = a2) and this strip slides from y = - a toy - a. This shaded semi-circular
area is, therefore, the region of integration (Fig. 7.6). On changing the order
of integration, we first integrate w.r.t. y along a vertical strip RS which
extends from R (y = — ^(a2 — y2)] to S [y =
278 Higher Engineering Mathematics Sol u linn. Here integration
is first w.r.t. y and P on the parabola x 2 - 4 ay to Q on the parabola y 2 - 4
ax and then w.rX x from x = 0 to x = 4a giving the shaded region of
integration (Fig. 7.8). On changing the order of integration, we first
integrate w.r.L x from R to S, then w.r\t * y from y = 0 to y = 4a Mo r2-Jay
Me Mo - * / = dxdy ’ dy x = (2jay - y { 4a) dy h Jv2Mo Jl) J/4a Jo ^ 2\[a 3/2
3/2 12a An 32o2 16a2 _ 16u2 3 3 3 = tay fig. 7.8 Example 7.8. Change the
order of integration and hence evaluate ) (S.V.T.U., 2006 S) Solution. Here
integration is first w.r.t. y from P on the parabola y2 = or to Q on the line y -
ay then w.r.t x from x = 0 to x = a, giving the shaded region GAB of
integration (Fig. 7.9). On changing the order of integration, we first
integrate w.r.t. x from R to S, then w.r.t. y from y = 0 to y — a. = r y 2 d> *
= ir f“ / dy dx Jc J" J V-aV) a Jo Jo yjiiy2 laf - xz] „ i 1 Cl . c y!dy ^ -l SJT1
\y J y*fa = — f y2dy j sin a Jo ■Ml) - sin 1 (0)1 TT pit * TP y3 ' ( 2 T rpj JL
= 2 a L y dy-tu y 3 ^ *■ ~~6~' Example 7.9. Change the order of integration
in 1= £ j # xy dxdy and hence evaluate the same. i Bhopal , 2008; V.T.V..
2008 ; S.V.TM. , 2007 ; P.T.U.. 2005 ; U.P.T.U., 2005) Solution. Here the
integration is first w.r.t. y along a vertical strip PQ which extends from P on
the parabola y - x2 to Q on the liney = 2 — x. Such a strip slides from x ~ 0
to x = 1, giving the region of integration as the curvilinear triangle GAB
(shaded) in Fig. 7.10, On changing the order of integration, we first
integrate w.r.t, x along a horizontal strip P'Q' and that requires the splitting
up of the region GAB into two parts by the line AC (y = 1), i.e.t the
curvilinear triangle OAC and the triangle ABC. For the region OACt the
limits of integration for x are from x = 0 to x - Jy and those for y are from y
= 0 to y = 1. So the contribution to / from the region OAC is Fig. 7.10 xy dx
For the region ABC, the limits of integration for x are from x = 0 to .v = 2
—y and those for y are from y = 1 to y = 2. So the contribution to / from the
region ABC Is
Multiple Integrals and Beta, Gamma Functions 279 Hence, on
reversing the order of integration, J>1 f x2 ~2‘y & f2 I, dy Yy t-y = 4 I jVy
+ M y^-y? dy = - + — = 2 Jo 2 Ji fi 24 8 i e t'y 0 Ji Solution. Here the
integration is first w.r.t._y along PQ which extends from P on the line v = x
to Q on the circle, v = y[( 2 . x2) ■ Then FQ slides from y = 0 toy = 1 ,
giving the region of integration OAB as in Fig, 7.11. On changing the order
of i ntegration, we first integrate w.r.t x from P1 to Q' and that requires
splitting the region OAB into two parts OAC and ABC. For the regioti
OAC, the limits of integration for x are from x = 0 tox = 1 and those fory
are from y = 0 to y = 1. So the contribution to / from the region OAC is /,=
f* dy r J Jo Jo vte - 7* i 6 24 8 dx and hence evaluate it R + y2 ) (J.N.T.U.,
2005 ; Roktah, 2000) dx. R Ty5) For the region ABC, the limits of
integration for x are 0 to -J(2 - y2 ) and these for y are from 1 to V2 , So the
contribution to / from the region ABC is h-f) Hence f l*~ dy‘° JsTT) = £ -
1) y dy + ^(2-y) dy = 1(^2 - 1) + J2j(2-1) - 1 = 1 - V 4% DOUBLE
INTEGRALS IN POLAR COORDINATES To evaluate I fir, 9) dr d0 , we
first integrate w.r.t. r between limits Jfl, lr\ r = r, and r = r2 keeping 0 fixed
and the resulting expression is integrated w.r.t. 0 from 0, to 02. In this
integral, rv r2 are functions of 0 and 01? 02 are constants. Figure 7. 12
illustrates the process geometrically. Here AS and CD are the curves rx
=^(0) and r2 - /j(0) bounded by the lines 0 = 0, and 0 = 0£. PQ is a wedge of
angular thickness 69. Then f 1 fir, 0) dr indicates that the integration is
along PQ from P to Q Jri while the integration w.r.t. 0 corresponds to the
turning of PQ from AC to BD. Thus the whole region of integration is the
area ACDB , The order of integration may be changed with appropriate
changes in the limits. Fig. 7.1Z
280 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example- 7 .11. Evaluate JJ
r sin 0 dr dB over the cardiaid r = a (I cos 0J above the initial line. {Kerala,
2005) Solution. To integrate first w.r.t. r, the limits are from 0 (r = 0) to P [r
= a f 1 - cos 0)1 and to cover the region of integration R, 0 varies from 0 to
k (Fig. 7.13). p«r - oU -eoetN 11 r sin 6 drdB -C ^ e[Xl refr de = f si Jo sin
6 dQ hfli 1 - «ts 0) U 2 a - cos er = ~ f * a - cos e>2 . sin e rfe 2 Jo a_ 8 _
4a2 2 3 3 Fig. 7 13 Example 7.12. Calculate JJ r' dr dB over the area,
included between the circles r -2 sin Band r = 4 siVifi Solution. Given
circles r = 2 sin 0 ...(f) and r - 4 sin 0 are shown in Fig. 7,14. The shaded
area between these circles is the region of integration. If we integrate first
w.r.t. r, then its limits are from P(r - 2 sin 0) to Q(r = 4 sin 0) and to cover
the whole region O varies from 0 to n. Thus the required integral is = f dB f
Jo J; •4 Bill fl 2 ail) 0 r* f dB [ r4f Jo Ln 2 Hiii 0 fit , A Q 1 = 60 sin4 0 d0 =
60 * 2 sin4 0 dB = 120 x . * = 22.5 it. Jo Jo 4.2 2 PROBLEMS 7.1 Evaluate
the following integrals <1-7 > 1. xy~ dxdy . 3. f1 f * e*iy dxdy. (P.T.U.,
2005) Jo Jo 2. f1 [** {x*+yH4xdy. Jo J* i r4n + 11) dydx 1 + Jf2 + y2
(V.T.U.. 2000) {Rajasthan, 2005) (Rajasthan, 200€) 4- / r Jo J(1 5. || xy
dxdy over the positive quadrant of the circle x2 + y2 = a2. g, Jf
Multiple Integrals and Beta. Gamma Functions 281 10, 1 râ-i»)
xdydx + /'i (P.T.U., 2010 ; Moral kwada. 2008 ; U.P.T.U., 2006) IS - _v“) pa
— y i r-j — — xydxdy. So Sn - ijiv* -y*} (Anna* 2009} (BhopaL 2009 ;
S.V.T. U., 2009 ; V.T.IL. 2007) ■ /; £ 11. J ' |V log(xa +yb)dxdy (a >0). f1
12. J xydydx. (V.T.U., 2010) 14 r r is. r Jo Jo I fv, Sketch the region of
integration of the following integrals and change the order of integrations,
f'lt i f Vftnr) fA*1** (i) I I r~_-_ f\x)dxdy {Rajasthan. 2006) Ui) I [ f(r, B)
rdrd&. Jo J x*) Jo Js?hjytrfa> 1 7. Show that j*J r sin B drdfy - JJ&3/3*
where R is the semi-circle r = 2u cos 0 above the Initial lino. rdrdB (S. V, 71
U.r 2006 : U. P. T, U, , 2005 ; V, 71 (/„ 2004 ) lb+ Evaluate is + r2 over one
loop of the lemniscate r2 = o2 ens 20, (Rahtak. 2006 S ; FT, t/„ 200.5) 19,
Evaluate JJ r'* drdO over the area bounded between the circles r = 2 cos 0
and r = 4 cos 0, (Anna, 2009 ; Madras, 2006) 1A AREA ENCLOSED BY
PLANE CURVES (I) Cartesian coordinates . Consider the area enclosed by
the curves y - f{(x) and y - fjx) and the ordinates x = xltx = x2 iFig. 7.15
(a)L Divide this area into vertical strips of width 5x, IfPf^y), Q(x + &r\y +
Sy) be two neighbouring points, then the area of the small rectangle PQ -
&r&y. area of strip KL = Lt I fk Sy, Since for all rectangles in this strip fir
is the same and y varies from y fx{x) t oy-f2ix), 4^* rfc*) area of the strip
KL = fix Lt > dy = fix dy. Now adding up all such strips from x = Jtt to x =
x2, we get the area ABCD . Lt f>. f*" dy = pdi [*" dy = f St 0 J/-, (JC> Jjt,
Similarly, dividing the area A'B'C'D [Fig. 7.15<6H into horizontal strips of
width Sy, we get the area A'B'C'D'. (2) Polar coordinates. Consider an area
.A enclosed by a curve whose equation is in polar coordinates. Let P{r, 0),
Q(r + fir, 0 + 68) be two neighbouring points. Mark circular areas of radii r
and r + fir meeting OQ in R and OF (produced) in S (Fig. 7.16). dxdy Fie
7.15 [bj
282 Higheo Engineering Mathematics Since arc PR ~ rS0 and PS
= 5 r. area of the curvilinear rectangle PRQS is approximately = PR . PS -
rm.br. If the whole area is divided into such curvilinear rectangles, the sum
ILrSd&r taken for all those rectangles, gives in the limit the area A. Hence
A — Ll LLrSflSr = ff rdQdr &T -r> 0 J J «-»0 where the limiLs are to bo so
chosen as to cover the entire area. Example 7.13. Find the area of a plate in
the farm nf a quadrant of the ellipse (V.T.U.. 2001 ; Osmania, 2000 8) 2 2 x
v — * — - j 2 .2 - la b Solution. Dividing the area into vertical strips of
width &r, ,y varies from JC(y = 0) to L\y = b ^(1 - x2 !hl )] and then x
varies from 0 to n (Fig. 7.17). /. required area = - f - *2) dx . mbi4, ah'
Otherwise, dividing this area into horizontal strips of width 6y, x varies
from Mix - 0 ) to M* = a yj(\ - y2/62) I and then y varies from 0 to 6. fh *a
Jil - ya/£>8 1 rh „ fi ,2 ,.2* required area = J dy j dx - j rfyfxj^ r - £ t J(b2 -
y2) dy = nab/ 4. ft Jo Ohs. The change of the order of integration does not
in any way affect the value of the area. Example 7,14. Show that the area
between the parabolas y2 = 4ax and x? = 4ay is — «3. 3 (Kerala, 2005 ;
Rohtak, 2003) Solution, Solving the equations^2 = 4m. and x2 - 4ay, it is
seen that the parabolas intersect at O (0, 0) and A (4a, 4a). As such for the
shaded area between these parabolas (Fig. 7.181 x varies from 0 to 4a and y
varies from P to Q Le., from y = ;tz/4a to y = 2 ■J(ax) . Hence tlie required
area J<4d r 2-fox- r - - - ^ , dydx = {2J(ax)~ x2/4a) dx 0 Jr*/ 4* JO 9 [Z 2
3f2 1 X 2'/l ' 3 * 4a * 3 32 2 16 2 16 2 = Ta ~Ta =TU 4{Ul *0 4a Fig. 7.18
Multiple Integrals amo Beta, Gamma Functions . ' : * " f 283
Example 7.15. Calculate the area included between the curve r = a isec 9 +
cos 9) and its asymptote. Solution. The curve is symmetrical about the
initial line and has an asymptote r - a see 0 (Fig. 7. 19). Draw any line OP
cutting the curve at P and its asymptote at P Along this line, 8 is constant
and r varies from a sec 0 at P ' to n (sec 0 + cos 0) at P. Then to get the
upper half of the area, 0 var ies from 0 to nJ2. J.it/g G + cos0> i r drd& 0
Jrcsec B l fset? 0 + mis 61 flt/a rjf,s“ =2f„ It , * - a 2 f n/2 (2 + cos* 0) dQ =
5mi2/4. Jo 0) 719 Exam ple 7.18. Find the area lying inside the cardiaid r -
a(J + cos W and outside the circle r = a. Solution. In Fig. 7.20, ABODA
represents the cardioid r = u(l + cos 0) and CBA' VC is the circle r = a.
Required area (shaded) - 2 (area ABCVU fll/2 pr *OP f JtJ 2 jFfi lltBJh0) _
2 I I r dO dr — 2 I I (rrfr) d0 Jo 'r = OP JO Jit rn/2 = 2 [ Jo ad + rfisG) dV =
a2 f* 2 Kl + cosB)* - l]cfe Jd r it/2 0 / 1 \ 2 = ft2 I (cos" 8 + 2 cos 0) d& -
a2 I A 4 o I = (a + 8). Jo \2' 2 J 4 Fig. 7.20 PROBLEMS 7.2 I ^ Find* by
double integration* the area lying between the parabola y = 4x - x2 and the
liney — x. 2* Find the area lying between the parabola y ^ x2 and ihe line x
+ y -z - 0, fArc^r?* 2009) By double integration* find the whole area of the
c urve a*x2 - yH2ei—y)r ( U.fKT>U.* 20QH 4* Find* by double
integration, the area enclosed by the curves y - &xf{.x7 f 2) and 4y - j2. U.t
2005) 5. Find* by double integration, the area of the lemniscate r2 - a2 cos
20. (Madras, 2000 S) 6. Find, by double integration, the area lying inside
the circle r = a sin 0 and outside the cardioid r - ad - cob 0). (Anna 2009 :
Mumbai, 2000 ) 7. Find the area lying inside the cardioid r - 1 + cos © and
outside the parabola r ( 1 + cos 0> =■ lr 8. Find the area common to the
circles r - a cos 0, r = a sin 0 by double integration- (Mumbai, 2007) E3E1
TRIPLE INTEGRALS _ Consider a function f(x,y, z) defined at every point
of the 3 -dimensional Unite region V. Divide V into n elementary volumes
8Vj, fiV2, .... 8Vn. Let (xr, yr, zf) be any point within the rth sub-division
SF,. Consider the sum M Z n*r.yr,*r)Wr. r = 1 The limit of this sum* if it
exists, asn->« and BVr -4 0 is called the triple integral of fix, yt z) over the
region V and is denoted by \\\f(x,y,z)dV. For purposes of evaluation, it can
also be expressed as the repeated integral f f P fix, yt z)dxdydz. *xt Jy, Ji,
284 Higher Engineering Mathematics If Jtj, x2 arc constants ; y]f

y2 are either constants or functions of x and z2 are either constants or
functions ofx and y, then this integral is evaluated as follows : First f (x, y,
z) is integrated w.r.t. z between the limits z1 and z2 keeping x and y fixed.
The resulting expression is integrated w.r.t. y between the limits yt and y2
keeping x constant. The result just obtained is finally integrated w.r.t. *
from to x2. Thus / = p,txl r ,vt dy dx J 1 f Z)dz Jjt, where the integration is
carried out from the innermost rectangle to the outermost rectangle. The
order of integration may be different for different types nf limits. Example
7.17. Evaluate f f f (x + y + z) dxdydz . (J.N.T.U., 2006 ; Cochin, 2005) J- /
Jo J* - 1 Solution. Integrating first w.r.t. y keeping* and z constant, we have
1 f -t xy + — + yz dx dz (x + z) (2 z) + ^4 xz 2 2 *_£ + 2*I + * 2 2 2 ■ L JC
[■ /2 = 2 1 (t+*+t)** dx dz = 0. -yli [} r Jfl - X1 ] fi/'i -** — J Example
7.18. Evaluate J J xyz dxdydz. (V.T.U.. 200:s A) Solution. We have / zdz dy
dx ss f XI Jn~Si Jo a2 2 : — 1 0 j dx 2 * 4 Jil -JCSt dx = 4 f Ml - x'1 )2 , 2x
- (1 - x2 14 . xj dx - ^ f (* _ 2x3 + x5 1 dx 8 Jo 8 Jo _ 1 8 X2 2x4 x6 1 _if 'i
-i + il 2 ~1~ T rsl ^2 2 fiJ PROBLEMS 7.3 I'lvalual* the following integrals
: 1. f " f * f {x2 + y2 + z2) dxdydz. (Anno . 2009) Si. f f f U* + / $ **> dx
dy dz Jo Jf) Jo J— rT J- fr J- fi; 3. f1 f1 f~*xdzdxd& Jsr JyJ Jo Uig2 *JL
fXFknJ.y fX rJ I f Q JO JO (Nagpur, 2009) ***** dxdydz. { Bhopal T
500#) J-rc/2 fti sin fl r * rdzdrdQ. o Jo Jo ISMTAJ., 2009; K TM, 2000 ) f x
e x * v „ Jo Jo *7” CV.T. (/.. 2010 ; Kurukvhetw. 2009 S : J.N T, V 2005 ) c
Multiple Integrals and Beta, Gamma Functions PEI VOLUMES
OF SOUPS (1) Volumes as double integrals. Consider a surface z = f (j c,y).
Let the orthogonal projection on AY-plane of its purLion S' be the area S
(Fig. 7.21). Divide S into elementary rectangles of area fix fiy by drawing
lines parallel to A” and 7-axes. With each of these rectangles as base, erect
a prism having its length parallel to OZ . volume of this prism between S
and the given surface z = fix, y) is zSxfiy. Hence the volume of the solid
cylinder on S as base, bounded by the given surface with generators parallel
to the Z-axis. = Lt XXzfixfiy 6x-»0 = JJ zdxdy or n fix, y) dx dy where the
integration is carried over the area S. Oh*. While using polar coordinates,
divide S into elements of area rfitt fir. .% replacing dxdy by r66fir, we get
the required volume = If zr dO dr , Example 7.1 9. Find the volume
bounded by the cylinder x2 + y2 - 4 and the planes y 4- z = 4 and z = 0. (S.
V.T. U., 2007 ; Cochin, 2000 ; Madras, 2000 S) Solution. From Fig. 7.22, it
is self-evident that z = 4 -y is to be integrated over the circle x2 + y2 = 4 in
the AY- plane. To cover the shaded half of this circle, x varies from 0 to -J{4
- y % ) and y varies from - 2 to 2. Required volume .£ r2 f f2 n/u-yb - L t
*dxd> = 2L Jo U-y^dxdy = 2 j (4 - *) 4 y 1 dy - 2 J (4 - y) ,/<4 - dy = 2 ]*
4^(4 - y2 ) dy - 2 J* yfa-y2) dy - 8 | ^ i/(4 - y2 ) dy y^{4 - y)J [The second
term vanishes as the integrand is an odd function. = 8 4 . -i y + 2Sm 2 =
16tt, - 2 (2) Volume as triple integral Divide the given solid by planes
parallel to the coordinate planes into rectangular parallelopipeds of volume
fix fiy fiz (Fig. 7.23). the total volume - Lt X I £ fix fiy Sz &r— »0 Sj' -*o
&-.0 = I J J dx dy dz with appropriate limits of integration. Fig, 7.23
266 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 7.20. Calculate
the Volume of the solid bounded by the planes x = 0, v = 0, x + y + z = a
and 2-0. (P.T.V., 2009) pfr fti-x rii-x-y Solution. Volume? required = I dz dy
dx Jo Jo Jo Jfc£l rU-I ^ I (« - x - v) dv dx = o Jo Jo (a - Jt)y = r k x) V (« -
xf dx 1 f" / ,2.1 'do la~x) * = 2 dx (w - xf Example 7,2 1 - Find the volume
of the ellipsoid ^ = L a " 6‘ c“ (Anna, 3009 ; P. T, t7., 2006 ; 2005) Solution.
Let OABC be the positive octant of the given ellipsoid which Ls bounded
by the planes OAB (z - 0), OffC {* = 0)t OCA (y - 0) and the surface ABC,
i.e. , Divide this region R into rectangular parallelepipeds of volume
bxdybz. Consider such an element at P(x7 y\ z), (Fig. 7.24) ■\ the required
volume - 8 /a dx dy dz„ In this region R, ii) z varies from 0 to AfN where
MN = c 1 - x2 /a2 - y2/h2) . Fig. 7.24 (xt (u\y varies from 0 to EFt where
EF — b^{ 1 - x?r ia1) from the equation of the ellipse OAB, Le.t x2fa? +
y2/b2 = L (m) x varies from 0 to OA - a. Hence the volume of the whole
ellipsoid “ 8 f J h J/{p2 - j£ ) cfy when p = 6 i2 /a2 } icjtl-
Jfs/na la 8c I tt b_ 2 2 1- 271 be | 1 - j dx - 271 be Otherwise. See Problem
27 page 29 2. (3) Volumes of solids of revolution Consider an elementary
area &c6y at the point Ftx, y) of a plane area A. (Fig. 7.251 As this
elementary area revolves ahout r-axis, we get a ring of volume = n|(y +
&y)2 -y2] & c = 2 xy &x &y, nearly to the first powers of$y. x 3 of 4iEo6r
Multiple Integrals and Beta, Gamma Functions about X-axis . =
|J^ 2nydxdy. In polar coordinates, the above formula for the volume
becomes JJ^ 2ti r sin 0 . rdQdr, (,e- JJ 2icr2 sin 0 d&dr Similarly, the
volume of the solid formed by the revolution of the area A about y-axis = j£
27te dx dy. Example 7.22. Calculate by doubt a integration, the volume
generated by the revolution of the cardioid r ~a(l - me flj about its axis.
Solution. Required volume pit Ml{l~ COS0I 2 nr11 sin 8 dr d0 aM-cou 6)
sin 0 d& , Pf Jo Jo J-ff 0 = ^T" f" (1 - cos e)3 . sin 0 dB = O JO 3 -» « 2jm3
a - cos 0)* 8mr Fig. 7.26 CHANGE OF VARIABLES An appropriate
choice of co-ordinates quite often facilitates the evaluation of a double or a
triple integral. By changing the variables, a given integral can be
transformed into a simpler integral involving the new variables. (1 ) In a
double integral, let the variables x, y be changed to the new variables u.v by
the transformation. x = $iu, v),y = ytw, u) where ijrt’u, o) and v) are
continuous and have continuous first order derivatives in some region R'av
in the rm- plane which corresponds to the region f?iV in the jcy- plane.
Then f f fix, y) dxdy = f f fltf,ut v), u)| | J [ dudv .41) where J = zA (ô)
eKu. v , w) is the Jacobian of transformation from {x, y, z) to in, o. «?)
coordinates. Particular cases : (i ) To change cartesian coordinates (x, y) to
polar coordinates (r, 0), we have x = r cos 0, y =■ r sin 0 and ■ T= *».>> =r
(Hr, 0) I Ex. 5.25, p. 216| ] , fix, y) dx dy - f f fir cos 0, r sin 0) . r dr d&. ■*
Tfi- J JWhi * See footnote page 215. ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
288 have Higher Engineering Mathematics (ii) To change
rectangular coordinates (xr yf z) to cylindrical coordinates (p„ z) — Fig.
8.27, we x - p cos , y = p sin = z and J = -Y’ z) = p |Ex. 5.25] 3(p, , z) Then
fix, y, z) dxdydz = jjj^ f{ p cos 0. p sin 0. z) . pdpdtytlz. tiii) To change
rectangular coordinates (x, y\ z) to spherical polar coordinates (r, 0, 0) —
Fig. 8.28, we have x = r sin 9 cos 0, y — r sin 6 sin 0, z — r cos 9 and
J=Mi|>=r>Bne dtr, 9, 0) [Ex- 5.25] Then jj£ f(x,y, z) dxdydz - JJJj^ f{r sin 9
cos 0, r sin 0, sin 0, r cos B) . rA sin 9 drdOdp Example 7.23, Evaluate JJ
far + y)J dxdy , where R is the parallelogram in the xy -plane with vertices
(1, 0), (3, I), (2, 2), ( 0 , 1) using the tra ns format! on u = x + y and v = x-
2y. (XJ.RT.U., 2004) Solution. The region R. i.e,, parallelogram ABCD in
the iy- plane becomes the region R\ i.e,, rectangle^' B'C'D' in the no- plane
as shown in Fig. 7.27, by taking u=x + y and v=x-2y ...(*) From (i), we
have x = — (2u + u), y = -
Multiple Integrals and Seta, Gamma Functions 289 Solution. We
have x = u - uvt y - uv au, y) dx/du dyfdu 1 - u o d(«, (j) ~ dxfdu dy/do - u u
= u. Also when x - 0P u ■ = 0, u = 1; whenjy = 0, u = 0, v = 0 and when Jt +
jy = lt u = 1 /- the limits of u are from 0 to 1 and limits of v are from 0 to L
xy yj( 1 - x - y) dxdy - £ J u(l - v) uv (1 - u)m j J \ dtidv Thus - f f u 3 (1 -
u)U2 o(i - v) du dv Jo Jo - f h3 (1 - u)1/2 dux f u(l — v)du JQ Jo rn/2 * s ~
sin 0 cos 0 . 2 sin 6 cos d& x Jo -2 r sin7 6 cos2 6rfef-l = ~. 6-1 — = — Jo
UJ 3 9, 7. 5,3 945' u2 ea where u = sin2 0 du - 2 sin 0 cos 0 (JO u = 0T 0 =
0 u = 1, 6 = k/2 Example 7,25, Evaluate £ £ e u +> ' dxdy by changing to
polar coordinates, (Anna, 2003) Hence show that J e~ x dx = s/rc/2 .
(Madras, 2003 ; U.P. T. U. , 2003 ; J.N. T. U,, 2000 ) Solution. The region
of integration being the first quadrant of the xy- plane, r varies from 0 to »
and fl varies from 0 to rt/2. Hence, / = e~'*S'y2) dxdy= I"'2 f" e~^ Je = 0 Jr
= D rdrdB Example 7.26, Find the volume bounded by the paraboloid xs
+y2 = az, the cylinder x* +y = 2ay and the plane s = 0, Solution. The
required volume is found by integrating z = (ar + yz)!a over the circle xl +
y2 - 2ay. Changing to polar coordinates in the xy- plane, we have x - r cos
6, y - r sin 0 so that z - r2fa and the polar equation of the circle is r = 2a sin
0. To cover this circle, r varies from 0 to 2o sin 8 and 0 varies from 0 to x.
(Fig. 7.28) Hence the required volume r'Mi pin i pji I z. r d& dr = ± f rfe f 0
Jo u Jo Jo 2a rii n 0 -if a Jo rl Jo 4 2a win 0 = 4a3 f sin4 0 efft = Jo r3 dr
3thj3 2 Fig. 7.28
290 Higher Enoiijeering Mathematics Example 7.27. Find, by

triftfr integration, the volume of the Sphered +y~ + sr - a~. i Bhopal, 2009 .
Madras. 2006; V.T.V., 2003 S) Solution. Changing to polar spherical
coordinates by putting x = r sin 0 cos p, y = r sin 9 sin p, z - r cos 0 we have
dx dy dz = rl sin 0 dr dti d§. Also the volume of the sphere is 8 times the
volume of its portion in the positive octant for which r varies from Q to a, 0
varies from 0 to n/2 and p varies from 0 to ji/2, volume of the sphere Jut
rni2 rn/2 „ ru n fit/2 i i r2 sin 0 dr d& t/p = S | r dr . . sin 0 dQ . I dp o Jo Jo
Jo Jo Jo = S . 3 . | - cos e 1“ "/2 + jr Example 7,28. Find the volume of the
portion of the sphere x2 + y~ + t2 = «* lying inside the cylinder + jr — uy.
{Rolttotk, 2003) Solution. The required volume is easily found by changing
to cylindrical coordinates (p, p, z). We therefore, have x - p cos p, y = p sin
p, z - z and J= y’z) =n dip, p, z) Then the equation of the sphere becomes p2
+ z' - a 2 and that of cylinder becomes p = a sin The volume inside the
cylinder bounded by the sphere is twice the volume shown shaded in the
Fig. 7.29 for which z varies from 0 to j .i " "jjT slid" - p" ) , p varies from 0
to a sin Jo Ajix + y j Solution. We change to spherical polar coordinates (rt
0, 4>), so that x - r sin G cos /2 — 1) n Fig. 7.30
Multiple Integrals and Beta, Gamma Functions 291 Example

TAB. Find the volume of the solid surrounded by the surface (x la)* +
(y/b)s n + (z icPt3 = i. (ilissar, 2005 S ) Solution. Changing the variables, x ,
y, z to X, Y, Z where, (xla)^ - X , iyib)m = V, {z/cf® = Z ie. , x = aX3, y =
bY3, z » cZ3 so that J ~d(x, y, z)B {Xr Y, Z) = 27 abc X^Z2. /. required
volume = SSI dx dy dz - 27 abc ||| XlY dX dYdZ taken throughout the
sphere X2 + V2 + Z2 - 1- ,..(i) Now change X, Yt Z to spherical polar
coordinates r, 8, that X — r sin 0 cos 0, y = r sin 6 sin 0, Z = r cos 6, and D
(X, Y, Z)/d ( r , 0, 0) = r2 sin 0. To describe the positive octant of the sphere
(i), r varies from 0 to 1, 0 from 0 to n/2 and from 0 to n/2. It ft pKi 2 '0
required volume = 27 abc x 8 J f a&c f r8 dr f Jm Jo = 216: r2 sin2 0 cos2 0
x r2 sin2 0 sin2 0 . rs cos2 0 . r2 sin 0 drdBdty * 5 |*5T/£' a a sin 0 cos 0 tf0
sin 0 cos 0 c?0 = 4?t a6c/35. PROBLEMS 7.4 Evaluate the following
integrals by changing to polar co-ordinates fl (*-/' 1 fj *y fv I. f f (*2 +
y2)dy{ft, (RTE/..20J0) 2, f f Jo Jo JO Jo - X* \ y ^ Jy sf x + y f+u r } X2 ^
y3 [ [ 7 -^ ' jdxdy r+« j-r x2 -y3 4 |J 4 ylin>2 dxdy over the positive
quadrant of*2 + y2 = 4, supposing n + 3 > 0. fi. f f - -. over one loop of the
lemniscatc (x4 + >2) = xl — y 2 JJ (1 +■ * + y J f I J|J Jo r3 siti 9 cosfl
tfrti©. i;. Transform the following lu cartesian form and hence evaluate 7. JJ
y dx dy river the area outside xr + y1 -ax - t) and inside x2 + y4 - 2ax - 0. g,
By using the transformation x + y = u, y = uv, show that r r V^ + >',rfydx =
i(e-n 9. Transform | *” d§ dd by the substitution x =■ sin $ cos 6ty - sin 0
sin 0 and show that its value is it, tdnntt, 2009) (.Mumbai, 2006) (S.V.T.U.,
2007) (Mumbai. 2007) iP.T.U.,2005) (Mumbai, 2006) l P.T.U. . 2003) <1
V.P.T.U .. 2001) Evaluate the following integrals by changing to spherical
coordinates : i l - - i J jf i dxdydz J« jo-,2 Hz + Xs = (t2. CVXtA, 2006;
Kottayam, 2005) (Anna, 20091 io. j' r Ji) JO U. fff , y d\ where Vr is the
volume of the sphere x2 +y; J J J x* + y * + 12 Evaluate fff — thrtfy dJ -
over the volume of the tetrahedron x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x + y + 2 - 1 .
(Mumbai. 2007) JJJ U + * + y + 2) 13 Show that fff t/Advi/j- ^ | _ ' ^he
integral being extended for all the values or the variables for which JJJ
V(qa-x3-y2-z2) 8 the exprenîon nsal. {U, T+ V,w 20 JO) 14 ui
292 Higher Engineering Mathematics 15* Kind Lht volume

bounded by the xy -plane, Lhe cylinder x* -f y*- 1 and lhe plane -x + y + z
■ 3. U S,M.t 2001 1 IS. Kind the voJume bounded by the xy-plane* the
paraboloid 2z = x2 + y2 and the cylinder x2 t _y- = ji r, ■ 1 7. Kind the
volume cut from the sphere x2 + y2 4 zl = a*- by Lhe cone XT + y2 — z2.
18- Kind the volume com mem to the cylinders x2 + y?r-a- and x 2 + 2? =
a2. \S. V.T.U, r 5006) IB- Kind the volume out off from the cylinder x* + y2
=* nx by the planes - - 0 and 2 x {U P.TJlt 2000) 20. Find the volume
enclosed by the cylinders §* +■ y2 - 2ox and z2 - 2ux, {Mutxdhwada,
2008) 2 1 Find the volume of the cylinder a 2 + y 2 - 2ox 0, intercepted
between the paraboloid xa + y~ 2tiz and the ay-plane 22. Kind the volume
bounded by the cylinder x2 + y3 = 4 and the hyperboloid x2 + y2 - z2 - 1.
23. Find the volume of the region bounded by z = x~ + yH* s = 0, x = - ar x
— a and y = tiM y = u 24. Prove* by using a double integral that the
volume generated by the revolution of the carrfioid r = at I + co* ft i about
its axis is f V. T h\ 2000) 25. Evaluate j"Ji J (x + y 4 z) dx dy
Mum pi e Integrals and Beta, Gamma Functions 293 Example

7.31 . Find the urea af the portion of the cylinder Xs + z2 - 4 lying inside
the cylinder x? + y- = 4. Solution. Figure 7.32 shows one-eighth of the
required area. Tts projection on the xy-plane is a quad rant circle x2 + y2 -
4. For the cylinder x2 + z2 = 4t dz_ _ x __ q ik 2 ’ (>V >2 we have so that
(IMS) + 1 2 2 X +Z 2 ■ z 4 - X Heme the required surface area = 8 (surface
area of the tipper portion of (i) lying within the cylinder x2 + y2 = A in the
positive octant) - VM -i - 3=3 > 9 -«r r JO Jfl •J(4-x2) P4 dxdy = 16 I dx —
32 sq. units. Jo Example 7.32, Find the area of the portion of the sphere X2
+ y- + 2^-9 lying inside the ty tinder x? +y2 ~ tl y. Solution. Figure 7.33
shows one-fourth of the required area. Its projection on the jcy-plane is the
semi-circle xA + y2 - 3y bounded by the F-axis For the sphere *W.za =
9.|=-f md|-i (l)2 + (lf + i -(**?*■#>* 9 9 9 - x2 - y2 9 - r2 when x = r cos 0,
y = r sin 0, Using polar coordinates, the required area is found by
integrating 3 i'fts -r") over the semi-circle r = 3 sin 0, for which r varies
from 0 to 3 sin 0 and 0 varies from 0 to n/2. Hence the required surface area
3 pin 0 dB rn/2 f 3 stint* q fn/2 ! ! * _ rdB dr _ 6 \ v/(9 -r2) Jo Jo J(9-r2) J°
1/2 - 36 J (1 — cos 6) f/0 = 36 1 0 - sin 0 |n " — 18 {tt — 21 sq - units.
PROBLEMS 7.5 1 , Show that the surface area of the sphere*2 + y 2 + aa =
a 3 is 4ita2. 2, Find the area L>f the portion of the cylinder x2 + y2 - 4y
lying inside the sphere x7 + y?m + .*2 = 16, 3, Find the area of the portion
of the sphere x2 +■ y2 v = a7 lying inside iho cylinder jc2 + y* - nx. 4*
Find Lhe area of the surface of the cone x 2 + y2 - £3 cul off by I he surface
of t he cylinder x~ +■ ys - u2 above the *y -plane 5, Compute the area of
that pim of the plane x Vy + z 2 a which lies in the first octant and is
bounded by the cylinder xi =
294 Higher Engineering Mathematics CALCULATION OF
MASS (а) For a plane lamina, if the surface density at the point P{x, y ) be
p = fix, y) then the elementary mass at P = p&dyy, .\ total mass of the
lamina — || p dx dy ...tf) with integrals embracing the whole area of the
lamina. !n polar coordinates, taking p = 4>(r, 6) at the point Hr, 0), total
mass of the lamina = || pr dd dr ..Mi) (б) For a solid, if the density at the
point Pix, y, z) be p = fix, y, z), then total mass of the solid = ||| p dx dy dz
with appropriate limits of integration. Example 7.33. Find the mass of the
tetrahedron bounded by the coordinates planes and the plane ^ = 1, the
variable density p = \xxyz. iRohtak, 2003 ; U.P, T. U,, 2003 ) Solution.
Elementary mass at P = pxyz . 8* £y Sr. the whole mass = ||| \ixyz dx dy dz,
the integrals embracing the whole volume OABC (Fig. 7.34). The limits for
z are from 0 to z - etl - xta - yib). The limits for y are from 0 to y = 6(1 -
x!a) and limits for x are from 0 to a. Hence the required mass J*a at/flf)
piril- xfa^yfb) i * pxya dz dy dx o Jo Jo ft (%£>!] -*/
Multiple Integrals and Beta, Gamma Functions EbU (6) To find

the C-G. (a*, y, of a solid, take an element nf mass pfixfyfe enclosing the
poinL Pix,y,z). Then JJJ xp dxdydz JJJ vp dxdydz JJj P dxdydz jjj p dxdydz
I II 2p dxdydz and z - x. i j- - . jjj P dxdydz Example 7.34. Ft nd by double
integration, the ventre of gravity of tin area of the card raid r= a (1 + cos 0).
Solution. The eardioid being symmetrical about the initial line, its C.G. lies
on OA', i..e„ y = 0 (Fig. 7.35). fj p r cos B . rdBdr J 3f = — — - _ - — ■+
CUH (M cos 0. r dr , d0 JJ p rdBdr r i J-ji at ] i n\» (P) rdr . d() 3 all +
tmaGJ f " cos G r dB J-* 3 0 fir] t rot *01 2a '-it 3 dO 2a 3 * 2a 3 ’ f J- It 2 .
[ (3 cos2 0 + cos 1 6) dfi Jo _ _ 2. [* (1 + cos2 0) de Jo J-rc/2 n A (3 cos" 9
+ cos ' 0) dO o i cos 0(1 + cos Gl3 dG J- it f (1 + cos 0)2 d6 J - it F(g. 7.35 f
cos” 0 dfl — 2 f cos” 0 dO or 0 J- n Jo according as ft in even or odd. fn/2 .
f (l Jo + cos" 6) do (as the powers of _ 2a cos 0 are even) 3" ' □ 1 n 3 1 it J 2
’ 2 4.2 2 5
296 Hiqheh MathEMatm cs Hence \ a 2 cos6 0 . b2 sin6 0 . {- 3o
cos^ 0 sin 0) d& « Jjs/2 _ f a cos3 & . b 2 sin6 G . (- 3a cos2 0 sin G) d&
Jn!2 X - ■ J n/2 Pitf2 JWZ 7 R sin fl cos 0 dQ o - aJ o fit/2 Similarly, J'H/2
h k sin 0 cos 0 d 0 o i f hey . y dxdy Jo Jo 128 429 y f P fesy . dxdy Jo Jo
CENTRE OF PRESSURE “K A. Hence the required C.G. is G ( 429 H V
429 ’429 ) Consider plane area A immersed vertically in a homogeneous
liquid. Take the line of intersection of the given plane with the free surface
of the liquid as the x-axis and any line lying in this plane and perpendicular
to it downwards as they-axis (Fig. 7.37). If p be the pressure at the point
P(x, y) of the area A, then the pressure on an elementary area fixSy at P is
pfixjiy which is normal to the plane. the resultant pressure on A = JJ pdxdy.
Fig. 7.37 If this resultant pressure acting at C (A, k) is equivalent to
pressure at various points such as pfix&y distributed over the whole area A,
then C is called the centre of pressure, .*. taking the moment of the resultant
pressure at C and the sum of the moments of the individual pressures such
as p&t&y at P(x, y ) about the y-axls, we get h jj p dxdy ~ |J x . pdxdy, i.e.,
h = JJ x . dxdy j JJ pdxdy Similarly, taking moments about x-axis, we have
* = JJ y * pdxdy J jj pdxdy with integrals embracing the whole of the area
A. While using polar coordinates, replace x by r cos 6, y by r sin fl and
dxdy hy r dQdr in the above formulae. Example 7.36. A horizontal boiler
has a flat bottom and its ends ore plane and semicircular. If it is just, full of
water, show that the depth of the centre of pressure of either end is 0.7 x
total depth approximately. Solution. Let the semi circle x2 + y2 = a2
represent an end of the given boiler (Fig. 7.38). By symmetry, its centre of
pressure lies on OY. If w be the weight of water per unit volume, then the
pressure p at the point Plx, y) = w(a — y). the height k of the C.P, above
OX, is given by r« f Jffl* - j JJ y pdxdy J_ „ J0 uj(a — y)y dy ■ dx jf pdxdy
r !'f77^'w[a^})dy.dx J- a JO k j: ay2 12- y3/3 I '' dx Jo r|ay-//2 dx a ? fa2 _
Jca)_ 1 .2 3 dx r.l jâ(o2 - *V/S {a2 - x2) dx fig. 7.38
297 Multiple Integrals and Beta. Gamma Functions Now put x =

a sin 0, so that dx - a cos 6 dQ. Also when x = - a, 0 = - n/2. and when i =
o.0 = 71/2, k J ‘tc/2 - it / 2 — cosz 0 — a' cos3 0 2 3 a cos 0 dB rtt/2 i-nn 2
a2 cos 0 — ° cos3 9 2 a cos 0 dQ 2 f ^ (3 cos3 0-2 cos4 6) dQ /,- 0V ti Jo a
16 - Jti ^ 2 f * (2 cos51 G — cos3 0) dQ Jo Hence, the depth of the C.P. = a
- k - 0.7 a approximately. 3jt - 4 = 0.3a nearly. PROBLEMS 7.6 1. A lamina
is bounded by the curves y - x* - 3x mid_y = 2x, If the density at any point
k given by Xxy\ find by double integration* the mass of the lamina. 2, Find
the mass of a lamina in the form of eardioid r = e£ 1 + cos 03 whose density
at any point varies m the square of its distance fi'om the initial line. Find the
mass of H solid in the form of the positive octant of the sphere x* + y2 + =
A. if the density at any point is 2 xyz. 4. Find the centroid of the area
enclosed by the parabola y2 = 4nx, the am of x and its hitus-roetum. 5. The
density at any point (x¥y) of a lamina is o(x +- y V
296 Higher Engine erjng Mathematics If M be the total mass of
the body and wc write its moment of inertia Yi\ = Mk2f then k is called the
radius of gyration of the body about the axis, (2) M.I, of plane lamina.
Consider the elementary mass p&tfiy at Lhe point PU\ j) of a plane area A
so that its MI about x-axis - pfitSyy2* /. M.L of the lamina about sr-axls*
i.e, It = £ p y’ dxdy. Similarly, M.I. of the lamina about y-axis’ i. e. , ly - p xl
dxdy. ~q~ Also M.L of the lamina about an axis perpendicular to thexy-
plane, i.e., Fig. 7.39 Iz= J|A p (x2 + y2 ) dxdy. (31 M.I. of a solid. Consider
an elementary mass pSx5y& enclosing a point Pix, y, z) of a solid of
volume V. Distance of P from the x-axis = •Jiy2 ■+ z2), M.I. of this element
about the x-axis — p SxfjyS? (y3 + z2). Thus M.I. of this solid about x-
dxis, i.e., J( - p(ya + z‘‘ ) dxdydz. Similarly, its M.L about y-axits, i.e., Iy -
jj^, p(z2 + xl) dxdydz and M.I, about z-axis, i.e.., It - jjj^ p(.r“ + y2 }
dxdydz. (4) Sometimes we require the moment of inertia of a body about
axes other than the principal axes. The following theorems prove useful for
this purpose : I, Theorem of perpendicular axis. If the moment of inertia of
a lamina about two perpendicular axes OX, OY in its plane are Ix and ly.
then the moment of inertia of the lamina about an axis OZ, perpendicular to
it is given by = Ix + /v. Its proof follows from the relations giving Ix, ly and
I3 fur a plane lamina 1(2) above], II. Steiner’s theorem41. If the moment of
inertia of u body of mass M about an axis through its centre of gravity is I.
then I\ moment of inertia about a parallel axis at a distance d from the first
axis, is given by V = 1 + Md2. Its proof will be found in any text book on
Dynamics of a Rigid body, Example 7.37. Find the M.L of the urea -
bounded- -by the curve r2 = a2 rod 20 about its axis. Solution. Given curve
is symmetrical about the pole and for half of the loop in the first quadrant (3
varies from 0 to n/4 (Fig. 7.40). Elementary area at Pi r, 0) = r d9dr. If p be
the surface density, then elementary mass - p rdQdr „.(£) fJtM fit its total
mass M = 4 j prdrc/6 Jo Jo = 2pna | cos 20 0 — pa1 ...(ii) Now' M.L of the
elementary mass (i) about the x-nxis, = pr d%dr ■ y2 = prcf0 dr ( r sin 0)2 -
pr3 sin2 0 drdQ Hence the M.I. of the whole area Fig. 7.40 | listen. 2d 1 fit/
4 fijv/ttiw2ijj _ _ fX/4 _ o | , I “-fit -* Jf £ pr3 sin2edrd0 =4p sin 0-|rV4|o =
per f. cos2 20 sin" 0 r/0 - po4 f 1 " ' *' i cos2 - sin2 [Put 26 = 4, (/0 ~ d$J2]
Jv Jo 2 2 t* ftl/2 — f (cos2
Multiple Integrals and Seta, Gamma Functjows 299 Example
7,38. Find the. moment of inertia of a hollow sphere about a diameter, its
external and internal radii being 5 metres and 4 metres. Solution. Lot p be
the density of the given hollow sphere. Then the M.I. about the diameter,
Le., x-axis is K = l$jvp(y2 +z2)dxdydz Changing to polar spherical
coordinates, we get I = f f f P sin 9 5in J cos" 0sin0d0 = ^.(5® _ 4® ) =
n20.5m. 15 Example 7.39. A solid body of density p is in the shape of the
solid formed by revolution of the centroid r = a(l + cos 0J about the initial
line. Show that its moment of inertia about « straight line through the pate
352 perpendicular to the initial line is — naa r'. 105 Solution. An
elementary area rdfklr, when revolved about OX generates a circular ring
of’ radius LP = r sin 6 (Fig. 7.4 1>. M.I. of this ring about a diameter
parallel to OY - (2 nr sin 0) (rd0dr)p ■ db [ v M+L of a ring about a
diameter - Ma.^12. \ Now using Steiner's theorem, we have M L of the ring
about OY - M L of the ring about a diameter LP parallel to OY + Mass of
the ring iOL)2 (r cos 0)2 = 2rcpr4 sin3 QdBdr + 2?tr sin 0 irdtidr) (r cos 0)2
Hence M A. of the solid generated by revolution about OY • it fr^±rin +
UJfl 6 1 = ap ‘ {ILP.TJL. 2001) f ig. 7.41 (r4 sina 0 + 2r4 sill 0 cos2 0) dtidr
ftU + lt»i fl> r r Jo Jo = up J (sin3 0 + 2 sin 0 cos2 0) dfi | 5 - — — - f sin
BI1 + cos“ 8H1 + cos Bl5 d0 5 Jo n1 dr fPut0 = 2>0 2d Jo = [ 2 sin ) sin
256 Jipei ■6 cos1" ^ 2 cos1'1 (j> 2oosH'
300 Higher Engineering Mathematic? Solution. M,l. of the given
solid about x-axis - jjj p(y2 + z2) dxdyds The limits of integration for z are
from 0 to z - iJiR2 - x2 - y2) found from the equation of the sphere x 2 + y2
+ z1 - R2, The limits for x andy are to be such as to cover the shaded area A
in the jry-p lane between the concentric circles of radii a and R (Fig, 7.42).
Thus the required MX about x-axis = P (y2 + zd ) dzdx dy Fig. 7.42 = p jj |
y2z + 23 /3 | * R x ' dxdy -JL[> (J?‘ -V -y2) 2x1/2 3 dx dy. Now changing
to polar coordinates, we have x - r cos 0, y = r sin 0 and dxdy = rdBdr. Also
to cover the area A, r varies from a to R and 0 varies from 0 to 2n. Hence
the required M.I. about x- axis = P = P r r?. r r [i sin2 ft (fl2 - r2)WK + -
{R2 - r2?12 3 r£ (1 - cos 20) + rdQdr d& - r(R2 - rz)l/2 dr I 1 ’^7t = p f* —
1 0 - Bin 29 1 + - (tf2 - r2) e r(R2 - r2Vn dr H 2 l 2 J 3 |0 = p J* 2n f ^ + ~ ^
- j . tiR2 - r2)172 dr * I"* (2 R2 + r*){R2 - r2)1" rdr 3 Jci = ^ \R (2 R2 +
tHR" - t)y2 dt 6 Ja1 (Put r2 = t and rdr = dt!2\ [Integrate by parts | = 2E
Ufl2 + aJ )(«2 - s'2 1 = x 1 {4 + 0S ) 9 L 5 J 3 10 J-2n rR ;* ylr< R1 - rz \ »
J. jo dz ■ rdr ■ dG ■ i R‘ - aJ p'2 3 Hence, the radius of gyration = 1(41? ' +
a2V10]lffi, 7. IB (1) PRODUCT OF INERTIA If a particle of mass m of a
body be at distances x andy from two given perpendicular lines, then 'Ltnxy
is called the product of inertia of the body about the given lines. Consider
an elementary mass ScedySs enclosing the point Plx,ytz) of solid of volume
V. Then the product of inertia (P.I.) of this element about the axes of x and y
— ptkSy&e ry. /. P.I. of the solid about x and v-axes, Le,, Pxy = JJj^
pxydxdydz Similarly, Py7 = III, pyzdxdydz and P!x = jjj" p zxdxdydz. In
particular, for a plane lamina of surface density p and covering a region A in
the xy-plane, = JJ p xy dxdy whereas Pyz = P,x = 0. [v z = 0J
Multiple Integral and Bftak Gamma Functions 301 (2) Principal
axes. The principal axes of a Lamina at a given point arc that pair of axes in
its plane through the given point, about which the product of inertia of the l
amina vanishes. Let P(x, y ) be a point of the plane area A referred to
rectangular axes OX, OY. Let lx',y') be the coordinates of P referred to
another pair of rectangular axes OX', OY' in the same plane and inclined at
an angle 0 to the first pair (Fig. 7,43 1. Then x' = x cos 6 + y sin 0 y* - y cos
0 - jf sin 0 If Ix, Iy be the moments of inetria of the area A about OX and
OY and be its product of inertia about these axes, then lx - j]"A py* dA, =
JjA P*2 dA, P^ = JJ pac>- cM. .*. the product of inertia P' about OX’ and
OY' is given by - J pry' dA - p(r cos G + y sin 0)(y cos 0 - x sin 0) dA — sin
0 cos 0 JJ pfy* — x2 ) dA + (cos^ 9 — sim 0) P-O1 dA = 1/2 sin 2G - ( Ix -
Iy) + cos 29 P^. Now OX\ OY' will be the principal axes of the area A if
Fxv vanishes. Le. , If X/2 sin 26 (Ix - Iy ) + cos 20 = 0 Le., If tan 20 =
2Piy/(ly - Ix). This gives two values of 6 differing by Jt/2, K vain pie 7.4 1 .
Show that the principal axes at the node of a half-loop of the lemniscate t~ -
u’ cos 29 are i a dined fa the initial line at angles r . » 1 1 -i — tan — ana —
+ — tan 2 2 2 2 l 2' Solution. Let the element of mass al-Ptr, fi) be prdftdr.
Then 4 = p J f . 2 2 r sin B rdudr 10 |Sce Fig. 7.40| _ p*4 4 io sin2 0 cos2 20
d& = f — - — 1 16 U 3 J 11 h ruJdmh 2fi i ,, n(f4 | r2cos20rfi0dr = ^ h 16
In 2) \4 + 3; and II T3 rKt 4 Jo i r" sin 0 cos ft rdBdr Jo pa4 48 ‘ Hence the
required direction of the principal axes at O are given by 2P*y _ pu* /24 _ 1
tan 20 = ^ _ j* ‘ f 16) x (4 /3) " 2 or by 0 = — tan”1 — and — + i tan-1 — .
2 2 2 2 2 PROBLEMS 7.7 L Using doable integrals, find the moment of
inertia about the x-rxis of the area enclosed by the lines .r = 0, y = 0, Ufa) +
(yth\ = 1 (P.TJfa 2005) 2. Find the mdatnenl of inertia of a circular plate
about a tangent. 3. Find the moment of inertia of the urea > = sin x from x =
0 to x - about OX.
302 Higher ENMJEEflrNG Mathematics 4. Kind the moment of

inertia of a quadrant of the ellipse Lv/ri )“ + (y/l« = I of mast; M about the
.vqixis, if the dendly at a point is proportional to ay* 5. Find the moment of
inertia about the initial line of the curdioid r = nil + etis Bh S, Find the
moment of inertia of a uniform spherical ball of masts M and radius R
about a diameter, 7, Find the moment of inertia of a solid right circular cyli
nder about li) its axis [PrT fJ,t 2006} {u ) a diameter o t the baseH- Find
Lhe Ml of a solid right circular cone having ba&e-rudius r and height A,
about (/) its axis, Ui) an axis through the vertex and perpendicular to its
axis, {at) a diameter of ite base. 9. Find the moment of inertia of a hoLlow
sphere about a diameter, its external and internal radii being 51 metres and
49 metres. 10. Find the moment of inertia about £-uxis of a homogeneous
tetrahedron bounded by the planes x = 0T y = 0, - x + y and sr = t. 1 1. Find
the moment nf inertia, of an octant of the ellipsoid (xfu)2 ■+- (y/b + UfcF =
1- about the v-axis. 12- Find I he product of inertia or u quadrant of the
ellipse ix/a}1 + (yflj ^ = 1 , about the coordinate axes, 13- Show that the
principal axes at the origin of the triangle enclosed by x = Q*v - 0, {x/a ^ +
{y/b ) = 1 are inclined to the x-axis at angles a and o + n/2, where a = § tan
1 f ab/ia2 - h2\\ Uf,P, Tdl, 2002) 14. The lengths AB and AD of the sides of
a rectangle ABCD are 2a and 2b, Show that Ihe inclination to AB of one of
the 1 , _ ! Sab principcil axes at A ia - tan * 2 (a2-b2) 7.14 BETA
FUNCTION The beta function is defined as fll m, nt) = f ' “ 1 U - jf)h _1 t
lx \ m > ° Jo [ n > 0 M El Putting x = 1 -.y in (1), we get p(m, n) = _ J1 ^ _
>' J,,i yn ~ 1 dy = f‘ y"~l (l-yr-ldy =p 0) ...(i) Jo This integral is also known
as Eider's integral of the second kinds. It defines a function of n for positive
values of n. *After an enormously creative Swiss mathematician Leonhard
Euler ( 1707-1783). He studied under John Bernoulli and became a
professor of mathematics in St Petersburg, Russia, Fven after becoming
totally blind In 1771* he contributed to almosLall brandies of mathematics.
MuiTIPlf IVIEGHALS AND BETA, GaWMA FUNCTIONS In
particular, HI} = e * dx = -e xj (2) Reduction formula for Hn). = 1. Mi)
Since Hr + 1) = f e x jc" dx I Integrating by partsl = I — x" e J | + n f e~x xr
" 'dr Jo i i ci Jo r(R + l} = nnfi) ..Mil) which is the reduction formula for
Hu). From this formula, it. is dear that if nn) is known throughout a unit
interval say : 1 < n 1 may lit found by successive application of (hi). Alsu
using (rit) in the form H« + 1) Hn) = Mv) Wecan define Rii) for values of n
for which the definition (1) fails. It gives the value of F(«) for 0 < n £ 1 in
terms of the values of H/i) for 1 < n < 2. Thus we can define H n ) for all n
< 0 provided its value for 1 < n < 2 is known. Also if- 1 < n < 0, (4) gives
Hu) in terms of its values for 0cn< l . Then we may find, Rn) for — 2 < n <
- 1 and so on. Thus U) and (iv) together give a complete definition of Fin)
for ail values of n except when n is zero nr a negative integer and its graph
is us shown in Fig. 7.44. The values of T(n) for / < n < 2 are given in (Table
tAppendix 2) from which the values of F ( n) for values of n outside the
interval I < n £ 2 (n * 0, — 1, — 2, - 3 . .... > may be found. (3) Value of
F(n) in terms of factorial. Using F(n + 1) = nfln) successively, we get H2)=
1 x F(l)= 1 ! F(3) = 2 x H2) = 2n 1 = 2! H4) = 3 x F(3) = 3 x 2 ! = 3 ! In
general F(;i + 1) = n ! provided n is a positive integer Taking n = 0, it
defines 0 ! = F(1 ) = 1. (4) Value of r(|). We have r(i) ~ J0 *‘I/2 dx -y1 = 2 J
JO e'x dx o whence dy which is also - 2 Jd [r{i)]! = 4 r £
304 Highefi Engineering Mathematics j- i-r= 2 [ Jo e-x* x2m-\ dx

..-(2) Similarly, r(n) = 2 J e y y2n 1 dy Hm) r(n) = 4 j~ e' * x2"1'1 dx \ ~ e~
r y2n ~ 1 dy = 4 J e_(i + yS 1 x2m - 1 y2" ~~ 1 dxdy ...(3) [ v the Limits of
integration are constant.1 Now change to polar coordinates by writing x = r
cos 0, y - r sin 0 and dx dy = rdfklr. To cover the region in (3) which is the
entire first quadrant, r varies from 0 to nf § 7.14| ...(5) Similarly, r(rt + 2l 2 l
2 ) r(n + i) { 2 J VS rfrt + a) 2 l 2 J ...16) Example 7.42. Show that ia ) nW
= j0 | log ~ | dy in > 0), (bi V{p,q)=£-^—dy - \ 1 — — ~ dx. Jo (j + xr*'i
{J.N.T. U., 2003 ; Madras, 2003 S) (V.T.U., 2003 ; Gauhati, 1999) (V.T.U.,
2008 ; Osmanui, 2003 ; Rohtak, 2003) Solution, (a) Hre) - J" x,J _1 e~x dx
(re > 0)
Multiple Jntigrals and BrrA, Gamma Functions 305 (6) ■fto)

OHW) dy&{p,g) = J0* x}”"1 dx = f° _ l _ fJ" (1 + yf-1 {: Y?-1 .* + y) (1 +
yY 9-1 Put y = e~x i.e.t x = log (Vy) so that dx = — {Vy) dy Put x = — ™
— i.e.. y = — - 1 1-* ~y x so that dx = - dy (1 + yr r~ \Q~ 1 rl Vp_1 v9"1 _
r — z. - rfy = f — - dy + f — - dy Jo (i + y)P+9 J io (1 + y)i>'* ' « (l +
y)*+* J Now substituting y = liz in the second integral, we get r^—dy= pi _
l _ LJ_U= f Jl (l + y)P + (? J (l + l/,)P + fl I, Z2J J( 1 z P-1 °(l+z)* + * rfz.
Hence, $(p, g) = J ° (l + y)p+9 dy+j TP-1 0 (l + a)p+5 dz- f k o (l+x}p+ dx.
Kxttmple 7 Ail. Express the following integral# in terms of gamma
functions : dx (a) J» ^ (c) [ X dx (URT.U., 2006) cz ( e) IgX" [log (1/x)]3 dx
rl dx SoluLion, (a) I . h Ja-x4) (6) J(j ” -JUan ft) rf6, w> r
306 Higher Engineering Mathematics Then [■« -t ( t Y dt - Jo * 1

, - ^7^ J,7fC e-‘dt = r (c + l)/(log t-r + 1 log cj logc (Jogc) Ju id) r a-*31 dx=
r €-*>** **adx Jfl Jo I _ r I rtIT rt \ JO 2^(b log a) ^ r(f) p'f r"*dt= . = Pul
(6 log a) i2 = £ so that dx = dt/2-Jib log a) 2jib log a ) 2^(fe log u) w l^-
noga/rfdx.-ijfV'.f3* 625 H4) 6 Put x = e ,,/0 so that log (1 I x) = ti 5 dx = - -
e~l/ 5 dt 5 625 625 Example 7.44. Era/uofe e"** x"1 “ J sin 6x dx in ter/ns
Solution. We have F(/n) = J( ~ e-'i-'di -I " i r(3/4)ra/2) r{3/4)r “ 3 1® #«**-
= Jo MS an 0) sec B Putting x' - tan 0, dx sec2 0 d0 2^1 tan 0) 1 fuJi dQ -
Jo Jo — -7= sin i/2^d0 2J2 0 J2 Jo ^jism 2(3) - J—q( 1 1 }= 1 ni/4)r 4^2 ^4’
2 J 4^ P (3/Putting 20 = , d0 = - dty z (1/2) (3/4)
Multiple Integrals mo Beta. Gamma* Functions or or [l ** dx - r1
dx 1 frfill L Ja-x4) J“ Ja + x4) ~4&\ UJj Example 7. 16. Prove that (i) (3 (m.
1 1 2) - 2‘Jm " J p (m, m) r (m) r[m + |j= r dm) Solution, (i) We know that p
(m, n) = 2 |™ 2 sin2"1 ~ 1 0 cos1*” _ 1 0 1/0 1 ( 1 ^ rli/S , ohi , f j Putting
7i = — , we have Pi m* % = ® J0 sin 0 iV’.T.a. 200 /1 ( Du/i/ in/ f r/Jrt
Form u /« ) (V, T. U., 2010 ; Kerala, M.E., 2005 ; Madras, 2003 S l .M) di)
...(2) Again putting n = m in (/), we get P(m, m) = 2 (fiin 0 COi* 0F' ' 1 tf0
= f"'2sin2m^2 1)40 ^lm-2 Jo “ c>J_i J^sin2m _l 4 4$, putting 20 = $ = ^TT
2'im - 1 P(m. m) = 2 “ sin2"* " 1 0 0 = p | m, | J (ii) Rewriting the above
result in terms of I' functions, we get ' 1 iby (2) 2Zn j r(m) rL!jfc - 1 r (m) r
Example 7.17. Prove that (a) ff xl ~ 1 ym ~ 1 dx dy - J ^ h! * m where D is
the domain x £ 0, y £ 0 and x + v £ /i . J}t> I (/ + m + J) (U.RTM,, 2005) M
fff lT‘ 2i * r (/ + m + /t + 1) where V is the region x > 0, y > 0, z 2 0 and x +
y + z < 1. This important result is known m Diric-hUu's integral*. Solution,
la) Putting x/h — X and yfh = Y, we see that the given integral = \\D,(hXi ~
1 (Ay)"1 " 1 It2 dXdY where D' is the domain X > 0, Y> 0 and X + Y < 1. =
ht *m JLJ £ " X X1 ■ 1 Ym 1 dY dX = hl *m J() X1-1 m i-x dX J+m m i+m
(l-Xr dX =- - p«,m + l) = JCJ m hUm n/mm+i) m nt + m + 1) *Namtd after
a German mathematician Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet (1805—1959)
who studied under Cauchy and succeeded Gauss at Gottingen, He is known
for his contributions to Fourier series and number theory.
= hi rmrxm) rd + m + 1) (6) Taking y + r < 1 ~x(= h: say), the
triple integral Higher Engineering MatheWiTic-s ...fi} ( v F (m + lVm - f
{m)l = f* |fc" V_J dzdy}dx = (V"1 rnn>11 p«.m + n + l) r(m + n + l) JO r
(nr + a + 1) nm)Hn) ,i ' (m + n + 1) Jo * f (m) r(n) r(i)r(m + /i + l}
r{Z)r(m)r(n) r (m + n + 1) r(/ + m + n + l) f (f + m + n + 1) Example 7.4 ft.
Evaluate the integral JJJ ■*’ " 1 yw “ 1 %n ~ 1 dxdydz where x, y, z are alt
positive with condition, (x/a? + (y /p + (z lc)r £ J. OJ.P. T. U., 2005 S ) -a**.
and so that dy = ~ 1 dv so that dz — — wVr ~ 1 dw r Solution. Put {xiaY -
u, i.e. , x ~ auVp iy/byt = v, i,e., y = bv1^ iz/cY - w, i.e ,, z = cwUr Then jJJ
xl "l ym zn ^ dxdydz ~ JJJ (auVf,y~1 (bv1>*r~l (cwlfrY~l ( ^ Jh1/p_1 ^ | j
1 ^ ^ dutfudw 0 a1"-1 a/1''"1 du dv dw where u + v +w < 1. o' fim cfl
r(//p)r(m/i?)r(n/r) a' h™ cn pqr J LffJ pqr V III p + m tq + n / r + 1) [By Diri
chiefs integral] x y Example 7.-19. TAe plune — + ^ + — = / meets t/ie
axes in A, B ond C. Apply Dirirhlet's integrul to find the volume of the
tetrahedron OABC. Also find its mass if the density at any point is kxyz.
{U-P.T.U., 2004 ) Solution. Put x/a = utylb = v , zfc - w then the tetrahedron
OABC has u > 0, v ;> 0, ur ■> 0 and u + u + w £ 1. volume of this
tetrahedron = jjj^ ^ dy dz = jjjâbc du dv dw - abc Jjjjp1*1 1 yI 1 w* * du
dv dw ni)r(l)r{l) abc a dx = adn, dy = bdv, dz - (dw for D' =u £ 0, u £ 0, w £
0 & u + v + w £ 1, fl6cru + i + i + i) 6 Mass = |Jj kxyzdx dy dz — 0 k iau)
{bv} (cw)abc du dv dw - ka2b2c2 vi X w2 i du do du> naa r(2)r(2)T£2) i k
= ka b"c r(2 + 2 + 2 + l)AoW- 6! = 720 aW | By Dirichiet's intt^gTall
Multiple Integrals and Beta. Gamma Functions 309 PROBLEMS

7.8 1. Compute : fi) TO R) {Assam, 1998) (it) r(4.5l m) P-( l ] r[ f J
(S.V.T.U., 2009) (io> pfihft, 1.6) U ) (j( §, \ 1 . 2+ Express the following
integrals in terms of gamma functions : • £# dx iii ) f x*'1 e^cMfesJQ 0)
(Andhrv, 2000) (Delhi, 2002 ; V.T.U.. 2000) Uii) £ if* ex> dx (J.N.T. V..
2003) (w) £ ^ •- jt JO 4* (log 4)fl (i) r* t4 0 f :~7 dx~ Jll A1 r<5i m r'ÎW!)
(rir) £ " USÔ) + ifisecW) d9 = | T [| ] jr ( | ] + J*7f f J )j rrJ'Z _ frc/!> (w)
Jo V{sin 0) dG X dG 0 ^(sin 0) “ 7C+ 4. Given f~ ^ - ■ tic = -r^ — , show
that On I Rl - n) - —K Jo 1 + * sm nn Bin nit Hence evaluate 5. Prove that :
f“ rfy l 1+y4’ (Maraihwajn. 2008 ) (Osmania, 2003 S ; V.T.U.. 2001 )
(J.N.T.U.. £0001 tV. T O- 2007) (S.V.T.U.. 2008 ) ( V. T. I (. , 2006 , J.N.T. I
L . 200:1 1 ® J,! sooe> » I* Uii) £ X3 <1 - vGe)5 dx = 2p (8, 6). 6. Show
that fi) f (x - afx 1 (6 - a)" 1 dx = (b - a)m+n 1 p [/«, : .2009) (iii) £ ^yjo f1
(J ^ at4 j _ i n/7 1 1 (l) Jo (i+x4)2 2‘1,bP14,4 J J'1 m ji — 1, a (m + 1) 1
Hence evaluate f a (log x)3 iir. Jo 8. Show that f1 yA _1 f tog A. | dy - - — *
where p> 0,q>0. Jo l y J ' Express f Jo 10 Jfi dx =0 { ] - x;jF c£at in terms of
gamma functions Hence evulu&lc : U) f jc Cl — h x*)10dx. t Bhopal,
2008) Ui) f1 dx Jo ( Mumbai , 2005 > (Mumbai, 2007) l S.V.T.U. , 2006)
(Nagpur, 2009) (Rohtak, 2006 S) iMarathwacia, 2008 i t Anna. , 2005)
310 HrGHER Engineering MaTKEVATICS 1 0. Prove that f — ,

— - - - -7 13 f 77, 77 | and hence evaluate f sechs a dx h fe +- e )' 4 v, 2 2 ;
J0 J 1. Prove that 6 ( „ + \,n + A }= 1 + 1 /">vn . Hence show that 2" Fin +
1/2) = 1 . 3 . f> ... (JJn - 1 }JZ ^ 2 2} 2J'nni#ll 2 H.n +1) {MutnbaU 2007 ^
12* Prove that Cri - — — s - — m n m + n O r(2n + l)v'n Fit) p Ut, n) Ik
IXnJf > in 1 r(n + 2) (">r(» + j)= a2'1 . rin +d (w) p(/n + 1) + |Kmt n + 1 1 -
pfm, n) (. Bhopal 2008 ; J.N.T U 2006 ; Afndrm 2003 > 1 Show that jjV* 1
yn 1 dx dy over the positive quadrant of the ellipse s2 / \2 (f) 0, [J > 0, is
given by ab rnyg>ra/p) « + 1) rn/a + t/p) *5. Find the mass of an octant, of
the ellipsoid ix/u )% + +- (zk }2 - 1, the density' at. any point being p -
Jbryz, (U.P.T.U., 2002) 7.17 (1) ELLIPTIC INTEGRALS In Applied
Mathematics, we often come across Integrals of the form jj e"x dx or sm
X<1 dx which cannot be evaluated by any of the standard methods of
integration. In such cases, we may find the value to any desired degree of
accuracy by expanding their integrands as power series. An important class
of such integrals is the elliptic integrals. Def. The integral F(k, ) = f . = (k2
< 1) „.{i> J(i Ja-A2 Sin2 7) which is a function of the two variables k and
is called the elliptic integral of the first kind with modulus k and amplitude
0. The integral E(k, $) = J* ^{1 Z k2 sin2 x) dx ( k 2 < 1) .Mi) is called the
elliptic integral of the second kind with modulus k and amplitude & The
name elliptic integral arose from its original application in finding the
length of an elliptic are (Fig.7,45), For instance, consider the ellipse x = a
cos $r y-b sin *T fa *! d* db = bE{k, ,l for k2 = 1 -oW< 1. Fig. 7.45
Multiple Integrals and Beta, Gamma Functions 311 Also tl te
perimeter of the ellipse J - — - - i/(l - kl sin2 = 4 htUk, n/2). e This
particular integral with upper limit $ = tc/2 is called the complete elliptic
integral of the second kind and is denoted hy E(k). J-tiy 2 CL - * s*n (A2 <
1} ...tin) Similarly, the complete elliptic integral of first kind is = r'*-— Jo
J( 1 - fe2 sir2 A(Al JTl - Jfc* mo* To eDu/uufe i/, we expand the integral in
the form (l — k2 sin2 + ... 2 4 This scries can be shown tu be uniformly
convergent for all k. and may, therefore, be Integra Led term by term |See §
9. 19-111. Then we have K(k) ■n , » , 2 j. 3^ ► a , os . r, . 1 + — sin + - sin
$ + - sin and dx - ^ 0QS J{ 1+ cosJ Then = r*20068 * Jo Jfi+cos2 to) Jo Ja
+ *'2(1 +C0S2 4»-l ■/(1+ cos2 0) ■JH + cos2 *♦)«> ^ J V l V2 J 1/2 sin2
(2) Elliptic functions. By putting sin x = t and sin 0 - a. (i) becomes f* dt ™
ia-f2 ...(uti) Via - /2ki - a2/2}) This is known as t/amii's form of the elliptic
integral of first kind* whereas ( i ) is the Legendres formt. If k - 0, ( vii )
gives ti = sin-1 2. By ajialogy, we denote [vii) sn~l z for a fixed non-zero
value of k> This leads to the functions sn u = z - sin 4 and cn u = cos (|>
which are called the Jrcrofefs df/iptfr /unctions* * See footnote p- 215t A
French mathematician Adrien Mane Legendre (1752-1833) who made
important contributions to number theory, special functions, calculus of
variations and elliptic integrals.
312 Higher Engineering Mathematics The elliptic functions sn u

and cn u are periodic with a period depending on k and an amplitude equal
to unity. These behave somewhat like sin u and cos u. For instance snCO) =
0. cn(l) = 1 and sn{- u) = - snfu), cn{- u) = en(u). Solution, Putting x- ^ (1
— sin 0), dx = - ^ cos 6 7.18 (1) ERROR FUNCTION OR PROBABILITY
INTEGRAL The error function or the probability integral is defined as
erfix) = -p=r f e~) = -^L f e~{ dt - ^ = I |By {Hi), p, 2891 dn J<> dn 2 This
proves that the total area under the Normal or Gaussian error function curve
is unity — § 26.16. PROBLEMS 7.9 1* By means of the substitution k sinx
= sin z. show that r" dx tx) f Ju 7i 1 - fi sin-' x) where k > t and
Multiple Integrals ano Beta. Gamma Functions 313 Mil

OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS PROBLEMS 7.10 FU! up the blanks
or chotjsr ihf rarrvet ururwer frttm the foil aw. tag problem# . is * (£'**3. £ i
■ = ....... (V.7UA, 20 10) S- r(3-5> = 6- The surface area of the sphere x2 +
y2 + i1 + 2x — 4y + & — 2 = 0 is . 7‘ i" f dzJydx = ..L. B, If u = x + y and
u . = x - 2yn then the area-element dxdy ts replaced hy . . dudv. 9. In terms
of Beta function ~ sin F ft Jens fi rffl HK The value of P (2. 1 i + jXl, 2) is 1
1- Jo ary c£y cfor — _ _ 12. Volume bounded by x £ > Q,z > 0 andra + .y-
+ z2 = 1 b.s a triple integral integral 13. Value of || |* xe* dy dx Is eqtiaJ to
{a) eft (b) e - I (r) 1 -e (rf) e/2 - 1. 14. || 'x*y* dxdy over the rectangle 0 < x
< 1 and 0 < y < 3 b . * is. r*r-'>* (Bhopal, 2008) yr*7 dxdy = . . 1S. erv* ■
"• rx^5j- . ia- ££W>*4 = . 1 9* To ch tinge cartesian coordinates f.v, y, z) to
spherical polar coordinate fr, tt, 0); dx dy - JjB .y dx dy where R is the
region bounded by the parabolas y2 = 4e and v2 - Ay, is 2~. J f (at " + y* i
dx dy in the positive quadrant far which x + y £ 1, is . . 28. Area between
the parabolas y2 = 4* and ** = 4y is 29. Changing the order of integration
in f"( , f(x,y)dx dy = . . fd) 24. iV.T.U.,2010) 30. f (1/4) f(3/4) = . .
{V.T.a,20W 31. 0(5/2, 4$)- . 32. J ~ xe~ft,i dydx = 33. On changing 1o
polar coordinates dx dy becomes . .
314 Higher Engineering Mathematics ■ J. A acpttoe lamina it?

immersed in Lbc liquid with one vertex in the surface and the diagonal of*
length vertical, it* centre of pressure is at a depth . . 35. The centroid of the
area enclosed by the parabola y? - 4*, r-axis and ils latus-rectum is . 3h. The
moment of inertia of a uniform Spherical ball of mass 10 gm and radius 2
cm about a diameter is . 37- MX of a solid right circular cone t base-radius r
and height ft) about its axis is .... ■■■■■■■ 3S. erfr{- x) - erf(x) = re 39.
log x Ml)- . S 1 ■ Value of j* £ x?ya32 dx dy dz is , a 6c fa)_ (6) «W 27 (c)
aW 27 (d) □W 12. The integral £ £ 1 ~ ' i.v + y) dy dx alter changing the
order of integration. (« > £ £ 1 V +■ y > dx dy (b) £ ' ' (.t + y) dx dy (f) if'+
Cjc + v) dxdy
Vector Calculus and Its Applications ! - “ - 1 | 1 . Differentiation
of vectors, 2. Curves in space. 3. Velocity and acceleration. Tangential and
normal acceleration, i | Relative velocity and acceleration. 4, Scalar and
vector point functions— Vector operator del. 5. Del applied to i . scalar
point functions — Gradient. 6. Del applied to vector point fu notion s—Di
verge nee and Curl. 7. Physical . interpretations of div F and cun F. 8. Del
applied twice to point functions. 9. Del applied to products of point .
functions. 10. Integration of vectors 11. Line integral — Circulation —
Work. 12. Surface integral — Flux. 13. Green's theorem in the plane. 14.
Stokes theorem. 15. Volume integral 16. Divergence theorem. 17. Green's
theorem. ' 18. Irrotational and Solenoids I fields. 19. Orthogonal curvilinear
coordinates, Del apptied to functions in ' I orthogonal curvilinear
coordinates. 20. Cylindrical coordinates. 21. Spherical polar coordinates.
22. Objective I I Type of Questions. (1) DIFFERENTIATION OF
VECTORS if a vector R varies continuously as a scalar variable / changes,
then R is said to he a function of f and is written as R _ F(f), Just as in
scalar calculus, we define derivative of a vector function R = F{f) as at F(f
+ 8f) - FT*') , (/f Lt - - - and write it as or or F (f ). dt dt (2) General rules of
differentiation are similar to those of ordinary calculus provided the order
of factors in vector products is maintained. Thus, if , F, G, H are scalar and
vector functions of a scalar variable t. we have ^ si {F * G) = F K c/p + ^ X
G dt dt dt M $ ,™H' = [w GH J * [r W H .H FG w ivi) -j-j(F x Ox H| = f^
xg) * H + (f x x H + IF x G) x ^ dt V dt / ^ dt J dt As an illustration, lot us
prove (iv), while the others can he proved similarly : “(FxG}= Lt at ht >o (F
+ BF> * (G + 5G) F x G ht Lt F x 6G + fiF > G + x oG U ft ■T' v ^ ^ f-i SF
1F
316 Higher Engineering Mathematics For F(i) . F . (sin tl - cos fJ)
- (5 #2 cos t + t sin t ) + (10/ sin / - cos #} - 5#2 cos / + 1.1# sin t — cos t. =
(5#2I 4 tJ - ^K) x (cos /I + sin t J) 4 ( 10 /I 4 J - 3/2K) x (sin /I — cos / J) -
[5#2 sin fK + r cos t (- K) - t3 cos t J - /3 sin t {- I)] 4 [- 1(1# cos #K 4 sin #
(— K) — 3f2 sin tJ 4 3#2 cos f (- 1)] = (#3 sin t - 3#2 cos *>I- fa(# cos #43
sin t) J 4 \{5l2 - 1) sin t — 11# cos #1 K. 8.2 CURVES IN SPACE (1)
Tangent. Let R(#} = *(/)! + yU)J + a(#)K be the position vector of a point P.
Then as the scalar parameter t takes different values, the point P traces out a
curve in space (Fig. 8. IX If the neighbouring point Q corresponds to / 4 ft#,
then SR = R(f 4 6#) — R(M or SR/S# is directed along the chord PQ. As 5#
-4 0, Lt SR/S# becomes the tangent (vector) to the curve atP whenever it
exists and is not zero. Thus the vector R' = dWdt is a tangent to the space
curve R = F(i). Let PQ be a fixed point of this curve corresponding to t - #0.
If s be the length of the arc P[TP, then &?_ &s (5R|_ arc PQ m 6 t | SR | 6/
chord PQ 6/ As Q — > P along the curve QR i.e., S# — * O, then arc
PQ/chord PQ 1 and Fig. 8.1 dt | dt | or ! ® ^ I “ If R'(f) is continuous, then
arc P^P is given hy » = f I R' I dt = f J( jc')2 4 ( v'f + dt If we take s the
parameter in place of t then the magnitude of the tangent vector, i.e.M \
dM/ds | = 1. Thus denoting the unit tangent vector by T, we have T _ rfR (l)
d$ (2) Principal normal. Since T is a unit vector, we have dT/ds. T = 0 i.e.,
dTMs is perpendicular to T. Or else dT/ds = 0, in which case T is a constant
vector w.r.t, the arc length s and so has a fixed direction, i.e., the curve is a
straight line.
Vector Calculus and Its Applications If we denote a unit normal
vector to the curve at P by N then dT/ds is in the direction of N which is
known as the principal normal to the space curve at P, The plane of T and N
is called the osculating plane of the curve at P (Fig, 8,2). (3) Binormal. A
third unit vector B defined by B = T k N, is called the binormal at P. Since T
and N are unit vectors, B is also a unit vector perpendicular to both T and N
and hence normal to the osculating plane at P. Thus at each point P of a
space curve there are three mutually perpendicular unit vectors, Tt Nt B
which form a moving trihedral such that T=NxB,NsBxT,B = TxN ,.,(2) This
moving trihedral determines the following three fundamental planes at each
point of the curve : (i) The osculating plane containing T and N (it) The
normal plane containing N and B (iit) The rectifying plane containing B and
T. (4) Curvature. The arc rate of turning of the tangent ( i.e . , the magnitude
of dT/ds ) is called the cu rapture of the curve and is denoted by k. Since
dT/ds is in the direction of the principal normal N, therefore, dT ’ ” .,-(3) ds
= kN f/R (5) Torsion. Since B is a unit vector, we have „ B = 0 t/a Also B .
T = 0, therefore — . T + B . —X = 0. ds ds or ,jii — .T + B.f*N): as 0, i.e.t
(IE ds T = 0 B , N = 0] Hence dEtds is perpendicular to both B and T and is,
therefore, parallel to N. The arc rate of turning of the binomial (i.e., the
magnitude of dEfds) is called torsion of the curve and is denoted by x. We
may, therefore, write rfB M —j— = - tN ds (The negative sign indicates
that for t > 0, dB/ds has direction of - N). Finally to find dN/ds, we
differentiate N = B x T. —(4) ds ds ds tNxT+B^N Using the relation (2), it
reduces to = tB — kT ...(5) ds The equations (3), (4) and (5) constitute the
well-known Frenet formulae* for space curves. Ohs, i- p - l/k and a — 1/x
are respectively called the radii of curvature and torsion. ±. For h plane
curve i = 1). Kxample 8.2. Find the angle between the tangents to the curve
R - /*! + 2(*J — at the point t = ± L (V.T.U., 2010) Solution. The tangent at
any point is given by = 2(1 + 2J - 3(2K at the tangents Tp T,> at ( = 1 and (
= - 1 are respectively given by Tj = 21 + 2J — 3K ; T2 = — 21 + 2J - 3K, *
Named after a French mathematician dean Frederic Frenet (1816-1900),
i.e. , Higheh Engineering Mathematics Then the required Z9 is
given by TtT2 cos 6 = Ta . Ta = 2 (- 2) + 2 . 2 + (- 3)(- 3) Vl7 Vl7 cos 0 - 9
G - cos"1 (9/17). K sample 8,3. Find the curvature and torsion of the curve
x = a cos t, y = a sin t,z - bt. (This curve is drawn on a circular cylinder
cutting its generators at a constant angle and is known as a circle helix).
Solution. The vector equation of the curve is R - a cos fl + a sin t J + btK
dR/dt = - a sin t\ + a. cos tJ + 6K Its arc length from P0 (t = 0) to any point
Pit) (Fig. 8,3) is given by s= jC 1 | dKfdi j dt = 7 B = T x N = (6 sin (1—6
cos ( J + tiK)/ + b“~ J / —p~ = 6(cos (I + sin (JV(a2 + 62) = - tN = t(cos (I
+ sin (J) ds dt l dt x = «* + 6* ' ...(it) PROBLEMS 0.1 d2n 1, Show that, if
R - A .sin urf + B cos wf, where A, B* oj are constants, then {/) 2^. =- (fl2R
{Bhopal, 2007 S) dr „ r/R ^ («) It x -jy = - OlA >: B. 2. Given R - A + tn B,
where A, B are constant vectors, show Lhal. if R and d ’RJdt- m e parallel
vectors, then rn + n = l, unices m = n. 3. lfP» 5t*l + rM - (K and : l «) 4 (P x
Q). at mt 4, If = W x U and = W x V, prove that ~ IUhV)='Wk (UhV). dt i)£
,rj. ir A = x*yiJ - and B = 2.* I + vJ - a 2K, find - - (A x Bj at (1, 0, - 21.
oXdy l>. If II - (a u»() 1 + Ui sin D J *■ U it tan a) K, find the value of m
dR iT R d‘ dt2 (it)
319 Vtc ran Calculus and Its Applications 10. Find the education
of the osculating plane and bi normal to. l he curve (i) i = 2 cosh (e/2), v - 2
sinh it 12), z - 2i al f = 0 ; fi'i) x = e‘ cos t,y = d sin t, s = el at t - 0. L 1 . A
circular helix is given by the equation Rtf) = (2 coe /) I + (2 sin t)J + K.
Find the curvature anti torsion of the curve al any puim and show ihat they
are constant.. 1 2. Show that lor the curve ft = «(3 t — Z3) I +• 3n/BJ + a(3f
+ ts) K, the curvature equals torsion. (X) VELOCITY AND
ACCELERATION Let the position of a particle P at time f on a path (curve)
C be R tf). Al time t + 8i, Let the particle be at Q {Fig. 8.1|, then 5R = Rtf +
&f) - Rtf) or 5R/6t is directed along PQ. A s Q -> P along C, the line PQ
becomes the tangent at P to C. ,\ Ll — = — = V s/-»o 5f dt is the tangent
vector of C at P which is the velocity (vector) V of the motion and its
magnitude is the speed v = ds/dt, where s is the arc Length of P from a fixed
point P0 (s = 0) on C, The derivative of the velocity vector V(f) is called the
acceleration (vector) Ait), which is given by dt dr (2) Tangential and normal
accelerations. It is important to note that the magnitude of acceleration is
not always the rate of change of | V | because Atf ) is not always tangential
to the path C. Inf act Vtf ) - “k. . where dWds is a unit tangent vector of C.
dt ds dt Atf) dt d_ dt ds f/R 1 _ ’s dR <. dt="" ds="" at1="" dl="" r="" j=""
dts="" now1="" since="" dwdt="" .="" d2wdt2="" d2rjdt="" is=""
perpendicular="" to="" drjdt="" hence="" the="" acceleration="" atf=""
comprised="" of="" tangential="" component="" d="" drjds="" called=""
and="" normal="" d2rjdsi="" acceleration.="" i="">h. The acceleration is
the time rate change of | V | = ds/dt, if the normal acceleration is zero, for
then [ dR d2$ fi dt 2 | ds dt. 2 (3) Relative velocity and acceleration. Let
two particles P, and P.2 moving along the curves C1 and C2 have position
vectors Rj and R2 at time t, (Fig- 8.4), so that R = P^P2 = R2 - R,
Differentiating w.r.t. t, we get dR _ effig _ dt dt dt This defines the relative
velocity (vector) of P., w.r.t. Pj and states that the velocity ( vector ) of P-,
relative to Px ~ velocity (vector} of P., - velocity (vector) of Py Again
differentiating (iii), we have d2R _ d R^ _ d Ht ...tf u) dr dr dr Fig. 3.4 i.e.,
acceleration (vector) of P2 relative to P ] = acceleration (vector) of P,> -
acceleration (vector) ofPx. Example 8,4. A particle moves along the curve x
= + i, y — z — 2t + 3 where t is the time . Find the components of its
velocity and acceleration at t - l in the direction I + J + 3K. Solution.
Velocity = ^ s 4- ftf3 +1)1 + t2J + (2f + 3)K| dt dt = 3t*I + 2tJ + 2K = 31 +
2J + 2K at / = 1 = = 6fl + 2J + OK = 61 + 2J at t = 1. dt* and acceleration
320 Higheh Engweehing Mathematics Now unit vector in the
direction of I + J + 3K is / + = + — — _ -1— <1 + J + 3K). JcFvFTP) vn
component of velocity at f = 1 in the direction I + J + 3K (31 + 2J + 2K) . (I
+ J + 3K) 3 + 2 + 6 m = m "V(ll) and component of acceleration at t - 1 in
the direction I + J + 3K = (61 + 2J) . (I + J + 3K)/>/(U) = 6 + 2 urn
Example 6.;>. A particle moves along the curve R = It3 - 4t } I + {1? + 4t)J
+ (8F - 3t*) K where t denotes time. Find the magnitudes of acceleration
along the tangent and normal at lime t =2. (V.T.U., 2003 S) Sol ution.
Velocity ^ = (3/2 - 4)1 + <2* + 4)J + (16t - 9t£)K at and acceleration dfZR
dt2 = 6/1 + 2J + (16 - l8f)K at t = 2, velocity V = 81 + 8J - 4K and
acceleration A = 121 + 2 J - 20K, Since the velocity is along the tangent to
the curve, therefore, the component of A along the tangent = A = <121 + 2J-
20K). 81 + 8J - 4K | V | ' 7(64 + 64 + 16} 12x8 + 2x8 + l-20)x(-4> 12 = 16*
Now the component of A along the normal = | A - Resolved part of A along
the tangent | BI + 8J-4K I j 4I_26J _44K | = 2^/73 , 12I + 2J-20K-16
Example H.6. The position vector of a particle at time t is R = cos ft 1)1 +
sink (t - 1) J + at’K. Find the condition imposed on a by requiring that at
time t = 1, the acceleration is normal to the position vector. Solution.
Velocity - ^5. = — sin it — 1)1 + cosh (£ — 1) J + Bot^K dt j2-p
Acceleration - 2—f^ = - cos (f - 1) I + sinh (/ - 1 } J + 6ct/K = - 1 + 6aK at(
= 1. i it* Also R = I + oeK at t = 1. If R and acceleration at t = 1 are normal,
then their scalar product is zero. (- 1 + 6oK) . (I + otK) = 0 or - 1 + 6ft2 = 0
or ct2 = 1/6 or ft = 1/ . Example 8.7. Find the radial and transverse
acceleration of a particle moving in a plane carve. (Knrukshetra, 2006;
Rajasthan, 2006) Solution. At any time /, let the position vector of the
moving particle P{r . 6) be R (Fig. 8.5) so that R = r R = r(cos til + sin 6J)
.% its velocity V = ^ = ^Lr + r “Ol ...(i) dt dt dt As R - cos 81 + sin tiJ and ^
- (— sin til + cos 6J) ^7 dt dt FI*. 6.S
Vector Cm culus and I t* Applications 321 1 R and at dR dt = — ,
Le , , if U is a unit vector 1 R, then dt dR dt U dt V- ^-R + rÛ dt dt (t)
becomes. Thus the radial and transverse components of the velocity are
dridt and r dti/dt. Also A= rfV = rf!VR + ^rrfK + ^r rf&u + rÛ + r^^ dt df2
dt dt dt dt dt2 dt dt d'r ( gives y = - 4. Hence the actual velocity of the wind
is 4(1 — J), i.e., 4s/2 km. per hour towards the south-east. PROBLEMS B.2
1* A particle moves along a curve x = fit*, y - 2 cos 3it z = 2 sin 3tt where i
is the time v an a hie. Determine its velocity imd acceleration vectors and
also the magnitudes of velocity and acceleration at t = 0. (P.T U.> 2003 ;
V.T.IL 2003 S) 2. The portion vector of a particle at time Ms It cos (/ -1)1 +
sinh U - H J + afiK, Find the condition imposed on a by requiring that at
lime f - 1T Lhe acceleration is normal iq the position vector, 3* A particle
moves on the curve x = 2^, y - t2 - 4f, z = St - 5t where t is the time. Find
the components of velocity and acceleration at time t ~ 1 in the direction I -
3J + 2K, (VJ.'Qij 2008 ) 4- A particle moves so tha t its position vector is
given by R= I cos tort f J sin tort Show l his I the velocity V of the particle
is perpendicular In It and It * V h a constant vector, 5, A par Lide (position
vector Ri is moving in a circle with constant angular velocity Show by
vector method.-, that the acceleration is equal to ,6, (erf Find the tangential
and normal accelerations of a point moving in a plane curve. (Hcjasthan,
2005 ) (A) The position vector of a moving particle at u time Ms R = 3 cm
1 1 + 3 sin tj + i/K Kind Lhe tangent, and normal components o fits
acceleration at t = 1. iMarathwuda, 2008) 7, The velocity of a bout relative
Lo water i& represented by 31 + 4J and that of wale relative to earth is 1 3J.
What is the velocity of the boat relative to the earth if I and J represent one
km tin hour eaj*t and north respectively S* A vessel A is sailing with a
velocity of I t knots per hour in the direction K_E and a second vessel B is
sailing with a velocity oE 13 knots per hour in a direction 3(TE of N Find
the velocity of A relative to B. 9* A person Lr a veiling towards the north -
easi with it velocity of 6 km per hour finds thut 1.hij wind appears to blow
from the norths but when he doubles his speed it Beams lo rime from a
direction inclined at an angle tan 3 2 la the north of east. Show that the
actual velocity of t he wind is sj2 km per hour towards the east
322 Higher Engineering Mathematics 8.4 SCALAR AND
VECTOR POINT FUNCTIONS {| ) if to each point P(R) ofv region E in
spore there corresponds a definite scalar denoted byf{ R), thenffR) is called
a scalar point function in E. The region E so defined is called a scalar field.
The temperature at any instant, density of a body and potential due to
gravitational matter are all examples of scal ar point functions. (2) if to each
point P(R) of a region E in space there corresponds a definite vector
denoted by F(R>, then it is called the vector point function in E. The region
E so defined is called n vector field. The velocity of a moving fluid at any
instant, the gravitational intensity of force are examples of vector point
functions. Differentiation of vector point functions follows the same rules
as those of ordinary calculus. Thus if F(x, y, z) be a vector point function,
then d¥ _ r)F dx + dF fity + dF tLr di dx dt dy dl dz dt (See {Hi) p, 2031
and dF= ^ dx + —■ dy + ~ dz = [ ~ dx + dy + dz] ^ da.- dy ' 02 \dx dy tte /
d>’ Xi) (3) Vector operator del. The operator on the right side of the
equation {{) is in the form of a scalar product of|^- + J^-+K^- and Idx + Jdy
+ K dz. dx dy dz If V {read as del) be defined by the equation V i|- + j^ +
k^ dx dy d2 then (i) may be written as dF = (V , rfR) F for when R = xl +yJ
+ zK, dH = Idx + Jrfy + K dz. ...{it) 8.5 DEL APPLIED TO SCALAR
POINT FUNCTIONS— GRADIENT (1) Def. The vector function Vf is
defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f and is written as grad f.
Thus grad f- Vf= I^ + J^+K dx dy dz (2) Geometrical interpretation.
Consider the scalar point function f( R), where R = xl + yJ +- 2K. If a
surface f(x,y, 2) = c be drawn through any point P(R) such that at each point
on it, the function has the same value as at P, then such a surface is called a
level surface of the function f through P, e..g. , equipotential or isothermal
surface (Fig, 8.6}. Let P ' (R + SR) be a point on a neighbouring level
surface f + bf. Then Vf. SR = ¥ V . , W + K K dz . (ISx + JSv + K&) fix.
y,z)~c Fig. S.6 dx dy d2 Now if P’ lies on the same level surface as P, then S
f - 0, i.e., Vf . 6R - 0. This means that Vf is perpendicular to every SR lying
on this surface. Thus Vf is normal to the surface f (x.v, z) - c. Vf= \Vf\N
where N is a unit vector normal to this surface. If the perpendicular distance
PM between the surfaces through P and P ' be Sn, then the rate of change of
f normal to the surface through P = £= Lt 31 = dfl -1 0 6n = Lt Vf a™ on = \
Vf | Lt * I V |. [v N . 6R = | SR | cos 0 = 5n] &n -* 0 oft Hence the
magnitude of Vf = dfldn Thus grad f is a vector normal to the surface f =
constant and hat; a magnitude equal to the rate of change off along this
normal.
323 VficroR Calculus and Its Applications (3) Directional
derivative. If Sr denotes the Length PP' ami N' is a unit vector in the
direction PP', then the Limiting value of 5/7 fir as 5r — > 0 (i.e., dffdr) is
known as the directional derivative offat P along the direction PP Since 8r =
Sn/cos a - 5«/N . NT ^ = Lt I N. N' f£] = N' . K N = N' . Vf dr &r-*o | onj dn
Thus the directional derivation off in the direction of N' is the resolved part
of V/*in the direction N'. Since Vf. N' = | Vf | cos a < | Vf \ It follows that
Vf gives the maximum rate of change off. Exam pie 8.9. Prove that VP =
nr" 2 It, where R + xl + y J + zK. (Bhopal, 2007; Anna, 2003 S • V.T.U.,
2000) Solution. We have fix, y,z) = P = (xs + y 2 + z2)*® = 77 (x2 + y2 +
z2y'2-1. 2x - nxr" ~2, Similarly, = nyp " 2 and - nzP ~ 2 ax A ay oz Thus
VP1 - + = nr"-2 (xl + yJ + xK} - up ~2R. dx dy dz Otherwise : The Level
surfaces for f = constant, i.e., P - constant are concentric spheres with centre
O and hence unit normal N to the leveJ surface through P is along the radius
R i.e., N = R . Vf= . N = ^£r = nP ” 1 R ' dn dr = nr,1“1{R/r) = Example
8.10. If Vu - 2r4 R, find u. |v f=P] (Mumbai, 2003) Solution. We have Vu =
2(x'’ +y2 + z2)2 R - 2(x2 +.y2 + z2)2 (xl + yJ + zKl But [V r = ^(7+7+7) 1
...ti) Vu=Î + |^J + ^-K dx dy dz ...(it) Comparing (i) and (it), we get ~ -
2x(x2 + y2 + 22)2, ” = 2y(x2 +- y1 + a2)2 ; ^ = 2c(x2 + y2 + z2)
324 Higher Engineering Mathematics Here Igrad u, grad v, grad
w 1 1 1 1 2x 2 y 22 y + z z + x x + y = 2 = 2(*+y+z) I 1 1 y + z z + x x + y
Hence grad u, grad v and gTad w are coplan ar. 1 1 1 1 1 1 x y z = 2 x + y +
^ y + z + x z + x + y y + z z+ x x + y 1 1 y + 2 1 , Z + X x + y lOperate R.2
+ R:,\ = 0. Example 8. 12. Find n unit vector normal to the surface xy7*2 - t
at the point. (- 1, - 1, 2 A (Mumbai, 2008) Solution. A vector normal to the
given surface is V (xy3c2) - l|-(iy¥) + J ^-(xvV) + k4 Ocy3z=) = I(y3 z2) +
J(3xyV) + K(2xy 3z) dx ay az = - 41 - 12J + 4K at the point 1, - 1, 2).
Hence the desired unit normal to the surface -4I-I2J + 4K Vl(-4)3 + f-12)£
+4al ^ 11 (I + 3J - K). Example 8.1 3. Find the directional derivative of fix,
v, z) - xys + yz3 at the point (2, - l, 1 ) in the direction of vector I + 2J + 2K.
(Bhopal. 2008 ; Kuruksketra, 2006 : Rohtak, 2003) Solution. Here Vf=
I(y2) + J(2 xy + z3) + K(3yz2) = I - 3 J - 3K at the point (2. - 1, 1).
directional derivative of fin the direction I + 2J + 2K - (I-3J -3K) . 2fL_ =
(1.1-32-3. 2V3 = - 3 ^ . ja2 + 22 + 2=) 3 Example 8.14. Find the directional
derivative of f - x2 -y2 + 22s at the point P (I, 2, 3) in the direction of the
line PQ where Q is the point (5, 0, 4). Also calculate the magnitude of the
maximum directional derivative. Solution. We have Alsu Vf= [l»+ji + K|
(x2 -y2 + 2a2) = 2x1 - 2yJ + 4zK = 21 -4J + 12Katm,2, 3) PQ - oq _ OP =
(51 + 0J + 4K) - (I + 2J + 3K) = 41 - 2J + K = A (say) unit vector of A = 41
- 2J + K 41 + 2J + K 7(16 + 4 + 1) " 721 Thus the directional derivative of
fin the direction of PQ Vf. A - (21 - 4J + 12K) . (41 - 2J + K>/721 = (8 + 8
+ 12 V 721 = 28/721 The directional derivative of its maximum in the
direction of the normal to the surface i.e. , in the direction of Vf Hence
maximum value of this directional derivative = | V/ | - | 21 - 4J + 32K | = (4
+ 16 + 144) = 7l64 .
VecToa Calculus and Its Applications 325 Example 8.15. Find the
directional derivative of § = 5x'y - 5y~z + 2.5zix at the point P(l, 1, 1} in
the x-1 direction of the line =z. -2 {Bhopal, 2008 ; U.P.T.V., 2004) Solution.
We have + + ax ay t)z = OOxy + 2,5a2) I + (5x2 - 10ya> J + (- 5y2 + Sax)
K “ 12.51 - 5J at HI, 1. 1) Also direction of the given line is A = — — + ^ O
Hence the required directional derivative = Vo . A = (12.51 - 5J) . (21 - 2J +
KV3 - (25 + 10)/3 = 11 f . O Example ft.lfi. Find the angle between the
surfaces x2 +y^ + s2 = 9 and s = x3 + y3 - 3 at the point (2, - 1 r 2), {V.T.V.,
2010; Kottayam, 2005 ; V.P.T.U., 2003) Solution. Let Then fi =x2 + y2 +
zs-9 = 0 and/2 = x2 + ya-a-3 = 0 Nl = V at (2, - 1, 2) = (2x1 + 2yd + 2?K) at
(2, - 1, 2) = 41 - 2J + 4K and N2 = Vf2 at (2, - 1, 2) = (2x1 + 2yJ - K) at {2,
- 1, 2) = 41 - 2J -K Since the angle 0 between the two surfaces at a point is
the angle between their normals at that point and Nt,N2 are the normals at
(2, - 1, 2) to the given surfaces, therefore Q N,.Na (4/ - 2J + 4K) . (4/ -2J -
K) 'll "a 7(16 + 4 + 16) ^(16 + 4 + 1) 4(4) + (- 2) (“ 2) + 4{- 1) 16 Hence the
required angle 0 - cos 6^21 -1 (—) 6-721 Example R.1 7. Find the values of
a and b such that the surface ax3 - byz ~ (a + 2) x and 4x2y + z3 = 4 cut
orthogonally at (1, - 1, 2). (Madras, 2004) and Solution. Let Then or fl ~ ax
2 — byz — {a +2) x = 0 f2 - 4x2y + z3 - 4 = 0 V/j = (2ax -a- 2)1 - 4zJ -
6yK = (a 2) I - 26J + &K at (1. - 1T 2). Vf2 = 8xyl + 4x2J + 3z2K = - SI +
4J + 12K at (1, - 1, 2). The surfaces (i) and (tt) will cut orthogonally if Vf: .
Vf2 = 0, t.e,, - 8 (a - 2) - 86 + 126 = 0 — 2u + 6 + 4 = 0 Also since the point
(1, — 1, 2) lies on (i) and (A), a + 2b — (a + 2) = 0 or 5=1 From (iii), - 2a +
5 = 0 or a - 5/2. Hence a = 5/2 and 6 = 1. ...(£) ...(ii) PROBLEMS 8.3 1. (a)
Find V0, if $ = log lx- + yK + z3} (6) Show that grad ( 1/r] - - JUr3. 2. Find
a unit vector normal to the surface x3 + y3 + 3xy? - 3 at the point {] , 2, —
1). (P/J'.U., 1999 ) 3. Find the directional derivative of 0 = x*yg + 4x2* fit
the point <1,-2, 1 > in the direction of the vector 21 - J - 2K. (V.T. t/„ 2007 ;
Rohtfik 200$ S ; J. .V. T. U. , 200$ ; U.P. T. U.t 2000) 4. What is (he
directional derivative of 0 = xvs + y?3 at the point <2, - 1, 1 i in the
direction or the normal to the surface x log z - y3 = - 4 fit l- 1, 2, 1) ?
(S.V.T.U., 2009)
326 Higher Engines*! ng Mathematics m. Find the values ef

const^nb a, b , r so that the directional derivative of p = axy? + byz + rcrx3
at fl, 2. - I ) has a maximum magnitude 64 in the direction parallel to the s-
axis, 2006) 6- Find the directional derivative of $ = x4 + y4 + z4 at Hie
point A ( 1, - 2f 1) Ln the direction AS where B is {2, 6, - 1J, Abo End the
maximum directional derivative of 0 at {1, - 2, 1 }. (Mumhiti 2009 ) 7 I f
the directional derivative of 0 - ux*y + &>rSz + cz~ v at the point (i„ 1,1)
has maximum magnitude Ifi in t he direction para It el to the line - = — — ?
- End the values of n> b and c. ft LP.T t/., 5002) 2 — 2 8 In what rii recti on
from (3, 1, — 2) ie the directional derivative of $ - maximum ? Find also
the magnitude of this maximum. Uioktak. 20031 t). What is the greatest rate
of increase of u = ay** at the point (1,0, 3) ? [Bhopal, 2008 ) 10, The
temperature of points in space is given by T(xtytz)-x2 +y'*-z, A mosquito
located at 11. 1,2) desires to fly in such a direction that it will get warm as
soon as possible. In what direction should it move ? i l . Calculate the angle
between the normals to the surface xy = z1 at the points (4,1, 2) and (3, 3, -
3). 12. Find the angle between the tangent planes to the surfaces x !og g =
ys — 1 , v2y = 2 - 2 at tine point (L, 1, 1). (liissar, 2005 S ; d.N. T.LL,
2008) 1 3, Find the values of a and b so that the surface fur* - 2yz — 9a = 0
may cut the surface rue* +■ fry3 i orthogonally at (1,-1, 2). . * ' (Nagpur,
2009) : 1 If/and G are point functions, prove that the components of the
latter normal and tangential to the surface f - 0 are (G . Vf) Vjf and Vf y. (G
x Nf) fV/’J" ’ (Vf? ICf. Ex. 3.241 DEL APPLIED TO VECTOR POINT
FUNCTIONS (1) Divergence, 7'hc divergence of a continuously
differentiable vector point function F is denoted by die F and is defined by
the equation dF If div F = V . F = I . ^ + J , ox ay ¥ = fl + i|>J + yK K. dz
then divF-V.F- (|JUj£ + k1.) . VI .W + vKl =(£ + (£ + $• tty ' “ dz) 'r ~ T~ T
clx dy dz (21 Curl, The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point
function F is defined by the equation cor] F = V x F = Ix^ + Jx^ + Kx^ ax
dy dz If F = f\ + frl + yK then curl F-VxF=fl^ + jJ- + K^-] * (fl + + \ dx dy
dz/ yK) I J K d_ d_ d^ *1 + Jf£ dx dy dz Kdy dz) Ida dx / f ♦ ) + K(
Example 8.18. If R = a I + y.J + zK. show that ii) V R = 3 («> V x R - ft tty
_ fV]') cbe dy) (V. T. U. 2008 : P. T. U. 2006 : U P. T. IL, 2006) Solution. ( i
) V . R = t*> + W + fr) = 3. obc dy ote I J K ]L j>_ JL dx ity dz x y z = 1(0 -
0) - J(0 - 0) + K(0 - 0) = 0. I Remember : div K = 3 ; curl R = 0) («) V x R =
dr dy
Vector Calculus awp hs 327 Example B. 19. Find div F and curt F.
where F - grad (x3 + y* + z3 - 3xyzh ( Vi. T IL, 2008 ; Kurukshetra, 2006 ;
Burdwun, 2003 ) Solution. IF u - x3 +- y3 + z3 - 3jryz, then F = Vu = I + J
+ k d— = K&r2 - 3yz) + J(3yy - 3 zx) + K(3za - 3ary) flr dy dz div F = JL
(3x2 - 3y z) + (3y2 - 3zx) + (3*a - 3*v> = 6 + K(- 3z + 3z) = 0. (1)
PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DIVERGENCE Consider the motion
of the fluid having velocity V - vxI + uvJ + vzK at a point PU, y, z).
Consider a small parallelepiped with edges fix* Sy( fis parallel to the axes
in the mass of fluid, with one of its corners atP (Fig. B.7). the amount of
fluid entering the face PB' in unit time - vv&z&x and the amount of fluid
leaving the face P*B in unit time = uv + svf»&c = dvy *V + dy &> 6?&t
nearly the net decrease of the amount of fluid due to How across these two
do faces = Sr&y&. dy Finding similarly the contributions of other two pairs
of faces, we have the total decrease of amount of fluid inside the
parallelepiped per unit time = + + ^"] Thus the rate of loss of fluid per unit
volume $v%> i = ~ + “ +■ ™ s= div V. dx dy dz Hence div V gives the rate
at which fluid is originating at a point per unit volume . Similarly, if V
represents an electric flux, div V is the amount of (lux which diverges per
unit volume in unit time. If V represents heat flux+ div V is the rate at
which heat is issuing from a point per unit volume. In general, the
divergence of a vector point function representing any physical quantity
gives at each point, the rate per unit volume at which the physical quantity
is issuing from that point. This explains the justification For the name
divergence of a vector point function. If the fluid is incompressible, there
can be no gain nr loss in the volume element. Hence div V - 0, which is
known in Hydrodynamics as the equation of continuity for incompressible
fluids. Def- If the flux entering any element of space is the same as that
leaving itf i.ev, div V - 0 everywhere then such a point function is called a
solenoids] vector function, (2) Physical interpretation of curl* Consider the
motion of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis through O. If £2 be its
angular velocity, then the velocity V of any particle PfR) of the body is
given by V = IhR. | See p, 91 1 If £2 - coLI + oyl + (i^K an^ R = xl *♦ y J +
I J K then V = ilxH = tOi X ifh} = lUOyC - £^v ) + JftOji - + C(cohv - 0 VI
)
328 Hitmen Engineering Mathematics curl V 1 d_ dx . J d_ dy X -
fl>] z. K _a_ dz Wj.v “
Vector Calculus AND Jt$ Appucations 329 (4) curt curl F = grad
div F - VaF, i.e., V k (V x F) = VfV . F) - V2F (5) grad div F = curt curt F +
V2F, Le., VfV . F) = V x (V x F) + V^F. „ A® + ± (£) + ±( ¥) = * tL + lL = f
3y^d>v a*2 avs a*2 L dal dx & * &2j r v2 = a3 4 . a3. a2 + “ g + is called
the La pi avian operator and V2f = 0 is called the Laplace's equation. $y2 ~
Bjc2 3y2 dz2 (2) I J K _ n f 8V *71 ± ± ± ra* **% KaJ fit r)y IV dx 3y dz
dyeb cfedy. = 0 (V.T.U.,2007 ) M)V-VxF=(a|).(lXf + Jxf+Kxf) = El dx2
x£l+kx^-) dxcjy dxitej - I I lxl'^f + IxJ'^J + Ix dx* tfccdy k-E)=z( K , asF . a
(4) V x (V x F) = (ai)x(lxl + ax^+Kx|) = El x 1 1 x 3x3z ) = E = E dxdy ,a2F
'(■•SM-fiH "'j-a-ji" dwly | l(-a)-«»sj = II f 1 - ^ + J - ^ + K ~\- E ^ = V(V ■
F) - V2 F. lit f dx rh dz 1 riT2 ay (5) is just another way of writing (4)
above. dxdzj '1 fix - I cTF a*3 (Madras, 2006} Ob'*. Interpretation ofV an n
vector according to rules of vector products leads to correct results so fur so
the repeated application ofV is concerned, eg-, I. V . Vf= VY (V V,V = VZ)
8, V xVfÔ (y V x V = 0) 3. V.VxF = 0 (v |VVFj=0) 1. V x (V si F j = V(V ,
F) - V-T** 1 by expanding iL ns a vector triple product. DEL APPLIED TO
PRODUCTS OF POINT FUNCTIONS To prove that ( 1 ) grad (fg) - f
(grad g) + gfgrad f } Le. V(/gO = f^g + gVf. (2) div {f G) = (grad f) . G + f(
div Gl U. V(/G) - Vf . G +■ f V . G (3) curl (f G) = (grad fix G + f(curl Gl
Le. V x (fG) = Vf x G + f V * G (4) grad (F. G) =
330 Higher Engineering Mathematics or 151 div (FxG) = G, {curl

F) - F . (curl G> U.t V.(FxG) = G- (VxF)-F.(VxG) (6) curl ( F x G) - F (div
G) - G (div F) + (G . V) F - (F . V) G i.e„ V x (F x G) = F< V . G) - G (V .
F) + (G . V) F - fF . VJ G Proofs (1 ) V (fg) = ZI . A ifg) = H + g |0 dg W fix
=n I £ + =fvg+gvf (2) (3) V . (fG) - II . jU/"G> = XI. f^G + /'~) flx m dr f
■(aI ).o*r(n.g-v.o*rv.a v*.a*£ from id) and (Hi), we get V(F . G> = (F . V)G
+ (G . V)F + F x (V x G} + G x (V x F) (5) V . (F x G) = II . A{F x G) = ZI
f ^ x G + F x — ) = XI . x G - ZI . x f] /V \ dx dx / dx < dx 1 (V.T.U.,2011)
(V.T.U. 2008 ) ...m ...(«) - = XI X JL (F X G) = axf^xG + Fx dx v dx dx/ dx
[V A.(BxC) = (Axfi),C) ia.G) ~-f i.fi ! G F+ Z F “ (I . F) “ [ djt k dx/ |_V dx
) dx J = X (G . 1) ™ - GZ1 . + FZI . “■ - I(F . I) ^ dx dx dx dr = F (XT.^)-
GX(|.|0 +KG.I) ® -Z(F.I) ^ = F (V . G) - G (V . F) + (G - V) F - (F . V) G
Rule to reproduce the above formulae easily : (?) Treating each of the
factors as constants separately, expresss the results of V operation as a sum
of the two terms. ( U ) Transform each of the two terms, noting that V
always appears before a function and keeping in mind whether the result of
operation is a scalar or a. vector. To tarry out the simplification! we may
sometimes, employ the properties of triple products. (iii) Restore the change
of treating the functions as constants*
Vector Calculus and Its Applications Let us illustrate the

application of this rule to (2), (4) and (6) above : (2) V . 'G) = V . iff G +fGj
=ff V . G + Gt , ?/=/'? . G + G . Vf (4 1 V(F * G) = V{Ff . G) + V(F . G^) =
IFC n(y k G) + Gi + (Gr . V) F - V . FGrl = F(V . G) - (F . V) G + CG . V)F
- G(V . FI. Example H.I22. Show that Yl(r”) = nfn + ijr" ~ 2 IS. V. T. U. .
2006 ; J.N.T. U.t 2006 ; U P.T. U„ 2005 1 Solution. W = V . {Vr”) = V. ( nr"
- 1 y] = nV . (r" - *R) = ntfVr'1 - 2) . R + r" - 2 { V . R)1 [By § 8.9 (2)1 = n
[(n - 2 )rn~3 ~ . R + rn~2 (3)j - n[(n - 2)r" ~4 (r2) + 3r" ~2\- n(n + t) r" ~2
Otherwise : Yz(r,i) = _ aV) . t?2(r") . a V ) dx‘ V dz* Now =nr«-t — nrn " i
- ~nd'~2x dx i)x r d'V“ = n | rn~2 +(n- 2)r',“4 *2] rn~2 + (n-2)r"~3- * r
Similarly. - ^ * = n [V1 2 +(n - 2 )rn 4 y2 J dV‘) dz2 [Using Ex. 8.18 (i)| [v
R . R = r*l |By§ 8.8(1)] „.(i)] Iv r2^xi+y2 + z2] ...(h) ...(Hi) = n[rn~2 +
(«-2)r'’-4 z2] Xio) Solution. Since Adding (ii), (Hi) and (iv). (i) gives
V2(rfl) = n [3rfl ~2 + (n - 2)P* - 4 (x2 +y2 + z2}] = n [3r" - * + (n - 2)r” r2)
= n(n + Dr" a. In particular V2( 1/r) = 0. {U.P. T. (/., 2003 ; P_ T. U, 3003)
Example 8.23. If tiF - Vf\ rv/iere «, r ore scalar fields and F is a vector field,
show that F. curl F = 0. F.IVti curl F = V x [ —Vo] u Vn / (By §8.9 (3)1 [v
V x Ve = 0 Hence F . curl F = i- Vo . f yi x Vo) =0. For it is a scalar triple
product in which two factors are equal, u \ u J Example 8.24. If r and R
have their usual meanings and A is a constant vector, prove that V x ( — -
— J - — — ^ — A h — - R. (Mumbai. 2009 ; Kunikshetra. 2006 ; J.N.T.U.,
2005) Solution. V * lrn (A x R)I = |V x (A x R)| + Vr1 x I A x Rlj = r- fl[(V .
R) A - (A . V) R] + (- nr~ ", + 1,R/f)x(AxR) curl F=V-xVd+ — V x ( Vi>) u
o. S= V - X Vo u (By § 8.9 (3)|
332 = r* (3 A - A) - nr'" + 2> R x (A x R) = 2Ar-" - nr-*" * 2! |fR .
R) A - (A . R) R1 = M _ _« | r2A - (A . R) R| 2~” a + ”j(x2 + ,y2 + z2) \ r v
dx dy dz) - - ^ (x2 + y2 + z2 rm (2x1 + 2yJ + 2zK) £ = - (x2 + y2 + z2^ txi
+yJ + zK) curl j K x grad -j = V x |- ( x 2 + y2 + z2)-3'2 UJ - yl}| I ± Ox J
d_ K d_ dz y/(x2 + y2 + z2)3'2 - x/(x2 + .y2 + z f/2 0 = I dz j (x2 + y2 + zl)
3/2 + J 1.J _ J ^ ](x2+y~ + z2)3/2 d X + L y dx L 7 011 Example 8-26- In
electromagnetic theory, we have V D = p, V * H = 0, V x D - - ( V x H t= - f
pV + — ] - Prove that e\r at J l d t (I) V-D - 4 £? = Vp + 4 4 (pV) c* *» (u)
V^H - 4 ^4 = - - v X pV c2 dt3 c
Vecrofl Calculus and Its Applications 333 Solution, (r) We have =

H c 3/ 1 J rf n d f wfv l ^ i ^3D cM + (pV) dr * =7 bt 1 v bt pV) (V x H) =
Ivx^ c ot = — V x (V x D) = - [V{V . D) - Vz D] = - Vp + V2D Hence V2D
- -- = Vp + {pV) c dt c dt (U) L.H.S. = V2H - 4 = vHH + - 1~ f“ - *P) c2 dr
c dt\ c at J = v2H+ - A(V x D) c dt = V2H+ = V2H + Vx (vxH-^pV) - V2H
+ V x (V x H) - jvx (pV) = V2H + V (V . H) - V2H --Vx (pV), c = V(V.H)-
ivx (pV> = -Avxpr=RH.s. c ,xH=i(pV.f)] X dHl c at J [Using 5 8.8 <4 )]
VxD [v 7xD = ^® [ c at VxB=&v+f) lUsing § 8.9 (4)1 tv V r H = 01
PROBLEMS 8.4 1. Evaluate div F ptul curl F at the point ( 1, 2, 3) given (!)
F = jc2)^! + jfy^J + xyz2K. in} F = &x*I + 5xy2J + Qxyz^fL UU) F = grad
+ y3z + - x*y‘2z2\ 2. IfV iV.T.lf., 2007) iOsmanm, 2002) 3. If F = (* + v +
1 > I + ?f - (x + v)K, show that F. cur! F = 0. f V. T. IL, 2000 S) 4. Find 1 he
value of a if the vector Uix^y + yz j 1 + (jya - xz2) J + 1 2xyz - 2*^") K has
sera divergence. Fi nd the eti rl of the above vector which hae zero
divergence, 6. Show that each of following vectors are solenoidal : (t) i-x2
+ yz) 1 + (4v - zh.) J + {2X2 - 4c) K (Delhi , 2002) (it) Sy^zH + 4^3J +
atc^y^'K (jut) Vi x Vxp, G. 1 f A and II are irrcitational, prove that A xB is
solenoida!. (Madras, 2003 ; V'. T.U., 200.1 i 7. If u = x'J + y~ + ?- and V =
jel + v*J + zK. show that div («V) = 5 u. 8. If R vl + yj + zK and r * 0,
show that (i) VA l/r2) - - 2R/r’ ; V . i H Jr2) = Hr2 (ill div id1 R) = (n + 3)r"
; curl (r1' Rl - 0 (P.T.U., 2006 ; KoVtayam, 2006) (in) grad ( div £) = - ™ . t
V. T. U.. 2010 S) 9. If Vj and Va be the vectors joining the fixed points (Xp
ylt «t) and (x2, y.,, z2) respectively to a variable point (x, y, z), prove that
{£) div (Vl x V,J = 0, (ir 1 grad (V, . Vj> - V, + V.J( im) curl (Vt x V2J -
2(V1 - V2)
334 Higher Engineering Mathematics 10- Shutv lhat ' j) V , DU r
2 l-t -H*3'” 1 (Mumbai, 2008 J (U.T.U.. 2010 ; Bhopal, 2008 . S,V.T,U.,
2008; V.T.U.. 200$) (Hi) V . ($yy -- yVdt) = - yV'fy, 1 1 . If A is a constant
vector and R = rt + y*J + ^K, prove that (t) grad (A . R) = A (Delhi, 2002 )
fii) div (A * R) = 0 < Mi) curl (A x Hi = 2A ( VT. f/., 2010 S) (iv) curl |i A .
RfR] = A x R. 12. Prove Lhst (il VA“ = 2(A . V) A + 2A x (V x Al. where A
is a constant vector. Ui) V x ® x L0 = R(Y . U) - 2U -Ot - V)U 13.
Calculate (r ) curl (grad f ), given fix, y , z) - x~ + yl - z. (ii) curl (end A)
given A = x^yl + ,y3?J + z^yK 14. (a i If f - (is + y* + z2) ", find div grad fa
nd determine n if div grad f = 0 (6) Show that div Igrad rn ) = n(/t + 1 )r" _ -
where r2 = x2 +y2 + z1. 1 5. For a solenoidal vector P, show that curl curl
curl curl F - V'1F. 16. If u = *®y z, v~xy- 3^, find (i) V[Vu . Vt>); Ui)
V.ft’ux Vu). 17- Find the directional derivative of Y . (V$1 at the point
(1,-2, 11 in the direction of the normal to the surface xy2z m * e3. Where 4
= 2kW. (ttaipur. 2005) 3iA .RmB.Ri A . B iBurdwan, 2003) < Kurukshetm,
200!) S) (B.P.Z (J., 2006 1 (VJ'.U, 2003) lS.V-T.tL, 2000 ;J.N.T. IL 2003 1
(Bhopal. 2008 ; U.P.T. U., 2003) 18. Prove that A . V (» v>)where A anri B
are constant victors. 3.10 INTEGRATION OF VECTORS If two vector
functions F(t) and G(/ ) bo such that dG(f) dt = Fit), then G(f) is called an
integral of F(f) with respect to the scalar variable t and we write J F (t)dt
=G(t). If C be an arbitrary constant vector, we have F(t) = dGU) d dt ~ dt
iG(° * C) then j F{f) dt = G(t) + C This is called the indefinite integral of
Fit) and its definite integral is £ F(t)dt = |G(f) + C]* = G{h) - G(o).
Example 8.27. Gwen R (/) = 3P I + tJ - t* K. evaluate f (7f x d'R/dt2) dt . Jo
Solution. d_ dt I R f d x dH'i _ rfR „ lR* dT* d2FL\ dt = R x dR dt dR d2R
dt* = Rx d2R dt 2 dt2~ J . dt = (3tH + tJ - t3 K) x (6/1 + J - 3f3K> I J K 3/2
/ - r 6/ 1 - 3f 2 = - 2f T + 3f 4 J - 3f aK Thus f I R x dt = 1 - 2f3I + 3/4 J - 3f
2K 1 Jo ^ dt* J 1 lo = - 21 + 3 J - 3K
Vector Calculus anq Its Applications 335 PROBLEMS 8.5 1.
Given FtO = 15 1} - 3fJJ + 6/HJ - 7 1 Kp evaluate c F(M dt . 2. It' ^ = 6(1 -
121^1 + 1 cos (K, Und P. Given rh«t - - I • 3K and P = 21 + J when t - 0 5F .
dt 3. The acceleration of a particle at any timer > 0 is given by 12 cos StI - 8
sin J + itr/K, the velocity and acceleration are initially isero. Find the
velocity and displacement at any lime. I J ‘ 2K when t — 1 ■ 4K when t - 2,
* •'‘"HS-S# show that J" | R . J d( - ID. 8.11 (1) LINE INTEGRAL
Consider a continuous vector function F(R) which is defined at each point
of curve C in space. Divide C into n parts at the points A - P0, P,p .... Pi _ v
Pi ..., Pn = B (Fig. 8,8). Let their position vectors be Ra, R, . R r R/T Rn<
Let U(, be the position vector of any point on the arc P P ri - 1 (' ri Now
consider the sum S = ^ F(Ui ) . 5Rf , where (1R = R R ,. i = 0 and then iPÂ
Fig. 8.8 The limit of this sum as n — » «■ in such a way that | 5R( | — » 0,
provided it exists, is culled the tangential line integral of F(R) along C and
is symbolically written as J F(R) . dll or F.^df, When the path of integration
is a dosed curve, this fact is denoted by using | in place of J . If F(R) = I f ( x
, y, z) + y* 2) + %hp y, 2) tfR = I(ir + J(fy + K dz j F(R) . r/R = J {fdx +
(Jx/y + V|«fz). Two other types of line integrals are JT F x t/R and | /t/R
which are both vectors. (2) Circulation, if F represents the velocity of a
fluid particle then the. line integral l F.dR is called the circulation of F
Ground the curve. When the circulation afF around every1 dosed curve in a
region E vanishes, F is said to be ir rotational in E (3) Work. If F represents
the force acting on n particle moving along an rtcAB then the work done
during the small displacement 6R = F . 5R* ike total work done by F during
the displacement from A to B is given !nr the line integral r/R. Solution.
Since the particle moves in the jey-plane ( z = 0), we take R = xl + yJ. Then
j,, , where C is the parabola y = 2a2 = J (3xyl - y2 J) . (lirl + dyJ) ~ (3.rv
^23 Higher Engineering Mathematics Substituting y — 2x2,
where x goes from 0 to 1( (i) becomes - f ' ]3x(2x2) dx - (2x2)2 d(2x2)\ ~ f ’
(6a-3 - 16a5) d* = - 7/6. J* = o Jo Otherwise, let a = t in y = 'lx2. Then the
parametric equation of C are a = t,y = 2 t2. The points (0, 0) and (1, 2)
correspond to t - 0 and t = 1 respectively. Then {/) becomes - f [3f(2t2) dt. -
(2tifd(2^)\ = f' (6/3 -16/5 )dt =-7/6. Jf = 0 Jo I example 8.29, A vector field
is gi.ven by F - sin yl + x(l + cos y) J. Eval uate the line integral over a
circular path given by xr + y2 = a2, z = 0. (Rohtak, 2008 S ; P. T.U., 2003)
Solution. As the particle moves in xy- plane (z - 0), let R=xl + yj so that d tt
-dx I + dyj. Also the circular path is a = u cos t, y - u sin f,s = 0 where /
varies from 0 to 2n. j> F . dR - j>_ [sinjyl + x(1 + cos y)j] , (dxl + dyJ) = ^
[sin y dt + x( 1 + cos y ) dy\ = ^ [(sin y dx + x cos y dy) + xdy] - | ld(x sin
y) + x dyl - r Idlu cos t sin (a sin /)) + a2 cos2 t dt J = | u cos / sin (a sin /.)
1^" + £ (1 + cos 2/) dt £ 2 t + sin 2t = JUi2. Example 8.30- Find the work
done in moving a particle in the farce field F = 3x^1 + {2x2 —y) J + z K,
along (a) the straight line from (0. 0, 0) to (2, 1, 3). < S.V.T.U 2007 ;
J.N.T.CL, 2002) (6) the curve defined by Xs - 4y, 30* = 8z from x - 0 to x =
2. {Delhi, 2002) Solution. J F . dR = J |3a2I + (2xz - jy)J + zKj . {dx I + dyJ
+ dzK > - | [3x2dx + (2x2 - y)dy + zdz\ ...(/) (a) The equations of the
straight line from (0, 0, 0) to (2, 1, 3) are a/2 = ,y/l — z! 3 - / (say) x = 2t,y
= /, z = 3f are its parametric equations. The points (0, 0, 0) and (2, 1, 3)
correspond to t = 0 and / = 1 1 respectively work done = £ F . dH = £
]3(2f)2 2df + l(4/)(3f) - t\dt + (3r> 3d/] = £ (3 6/ 2 + 8/) dt = 16. (6) Let x =
t in x2 = 4y, 3a3 = &. Then the parametric equations ofC are x - t,y - 12/4, z
- 3/3/8 and t varies from 0 to 2. \2 3f2 dt + ■; rl~x[d Jo U 4 1 ,-lJ 8 1 , 8 JJ
■r dt t , I? e r _ 1B 32 128/ L PROBLEMS 8.6 1. Evaluate the line integral |
£(,v2 + xy)dx + (a2 + v")dy [ where C is the square fomiifd by the lines y =
± 1 and a =± 1 {Delhi, 2002)
Vector Calcuujs and Its Applications 337 Z, If F = — (ir2)I + {2y
— 4_v)JP evaluate i F . dH along the curve C in the j^-plane. _y = x3 fVom
the point il( 1) to Jg Kl, 8). U.N.T.U., 2006) r o o ;f . Com put. p \ ho line
integral | {y I - teJ 4 IQxK along the curve x - 1" 4 1. y = 2f*, z = t3 from i
— 1 to i - 2. {Bhapul, 2008) 8. Using the line integral, compute the work
done by the force F = (2y 4 3)1 4 hJ 4 (ysz - rjK when it moves a particle
from the point (0, 0, 0) to the point 12, 1, 13 along the curve x = 2 t-y y = 1,
z = t3, (Mtidrax, 2000 > 9. Evaluate f F . f/R , where F = l2r, x, -y| and C is
R = [cos t, sin f, 2f] from (1, 0, 0) to U, 0, 4jt). = \ \f(t) of a real parameter
t represent a curve C on this surface 5, For example, the parametric
representation of the circular cylinder x2 + y1 = d\ — 1 < i, (radius a
and height 2), is R(u. v) = a coe ul + a sin uJ + vK where the parameters
u and u vaiy in the rectangle 0 < u 5 2k and — 1 £ v £ 1, Also u - v = bf
represent a circular helix (Fig. 0,3) on this circular cylinder. The
equation of the circular helix is R = a cos fl + a sin t J +
£fKDifTerontiating R = R (i/s v)t w.r.t. A we get c/R _ 3R du 3R dv dt
du dt do dt The vectors 3R /du and dRfdu are tangential to S at P and
determine the tangent plane of S at P. N = dftfdu x dWdv (* 0] gives a
normal vector N of S at P , Def, If S has a unique normal at each of its
points whose direction depends con tin Hourly on the points ofSr then
the surface S is called u smooth surface. If S is not smooth but can be
divided into finitely many smooth portions, then it is called a piecewise
smooth surface* For instance, the burface of a sphere is smooth while
the surface of a cube i e piecewise smooth . Def. A surface S is said to he
orientable or two sided if the positive normal direction at any point Pof
S can he continued in a unique and continuous way to the entire
surface. If the positive direction of the normal is reversed as we move
around a curve on S passing through F+ then the surface is non-orien
table (Le.r onesided), A An example of a non-orien table surface is the
Mobius strip*. If we take a long rectangular strip nf paper and giving a
half- twist join the shorter £ides so that the two points A and the two
points B in Fig. 8,9 coincide, then the surface generated is non- & orien
table. Such a surface is a model of a Mobius strip. figr a, 9 (2) Surface
integral- Consider a continuous function FlR) and a surfaces. Divide S
into a finite number of sub-surfaces. Let the surface element
surrounding any point Pi R) be SS which can be regarded as a vector ;
its magnitude being the area and its direction that of the outward
normal to the element. * Named after a German mathematician August
Ferdinand Mobius ( 1790-1868) who was a student of Gauss and
professor of astronomy at Leipzig. His important contributions are in
projective geometry, theory of surfaces and mechanics.
Higher Engineering MATHCt.WTiCS Consider the sum LF(R) .
6S, where the summation extends overall the sub-surfaces. The limit of this
sum as the number of sub-sti r faces tends to infinity and the area of each
subsurface tends to zero, is called the normal surface integral of F(R) over S
and is denoted by £ F . rfS or £ F , NJs where N is a unit outward normal at
P to S, Other types of surface integrals are £ F x dS and J f rfS which are
both vectors. Notation : Only one integrals sign is used when there is one
differential (say JR or JS) and two (or three) signs when there are two (or
three) differentials. (3) Flux across a surface. If F represent the velocity of a
fluid particle then the total outward flux of F across a closed surface S is the
surface integral L F.JS. When the flux of F across every closed surface S in
a region E vanishes, F is said to be a solenoidal vector point function in E.
It may be noted that F could equally well be taken as any other physical
quantity e.g. , gravitational force, electric force and magnetic force.
Example £.31. Evaluate f F . Nrfs where F = Sx3}! -y:'J + 4xz2 K and S is
the closed surface of the region in the first octant bounded by the cylinder
y3 + z2 - 9 and the planes x = 0, x - 2, y - 0 and z = 0 Solution. The given
closed surface S is piecewise smooth and is comprised ofS, — the
rectangular face OAEB in xy- plane ; S^— the rectangular face OADC in
as-plane ; S3-the circular quadrant ABC in yz-plane, S^— the circular
quadrant AED and S5-the curved surface BCDE of the cylinder in the first
octant (Fig. 8. 10). f F . N cfs - f F . N ds + f F . N ds + f F , N ds Js 3s, 3s,
3s.{ + f F.NJs+f F.NJs Now £ F . N ds = £ (2x2yl - y2 J + 4 xzl K) . {- K )
ds = -4| Iv a = 0 in the xy-plane| —(t) Fig 3. JO Similarly, lFN ds = 0 and ir
Nt/s = 0 [ F . N ds ~ f {2x-iyJ -y2 J + 4xz2 K) . I ds Js( Js, = [ 2x~y ds = f P
8y dydz = 4 [ (9 — z2) dz - 72 Js4 Jo J« ‘ Jo To find N in S5 , we note that
V(y2 + a2} = 2yJ + 2?K N2yJ + 2c K yJ + zK and Thus £ F . N ds = £ £
^(4y2 +4z2) 3 N . K | = z/3 * M-jjW), 3} 3 Jo Jo [ V y2 + z2~ 9| so that ds =
dxdyf{zl 3) ^ + 4*z2 dydx Put y = 3 sin 0, z = 3 cos 0 dy = 3 cos 0 J9 r*2
rnf'l = Jo Jo 27 sin3 9 3 cos 9 + 4x{9 cos2 0 3 cos 0 dddx = £ 27 x | + 108*
xfjjx = 108 Hence ft) gives £ F.NJs = 0 + 0 + 0 + 72+ 108 = 180.
ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
Vector Calculus and Its Applications 339 PROBLEMS 8.7 1. If
velocity vector is F = yl + 2d + xzK m/sec., show that the (lux of water
through the parabolic cylinder y fc 0 y and be continuous in a region E of
the xy -plane bounded by a closed curve C, then FI Jc + Vdy) ‘ We .-(1)
Consider the region E bounded by a single closed curve C which is cut by
any line parallel to the axes at the most in two points. Let E be bounded by
x = a, y - ^ (jc}, x - b and y - i}(x), where t) & so that C is divided into
curves Cj and Cs (Fig. 8.11). 1 o II -c it H H Fig. s. 11 JL f **’=£ (*, r|) -
&xr dx - - f = aty + y2 and y - x2 ’"Named after the English mathematician
George Green (1793-1641) who taught at Cambridge and is known for his
work on potential theory in connection with waves, vibrations, elasticity,
electricity and magnetism.
340 Higher Engineering Mathematics Along Cx,y = xl and x
varies from 0 to 1 (Fig. 8.12) £ = £ [ixtxf + (x2f)] dx + xZdb c2)j * { Along
C2, y = x and x varies from 1 to 0. [lx(x3 + (j if\dx + x2 cf(x)I = 3x2 dx - —
1. Thus £ <4> dx + y dy> = - 1 = - ^ Also fl (tr-fW'/L [s(^>-| = . - ^ ;l ^ -.(i)
xii) iP. T. U. . 2005) [v R = xl + y J] x + y - x 2 2 x y {dx dy) [By Green’s
theorem] ■n[ -ll T - (x2 + y2 ) + x(2x) ix2 + y*)-y(2y) {x2 +y2f (x2 + y2f
dxdy 2 2 x -y j y |M dx ~ n JC x^s’n x + ^ dx ~ - “| I x 0,5 * + *) [q/2 — 1 .
(— cos x + x) dx tt , 2 f , (% ^%\ = ”2 + xl”1 + “8“J='l4 + xJ Fig. 8.13 2 K2
■ V n/2 — - 1 n 4 Sill i + a
Vector Calculus and Its Applications 341 Example 8.35. Apply
Green ’s theorem to evaluate J [(2x? - y^tdx + (Xs + yr)dyj, where C is the
boundary of the area enclosed by the x-uxis a nd the upper-half of the circle
x? + y2 - a2. Solution. By Green’s theorem jr [(2x2 -y2)dx + (x2 +y2)dy\ =
ff -T-t*3 + ^)-^-(2x2 -y2) dxdy I 1), {U,T. U4¥ 2010 ) l, Apply Green's
theorem to prove that the area enclosed by a plane curve is — f (xdy -ytlx),
— nT Hence find the area of an ellipse whose semi-major and semi-minor
axes are of lengths n and h, ( Kcruta, 2005 ; V.T.U., 2000 S) 5. Find the area
of a circle of radius a using Green’s theorem. [Madras. 2003} 6. Evaluate
l(.iL + xy )dx + U? + y2Wvl. whore 0 is the square formed by the lines r =
± I , y - ± 1. Jf.’ (S.V.T.U.. 2008 : Mardthwadct, 2008) 7. Evaluate J [U2 -
SLryWU + (x2y + 3)t/y1. around the boundary of the region defined by y}
= &X and x = 2, 8. Evaluate bv Green's theorem 1 F ftR where F = -■ xyUl
- yJt and C is r = n{ 1 + cos Oh JC STOKERS THEOREM* {Relation
between fine and surface integrals) (Mumbai, 2006) 8.14 If S be an open
surface bounded by a closed curve C and ¥ = f I + f^J + f^K be any
continuously differentiable vector point function, then f F dR - f curl F Hds
J c J s where N = cos otl + cos [U + cos yK is a unit external normal at any
paint of S. * Named after an Irish mathematician Sir George Gabriel Stokes
(1819—1903) who became professor in Cambridge. His important
contributions are to infinite series, geodesy and theory of viscous fluids.
342 HiciKe.pl Engineering Mathematics Writing dR - d.xT + dyJ
+ dz K, it may be reduced to the form Let us first prove that §cf'dxm
i(^CD8|J‘^C0SY)c's Let z — g(x, y) be the equation of the surface S whose
projection on the ay-plane is the region E. Then the projection of C on the
xy- plane is the curve C‘ enclosing region E. jc /!(*.>. z)dx = £
/ilx.y.^tx.yDctr - — f f -y- f\ (xf y, g)dxdy, by Green's theorem J is By ,(1)
...(2) ..,(3) The direction cosines of the normal to the surface z g{x, y) are
given by cos a _ cos (3 _ cos y Bg/By (See p. 219) -Bg/Bx Moreover dxdy
= projection of ds on the xy -plane = ds cos y, i.e., ds - dxdy! cos y. ,\ right
side of (2) X4) Fig. 8-15 - If ff-SH-f-U* - Me ^ dz cos 7 ay J \ dy oz dy J
cos y By = Left side of (2), by (3), Thus we have proved (2). Similarly, we
can prove the other corresponding relations for/j and fT Adding these three
results, we get (1). Cor. Green's theorem in a plane as a special case of
Stokes theorem. Let F - 01 + ip J be a vector function which is continuously
differentiable in a region S of the xy-plane bounded by a closed curve C.
Then and J F . dft = J ((pi + i|/ J) ■ (c£xl + cfy J) = J {0rfx + rfy) dy eN0
curl F - N i I J K BfBx BfBy 0 $ v 0 K = dx By Hence Staked theorem,
takes the form f (0 dx + y rfv) = f [ — - — 1 dxdy which is Green’s theorem
in a plane. Jc Jc (.ibc By J Example 8.3fi. Verify Stake's theorem for F = (x2
+y2)I - 2xyJ taken around the rectangle bounded by the lines x - ± a, y * 0,
y = b. (Bhopal, 2008 S ; V.T.U., 2007; J.N.T.U., 2003 ; U.P.T.U., 2003)
Solution. Let ABCD be the given rectangle as shown in Fig. 8.16, ; F dR = f
F dR + f F dR + f F ■ dR + f F • dR Jabcd Jab Jbc Jcd Jjoa F - dR = [(x2 +
y2}I — 2xy J] • (Idx + Jdy ) = (x2 + y 2)dx - 2xydy Along AB, x = a (i.e.,
dx - 0) and y varies from 0 to b. [ F = - 2cr [ y dy = - 2n ■ - ab2 ■ »A£ Jn 2
and
343 Vector Calculus Its Applications Similarly, and f F rfR = f
*vjc j„ 3 J" F ■ dR = 2u J y dy - — ofa2 1 F dK ~ c y> y=l> B x = - a jc = a
O y = o / X Thus Also since I K ■ dR = — ,„(t) Jabco curl F = — 4Ky f curl
F - Nrfs = f f - 4Ky K dxdy = - 4 [ f" ydxdy IS J[) J-a J() J-a Fig. 8.16 - 4 C
I l_„ ydy-~ Sti = - 4 ufe2 ...(«) Hence Stoke’s theorem is verified from the
equality of (i) and (/i). Example 8.37. Verify Stake's theorem, for the vector
field F - (2x -y) l- y*5 J -y?z K aver the upper half surface ofx- + y* + z- =
1. bounded by its projection on the xy -plane. (Bhopal, 2008 ; Madras, 2006
; S.V.T.U., 2006 ) Solution. The projection of the upper half of given sphere
on the xy- plane (z = 0) is the circle c\x2 + y2 = 1] (Fig. 8.17). £ F. dR = £
[(2x ~ y)dx - yz2 dy - y 2 zdz\ = £ (2x -y)dx \z - 0 in the xy-planel = (2 cos
6 - sin 0) (- sin 0 dQ) [Putting x = cos B, y = sin ©1 = (- sin 20 + sin2 0) d0
- x 0 + 4 sin2 0 d0 = n. •■■(() Now curl F = I J K 3^ a d dx dy dz 2x - y - yz
2 - y2z = (- 2yx + 2 yz) I + 0J + K = K **• J curl F. Nds = L JC.N ds = f K .
N , **** , J ^ JA | N , K | where A is the projection of S on xy- plane and ds
= dxdy l N . K - J dx dy = area of circle C = n Hence, the Stokes theorem is
verified from the equality of ft ) and (ii). ...(«) Example 8.38. Uses Stoke's
theorem evaluate J(. £(x + y)dx + (Six - z)dy + (y + z)dz\ where C is the
houndury of the triangle with vertices (2, 0, 0), (0, 3, 0} and (0, 0, 6).
{Nagpur, 2009 ; Kuruksketra, 2009 S , Kerala, 200-ri t Solution . Here F =
(jc + y)I + (2x — z) J + (y + a) K I J K curl F AAA dx dy ds x + y 2x - z y +
z = 21 + K
Higher Engineering Mathematics Also equation of the plane
through A, fi, C (Fig. 8.18) is 2+~ + g = lor3x + 2y+z = 6 Vector N normal
to this plane is V (3jc + 2y+s-6) = 3l+2j + K N = 31 + 2 J + K (31 + 2J + K)
7(9 + 4 + 1) ^14 Hence J(1 Kr +y )dx + (2jc - z)dy + (y + z)dz\ - j(. F . JR =
J[ curl F . N ds f (ot (31 + 2J + K't , 1 f = t<2,+KH-^r-Jrf*'OT(6+1,t
Vector Calculus ano Its Applications 345 Example H.41. tfS he

any closed surface, prove that. J Curl F. JS = 0. Solution. Cut open the
surface S by any plane and let S^S,, denote its upper and lower portions.
Let C be the common curve bounding1 both these portions, £ curl F . dS =
£t curl F . dS + £ curl F . c/S = J F . dR - £ F . t/ft = 0, on applying Stake’s
theorem. The second integral is negative because it is traversed in a
direction opposite to that of the first. PROBLEMS 8.9 I, Verify Stake's
theorem for the vector Field (i) F - (x2-y~) I +- 2xyJf over the box bounded
by the planes x _ 0. .1 = a; y = 0r y = />; z : 0tz - c „ if the Face 2 =r 0 is
cut. U.t 2006 ; Delhi* 2002) {it) F = bxf 0) and S : 0 &x < lt 0 S y > y - 0, *
- = 6, x = 0- { Mumbai . 2007 ) I. Verity Stoked theorem for P - (y - z ± 2jl
+ (yz + -1 kJ - x~K where S is the surface of the rube x = 0, y - 0, :■ - 0t x
=• 2f y = 2, z = 2 above the xy-p lane, [A ndftra, 2000) 5. Evaluate J F * rfR
whore F = _vl + xz'^l -zy3 K, C is the circle x2 + = I, r' = L5, fi. Evaluate
by Stoked theorem £ (yz dz + zx dy + zx efe) where C is the curve x* + y- =
1,2“ r%. (J,AT. Sftt/,. i 7. ITS be the surface of the Sphere x* + y1 + 21 *=
1, prove that j curl F . dS 0. (J./V. TjfU, jfflflSO K Prove that J A x R . rfR =
2A . jdS, A being any constant vector, and deduce that R > dR is twice the
vertor area of Lbc surface enclosed by C. 9. IF «t> is a ocular point
function, use Stake's theorem to prove that (r) cur! (grad > - 0. (i'i) div cud
F = 0. {Kerala, 2005 J 10, Evaluate (sin z dx - cos x dy + sin y dz) where C
is the botuidary of the rectangle 0 where F — yl + ix - 2xz) J - xyK and S is
the surface of the sphere x2 + y2 + 2s =r a1 above the ay-plane.
tfCattQytom* 2005) 12- Evaluate jV x V dS over the surface of the
paraboloid 2 - l- a-2 - y-, z >0 where V =- yl + 2*} -+ xK. Bill VOLUME
INTEGRAL _ _ Consider a continuous vector function FfR) and surface S
enclosing the region E „ Divide E into finite number of sub-regions Ev E2,
En* Let 8 v bt? the volume of‘ tlie sub-region Ef enclosing any point whose
position vector is Rr n Consider thp. sum V - ^ F(R-) The limit of this sum
as n — > « in such a way that 6if -y 0, is railed the volume integral of Fill)
over E and is symbolically written as [ Fdu. JE If F(R) - f ixt y , z)l 4>(jc, y,
zhJ + y(x, y, ^)K so that 8t? = &c5yfe, then j" F dv - 1 JJJ^ /iixc/vtfz + j
|JjV«^+K £
346 Higher Engineering Mathematics 8.16 GAUSS
DIVERGENCE THEOREM* ( Relation between surface and volume
integrals) If F is a continuously differentiable vector function in the region
E bounded by the closed surface S, then £ F . Nds = £ div F do where N is
the unit external normal vector. If F(R) = f(xfy,z)l + fy(.x,y,2)j + ipTje,
(yt2>K then it is required to prove that Jjf (fdydz + fydzdx + ydxdy) - E(lr
•<1) Firstly consider such a surface S that a line parallel to z-axis cuts it in
two points; say Pjix, yt zY) and P2 ixt yt z2) ( z 5 < z2) (Fig, 8,20). If S
projects into the area A, on the xy-plane, then JIL * dxdydz = JL, ,hdy C If
dz = J|A [n't*, y, z2 ) - ¥(*, y, zx H dxdy = JJ ¥(*, y, z2 ) dxdy - *K*. y> 2i
> dxdy ...(2 ) Let Sj. S2 be the lower and upper parts of the surface S
corresponding to the points P, and P2 respectively and N be the unit
external normal vector at any point of S. As the external normal at any point
of S2 makes an acute angle with the positive direction of 2-axis and that at
any point of S, an obtuse angle, therefore JjA mx,y,z2)dxdy= J| y N . K ds
*2 ...(3) JJ^ * N , J ds > ...(7) Addition of (5), (6) and (7j gives JjJ | ^ + ^ j
dxdydz - | {/" I + (|)J + \pK) ■ N Ids which is same as tl). Secondly,
consider a general region E. Assume that it can be split up into a finite
number of sub-regions each of which is met by a line parallel to any axis in
only two points. Applying { 1 } to each of these sub- regions and adding the
results, the volume integrals will combine to give the volume integral over
the whole region E. Also the surface integrals over the common boundaries
of two sub-regions cancel because each occurs twice and having
corresponding normals in opposite directions whereas the remaining surface
integrals combine to give the surface integral over the entire surface S,
Finally consider a region E hounded by two closed surfaces S j, S2 (S,
being within S2). Noting that outward normal at points ofS, is directed
inwards {i.e., away from S2) and introducing an additional surface cutting
S,, S2 so that all parts of E are bounded by a single dosed surface, the truth
of the theorem follows as before. Thus theorem also holds for regions
enclosed by several surfaces. Hence the theorem is completely established.
■‘‘See footnote p. 37.
Vector Calculus and Its Applications 347 Example H. 12. Verify
Divergence theorem for F = far - yz)I + f_va zx)J + (z2 ryfK taken over the
rectangular parallelepiped 0 < x < a, 0 r3 = [ f - r f (4 -4y + 2z> dzdydx J-2
JJii-x3) JO N( ri rÂ-P) i „|S = I j - - 4z-4ye + z rfydr J-g I lo pg rf4 -A) = f
[ > _ — (12 — 12y + 9) dydx J_s Fig;. 8.27
348 HsGHER EttBtNEEAtNG MATHEMATICS = - 42 J2 /(4 -
x2) dx = 84 J(4 - x2) dx = 84 x ^j(4 -x2) 4 . x — - + — sin — 2 2 2 = 84n.
Example 8-44. Evaluate J (yal + zxJ + aj>K > . rfS where S in the surface
ufthe sphere xv * y1 + 2* ~ u* in the first octant . Solution. The surface of
the region V: OABC is piecewise smooth (Fig. 8.23) and is comprised of
four surfaces (i ) S, - circular quadrant OBC in the plane, { ii )S2- circular
quadrant OCA in Ihexx-plane, (/it) S3 - circular quadrant DAB jn the ary-
plane, and (it1) S-surface ABC of the sphere in the first, octant. Also F = yzl
+ zxJ + xyK By Divergence theorem, [ divVdv= [ F.(/S+ f F.dS+ f F.rfS+ f
F.dS ...U) Jv Jst J&j J s, Js (U.P.T.U,, 2004 S) Now For the surface S|f x = 0
div F = (yz) + (zx) + ~z~ (xy) - 0. tbc dy da * pi fJt n2 - y® ) cîii2 1 '■--!£
JT >■**— 8 Thus ( 1) becomes 0 = - — + f F . dS whence f F . dS = 3«4/8.
8 h Is r | ■? 2 2 sj Example 8,45. Apply divergence theorem to evaluate. J
Ux + my + nz' I 4S taken over the aph ere (x - a f + (y- bf- + (z - ch - p:?; l ,
m, n being the direction cosines of the external normal to the sphere.
Solution. The parametric equations of the sphere are x - a + p sin 0 cos ct»,
y - b + p sin 0 sin ty, z = c + p cos 0 and to cover the whole sphere, r varies
from 0 to p, 6 varies from 0 to n and $ from 0 to 2k. f (lx2 + my 2 + nz2)ds
= f {x2I + y2J + z2K) . N ds J.s J.s = J div (x2I + y2 J + z^Kidv = 2 J (x + y
+ z)do f2n rn rp = 2 J J \{u + 6 + c) + p(sin 0 cos + sin G sin Q + cos 0)1 x
p2 sin G drdBdfy *3 Q — = 2(a + b + c) — J - cos fl[* , 2x=— (u + b + c)
pa. O u Example 8.48, Evaluate (a Jx2 + t/y2 + 1 ' 1 dS, where S is the
surface of the ellipsoid axs + by1 + C2~ = 1. Solution. Taking t|> = ax2 +
fry2 + cz2 - 1 = 0, V 0 = 2uxl + 2fryJ + 2czK /. Unit vector normal to the
ellipsoid = N — — j? j - + czK iHi + foVJ + r2zl ) Since F . N = (a2x2 + 6
V + r^2)-^, F . (axl + byd + czK) = 1
Vector Calculus and I rs Applications Obviously F = teI + wT +
zK By Divergence theorem. tv ax2 + by 2 + C32 - 1 J F . tfS = £ div F do ~
£ = 3 . 4k y-(*) + f-(y) + f (*> dbc dy dz 4 n c/o = 3 f t/o = 3V Jv 3 V(c6c) i
Vol, of ellipsoid = 4k 3 V(o6r) Example 8*47. If the position vector of any
point (x, y, z) within a closed surface S, be It measured from an origin O,
then sfwu> that : outside S ■ inside S re R \0. 1 f O lies autsia Jic r* ' | 4k, if
O lies tunic Solution, (a) When O is outside S. Here F - R/r3 is continuously
differentiable throughout the volume V enclosed by S. Hence by
Divergence theorem, we have fl [■■®v(“) = ° (ft) When O is inside S.
Hence F = R/rJ has a point of discontinuity at O and as such Divergence
theorem cannot be applied to the region V enclosed by S. To remove this
point of discontinuity, we enclose O by a small sphere S* of radius p. Now
F is continuously differential} ie throughout: the region V' enclosed
between S and S\ Therefore applying Divergence theorem to region V\ we
get JI £ N*+Jl ® V2*j/ - \jjV20 )dv= f f .,*(1) je js \ Bn dn } where d/t)n
denotes differentiation in the direction of the external normal to the
bounding surface S enclosing the region E. Applying Divergence theorem :
F, Ncfo — V, Fdv to the function we get *s *s j Vy . Nets = £ V . u = £ (V .
Vy + |By (2) page 3291 s f Vi}. Vigcfu + f V2t|«/t,' ..,(2) J fi JE *See
footnote p. 339.
(3) HlQHFH ENtUNEEftjNG MATHEiVlAtLCS Interchanging

(J? and (it) gives f , Ntfs “ £ Subtracting (3) from (2)t we have £ ({j>Vi|/ -
vj/¥0) . Nds - £ ((j>V2^ ~ But V\\f . N = chj//£)tt the directional derivative
of \|/ along the external normal at any point of S. Hence Jf — } ds _ f ( ^ ds
= f y ds which in known m Green1** reciprocal theorem. k dn J& dn
PROBLEMS 8.10 1 . Vitrify divergence theorem for F taken over the cube
bounded by x = 0, * = 1 ; y = 0, .v ■= 1 ; 2 = 0, 2 » I where (i) F = 4*21 -
y2J + yzK {Madras, 2006) (ii) x*l + zd + y;K {Bhopal, 2008) 2. Verify
(tauss divergence theorem Tor the function F =yl +*J + over the cylindrical
region bounded by*2 +y*9, z - D and z - 2. a. Using divergence theorem*
prove that (t) f R . ffS - 3V m f Yr~, dS = 6V J s j s where S is any closed
surface enclosing a volume Vand rl = x 2 + y1 + 2s. iU.P.T. U.r 2003)
IMadms, 2003} i. Using divergence theorem, evaluate [ R Nrfs where S is
the surface of the sphere x2 + yl + z* = 9. J8 5. If S is any closed surface
enclosing a volume V and F = oxl + 6yJ + c^K. prove that f F.Ndts^fa H& +
c)V JS 6. For any dosed surface S, prove that J U(y -z)l + y(2 ~*)iJ + z{x -
y)K] . ds - 0. 7. Use divergence theorem to evaluate F . dS p where J S (j i F
- 01 + y3J + raKp and ,Sr in the surface of the sphere x" + y2 + ?* = cT
(VT, tt, 2008 ; P.T.Li, 2005) (ii) F = (c\ e\ tr] and S is the surface of the cube
| x \ < 1 * | y | < i* | z | < 1. (J3.FT.tA, 2005) & Evaluate J ^ {xdydz + ydzdx
+■ zdxdy) over the surface of a sphere of radius a. {Kurukshetra, 2008 S)
!l. Evaluate f F . dS where F -y^r2! +- zhtW + x*y2K and S is the upper
part of the sphere 0 +ya + 0 = cr above XOY JS plane. 10, By transforming
to triple integral, evaluate JJ U^dydz + x ydzdx + x*zdxdy) where S is the
closed surface consisting of the cylinder x2 + y2 - a2 and the circular discs s
- 0 and zt=b. tBurdwan, 2003) 11, Evaluate I (V x F) * rfS, where S is the
surface of the paraboloid x a -k y1 + z - 4 above the ry-ptmne* and Js F ^
ixz + y - 4)1 + 3x> J + (2xz + z~)K. 12, If F = (20 - 3^)1 - 2xyJ - 4rK, then
evaluate E V . F dv, where V is bounded by x — y — z — 0 and 2.r + 2y +
z - 4. {Bhopal, *20QB) 13, IfF * grad and V2$ = - 4np, prove that | F . N ds
- - 4np J dV where the symbol have their usual meanings.
Vector Calculus and Its Arplfcatio ns 351 (1) IRROTATIONAL
FIELDS An irrotational field F is characterised by any one of the following
conditions : (0 A x F = 0. (it) Circulation jp . dR along every closed surface
is zero. Uii) F = A0, if the domain is simply con nected * If V x F = 0, then
by Stoke’s theorem. )F , c/R = I V x F . dS =0, i.e., the circulation along
every closed surface i f JS is zero. Again since V x = 0 in an irrotational
field for which A x F = 0, the vector F can always be expressed as the
gradient of a scalar function $ provided the domain is simply connected.
Thus F = V$. Such a scalar function is called the potential. In a rotational
field, F cannot be expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential. Ohs. t. / n
an irrotational field , the line i ntegral V between two points r$ independent
of the path of integration and is equal to the potential difference between
these paints. If need be any closed contour in an irrotational field F (Fig.
8.25). then or F.(fH= f F.dR+ f F .
352 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 8.48. A rector
field is given by F =■ {x~ ~ y~ + x)\ - (2xy + y)JShow that the field is
irrotp.tid.mil and find its scalar potential. Hence evaluate the line integral
from (i, 2) to (2, I). Solution. Since V x F = = 0 I J K 9 9 3 3* 9 y dz x2 - y2
+ x -<2jey + y) 0 this field is irrotational and the vector F can be expressed
as the gradient of a scalar potential, Lp. , (x2 -y2 + x)I - (2xy + v)J = V0 =
— - 1 + — J 9br whence I.C., dy d&dx — x2 -y'2 + x 3 0% - - (2x>' + ,y) x
T x a ...(*) -.-(it) - + Av) .Mil) v2 -xy3~~+S(x) ...< iv ) Equating liii) and
(itf ), we get - - y~x + — + fiy) - - xy2 - — + £(*) 3 2 2 fiy) = - ~ andg(x> =
— + — Hence Since the field is irrotational. A X3 2 x2 V2 *=T-*' +T”T fa .
t/R from ( 1, 2) to (2, 1) = ^ 2-02 ji=fI_ix4 + i-~l-f--2xl + ~-il = -7-J 1,2 1 1
3 2 2j U 2 2 J 3 (U.P.T.U.. 2004) Example 8.49. A fluid motion is given by
V = ( y + z) I + (z + x)J + (x + y) K iu) Is this motion irrotational? If sv, *•*'
i the velocity potential. d>) Is the motion possible for an incompressible
fluid? Solution, We have V x V = = 1(1- I) — J(1 — 1) + K(1 — 1) = 0. I J
K AAA 3x 3y dz y + z z + x x + y this motion is irrotational and if (p is the
velocity potential then V = V0. (y + z) I + iz + x)J + (x + y)K = ^ J + ebe 9y
dz [§ 20.6] I ntegrating these, we get 90 90 90 — ~—y + zt ~z = z + x, — -
x + y dx ' dy dz 0 = (y + z)x + fiy, z) ...(i) 0 = {z + x)y + f2{zt x ) .Mi) and 0
= (x + y)z + f.fx) y) ..Jim) Equality of {[), Ui) and (iii), requires that /■|(v,
z) =yz, f2iz, x)-=zx. f3(x,y) = xy. Hence 0 = yz + zx + xy. (6) The fluid
motion is possible if V satisfies the equation of continuity which for an
incompressible fluid is V . V = 0. [See §8.7(1)
Vector Calculus and Its Applications Here Hence, the fluid
motion is possible. v . V = — (y + z) + = (2 + x) + — (x + y) = 0. dx dy dz
Example 8.60. Find whether [ [2xyz2dx. + (x2z" + z cos yz) dy + (2x*yz +
y cos yz) dz\ is independent of Jc the path joining (0, n/2, l) and (1, 0, 1). If
so, evaluate this line integral. Solution. The line integral of F is independent
of path of integration if V x F - 0. = £ [2xyz2 1 + (lx2z2 + z cos yz)J +
(2x2yz + y cos yz }KJ . lldx + J dy + K dz) = J F . t/R and VxF = te.. I J K d
d 9 3x dy dz 2 xyz2 x2z 2 + z cos yz 2 xlyz + y cos yz = I [2x2z + cos yz -
yz sin yz - (2 x2z + cos yz - yz sin yz)] - J|4*yz — 4xyz| + K(2xz2 — 2xz2J
= 0 the given integral is independent of the path C. Now let F = VI + (x2zs
+ z cos yz)J + (2x^y2 + y cos yz) K = + + ek c(y cte 2xyz2 = ^,jcV + 2
cosyz = 9$ , 2 x'^yz + y cos yz = --dz ...(«) ...(Hi) dx dy Integrating first
w.r.t. x partially, we get $=x2y2z2 + 'Vl (y, z) Integrating second w.r.t. y
partially, we get $ = x2yz 2 + sin yz + ^(z, x) Integrating third w.r.t. 2
partially, we get - x^yz1 + sin yz + y ) Comparing (t), («), (ui), we have
•{^(y, J) = terms in if independent of x - sin yz *Fa(z, x> = terms in 4
independent ofy = 0 H'gfz, jc) = terms in 4 independent of z = 0 Thus =
x^yz2 + sin yz Hence the value of the given integral - | (j> [| 1( = (0 + 0) -
(0 + sin n/2) = - 1. Sample 8,51. Determine whether F = (y2 cos x + z3) 1 +
(2y sin x - 4) J + (3xz2 + 2) K is a conservative vector field? If so find the
scalar potential 4*. Also compute the work done in moving the particle
from (0, I, - I) to (n/2, - I, 2). [Mumbai, 2006) Solution. F is a conservative
vector field when curl F * 0. Here Curl -F~ I J K A. A_ A dx dy dz y2 cosx
+ z 3 2y sin x — 4 3 xz2 + 2 - 1(0 - 0) - J(3z2 - 3e2) + K(2y cos x - 2y cos
x) = 0
354 Higher Engineering Mathematics t.e. *\ F is a conservative

field. Now let F = V = xz3 + 2z + H^fx, y) Comparing (£), (u), («£)* we get
^(y, z) - terms in 0 independent of x = - 4y + 2^ x) - terms in <5>
independent ofy = xza 4 2* 4^(2, x) - terms in Q independent of z = y2 sin x
- 4y Thus § - xzr3 + y 2 sin x — 4y + 22 In a conservative field, the work
done = (f>e — v ; dz -IKO, X,-l) = {4n + 1 + 4 + 4) - I- 4 - 2) = 4* + 15. ...
(*) ...(it) PROBLEMS 8.11 1- is a solulkm of the Laplace equation, prove
that Vqj is both sclenoidid and irritations 1, 2. Show that the vecLor field
defined by F = (x 2 + *y£}I ■+ (y2 + jryVJ is conservative and find the
sealtir potential- Hence evaluate Jf . dK from (0T 1) to <1 , 2 h 3- Find the
work done by the variable force F = 2_yl + xy+I on a particle %vhen it is
displaced from the origin to Lhe point R =41 + 2J along the parabola y2 - xr
4. Show that the vector field given by A = 3x:yl + — 2yz~ kl + (3s2 — 2y%
)K is irrofat tuna I but not soteno&da L Also fi nd ijKx. >■ , z) such that
Vty - A, f>* Show that the following vectors are irrolaLinnal and find the
scalar potential in each case : ii ) (Xs -yz)l + (y2 - zx)J +■ U2 - x> )K Ut }
2ryl 4 ix2 + 2y* ) J + (y- + 1 IK ( VJ1\ 2007) ini) (6xy + 23JI + (3x* -j)Jt(a
xz*-y)K (Raipur, 2005 ; V, Z U 2003 S) Uu) (2xy2 + y*)I + (2x*y + 2yz*tf
+ <2y2* + xy )*L (V, T C/.t 2WJ0) 6. Fluid motion is given by V ^ nx I +
nyJ - r2azK (i) la it possible to find out. the velocity potential 7 If sop find
it. (si) Is the motion possible for art incompressible fluid ? 7* Show that
Lhe vector field defined by F = (y sin z — sin x)I 4 {x sin 2 4 2 yz )J + Ixy
ays z + yz)K is irrotational and find its Velocity potential. (Kottayam, 2005
) 8. Show that F = t2xy + z3) I +x2J + is a conservative vector field and find
a function such that F - V0 Also find the work done in moving an object in
this field from (1. - 2, 1.) to (3. 1 , 4). (Nagpur, 2009) 9, If F sa (Jt + _v ■+
u2)I + (bv + 2y - ^)J + ix + cy + 2zlK, find cit b, c such that curl F - 0, then
find ^ such that F = Vf, (V.T.at 2000) HD* Find the constant a £0 that V is a
conservative vector field* where V ^ im cy -z*)l + ia~ 2 )x*J + ( l — a
)xz2K. Calculate its scalar potential, and work done In moving n particle
from { 1. 2* - 3jto ( l, - 4, 2) in the field (M u in ba jc. 2006 ; Rajasthan,
2006')
Vector Calculus and Its Applications 355 (1) ORTHOGONAL
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES Let the rectangular coordinates (x, y, z)
of any point be expressed as functions of u, v, w so that x = x(u, y, u?),y =
y(u, vtw)>z = z(u,u,w) Suppose that (1) can be solved for u, v, w in terms
ofx, y, z, so that u = u(x, y,z),v = v(x, y, z), w = w{xt y, z) „,(2) We assume
that the functions in (1) and (2) are single- valued and have continuous
partial derivatives so that the correspondence between (x, y. z) and («, v, w
} is unique. Then (u, v, tv J are called curvilinear coordinates of {jc, y, z).
Each of u,v,w has a level surface through an arbitrary point. The surfaces u
= u0, v = oc, w = iuu are called coordinate surfaces through P(u0, o0, tc0).
Each pair of these coordinate surfaces intersect in curves called the
coordinate curves. The curve of intersection of u — u and v - v0 will be
called the ty -curve, for only w changes along this curve- Similarly we
define u and a-curves. In vector notation, (1) can be written as R = x(w, a,
w) 1 + y(«, a, tu)J + z{u , a, io)K 6R in DR i t)R , uR = ^r— du + dv du da
dw dw ...(3) Then dR/du is a tangent vector to the o-curve at P. If Tu is a
unit vector at P in this direction, then 9R/du = where A1= |dR/au|, Similarly
if T and T^, be unit tangent vectors to v- and la-curves at P, then where h2 =
\ SR/dv | and hA = | dR J, h.A are called scalar factors. | Then (3) can be
written as c/R = h ^ du Tw + h.jdv Tp + hs dw Tu. ...(4) Since Vtt is normal
to the surface u = u() at P, therefore, a unit vector in this direction is given
by Nd - , Similarly, the unit vectors Nt, - j^j and are normal to the surfaces
t> = t'0 and w = u/0 at P respectively. Thus at each point P of a curvilinear
coordinate system there exist two triads of unit vectors : Tw, Tu, tangents to
u, v, m-curves and N^, N^, Nuj normals to the co-ordinates surfaces (Fig.
8.26). In particular, when the coordinate surfaces intersect a right angles,
the three coordinate curves are also mutually orthogonal and u, o, w are
called the orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. In this case T , T , T and N ,
**v, Na. are mutually perpendicular unit vector triads and hence become
identical. Henceforth, we shall refer to orthogonal curvilinear coordinates
only. Multiplying (3) scalar ly by Vu, we get Vu dR = du = ( Vu t J du + |vu
. dv + ( V« . ] dw whence Similarly, and Vu . ^ = 1, Vu . 4^ = 0, Vu . ^ = 0
du do aw Vy.^. = 0,Vo.^.= I, Vo,|5. =0 Su dv aw ^ 3R n „ SR A „ dR ^ Vw . -
0, Vw . = Qt Ve^ , - — - L du dv dw These relations show that the sets
OR/du* SR/Sw and Vu, Vo, Vw constitute reciprocal system of vectors,
356 Higher Engêehing Mathematics Or Similarly Also Similarly
Vu = dR dR dv dw r an L a« * DR DR Do x die T„ x Tw (A,i;)x .-(7} Fig.
8.27 dR du dR , dR dr X die dudvdw - — 1— --- dudvdw d(u, v , w) where
(3) V x F = AgAg fvjhj hfa _a_ _a_ j_ do do die ^hfi Aj/'g A3 fs where F -
ffT^ + f.flv + f.fTw. (1) Let f(ut v, tv) be any scalar point function in terms
of u, v, w , the orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. Taking u, v, w as
functions of x, y , 2, we have and df dfdu df do t df_ dio d* du dr do dx dio
dx
Vector Calculus and Its ApeucArtows Multiplying (i) by I, (ii) by

J, (Hi) by K and adding, we have V/-= ^Vu+^-Vv + ^Vw ou av dw bt dw
fi.2 dv fi;! du? which is the required result. (2) Let Flu, o, u>) be a vector
point function such that F ~flTu + + /‘3Tw - WAi VlJ * Vw V . F = LV .
{(/j/i^XVy x Vu?>] = mf\h2h3) V,(VmVhj) + (Vi? x Vu?) Vl/AM Now V .
(Vo x Viai) - Vu? . V x (Vo) - Vo . V x ( Vu?) = 0 and WM = vu + aww v„ +
ip Vu, t)fi do du? „.U’v> [By (5) p. 3561 IBy (6) p. 3561 ~.(o) I By (5) p.
3301 IBy { iv ) above} (o) now becomes V . F . X (V., xVw). J V„ + ® V, ■
** (3) Let FU/, vf w) be a vector point function such that F = /iTu + hTv +
Ww = M J v“ + /f*av" + /A Vti> V xF = XV x (^fijVu) ~a(/A> = IIV(/-,A,)
X Vu + Z-/4 . V X Vuf = £ “I Vu + Vo + Vuj du du do> [By 15> p. 3561
[Using (3) p. 3291 xVu d(/A } _ dl/j/ij) voxVm - * ■ Vw x Vu dv du> dtf dv
T.xT^m/T.xT^ Ilt l AA ) dw l fiA ) d (/IV Ter | d T„ d(/-A) T, t cK/A> do h
A du? AA du? AgAg du A.A a(/A) tc . difM Ta d(/;A) d(/A) dr du? du Ag/i,
do AA + two similar terms, whence follows the required result. TWO
SPECIAL CURVILINEAR SYSTEMS 8.20 (1) CYLINDRICAL
COORDINATES Any point P(x. y, z) whose projection on the iy- plane is
Q(x, y) has the cylindrical coordinates (p,
0, z - zQ are respectively cylinders about the Z-axis; planes

through the Z-axis and planes perpendicular to the Z-axis. The coordinate
curves for p are rays perpendicular to the Z-axis; for 0, horizontal circles
with centres on the Z-axis; for z, lines parallel to the Z-axis. From Fig. 8.28,
we have x = p cos , y = p sin $,2 = 2
Higher Engineering Mathematics (t) Arc element. ids)2 = (dx)2 +
(dy)3 + idz)2 - (dp)2 + p2 (d0)2 + idz)2 so that the scale factors are h j = 1,
A£ = p, k3 “ 1. (ii) Area elements dSp = pdtydz, dS ^ = dzdp, dS2 - pdpdJ )
. (- sin 01 + cos 0J) = - cos 0 sin 0 + sin 0 cos 0 = 0, . T7 = (- sin 0l + cos
0J> . K = 0, and Tr . Tp = K . (con 01 + sin 0J) = 0. Hence the cylindrical
coordinate system is orthogonal. Also Tp x = (cos 01 + sin 0J) x (-sin 01 +
cos 0J ) = (cos2 0 + sin2 0) I x J = K = Tz x = (-sin 01 + cos 0J) x K = sin
0J + cos 01 = Tp Tx x Tp = K x (cos 0l + sin 0J) = cos 0J - sin 0l These
conditions satisfied by Tp, Tp, and T,, show that the cylindrical coordinates
system is a right handed orthogonal coordinate system. ( V-- T.U., 2008) (3)
Del applied to functions in Cylindrical coordinates We have « = p, u = 0, w
=z and /ij - 1, hz - p, = 1. Let TV, Tq, Tx be the unit vectors in the directions
of the tangents to the p, 0, 3 curves. (i) Expression for grad f. Since w= ^^ +
ZL£ + 2^*L hi Sii h% fiu /z3 dw 1 dp p pd0 * fe * (ii) Expression for div F
where F = ffTu + f2 T(l + ffTw 1 Since V . F h\ h^h^ 1 P (lit) Expression for
curl F where F = ffTu + f2 Tu + ffTl r|j < Wi > + ^ Since
Vector Calculus and Its Appucatigns [iv) Expression for V2f
Since rj2f _ 1 f a ( i air , r 1 a ( i y , t ) a f i df r L fii (0V] f + J.I (IK' i+|l
(d£) 1 . aV i 3f i a2/ sV |dpi v PDpJ DO L p ckjj v i p dzi Dpa P Dp p2 do2
dz2 Example 8.5a. Express £fte ut?c£or zl— 2xJ + yK in cylindrical
coordinates. Solution. We havex = p cos 0. y = p sin and z curves
respectively, then „ DR/3p cos Ol + sin I + p cos 2 1 = — sin + cos pJ
DR/& „ T „ _ _ _ 1/ |DR/r>| Let the expression for F = z\ - 2xJ + vK in
cylindrical coordinates be F^V/vv/sT, Then /j = F . Tp -z cos 0 - 2x sin p f2
~ F . = - z sin p — 2x cos $ ^ = FT,=y Substituting the values of /j./jj./j in
(i), we get F = (z cos p - 2x sin p) Tp - (z sin p + Zr cos p) + yT? = (z cos
(|> - p sin 2$) T;) - (z sin + 2p cos2 p) + p sin p T. Example 8.53. Shorn that
V flog p) and V p, p x 0, 0 -*■ 0 are Solenoidal vectors. Solution, (i) f = log
p is a function of p only. Wo have to prove that V . (V/), i,e, , V2/" - 0 W- ^
+ I^+ 4 Ii*U!> + o+o— Ui =o & Dp Dp Dpz p Dp p2 dp2 Hence Vflog p )
is a solenoidal vector. (ii) f - Vp is a function of p only. We have to show
that V , (Vf), i.e. . V2/" = 0. j2 r i 3jr i ^2r -\2r i n2j 2 2 P P ay i df i d£f ay _
_ i azo _ _ y7 = — tt + ~ — » + — L = 0 + 0 + f + Q = 0. Dp2 p ap pJ D0"
D2 p* Hence the result. 8.21 ill SPHERICAL POLAR COORDINATES Let
P{x, y, z) be any point whose projection on the .XT-plane is Qix, y). Then
the spherical polar coordinates of P are (r, 0, p) such that r = OP, fl = ZZOP
and = 4>o are respectively spheres about O, cones about the 2- axis with
vertex at O and planes through the Z-axis. The co-ordinate curves for r are
rays from the origin; for 8, vertical circles with centre at O (called
meridians); for . horizontal circles with centres on the Z-axis From Fig.
8.29, we have x = OQ cos p = OP cos (90° — 0> cos p = r sin 9 cos p, y =
OQ sin p = r sin 0 sin p; z - r cos 0.
Higher Engineering Mathematics (t) Arc element idsft = (tit)2 +
(rfy)2 + (dz \2 = (dr)2 + r2 (t/0)2 + (r sin 0)2 (d0)2 so that the scale factors
are At = 1 ,h2 = r, A3 = r sin 0, (ii ) Area elements dSr = r® sin 0 dBdip,
dS& = r sin Bdfydr, dSQ = rdrdB where dSr is the area element
perpendicular to the r-direction, etc, (Hi) Volume element dV = r2 sin 0
drdBdfy (2) Spherical polar coordinate system Is orthogonal At any point P
, we havex = r sin 0 cos 0,y - r sin 0 sin 0 ,z = r cos 9, so that R = r sin A cos
01 + r sin 0 sin 0J + r cos 0K If Tr, Tfl, be the unit vectors at P in the
directions of the tangents to the r, 0, 0-curves respectively, then ,j, _ 5R /dr
_ sin 0 cos 01 4- sin 0 sin 0J + cosBK |
Vector Calculus ano Its Appi ications (Hi) Expression for curl F
where F — Trj + /^T , + /j' Tf( Since V xF = VxF = ^3^1 ^1^2 i_ A A 3n do
dw thfi ^2/2 â/a Tr T, r2 sin 0 r sin 0 3_ Dr A B_ 3ft rfi n r h_ ckj> r sin 0/3
r 2 sin ine[de 3 3 j r sin 0 1 dr 13 d* J r 1 3r 2 30 J r sin 0 [ 36 3$ J r | sin 0
tty dr J r \ dr 30 («>) Expression for V2f. Since V2f= 1 a f h a a fftA y'
kih^hz | 3« l, hi 3 u) 3i> { tu dv ], ate y'll J 3tu ^ Ag 3u> Jj vy. U ai„ fl A f—
^1+ 1 f— ^ II r2 sin 6 [ 3r l, 3r,l 36 V r DBJ 30 {r sin 0 30 JJ 1 3 ( 2 a/') 1 a
f . _ an 1 r2 3r V 3r J + r2 sin 0 30 1“° 3ftJ + r2 sii sin 8 Dr d2f 1 d2f - — +
— — i-+ ■ 1 _ 3Y 2 3f cot 0 3/ 3r2 r2 3ft2 rz sinB 0 30* r dr r2 30 Example
8,54- Express the vector field 2yl - zJ + 3jcK in spherical polar coordinate
system. Solution. We have x = r sin 0 cos 0fy = r sin 0 sin 0, z = r cos 6 so
that R = r sin 0 cos 01 + r sin 6 sin 0J + r cos 6K, If Tr, Te, be the unit
vectors along the tangents to r, 0, 0, curves respectively, then _ 3R/3r _ sin 0
cos 01 4- sin 0 sin + 00, s 0K |3R/3r| ^ COs ,jjj2 + (gig Q fiin
362 Higher Engineering Mathematics f2 = F . Te = (2 r sin 6 sin I
- r cos 0J + 3r sin 0 cos K). (-sin I + cos > = — 2 r sin 0 sin2 0 — r cos ft
cos i)> Substituting the values of fv f2, f3 in {£), we get the desired
expression. Example 8.55. Prove that V(cos 0) x - V (1 / r). r ■£ 0. Solution.
In spherical polar coordinates. « . ¥ m . 1 V m . 1 V rr Sr r S0 ** r sin 0 30 *
13 1 V (cos 0) = — rr (COS 0)Te = - - sin 0 T0 r ow p ...(it) and
vG)-5tr",«-7' Now from (i) and (it), we get V(cosft)x V U. 2003) 2. Express
Lhe following vectors in spherical polar coordinates (i) rl + 2yJ + yzK Hi)
xyt +■ yz*1 + zxK 3» Evaluate V0 = xyz in cylindrical coordinates. 4,
Show that Vfr/ein 0) x W = ^
Victor Calcijlu$ and Its AppLiSftTroNS 363 7, Prove that V = ps
ain 2t> Tp + cot + — T. [’ is irrotatiqnal. 8. If w, u, w are orthogonal
curvilinear coordinates with /t(l hf, A3 aa scale factors, prove that ifR aa
dRl i >u ' dr ’ flto J IVo. W, Vwl s **M*r OBJECTIVE TYPE OF
QUESTIONS PROBLEMS 8.13 FiU up the blanks or choose the tarred
answer from the following problems : 1. A unit tangent vector to the surface
x = tty = fl2, z = t3 ai t = L is ....... 2. The equation of the normal to the
surface Ex2 + + 2z ■= 3 at (2, l, -3) is .. _ 3. If u - uix,y) and v = v{x*yh
then the area -dement dudv is related to the area-element dxrfy by the
relation _ 4 * If A - 2xH - SyzJt + xz? K. then V, A = »,*-*.. 5. tfiv curl F -
**,.**. 6. Area bounded by a simple dosed curve C is . 7. If S is a dosed
surface enclosing a volume V and if R ^ xl + y J + zK, then f K , N ds = is.
B. div R = „„*>.«; curl R = . 9. If A is such that Vx A = 0, then A is called .
10P If V . F = 3h then F. where S is a surface of a unit sphere* is . is 1 L I f
V . F = 0, then F is cdted^ _ , 1 2, The directional derivative of $ [xf y, z) «
x2 yz + 4xz2 at the point tl, - 2,-1) in the direction I*Q where P * (lt 2t — !
) and Q = . Maanmifin value of the directional derivative of = x2 — 2y2 +
4^^ at the point C l* lt - I) is ».***«• 27* if r2 = x2 + y2 i z*, then V , (R Jr)
= 2S- Directional derivative of f-xyz at Che point <1, - lt - 2) m the
direction of the vector 21 - 2J + K is .... 29* [TV =xH + xye** J + sin then
^ . (V x F) = 30, If/'= tan-1 ( yfx ) then div igrudf) is equal to ia) I
364 Higher Engineering Mathematics 32, The value of fg rad (> +

y - z) rfR from <0T 1, -I ) to (1, 2P 0) is 33* 34, 35, 36, 37, is to) 0 (6)3 to)
- 1 (rf) not obtainable. If F - curl + by J + czK, then J F . dS , S being the
surface of a unit sphere, is (raj (4/3) jc (a + b + r)2 tb) 0 (c) 4tc/3 to + 6 + c)
(rf) none of these. A necessary and sufficient condition that the line integral
J F . rfR for every dosed C vanishes, i: ia) curl F = 0 (i) dlv F = 0 (c) curl F
* 0 (rf) div F * 0 The value of ^j(yzdydz + zxdz tlx + xy dxdy}t where .S’ is
the surface of unit sphere x 2 + y2 + z2 = l is to) 0 (6) 431 (c) (d) lOn. Jf u
— x2 + y2 + 2^ and V ■= xl + yjf + zK, t hen V (uV) = For any scalar
function %|/, V k V y = . . 3H. J F . rfR is independent of the path joining
any two points if and only if iL is B9# The value of the line integral I (y^dx
+ x^rfy) where C is the boundary of the square -1 £ x £ lf — t < y £ 1 is Jc
(a) 0 ( b ) 2(x + y) to) 4 (rf) 4/3, (V.*U/,P M/0) 10, If V is the instantaneous
velocity vector of the moving fluid at a point Pt then div V represents . 41.
The spherical coordinate s ys tern is to) Orthogonal (6) Coplamir (r) Non-
coplanar (rf) Not orthogonal. 20/0) 42. Physical interpretation of V *j> is
that ........ AX The magnitude of the vector drawn perpendicular to the
surface x 2 + 2y2 4 z2 = 7 at the point (I, - I, 2) is (q ) m m m fa) s {d) 6.
44. The value of k so that the vector (x 4 3y)I 4 [y - 2zhJ + (x + X*)K is a
solenoids! vector. is fa) — 2 (6) 3 (c) 1 (rf) none of these. 15* The work
done by the force F =yz 1 + zx J + xyK, in moving a particle from the point
1 + e* cos yJ, is to) solenoidal (6) irrotational to) rotational. 49. If u — Vr
where r2 = x2 + >|S% then Vto. ™ 0. (True or PaUe i 50. F = Of + Sty) I +
to — 3y)J + (x + 2z)K is a solenoidal vector function* (True or False1 1 51.
F = yal +- 2x*S 4- xyK tfi irrotaliona], (True1 or Ffttoo)
Infinite Series [ 1. Introduction. 2, Sequences. 3. Series :
Convergence. 4. General properties. 5. Series of positive terms— i I 6.
Comparison tests. 7. Integral test. 8. Comparison of ratios. 9. D'Alembert's
ratio test. 10. Raabe's test, , . Logarithmic test. 11. Cauchy’s root test 12.
Alternating series ; Leibnitz’s rule. 13. Series of positive or negative terms,
14. Power series. 15. Convergence of Exponential, Logarithmic and
Binomial series. 16. Procedure for 1 I testing a series for convergence. 17.
Uniform convergence. 18. Weierstrasss M-test. 19. Properties of uniformly '
t convergent series. 20. Objective Type of Questions. I i - I - . - 1 - 1 HI
INTRODUCTION _ _ _ Infinite series occur so frequently in all types of
problems that the necessity of studying their convergence or divergence is
very important. Unless a series employed in an investigation is convergent,
it may lead to absurd conclusions. Hence it is essential that the students of
engineering begin by acquiring an intelligent grasp of this subject.
SEQUENCES (1J An ordered set of real numbers, tip az, a3 . an is called a
sequence and is denoted by (en). If the number of terms is unlimited, then
the sequence is said to be an infinite sequence and an is its general term.
For instance (t) 1, 3, 5, 7, ..., (2n - 1), ..., (ii) 1, 1/2, 1/3, .... 1/n, .... {in} 1, -
1, 1, - 1, (- l)*-1, ... are infinite sequences. (2) Limit. A sequence is said to
tend to a limit l, if for every e > 0, a value N ofn can be found such that -/) <
e for n > N. We then write Lt (a„) -l or simply (a.) / as n -»eo. (3)
Convergence. If a sequence ( aj has a finite limit , it is called a convergent
sequence. If (oj is not convergent, it is said to be divergent. In the above
examples, (ii) is convergent, while (i) and l iii) are divergent. (4) Bounded
sequence, A sequence (an) is said to be bounded, if there exists a number k
such that < k for every a. (6) Monotonic sequence. The sequence (an) is said
to increase steadily or to decrease steadily according as an + 1 > or an+l <
an, for all values of a. Both increasing and decreasing sequences are called
monotonic sequences. A monotonic sequence always tends to a limit, finite
or infinite. Thus, a sequence which is monofonic and bounded is
convergent. (6) Convergence, Divergence and Oscillation. If Lt (aj = / is
finite and unique then the sequence n ■+« is said to be convergent. 365
366 Higher Engineering Math e marcs If Lt (at>) is infinite (± "),
the sequence is said to be divergent. n If Lt (n„) is not unique, then (uj is
said to be oscillatory. H — # “> Example 9.1. Examine the following
sequences for convergence : (I) Q„ = — (0) a„ = 2" Wi) «„ = 3 + (- l)«, 3n +
n Solution, (i) n2 - 2n 3n2 + n Lt - - = 1/3 which is finite and unique. Hence
the sequence (a„) is n-»- 3 + 1/n H convergent. (it) Lt (2n ) = ■». Hence the
sequence lan) is divergent. ft — I ** iiii) Lt |3 + (— l)n j =3 + 1 = 4 when n
is even H *4“ = 3 — 1 = 2, when n is odd i.e.t this sequence doesn't have a
unique limit. Hence it oscillates. PROBLEMS 9.1 4. an = sin n ft. ati = 2n,
(1) Def. If U;, Up Up .... uiff ... he an infinite sequence of real numbers,
then u} + u^ + U.J.+ ... + itn + ... is called an infinite series. An infinite
series is denoted by 'Zurj and the sum of its first n terms is denoted by sft.
(2) Convergence, divergence and oscillation of a series. Consider the
infinite series Et*n = + u2 + ti3 + ... + uR + ... » and let the sum of the first
n terms be sn = u , + uu + u ;i + ... + un Clearly, s,( is a function of n and as
n increases indefinitely three possibilities arise : (t) If sfl tends to a finite
limit as n — > », the series £un is said to be convergent. (ii) If sn tends
to±»asn-)», the series Zun is said to be divergent. (Hi) If $n does not tend to
a unique limit as n ™, then the series is said to be oscillatory or
fioncotwergent. Example 9-2- Examine for convergence the series (i) I + 2
+ 3 + ... + n + ... «*.
Infinite Series 367 Examples 9,3, Geometric series. Show that the
series l+r-¥ri 2 + r3 + ... » (i) converges if j rj < 7, hi) diverges if r > l, and
(Hi) oscillates if r < - 1 Solution. Let sn = 1 + r + r* + ... + r"’1 Case L
When j r| < 1, Lt rn = 0. ft — 1-r" 1 st = - ~ — - - yu Uiat * 1-r 1 — r 1-r
the series is convergent. and Also rn t - yu that Lt s„ = l - r Case II. ( i )
When r > 1T Lt r — * » 71 — ► *n - ■ ra - I so that Lt sn —* « n —> *
and Also r — 1 r - 1 r — 1 the1 series is divergent. (ii J When r = 1, then sn
= 1 + I + 1 . + 1 = n Lt sn -* « The series is divergent. ft -4 ** Cose JU. (t)
When r = - 1, then the series becomes 1 — 1 + 1 — 1 + 1 — 1 ... which ts
an oscillatory series. (ii) When r < - 1, let r - - p so that p > 1. Then r" = 1-
IT ptt 1-r" l-(-l)V 5,1 1-r 1 + p as Lt p,r — * ™. Lt s,t —> - «> or + k
according as n is even or odd. Hence the series oscillates. PROBLEMS 9.2
Examine the fallowing series far convergence : T , 1 l 1 L 1+2 + T+8 + "‘“
3. 6 - 10 > 4 + 6 - 10 + 4 4- 6- 10 + 4 + ... . 1 l 11 1 + ~ r H — r • — ‘ 3 3 2
4. 1 1 1 + - - + - - +, CV.7\C.. 2006 ) 12 2.33.4 r>. A fail I is dropped from a
height ft metres. Each time the ball hits the ground, it rebounds n distance r
times the distance fallen where Q
368 Higher Engineering Mathematics 3. Necessary condition for
convergence. If a positive term series Xutt is convergent, then Lt un = 0.
IP.T, U., 2009} Let = iij + u2 + u3 + ... + ufj. Since is given to be
convergent. Lt s„ = a finite quantity k (say). Also Lt sn_l =k Gut Hence the
result u = s - s„ , n n n- 1 Lt u„ = Lt {s„ - s„^1) = 0. fi -me ft -i “ Obs. L It i$
important to note that the converge, of this result is not true. Consider* for
instance, the series 1 + — ^ j* V2 V3 Vn Since the term go on descending,
* 1 1 111,1 1 ft - r*«- 1 + -j^ + _S+- + X >X + ^r + “^r + - + TaT te* ^ vZ
vfl vn vJi v/7 yw *-% Lt = Lt \fri — * m « ** fi -+ •* Thus the series is
divergent even though Lt un = Lt -1= = 0 n - a-i*>v ft Hence Lt un =0 is a
necessary hut not sufficient condition for convergence ®fXnft. Gbs. The
above result leads to a simple test for divergence? : If Lt 1^ ^ 0* tAi? Xu,,
dtuergrenl. 96 COMPARISON TESTS /. If two positive term series X^„ and
Xo„ be such that (t) Xun converges, (it > i*n £ t'n /or a# tallies of n, then
Xwn a&e converges. Proof. Since Xu„ is convergent, .*, Lt (t't + o2 + Ujj +
... + o^) = a finite quantity k (say) ft “4 Also since ux < u2 < v2, un < vn •\
Adding, «, + u2 + ... + un < v + vt + ... + rn A Lt (uj + u2 + .„ + un) 5 Lt (u,
+ ya + ... + u ) = .fc. It "t “ 11 *4™ Hence the series Xi*n also converges.
Ulis. If, however, the relation un& vK holds for values of n greater than a
fixed number m, then the first m terms of both the scries can be ignored
without affecting their convergence or divergence. II. If two positive term
series Xurt and X(’n be suck that ; (t) Xvn diverges, iii) un > l>„ for all
values of n, then Xu„ also diverges. Its proof is similar to that of Test /. Ill
Limit form If two positive term series Xu„ and Xu„ be such that Lt n — t
**• - finite quantity 0), then XuM and XiJ„ converge or diverge together.
Pt'oof Since Lt -- = l, a finite number (g 0) By definition of a limit, there
exists a positive number e, however small, such that an -2- -/ < E for n > m
Infinite Serjes 369 or — £ < — - / < £ for n > m or /-£< ^ <1 + for
n S m vn Omitting the first m terms of both the series, we have 2 — £ U. <
L + £ for all n vn Case /. When Xen is convergent, then Lt (Oj + + vn) = k,
a finite number ft -+ •* Also from (1), — < l + e, i,e.t un < U + t)vn for all n
. Lt + u2 + ... + urt) < {/ + e) Lt (uj + lf2 + ... + vn) = (2 +■ e)A n -i « H —
* “ Hence 5Luft is also convergent Case II. When 5Lun is divergent, then
Lt (o. + v„ + ... + v„) -* « Also from (1) l - e < — or u > (2 - e)u for all n vH
Lt (Uj + «2 + ... + Un } > (2 - £> Lt (tij + v2 + ... + v ) fi — 4 mi n -hi ^
Hence is also divergent. Egg INTEGRAL TEST _ _ A positive term series
f{l) + f(2) + ... + f(n) + ..., where f(n) decreases as n increases , converges
or diverges according as the integral —> “ ...(1) ...(2) [By (2)] ...(3) [By (3)]
J" fix) dx ...(1) is finite or infinite. The area under the curve y - fix),
between any two ordinates lies between the set of inscribed and escribed
rectangles formed by ordinates at i = 1, 2, 3, ... as in Pig. 9.1. Then rtl>+A2)
+ ... +fln)2 j"'' f(x)dx Z/X2).f(3l + ... +/(n + 1) Taking limits as n -* «, we
find from the second inequality that Lt sn + x < j" fix) dx +/'(!). Hence if
integral (1) is finite, so is Lt sn + v Similarly, from the first inequality, we
see that if the integral (1) is infinite, so is Lt sn. But the given series either
converges or diverges to + »T i.e., Lt sr, is either finite or infinite as n — *
«. Hence the result follows. or Example 9.4. Test for Comparison. Show
that the p series V1 J J 2 / np lp 2* 3P {i I converges for p > 1 ( ii ) diverges
for p < 1. [P.T.U., 2009 ; V.T.U., 2006 ; Rohtak, 2003 J f** dx Solution. By
the above test, this series will converge or diverge according as — is finite
or infinite. Ji xi>
370 Higher Engineering Mathematics Ifp * l. = Lt I rm dx - Lt i—
i i El 1 "s Ji xt> m -+ J ^ xp tn — »** i -p J p~l , i.e . finite for p > 1 -» e=
for p < 1 If p = 1, f — = f log x -5- », this proves the result Ji t Ji Otis.
Application of comparison tests. Of all the above tests the "limit form' is the
most useful. To apply this Comparison test to a given series 1«(|1 the
auxiliary series £t/p) must be so chosen thtil LL UiJvJ is non-zero and
finite. To do this, we take vn equal to that term of ut_ which is qf the
highest degree in lAi and the convergence or divergence of vn is known wit
h the help of the above aeries. Example 9-f>. Test for convergence the
series ,.t / 3 5 (l) - - +■ - - + - r + ... + — - + ... » T a3
Infinite Series 371 Example i*-B. Test the convergence of the
series : m t -r= - (V.T.V., 2008) (it) y „ - - (Hi) V {V.T.U., 2000 S) Solution,
(i) We have u - -r- . — r^= - ■*=- - J(tt + 1) - 4n ” \ 1, comparing with we
get = Lt n-»~ x + 1 = 1 [ v xs" — > 0 as n — * «] Lt Lt wn n {xT +x-fl .X 1
= Lt 1 + x_2n = 1. [v x_2n 0 as n — » w] But Zwn is convergent, so is also
convergent. When X - I, £u - — + — + — + ... m which is divergent, 2 2 2
Hence, Xun converges for x < 1 and x > 1 but diverges for x = 1. (tit) Here
u„ 3" — 1 ( 3Y!/!l If l- t/3" 1 (2+1 1+1/2* Taking (sXn l'n I2J we get Lt f^
*-*~K J = Lt \( 1 — 1/3" 'l ■-»- Y 1 + 1/2" = 1*0 Also since = r" where r =
^3/ 2 is a geometric series having* > 1, is divergent. Zun is also divergent.
Example 0-7. Determine the nature of the series ; (if ) y — sin — J" n n ...
V? - J s/3 - J 44-1 UJ — - +- - — + — s - + » 33 - 1 4* - 1 5a -1 0) (P.T.V.,
2010) Solution, (0 We have u. - . ^10 ♦ l/n)-l/.ffl " (n + 2)3 — 1 n3 [(1 +
2/n)3 - l/n3l
372 Higher Engineering Mathematics Taking vn = s/a , we find
that n u i.- u [.^7")-1/fl-ô u* *-»- Kl + 2/t»P-l/»s] Since Xon is convergent,
therefore Xu„ is also convergent. (it) Here 1.11 u - — sin — = — n n n 'l 1
1 1 N 1 i 1 [n 3 ! n3 5 ! n5 '"J n 3!nE 5 ! n4 Taking vn = — , we have n Lt
^=- = Lt 1 1 + 3 ! n2 5 ! ri 4 = 1*0 Since Xun is convergent, therefore £un is
also convergent, (fit) We have Lt - = 0, i.e„ /' 1 < 1 or (log n Y* < n — ► «
n ,8 „ 1/4 (log nr n na'2 n3'E n5/4 Since Xl/n5'4 converges by p-series.
Hence by comparison test. Xun also converges. (v p - 5/4 > 1) (to) Let fin)
= » (log n)f‘ so that fix) (log JC)/■•fa) = -f (log x)-'- 1 . i + (log X)-" • f—
V) — T |„ - -„-Vi + ~Tt} < 0 * x ( r j X [(log xf + (log xf J i.e. , fix ) is a
decreasing function. Also | f(x) dx = J dx 2 .* 1 1 then p - 1 = A (say) > 0
(log *) -p + I - p + 1 f fix) dx J2 (log x)-* -k = — 10 + (log 2 )_* | which is
finite k Thus by integral test, the given series converges for p > I. If p < 1,
then 1 - p > 0 and {log -» » as jf —> ™. J" fix) dx ’ ries dive If p - Z, then f
fix) dx = f J2 It x log x Thus the given series diverges for p - 1. Thus the
given series diverges for p < 1. dx - J log (log X > PROBLEMS 9,3 Test the
following series for convergence : U.N.T U., 2000) i,ll 1 1 1, 1 — — + — ,t
- -fr + r “ — ' a a2 a3 a4 „ 1 2 3 3. fr f - — * + t 1.2 3.4 5.6 {Cochin, 2001 >
.. 3 4 3 4 — H - + —sp + —7- + . 5 52 6s v 1 2 3 4’ 1.3 + 3.5 + 5.7 + IP
TAL, 2009)
Infinite Series 373 2 2 3* 42 2 3 4 5 JL — fc .Jr , _ J- - 4- 1 EmS.

2 ! + 3 ! + 4 ! + " It. 1 P 2p 3P 4p 1+2 , 1+2+3 8. 1 2 3 ty.T.U., 2009 S)
1^+2^ l2 + 2s + 32 1.3,6 3.5.7 5.7.9 4 5 0 5 + 27 + 64 +"'to 10. •Jn ^n2+l (
Osmanui , 2000 S) ■ 2n3 + 5 - 4ns + i 12. (n + l).(n + 2) n?\fn iJ.N.T, IL
2006 S) | \^nJ + 1) - n] ‘V.TM„ 2010 . P T C, 2009) ] 14. £ (^(n3 + 1) - nl £
R.T.U., 2007 ; Rpktak 2002) 1 Jin4 +1) --Jin4 - 1)1 1G. V1 i ■ i " dn n 1 18.
^ — ■ un + 1 t i Similarly* Z^n diverge^ if (i) diverges and (ii) from and
after a particular term — - — < — ^ D'ALEMBERT'S RATIO TEST* In a
positive term series £«n, if Li it ft + 1 - X, then the series converges for X<
J and diverges for X> 1. Case L When Lt = X < 1. n-t- U„ •Called after the
French mathematician Jean fe-Rond d' Alembert (1717-1753), who also
made important contributions to mechanics.
Hionefl Engine erins Mathematics By definition of a limit, we can
find a positive number r (< 11 such that Leaving out the first m terms, let
the scries be a , + u2 + u3 + ... so that — < r, — < r, — - < and so on. Then
u. + u2 4- u, + ... « “1 «3 *Fl + l < r for all n > m l K| H “l % “2 “l ) — ^ —
, which is finite quantity. Hence is convergent. + «} [v r < 1] Case II, When
Lt = A. > J u„ By definition of limit, we can find m, such that Leaving out
the first tn terms, let the series be U„ > 1 for all n l> m . «, + tin + u3 + ... so
that — > 1, — > 1, — > 1 and so on. »1 «2 «3 (_ U.i U<> U, ^ »T "TaT J
>«j (1 + 1 + 1+ to n terms) - nu^ Lt (w1 + ua + ... + u ) n-t > Lt {nu,},
which tends to infinity. Hence Xw_ is divergent. fl-kW * " 1. Ratio test fails
when h - L Consider, for instance, the series Lun = 'Ll In11. Here x= Lt
3i!U Lt n Un n 1 Lt - - »-*-( I + Vn)P (n+1)^ 1 Then for all values ofp, ?. =
1 ; whereas Ll/np converges for p > 1 and diverges for p < I, Hence X = 1
belli for convergence and divergence of Xu„, which is absurd. ittv,. 2. ft is
important to note that this test makes no reference to the magnitude of un +
,/«„ but concerns only with the limit of this ratio. For instance in the series 1
+ ^ ^ \ + ... + — + .... the ratio -ii— L = - < j for all finite values of n, but
tends 234 n »„ « + 1 to unity as n -» ». Hence the Ratio test fails although
this series is divergent. Practical form of Ratio test. Taking reciprocals, the
ratio test can be stated as follows : In the positive term series Im„, if Lt « u
h, then the series converges for k > 1 and. diverges for k< 1 FI + J but fails
for k = 1. Example, y.K, Test for convergence the series 1 x2 x^ xs (l) - j= +
- J= i - T= + - - 7= + ... “■ 241 342 443 544 .... .2 6 s 14 3 2n - 2 i (ti) 2 + —
x + —x + — x + ... + - x 1 + ,..(x > 0). 5 9 17 2n+l (P. T. U., 2005 ; V.T. U„
2003 ; 2001 ) f P. T. U., 2009 ; V. T. U.r 2004) x%n ~ 2 x2n Solution, (i) We
have u = - ~ and «„4l= " (n + \)4H. n + 1 (n + 2)^TT)
375 Infinite Series Ti u„ jc2™-2 {n + 2)*J(n + 1) Lit Jjv LA, .ILjl
* d^^“' n fi->«urt + 1 «-"“(n + l)v/i xin l\W = Lt n ->« n + 2 fn + 1 "j n + 1 l
n > x 2 = Lt 1 + 2/n 1+ 1/ft Hence X«„ converges if x~2 > 1, i.e., for x2 < 1
and diverges for x2 > 1. If jf2 -• 1, then, u - - - — = ~ ■ - — t— n (ft + l)>/^
n3/2 1 + 1/ft Taking tJn = ^fZ , we get Lt — = Lt - — —— =l,a finite
quantity. . Vd + 1/«) r2=r"2. L* n-t™ 1 + 1/ ft M i "| .*. Both Tun and £un
converge or diverge together. But %.vn = 2__, a/2 is a convergent series. -
*■ is also convergent. Hence the given series converges if x2 < 1 and
diverges if x2 > 1. 2 2n (if") Here . ! _ 2 2 + J_ ult _ 2ft - 2 2" + 1 + 1 1 1
gfl Z 2" 1 ^ =T7Ti^:* a11 2” un + i 2” + 1 in + I -2 in Lt «J( 1-0 2 + 011 n-
*«uR + i 1+0 2 — 0 jf x Thus by Ratio test, converges for jt 1 > 1 i.e. , for x
< 1 diverges for x > 1 . But it fails for x = 1. When x - 1, 2n _ 2 Lt u„ — Lt
- ' Lt 11 " 2n + 1 . _L 2" i-A — 2Ui«o £un diverges for x - 1. Hence the
given series converges for x < 1 and diverges for x > t . Example 9.JK
Discuss the convergence of the scries (i) Y ti 1. Hence the given series is
convergent. wB + i n->-\ nj
376 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example R.10. Examine
ike convergence of the series : (i) x x' ■ + 1 + X 1+ X2 1 + x3 + • 1 . J ) a +
l fa + 1) (2a + v [ (a + 1) (2a + 1) (3a + 1) < " * b+ 1 + (h + 1} (2b + 1) + (b
+ 1} (2b + 1) (3b + 1 )+ .M Solution, (i) Here it — n 1 + X n and“ntl 1 +*' n
-F- 1 It ^ - It X* l + xn + 1] = Lt 1 f! -*** | fl + x"+1 > Li L — i j t vn + 1 v
■* It** / [x + *nt,J = — , if x < 1. x Also Lt «n+i = Lt l + l/xn + l 'I 1 +
x/x,,+ 1 , = 1 if x > 1. by Ratio test, ZuJ( converges for x < l and fails for x
> 1. When x = 1 , £« — — + + — + „.+ (», which is divergent. 2 2 2 Hence
the given series converges fur x < 1 and diverges for x > 1. {it) Neglecting
the first terra, we have 4- 1 Un + 1 = «6 + I u -S>-= u SSii- LI '"fl/n b U„
ih- a + l/n a */14l "“*“"b + I By Ratio test, converges for b!a > l or a < b,
and diverges for a > b. When a = h, the series becomes 1 + 1 + 1 + .... *»,
which is divergent. Hence the given series converges for 0 < a — 4* /i *
GHBHHSf WJV.T.f/., (iioAtoA, 2006) (Mad, w, 2000)
twpiMiTE Series 377 . 1* 2* 12.2S.32 13- 1 + — - — + - — - —
- — — — — + 1.3.5 1 . 3 . 5 . 7 . 9 (Delhi, 2002) 4 4,12 4 . 12 . 20 14. — +
- — + - + . 18 18.27 18.27. 3t> I * xz 15. — + — 't — 1^ 3^ 5P * - 1 16.
(2ft - l)p 3.6.9... 3m Bn + ... «j 4.7.10 ... (3n + 1) 3n + 2 (Madras. 2000 )
U.N.T.U., 2006) (V T.U., 2004) + 1 + 2 f U+ a)(l + 2oO (i + g){i t 2«)(i j
3«) + f l + ff + (1 +p> (1 + au> + fl + pi n + 2P)(1 + 3{J) + FURTHER
TESTS OF CONVERGENCE When the Ratio test fails, u>e apply the
following tests : (1) Raabe’s lest*. In the positiue term series Xu„t if Lt n
[Un + l -1 = *. then the. series converges for k> 1 and diverges for k < 1,
but the test falls for k = 1. When k > 1, choose a number p such that k > p >
1, and compare £(/ with the series ^ — which i *— < ftP convergent since p
> 1. XftFl will converge, if from and after some term, as ft.. (n + l)p or if. \
u„ ûn*l -1 >P + rK p{p -1) \P J or if. Jfa_>l + /i + £ * f ltd 2 n + ... or if, Lt
n u„ -1 VUr, + ) Lt I p + n ■■ L p^p - 1) 2 n + . p, which is true. Hence is
convergent. The other case when k < 1 can be proved similarly. (2)
Logarithmic test. In the positive term series Y.un if Lt n log — — u, n + 1 =
k, then the series converges for k > 1, and diverges for k < 1, but the test
fails for k = 1. Its proof is similar to that of Raabe’s test. OL>h. l.
Logatithmic test is a substitute for Route's test and should be applied when
either ft occurs as an exponent in ft„ / a + j, or evaluation of U becomes
easier on taking logarithm of un / u,l+r «■ “*>• Ob*, 'J, if u,/uI[(1 does not
involve n as an exponent or a logarithm, the series £u, diverges. Example
9.11. Test for convergence the series 4 .7 ... (3n + 1) (i»X J. 2 ...n x" { V. T.
LL, 2009 ; P. T. U.t 2006 $) (Hi I -*» (2n) ! ‘ „ . ,,,, tin 4 . 7 ...(3n + 1) 4 . 7
..,(3n + 4) n + 1 n+l 1 f 1 4- 1/n 1 1 Solution, (i) Here — - — - xf + - - - -
rrx - 7 — = 7 — —r~ un + 1 1 . 2 ...u 1.2. ..(n + l) 3n +4 x [3 + 4/nJj: Lt u"
— _1_ '■ '^*1 3r *C ailed after the Swiss mathematician Joseph Ludwig
Raahe { 18 Q 1—1859),
Higher Engineering Mathematics Thus by Ratio test , the series
converges for — > 1, i.e., for x < ^ and diverges fora: > | . But it fails for
oiV x _ i Let us try the Raabe’s test. Now ( , 1} (, 4 V i 1 + — l ft J l 3ft J
fl+TI 1- — + 16 ' rt “ ~ * S- ■ l ft J k. 3ft 9ft" t [Expand by Binomial
Theorem] . 1 4 ■ 1 - + — — +■ 3 ft 9nz n un vuî 3 9n ' + Lt n ft, — — —
1 ft, ■n + l j = — - which < 1. 3 Thus by Raabe’s test, the series diverges.
Hence the given series converges for x < ^ and diverges for jr > ^ . (it) Here
_ T n! f (2 (ft + 1)1? *2n _ (2ft + 1) (2ft + 2) _ 2(2/t + 1) _1_ un + ! “ [ (n +
1) ! J (2n) 1 ‘ x2{n+i} ~ (n + 1>2 a:2 ~ ft + 1 *E Lt Lt ^.14 I + l/n x£ x4 i
Thus by Ratio Test, the series converges for x2 < 4 and diverges for x2 > 4.
But fails for x2 = 4. When*2 - 4, Lt ft 2ft + 1 „ ^ n = n - 1 = ^ 2ft + 2 J 2ft +
Thus by Raube’s test, the series diverges. Hence the given series converges
for x2 < 4 and diverges for x2 > 4. Kxamplt1 9.1 2. Discuss the
convergence of the series x + 2sx2 JV 44x‘ 5V 2! 3! 41 5 ! + ... » (P.T.U.,
2008 ; Cochin, 2005 ; Rohtak, 2003 ) Solution. Here n'v1 (ft + iy+1xn+1
“n+l »l Lt — _J_ " — ! eX (« + 1) ! (ft + 1)“ X (1 + 1/ft)'* X Thus by Ratio
test, the series converges for* < 1/e and diverges for * > 1/e. But it fails for*
-He. Let us try the log test. 1 1 #j Now " log = logf c - ft log f 1 + - ] = 1 -
n[- - — ^T + ftn+1 ^ n) \,n 2n4 3n' J 2ft 3n4 It n log = ■ , which < L. Thus
by the log- test, the series diverges. 2 Hence the given series converges for
* < 1/e and diverges for x > lie. Kxamplt: 9.13, Discuss the convergence of
the hypergeometric series a . p a( a. +■ 1) pf p + // 2 afa * l) (a + 2) pfp + //
(p + 2) j 1 + -—X + — : — ~ - - . X + - ; — - — = - . : - ^ - - * + ... «. f.y
1.2.y(y + l) 1 2.3.y(y+ l)(y+2) (Kurukshetra, 2005)
379 Infinite Series Solution. Neglecting the first term, we have (a
+ n) (S+ n) u , — u - x hfl "(n + Dtv+n) Lt n -*« «„+1 = Lt ij -it" (n + 1> (y
+ n) 1 _ Lt (l + l/n)(l + y/n) l = l, (1 + a/ a) (1 + p/n) ' x ~ x (ct + n)(p + n) x
by Ratio test, the series converges for 1/jc > 1 , i. e. , for x < 1, and diverges
for x > 1. But it fails for * = 1. let us try the Raahe’s test. f \ Lt n °n + 1 = Lt
\(n + n (- — l(n + + 1) {n + y) a) (n + |i) -1 L, ttH1!?-n l nz + n(c pj + y -
txp | (a + pi + up = Lt n (1 + y - a - p) + (7 - ap) 1 + (ft + p i 1 + ap . -1 n n 1
+ y- a - p Thus the series converges for 1 + 7 - « — p > 1, i.e, , for y > a + P
and diverges for y < ft + p. But it fails for y= ft + p. Since «,/w„ 4 5 does
not involve n as an exponent or a logarithm, the series Iur[ diverges for y- a
+ p. Hence the series converges for x < 1 and diverges fori > 1. When * = 1,
the series converges for y> ft + p and diverges for y < ra + p.
3B0 Higher Engineering Mathematics EOT CAUCHY'S ROOT
TEST* In a positive series Xun, if Lt (ufi )lfn n — * mi then the series
converges for and diverges for X> L Case I . When Lt [utl )Vn = X< 1. n —
i *«< By definition of a limit, we can find a positive number r (X < r < 1)
such that (njl)lj''1 < r for all n > m, or un < r*J for all n > m. Since r < 1, the
geometric series Xt* is convergent. Hence, by comparison test, Xun is also
convergent. Cose //. When Lt (un)Vn = X > 1. By definition of a limit, we
can find a number m, such that (un)“* > 1 for all n > m, or un > 1 for ail n >
m. Omitting the first m terms, let the series be «, + u2 + «3 + .... so that i /,
> 1, uz > 1 , > 1 and so on. u1 + n2 + u3 + ... + > n and Lt (Uj + + ... + -> «
n Hence the series Xu„ is divergent. Obfi. Cauchy’s root test fails when X =
l. Example 9.14. Test for convergence the series pa ^ j/Sl (i) X — (it) X
Hog n)^N mi) Til + 1/JnT n tP-T.U.t 2009 ; Kurukshetra, 2 005) 3"
Solution, (t) We have un - n3/3''. Lt (tt„) /n = Lt S— = Lt ^_L = I(<1) n a )
n~*~ o a Hence the given series converges by Cauchy's root test. (ii) Here
nn = (log nV Lt (un)1"* “ Lt (log nT2 =0(< 1) Lt n1/n =1 H — i w Hence,
by Cauchy's root test, the given series converges. _n= fl + 1 UnT^'* -\Mn 1
[ v Lt log n - 0) {Hi ) Hero un= (1 + 1 f>fnrn (u„)Vn = Lt (ujtn = Lt (3 + 1
tjiif 1 3/2 (1 + 1 /yfn.)^ (l + l/^)Vn e = - , which is < 1. Hence the given
series is convergent. Example 9.1 5. Discuss the nature of the following
series ; in x~ + (0 $ X + ... i (a; > 0} (it) I If x n n + 1 (J.N, T, U., 2006)
iV.T.LL, 2006) *See footnote p. 144. ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
hFiNre Series 381 Solution, (i) After leaving the first term, we
find that un - 60 that Lt (uj,n= Lt *=* ,\ By Cauchy's root test, the given
series converges for* < 1 and diverges for* > 1, Whenx = l, u - ( - - *1 = - -
- r(l + — ^t] U + 2J ^ 1. (ii) Here (u ” +. f * fl Lt f un )1/n ~ Lt . -rj-x - Lt ( 1 + -1
f — y} — I x = x n-»- n — n n1/n n) U1'* J a The given series converges
for x < 1 and diverges for x > 1, When jc - 1, u = ÛllL = I f i + lY " n{ nj
Taking v = — , Lt f™| = Lt fl + — 1 = e # 0 and finite. n n n n) By
comparison test both £un and £o;i behave alike. But = X — is divergent ( v
p = 1). .\ Xun also diverges. Hence the given series converges for x < 1 and
diverges for x > 1. (iii) Here Lt n/n = l n -+« iWir1 m + i Lt (u„ )1,n = lie-
ir1 = 9 < 1 n -K» e - 1 Thus the given series converges. tv «?>li Discuss the
ton verge nee of the following series : i. yi — o'1 3' L(-7t) (BT.U..20M 6
x(£:i)v 3 + ... — « U > 0) PROBLEMS 9.6 (log ft)" 2 3 4- 1 + ^7 + ^ + +...+
(*> 11J 2 3? 43 «-z m + Dx]n Ft n + i , x>Q (P. T. V. , 3005) f V.T.V. , 2007)
382 Higheh Engineering Mathematics 9.12 ALTERNATING
SERIES {1) Def. A series in which the terms tire alternately positive or
negative is called an alternating series, {2} Leibnitz’s series. An alternating
series ul - u2 + u3 — u4 + ... converges ifii) each term is numerically less
than its preceding term, and (ii) Lt un = 0. If Lt un * 0, the given series is
oscillatory. The given series is Suppose ii, - f/g + ii3- u4 + ... Ii, > Ug > lig
> ii4 Un ^ j ... and Lt u„ ~ 0 Consider the sum of 2n terms. It tan be written
as ®£jj = ^ U 1 “ + ^3 — ti4) + ... +■ (lig„ _ | ~ or as = u , - (u2 ^ «3) - ( u4
- ub) ... - u ^ By virtue of (1), the expressions within the brackets in (3) and
(4) are all positive. It follows from (3) that s2n is positive and increases
with ». Also from (4), we note that s^ always remains less than u,. Hence
s2n must tend to a finite limit. Moreover Lt s2ft + 1 = Lt (a** + Bg* + , ) =
Lt s2„ +0 ft n— Thus Lt tends to the same finite limit whether n is even or
odd. Hence the given, series is convergent. When Lt uft * 0, Lt s2n * Lt s2n
+ The given series is oscillatory. ...(1) ...(4) lby<2) Example 9. Hi. Discuss
the convergence of the series ii) 1- -L + -L-J;; 42 -43 44 (ii) 1 _ l + £_ii + 2
4 6 $ ■" (in) 1 + J (P.T.U., 2010) log 2 log 3 log 4 log 5 Solution, fi) The
terms of the given series are alternately positive and negative ; each term is
numerically less than its preceding term “n -«„-i < 0 \fti Jn - 1 Also Lt u =
Lt (1 f 4n ) = 0. Hence by Leibnitz’s rule, the given series is convergent. (ii)
The terms of the given scries are alternately positive and negative anti 2/i +
3 2n + I — 6 u - u n n - 1 2n 2n - 2 4n(n — lj < 0 for n > 1. t.e. Ii„ ^ u« y n
FJ - 1 t.e,, and 2/i + 3 for n > 1- Also Lt un ~ Lt — - - = 1*0 tl -H» n -f «
2/1 Hence by Leibnitz's rule, the given series is oscillatory, tiii) The terms
of the given series are alternately positive and negative. Also n + 2 > n + lf
Le., log in + 2) > log (n + 1) 11, log Hi + 2) log (n +■ 1) * 1 *' ' U« * 1 41
“*1 Lt un ~ Lt FI ■Hn “ ft login + 1) Hence the given series is convergent.
=0
Infinite Series 393 Example 9.1 7, Examine the character of the
series i- If-1 2 n (o Z n ™ 1 2n -1 ‘ z « -ii t- 1)"^ *J> rt(/t - 1) ,© 2, Un■ Z^
n “0 s. 1 V4 1 1. Delhi , 2002) 1 1-2 34 56 7-8 + 4. f f-1)'"1^1— . “i ^ + l
(Dsmamo, 2003) 6. I _ A + A _ A + _1 6 11 16 21 26 , . w 7. 1 - 2x 4 3** -
4X3 + (* < - ) - (Cochin, 2005 ) 6. £ 9. * - - - ---■ j + ... « (0 < x < U 1 + * i
+ xa i + *3 l + x (V.T.f/., 2070) (V.T.l/.. 2004 : 2002} 4 ... 9.13 SERIES OF
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TERMS The series of positive terms and the
alternating series are special types of these series with arbitrary signs. Def,
(1 ) If the series of arbitrary terms u x + u2 + ua + ... + url + ... be such that
the series | ux | + | u2 | + [ u3 | + ... + \ un | + ... is convergent , then the
series Tun is said to be absolutely convergent. (2 ) If Y* | un | is divergent
but £un is convergent, then is said to be conditionally convergent. For
instance, the series 1 - ... is absolutely convergent r since the series 1 + + ...
is known to be convergent.
H esher Engineering Mathematics Again, since the alternating
series 1 - + T ” — is convergent, and the series of absolute values 2 3 4 5 1+
i; + ^ + t + 4 + -is divergent, so the original series is conditionally
convergent, 2 3 4 5 0l>s. 1. An absolutely convergent series is necessarily
convergent but not conversely. Let Xu be an absolutely convergent series.
Clearly Uj + u2 + u3 + *,+ + uft + >,+ < | ut [ + | u2 | + | + | | + which is
known to be convergent. Hence Lhe series X*^. is also convergent. Ohs. 2.
A* the series X | un | fo of positive terms, the tests already established for
positive term series can be applied to examine for its absolute convergence.
For instance, Ratio lest mn be restated as follows : The series X tt is
absolutely convergent if Lt ^ fM ^ < 1, ***** i un\ un 1 I aTid is divergent
if Li ■-»* |un| > 1. This lest I'ails when the limit is unity. Fxumplt! 9.18.
Examine the fallowing series for convergence : (iVTj. 1 1 1 * 1 * 1 1 1 u ) l
+ — — - — -• - 7T ■* — t + ~ r ' — 7 - —r + — * 2* 3" 4A 5s 6~ 7 * 8a
an -v - -ru + 2) + -~u + 2 + 3)~ -4u + 2 + 3 + 4) > ... ». (V.T.U,, 2006)
Solution, (i) The series of absolute terms is 1 + -4- + -4- + -4- + -4- + -4- +
— which is, evidently ¥ 32 r 52 6* convergent. the given series is
absolutely convergent and hence it is convergent. (ti) Here , m . (1 + 2 + 3 +
... + n) u„ = (- li" 1 - - 0. t.e., a„ + 1 <
385 iNFtwiTE Series This is an alternating series of which terms
go on decreasing and Lt ur - Lt - 2 n - 1 = D by Leibnitz's rule, converges.
The series of absolute terms is 1 + ^ 4 + h + — 00 o 5 7 Here ur - — - ,
Taking v = — ( we have 2 n - 1 Lt — = Lt f . n „ 1 = Lt — — - - i ^ 0 and
finite. ft —* « n -#• *** 2n - 1 J /i —*■ ** +-j I 2 n by Comparison test,
diverges (v £ufi diverges. Hence the given series converges and the series of
absolute terms diverges, therefore the given series converges conditionally.
(ii) The terms of given series are alternately positive and negative. Also
each term is numerically less than the preceding term and Lt | uIt | - Lt [1/n
(log nf ] = 0. a -# “ n -* *«> by Leibnitz's rule, the given series converges.
dx _ log - i£ Also £ J2 X (log X } i.e.9 the series of absolute terms
converges. Hence, the given series converges absolutely. - — - , ^ = 0 and
finite, g * l2 log 2 POWER SERIES (1) Def. A series of the form +- a^c. 4-
ct2 x1 2 + ... + a^x" + _ ...(i) where the a’s are independent of x, is culled a
power series in x. Sucli a series may converge for some or alt values of'jc.
(2) Interval of convergence In the power series (£). un - anxn. Lt Vl + I = Lt
“nti* n +1 ft -* « Un aUnX = Lt Ft -4 K' + 1 a V. * / If Lt V J = lr then by
Ratio test, the series (£) converges, when to is numerically less than lp i.e.f
when \ x \ <1/1 and diverges for other values. Thus the power series (i) has
an interval — I /l < x < Ifl within which it converges and diverges for
values of x outside this interval. Such an interval is called the interval of
convergence of the power series. Example 9.20. State the values of x for
which the following series converge : ,.v ** x3 x* x5 ii)x~ T + T"T + T (ii)
j+* 2(1 - xf 3(1 - xf + ... Solution, (t) Here un = (- l)" 1 — and un + , = (-
1>" Tb ft + 1 n + 1 +n + i un n ■ X and Lt n 4- 1 n-*“ ii ft + 1 *(.^-l + l/n)
by Ratio test the given series converges for | x | 
1*
386 Higher Engineering Mathematic Let us examine the series for
jc = ± 1. For x = 1, the series reduces tol-^j- + ^- -| + j + ... which is an
alternating series and is convergent. For x = - 1, the series becomes - + ^ + ^
+ ^ + which is a divergent series as can be seen by comparison with p-series
when p - 1. Hence the given series converges for 1 (it) Here Lt n{ l~x)n n +
J U = Lt n — ► “ - - - — ■ nil - jc>" 1 (n + 1X1 - x) 1 By Ratio test, Zn(j
converges for 1 — x 1- JC < 1, i.e,, f 1 — jc f > 1 Lt n n + 1 1-JC Le., for -
l>l-3f>lon<0 and x > 2. Let us examine the series for a = 0 and jc = 2. Ill 1
For x - 0, the given series becomes 1 + - + — + — + ... + — which is a
divergent harmonic series. 111 (- l)n For x = the given series becomes - 1 +
— - — + — - ... + — It is an alternating series which is convergent by
Leibnitz's rule l v un < uti _ ^ for all n and Lt uri - 0.| Hence the given series
converges for x < 0 and x > 2< s 3 Example 9.21, Test fhc series for
absolute convergence ami conditional t orwergence< ( V.T.ll t 2010)
Solution. We have u ~ (- If* ~ 1 -j— — n ^2ix + 1) and . , = fl H1 1 (-ir
x”*1 j(2n + 3) Lt / t \n _.n + 1 L ^ x = Lt sj(2 n + 3) y = Lt X Un n - 1 » (-
i)rt-V 11 't* Y\ 2n + 3, - Lt n — ► « \(2 + lln\ |^2 + 3/rc J = 1*1 Hence the
given series is absolutely convergent fur | x | < 1 and is divergent for \ x j >
1 and the test fails for | jc |=1. For* = 1, u„ = (-1}' n - ! . Since 2n + l < 2n +
3 or (2n + IF m> (2n + 3)“ 1/2 1 " JC2n + I) t.e., u„ > u.,. . Also Lt u = Lt ,
= = 0. " n + 1 »-•- «-*- V(2« + l) /. the series is convergent by Leibnitz’s
test. But + ... has u >/3 & J7 n v/(2 n + 1) ^ Jw + Tfn)
3&7 IwFiNrte On comparing it with un - -~9 Zt£n is divergent.
Vn Hence the given series in conditionally convergent for x = 1, For x = “ J,
the series becomes - [ —7= + -7= + -7= + — [J3 VS J7 But we have seen
that the series -7= + “ + ~ + ... is divergent. J3 d5 -41 Hence, the given
series is divergent when x - - 1. ~ (1) CONVERGENCE OF
EXPONENTIAL SERIES _ jC jt The series 1 + x + ~x~t + ... + + .. . « is
convergent for a.U values of x. £ / n / X + + ”—7 + H 1 h n ! r « to ■ Lt ^r
+ Jt t n = Lt ^ = 0 n— * — ft Hence the series converges, whatever be the
value of x. {%) Convergence of logarithmic series x2 x* xn The series x —
— + — - ... + (- IT — +.,.«■ is convergent for - l < x < 1. # uf /iHere ti Lt
FI -* = U . / H+l *±I = Lt (_1) * n n + 1 (- 1 fxn = -x Li n w n + 1 = - x Lt 1
1 + 1/r. Hence the series converges for j x | < 1 and diverges for [ x j >1.
When x = I, the series being 1 - ^ ^ ^ + .... is convergent. When x = — 1,
the series being — ^l + i + I + J + „.J, is divergent. Hence the series
converges for — 1 < x < 1. (3) Convergence of binomial series The series 1
+ nx + converges for j x \ < I. n(n - 1 } 27 x‘ + ... + n(n - 1) ... (n — r + /) r!
xr + ... « tT n{n - 1) ... (n - r) , n(n - 1)... (a - r + 1) _ Here «f = - 1 and ur + ,
= - - - # r : Lt “r + 1 n-r + 1 , ( « + 1 \ r 1 - = Lt - x = Lt - 1 x = - x for r > n
+ 1. ur r-*~ r r-*~\ r J Hence, the series converges for | x \ < 1. PROBLEMS
9.8 1 . Test the following series for conditional convergence : (ij t-if-1 L: TT
i-1)1 n- J n2 + 1 2. Prove that the series ~ITL* - - ... converges absolutely. 1
2 3 l, the following series- for conditional convergence : 2P 3* 4^ , 1 1.3
1.3.6 (u) 1 - - - , - * ... » 4 i . 4 4 1 4 ii i J.N.T.U., 2006 ) = - x. (Rohtah
20&H S)
368 EriGINFFFIHG Kâthemajics Y-1 (— l)/l 4. Di&ru&a die

absolute curwergence of (i> / r 1 // T 1 I W«wr. 3001 i S) it = 0 ... xS X3 X*
t i> ' Ts ' " m Ja* + l) V(2;< + 1) J(3' + t; £ 3 4 6. Find the nature of the
series — ^-r - + 7 - + ... « 1-2 2-3 3 4 4 - G ? For what values of x are (he?
foil awing scries convergent . {ii ** 72 + 7l ~7l + f“ Ist t3 x1 i(i) .t -- ■ y +
— g- - y + ... « '? 3- 4' Zn ^ fV.T.t'. urn) < f*. 'r. i/.P 200$ ,s , v. t.u.. Boos)
(Calicut, 2005) 8, Prove that — + * 1 . + -!,+ i a a +■ 1 a + 2 a ±3 + 4 a + 5
1 1 1 Test the sEriefc 1 — — + — i= - — 7= for 2/2 3 VS 4V4 4 .. .is a
divergent series. If) ubsitkiie cf m verge nee and Ui) conditional
convergence. i V.TM,, 2007; l&ktak, 2005) 9.16 PROCEDURE FOR
TESTING A SERIES FOR CONVERGENCE First see whether the given
series is (i) a series with terms alternately positive and negative ; (ii) a
series of positive terms excluding power series ; or (iii) a power series. For
alternating series (i), apply the Leibnitz’s rule {§ 9,12). For series (it), first
find un and if possible evaluate Lt un. J f Lt uu * 0, the series is divergent.
If Lt un = 0, compare X«n with Xl fnp and apply the comparison tests (§ 9-
6). If the comparison tests are not applicable, apply the Ratio testfg 9.9). If
Lt ujun t , = I . i.e., the ratio test fails, apply Raabe’s teat (§ 9.10). If Raabe's
test fails for a similar reason, apply Logarithmic test ({j 9.10). If this also
fails, apply Cauchy's root test (§ 9.11). For the power series (iii), apply the
Ratio test as in § 9.14. If the Ratio test fails, examine the series as in case
(ii) above. PROBLEMS 9.9 Test the convergence of the following series : •r
-2 XI - 2 2* + 1 .x" 1 U > 0). (Gintcma, 1999) fl = I 1 2£ + + ■ 3, 1 4 — r>
+ — ^ — r + ... 2^ a3 4 4 fi. + * + 1 + ^2 1 + 273 1 + 374 4- ... 2* 2a.42 a
22.42 .02 3 7, I 4 'I ^ ■) 9 :r 3 , 5 32 , G2 , 72 » X + - ’ »- X ii = i <2n)! Cn
\f ■XfI. ■ s m * c *3 1 + VT + 2 + 72 + 3 -t -Js ix >0). ft ft x **• — (It + 1
H ft + 2) I 10 W -X n = 1 (2n - 1 r 2" *
Infinite Series 389 u- L-^rijr 12. tx IJ " 13. it-a (- Df> Ifjg n "■ I ).
Let s„ (.x) be the sum of its first, n terms, Le., s;[ N ...(2} Evidently AT will
depend on e but generally it will also depend on xr Now if wo keep the
same r but. take some other value x2 of jc for which ( 1 ) is convergent,
then we may have to change N for the inequality (2) to hold. If we wish to
approximate the sum s(x) of the series by its partial sums sf;(x), we shall
require different partial sums at different pnints of the interval and the
problem will become quite complicated. If, however, we choose an N which
is independent or the values of x, the problem becomes simpler. Then the
partial sum sJx), (ft > N) approximates to s(x) for all values of x in the
interval (a, b) and F is uniform throughout this interval. Thus we have
Definition. The series £«(f (jc) is suit/ tn hr uniformly convergent in the
interval (a, h), if for a given r > 0, a number N ran be. found independent of
x, such that for every x in the interval (a, b), | s(x) — sn(x) J < f for all ft >
Example U.2T. Examine the geometric series 1 + x + xr + ... + xn “ 1 + ...
™ [nr uniform convergence in t/ui interval {- j A)Solution. We have s Ax) =
1 + jc + jc2 + ... + xn ~ 1 = - Y1 - x and s(ar> = Jjt 1 -»« 1 — x 1 — x j
six)-s (x) I 1 x" l" I l-x \ - X ■ l for | x | < 1 which wilt be < e, if | x \ n < c (
1 ~x). Choose JV such that ] x |^=E(l-d or N = log fe (1 — x)]/ log | x | „,(i)
Evidently Ar increases with the increase of j x f and in the interval - \ AT for
every value ofx in thp interval (- . Hence the geometric series converges
uniformly in the interval (- % Obh. The grorurtriv series though convergent
in the interval [- /. IK is -not urn family convergent in tho? interimf sinet>
we cannot find a fixed number N for every x tn this interval tv N given by
(i) ] x } 1).
390 Higher Engineering Mathematics 9.18 WEIERSTR ASS'S
M-TEST* A series Xun (x) is uniformly convergent in an interval (a, b), if
there exists a convergent series 2Mn of positive constants such that | un (x) |
< Mn for all values of x in (a, 6). Since 1M„ is convergent, therefore, for a
given e > 0, we can find a number N, such that | s - sn | < e for every n>N,
where s = + M2 + ... + Mn + + 1 + „. and sf| =MX+ Ma + ... + Mn This
implies that | Mn ( + Mt} + 2 + ... | < t for every n > N. Since j u^x) j N. i.e.,
| s(x) - sfj(x) | < f for every n > N, where s(x) is the sum of the series (x).
Since JV does not depend on x, the series Xun(x) converges uniformly in
(a, b). Otis. 1uh (x) U also absolutely convergent for every x, since | ur (xi ]
< ATnExumpie 9.22. Show that the following series con verges uniformly
in any interval : (i) Z ~““7r“ (Andhra, 1999) (it) V — - . nr i"’ rr + n*x' [
cos nx j ^_1_ for aj| values of x. np np ■p> r*« j Since T Mn — V —
converges for p > 1, n=i r^\ np /. By Af-test, the given series converges
uniformly for all real values of x and p > 1. (ii) For all values of xt ft3 +
nAx2 > n 3 Solution, (i) cos nx n3 + a V < — - (= Mn ). But lMn being p-
series with p > 1, is convergent. n ,m. By M-test, the given, series converges
uniformly in any interval. Example 9.23. Examine the following series for
uniform convergence : m 1 Sinir+2X*] mu* sim ’«* t -P 1 fTi n(n + 2) np +
nqx~ (P.T.U., 2005 S> Solution, (i) sin (nx + xH ) , sin (nx + x2) | n(n + 2)
n2 + 2/i n ~ (= Mn) for all real x. Since X = Z “2 *s convergent, therefore,
by M-test, the given series is uniformly convergent for n=l n =1 n all real
values of x. (1 it ) For all real values of x, x2 > 0, i. e. , nQx2 > 0 i,e., np +
nflx2 > n p or - - - - ^ -Z (= M ) nP+n**2 np Since Z M „ « Z is convergent
forp > «=i A-i by Af-testr the given series is uniformly convergent for all
real values of x and p > 1. * Named after the great German mathematician
Karl Weterstrass (1815-1897) who made basic contributions to Calculus,
Approximation theory, Differential geometry and Calculus of variations. He
was also one of the founders of Complex analysis.
Infinite Seweb 391 PROPERTIES OF UNIFORMLY

CONVERGENT SERIES If the series YMnix ) converges uniformly to sum
s{e) in the inform/ (a, h)and each of the functions ujx) is continuous in this
interval then the sum six ) is also continuous in iat b). II. If the series
converges uniformly in the interval [ar b) and each of the functions u {x) is
continuous in this interval, then the series can be integrated term by term
L£,f f [(^(x) + u2(x) + .„] dbc = f u1(x)dx-^ [ u2(x)dx + Jfj Ju III. If 'Lun(x)
is a convergent series having continuous derivatives of its terms, and the
scries converges uniformly, then the series cun be differentiated term by
term — [«,(*) + )-+- ...J - i^'U) + U2‘ix) 4- .... Solution, | X* | £ 1 fur 0 £ x
< 1 < -^r- (- Mn) for 0 sin 2.V sin 3* sin lx •1. sin x ” — — =- + — ;=- - - _
2J2 lljz 4 s/4 . cud , «2 x1 a ’‘y? — — is; uniformly convergent for all renl
value* dtfjc. nil * nxr) + .M ronv^rgefc uniformly In the inlemil x > 0 but
nut absolutely.
392 Higher EnO inhering MathemaIK s \ . X 0 (ft) p < 1 2. The

series ^ (2x)(' converges if n -0 ic) p> \ i«> - 1
Ikfiwte Series 393 10. . 1111111 + 2“ 32" 42+5a 62 7a S2 + ' !t>

(a) conditionally convergent Ur) oscillatory dx t.b 'i convergent (d)
divergent. 11. IS. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. fl£S) » 1 ^ ] '^1 ^ 1 {Wl „?o n(,i +
l) (h) S n2(n “*> f n?o >d) S «*&* + « is a convergent series of positive
terms, then Ll ttfl is (a) i <6> ± % te> 0 (d) 0, Geometric series 1 + x + xa +
„• + x" 1 + — (a) converges in the interval . (6) converges uniformly in the
interval ^ *3 ** The series x - — + — — — * + « converges in the interval
. . £ it 4 U' Lt, ltjI — k . then £un converges Tor k . * “ wft + 1 A sequence
(cn) is said to be bounded, if there exists a number k such that For every n,
an is .. Tlie series S-5 + 3 + 2- 5 + 3 — 5 + -,.»ie ....... (Convergent etc.) x
x2 X'1 The series 1 + — - + -— + — ■ - + — - + ... ■- converges for . . II
21 3! 41 If Lt n< - - 1 = k, then 1«„ diverges for k ...... «-»- [hb + i [ 10. A
sequence which is monotonic und bounded is . 20, 12 3 The eyries — - +
_T + ... w is . (Convergent etc.) 1.2 34 5.6 2P 3^ 4P 21. The series - — + —
+ - - + ... « converges for . V? 2? 3* 22. The series + f| + „ . *■ IS .
(Convergent etc.) 23. The series 3 f - l ^ 3" - 1 is (Convergent etc.} 24. '[’he
series 2G. i i ( lY1 1 — — (x — 2) +■ — lx — Z)2 ... + ~ J (x - 2)fi + ...
converges in the interval t . . v 8 tan 1 n ... Is the scries > a ■ convergent.'1
*-* 1 + n? ft *=1 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. X X^ X** rFTie exponential series 1 +
— + — + + — - + ... ■- is absolutely convergent. 1 1 1 1 1 he senes — - +
— — + - — + ... + - - ; - r ... is . 1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n + 1) Is the series £ n tan l In
convergent ? 1 fix f V>TM.t 2010) FTn^Fataa) [Cony era w n l/di vergen
t/onaUa tory J The series V — — converges for.t ...... The series ^ — -
cimvergeK uniformly when x lies m the mLerval fl! = 1
394 Higher Engineering MAfHEiMTt&s Si. Every absolutely

convergent series is necessarily (fi> divergent (&) c©nvergenl (c )
conditionally convergent 0 4-t«+ ip (a) divergent. (fc) convergent 34. £*>
(£1* (a) corivt-tyfrit (6) divergent 1 36is convergent. tc) Leibnitz's (c)
oscillatory f.cj oscillatory (c/) Cauchy root test. ff/) none of these. C d) none
of the.se. iV.TALsoom ( V.T U t 2009 > (v.r a, 2om (True or False* Free
download all Engg books at ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
Fourier Series i — ■ — — — - - — — - - - - - - - — ■ - ' — — ~
j 1. Introduction, 2. Euler's Formulae. 3. Conditions for a Fourier
expansion. 4. Functions having points of j • discontinuity. 5. Change of
Interval. 6. Odd and even function— Expansions of odd or even periodic
functions. . 7. Half-range series. 8. Typical wave-forms. 9. Parseval's
formula. 10. Complex form of F-series 11. Practical ' Harmonic Analysis.
12. Objective Type of Questions. 10,1 INTRODUCTION In many
engineering problems, especially in the study of periodic phenomenae* in
conduction of heat, electrodynamics and acoustics, it is necessary to express
a function in a series of sines and cosines. Most of the single- valued
functions which occur in applied mathematics can be expressed in the form.
â0t + Oj cos x e eg cos 2x + ......f + bt sin x + b2 sin 2x + . . within a
desired range of values of the variable. Such a series is known as the
Fourier series®. EULER'S FORMULAE The Fourier series for the function
f(x) in the internal a < x < a + 2x is given by oc * fix) = ^ an cos nx + ^ bn
sin nx rt-1 where IT * 1 + 2n | fa +■ 2n a0 = — £ fix) dx | rtt + a„ = — I fix)
cos fix dx 1 r1 + on - — | fix ) sin nx dx These values of a 0, an, bfi are
known as Euler's formulae** **-{!) •Periodic functions. If at equal intervals
of abscissa i, the value of each ordinate fix) repents itself, Le., f(x) - fix +
a), for all r( then .y - fix) is called a periodic function having period a, sin xr
cos x are periodic functions having a period 2n. t To write at/2 instead of
*i(l is a conventional device to he able to get more symmetric formulae for
the coefficients. $ Named after the French mathematician and physicist
Jacques Fourier i 1768—1830) who was first tu use Fourier series in his
memorable work 'Theory Amnlytiquc dp la Chaleur in which he developed
the theory of heat conduction. These scries had a deep influence in the
further development of mathematics and mathematical physics. **See
footnote p. 205. 395
Higher Engineering Mathematics To establish these formulae, the
following definite integrals will be required : r JQ ot + 2k cos nx dx = sin
ax ti + 2n = 0 2. 3. ptt + 2jt I sin pjc dx = Jc I a o +2i? cos nx fK + = Q cos
mx cor nxdx r o 4 2s (»*0) in * 0) (n ^ 0) i r = - Icos ( m ± n)x + ms (m -
n)x] dx * J& l j j l - , a + 2re 1 sm (pi + n)x sin (pi - fi)jc = 2 pi + p m - rt =
0 4. 5. 6, 7, B. £ a + 2k cos^ rcxdbt = r a a + 2s £ , sin 2nx I1 2 + An ( n +
2s = rc sin mx cos /ur j, _ i[ cos (m - ra)x cob fm + nlxl _ ^ 2[ m - ft m + n f
Jo n + 2s sin nx cos fix dx sin^ nx 2 n io + 2n = 0 r a + 2 s sin mx sin nx dr -
— 2 sin (m - n)x sin (m 4- n)x s Jn n, + £is sin2 nx dx = x sin 2nx m - n it 4
2 rt pi + n ft 4 2je = 0 2 An - 71Proof. Let /"(a) be represented in the
interval (a, a + 2rc) by the Fourier series ; a» • 4 - 6„ fix) = ~^-+ an cos nx 4
h = 1 sin nx ( m * n) in *0) fm * n) in f0) (m * ni f n *0) .M) h i To find the
coefficients a0, a„,bn, we assume that the series (i) can be integrated term
by term From x = a to x = a + 2 rt. To find ag, integrate both sides of (i)
from x = a .to x =
397 Fourier and Harmonic Analysis To find bfsf multiply each

side of (£) by sin nx and integrate from x - a to x = a + 2?i. Then j-rt + 2ic J
j" i /"(a:) sin nxdx = ~ Jft i ft+2n pd + 2re sin ux dx + a J Z- a* cos nx \n^ 1
sin jjjt dx I. Z '->■ sin fix rix Hence = 0 + 0 + nbtl I â + 2ir 1 sin nx fF\n =
^ J IBy integrals (2). (5). (6), (7) and (8)] i fQt + zir - — I f(x) sin nx dx. w
* 71 Jft Cor. I* Making a = 0, the interval becomes 0 < x < 2nT und the
Formulae (IS reduce to 1 f 2n i cos nx dx 1 f£K «o=-i flxld* n Jo I fS" «» =
- f fix) n Jq i r*K 6n = — | fix) sin nx dx st Jo Cor- 2. Putting ct = — rth the
interval becomes -n 1 n 2 2 * J . - etc. 0 fia +1 Substituting the values of a0,
an, btl in (i)f we get i ->-2ir f 1 1 ' i i 1 \ j f 1 . 2 . . 3 . „ M COS X + —
COft2x + — sin x + — sin 2x + — sin 3x + ... U la 1 k 2 5 10 ) \ k 2 5 10 j]
398 Higher Engineering. Mathematics Exatu pie 10.2. Find a

Fourier series to represent x - x2 from x = - ir to x = rc. (V.T.U., 2011 ;
Madras, 2006 ) Solution. Let x - x2 = U° 2 + S a» cos ** n ■ 1 Z 6» si sm
ru: Then % x X X ~2 3“ - i r / j i aQ - - lx - x ) dx = JI J- n a = — f (x-x^)
cos rcx dx* " x J- * if, 2% sin nx _ , / cos nx \ ( - sin nx - — tar — jc ) - (1
-2x)x\ - —I +(-2) n L « \ n / v n - J? - 4(— l)n Iv cos rat = (- 1)"] Finally, cti
= 4/1 2, a2 = — 4/22, aa = 4/32, uA - - 4/42 etc. b - — f (x - xa } sin ;?x dx
n n Fn . I L - ** > (- =E!E] - (1 - 2x) x [- + e two functions nli a rid dashes
denote differentiations and suffixes in tegra lions w.r.t. then J iw dx = uv{-
u*v2 +- uV, - u'* o4 + in other words : Integral of the product of two
functions - 1st function n integral of 2nd - go on differentiating 1st t
integrating 2nd signs alternately +re and -ue.
Fourier Series and Harmonic Analysis 1 r2* [ j rISft a ~ — \ x sin
x cos nx dx = - — x (2 cos nx sin dx n n h 2k Jd 1 j- 3h — — — x [sin (n +
1 ) j — sin (n - Dx] dx 2 n Jo J_ 2% - cos (ft + 1} x cos (/t — U x - + n + 1
n- 1 . sin 0) + 1) x ein(n-l)jc - 1 \ - ~ = — (ft + 1 r in - 1 r n 2n Jo 2tc[ i n+1
n-1 JJ na-l 1 f2" 1 f2* When It = 1, a, = — I x sin x cos x dx - I x sin 2a: dx
1 n Jo 2n Jo J_ 2k - cos 2 a: 1 f 1 f un Finally, fi = — x sin x sin nx dx = - I
x [cos (n — l)x - cus (n + Ibrjcfa: n re Jo 2k jo 1 f 2n 1 j sin (/? - \)x sin 0i +
1) -l.i cos in — 1)* _ cos dx 1 ft Jo 2k Jo 1 x(x Sin2l> | , f x2 cos 2x ) _ 2n
{ 2 J \2+ 4 } -|2n = 7T ^Jo Substituting the values ofVs and 6’st in (/)„ we
get . * 1 2 _ 2 x sin jc = — 1 + te sin x — — cos x + — - cos 2jc + — - -
cos 3jc + ... 2 22 - 1 32 - 1 Example Expand fix) ~ Jil-ca&x), 0
400 Higher Engineering Mathematics &( 2 2 } ju ^ 2n + 1 2tt - 1 J

4^2 m4nz-l) V2 r*\ |v cos {2n + 1)je= cos (2n — 1)jt = - 1] J Ffiit , — ^ b_
— — I V2 sin —sin nx rfx = — 1 - 2 sin nat sin xJ2 dx n nh 2 2k Ju = -i— f
cos in - 4 |x- cos \n + — lx etc ^TlJo L L %} l 2j j 2 . ( 2n - l'l 2 . (2n + l) —
sm — - — be-- - sm — - — lx -1 {2 >2/1 + 1 ^ 2 / &K 2 n 1 - {sin (2n —
l}n - 01 It |_2n— 1 2n + 1 Substituting the values ot'a's and b's in tt), we get
4a=3.!£-£-*EWhen x = 0, we have 2^2 4^2 ^ 1 Isin (2n+ l)n — 0{j =0 cos
nx 0 = «=i (4rr -1) 1 1 1 - H - H - 1" 1.3 3.5 5.7 PROBLEMS 10.1 1 .
Obtain a Fourier series to represent e*ni from x = - JC to x = it. Hence
derive series for jc&inh x. 2 "• 2. Prove that x‘* = ", + 4^ (-1 f -*. /(*) ■ *•+
-t:i hir - rc < x < n and fix) = jt* for x = ± tl Expand f U) in Fourier series
[Kurukshtstru. 2005 ; U.P.T.U.. 2003) Xs Hence show that * + x2 = — + S
1-1/ |-4r 60s nx - — sin nx l 3 ** 1*? « J and 111 n2 lz 32 53 8 (V.r.
11,2000) 103 CONDITIONS FOR A FOURIER EXPANSION The reader
must not be misled by the belief that the Fourier expansion of fix) in each
case shall be valid. The above discussion has merely shown that if/ (x) has
an expansion, then the coefficients are given by Euler's formulae. The
problems concerning the possibility of expressing a function by Fourier
series and convergence
Fourier Series and Harmonic Analysis 401 of this series are many
and cumbersome. Such questions should be left to the curiosity of a pure-
mathematiciau. However, almost all engineering applications are covered
by the following well-known Dirichlet’s conditions*: □4 a* Any function
f(x) can be developed as a Fourier series ~ + £ an cos nx + b„ sin nx where
aQr an,bn are Flal n=I constants, provided : (i) fix) is periodic, single-
valued and finite; Hi) f (x J has a finite number of discontinuties in any one
period; (Hi) f (x) has at the most a finite number of maxima and minima ,
(Anna, 2009 ; P, T.V., 2009 ) In fact the problem of expressing any function
fix) as a Fourier series depends upon the evaluation of the integrals. — f
fix) cob nx dx ; - f fix) sin nx dx 7t J It J within the Limits (0, 2rt), (- ft, n)
or (a, a + 2rc) according as fix) is defined for every value of x in (0, 2 n), (-
it) or (a, a + 2tt). PROBLEMS 10.2 Stete giving reasons whether the
following functions can be expanded in Fourier series in the interval - tc < x
5 x. 1. cosec x 2. sin 1/x f F.T.U., 2002) It. f (j) = (m + ) J lm, x/lm + 1) < | x
| £ xJm, m => l, 2, 3, ... ™ t 10.4 FUNCTIONS HAVING POINTS OF
DISCONTINUITY In deriving the Euler’s formulae for aa, an, bn, it was
assumed that /(x) was continuous. Instead a function may have a finite
number of points of finite discontinuity Le., its graph may consist of a finite
number of different curves given by different equations. Even then such a
function is expressible as a Fourier series. For instance, if in the interval (a,
a + 2te ),f(x) is defined by fix) = •-=[ J> (x) sin nx dx + r d+2lt V|f(x) sin nx
dx At a point of finite discontinuity x = c, there is a finite jump in the graph
of function (Fig. 10.1). Both the limit on the left [Le.,f( c - 0)1 and the limit
on the right [i,e,,f(c + 0)1 exist and are different. At such a point, Fourier
series gives the value of fix) as the arithmetic mean of these two limits, i.e .,
at x = c, f(x)= - Ific 0) + fic + 0)1. Example 10.5, Find the Fourier series
expansion for fix), if fix) = -n,-n
402 •noSolution. Let fix) = ■- 1 1> + ^ a,j cos /le + ^ 6Jt sin nx
Hibheh Engineering Mathematics .M) n= 1 Then C'H *1 ''"Gl “'f (-71) COS
nx (lx + JC COS fLT rf.V r Jo "13“ = -if+4 rtL n | sin nx + n -it x sin rax cos
rax — — — + „■• n n cos n it - ■ /i Ttn (cos ran - 1) -2 a, = - ft. = 0, a3 = ‘i
K.V n . 3‘ . aA = 0, o5 = it. 52 etc. Finally, iff0 rn i = — (~K\ sin nx dx + x
si. n 71 [_ J-jt Jfi o n 1 n coy nx n 1 71 sin nx dx -n - x COS nx Kin nx n —
(1 - cos riK) - — cos UK n n n = — fl - 2 cos nn) n 61 “ 3> = - /i3“ 1, 6^ ^
etc, Hence substituting the values of u’s and 6’s in (i)f we get n 2j cos 3x
cos Bx fl fl i“- -fc-| 1 1 'l n . sin 2x 3 sin 3x L "t fin v 4sin 4x ~4 It' , 3a 5a '
.. TUSllI X T ) 2 3 4 which is the required result, Putting a: ^ 0 in (ii), we
obtain f( 0) - - — — — ( 1 + ~ + -i- + 4 tc \ 3^ 5^ Now f(x) is discontinuous
atx = 0, As a matter of fact /(O-Q> = ~;tand/’(O + O) = 0 /(0) = - f/(0 - 0) +
/(0 + 0)] = - Jt/2. 2 .(ii) ...(tit) n 71 2 1 1 Z~ 4 n ll2 32 0, -x1 lows the result.
t* vi \ f °* -ji - - [sinx, 0
Fourier Series and Harmonic Analysis 403 and l)n cos ( n — 1)ji
1 1 f cos(n + : 2n j_ n + 1 _ 1 fl-(-l)tt+1 2n| rc + 1 rt-1 J 1 n+1 n - 1 when n
is odd (n * 1) 7r(« — 1) , when n is even. cos 2x I" 2 L 1 |"K 1 tn 1 When n
= 1, a. = — sin x cos x dx = — \ sin 2x dx — — 1 n Jo 2 n Jo 2ji Finally. btl
— - J /"(ilsin nx c£r = ^ |^J Q.ck+j^ s*n x s*n ”* j ]_ - - - l - — I Icos n —
Ijc — cos n + X*} dx = — 2n Jo 2n = 0 sin n - lx sin n + lx n-l n + 1 = 0 (ti
* 1) 1 fit If* 1 sin 2xT 1 When n = 1, 6, = — I sin x sin x dx = — f (I - cos
2x) dx - ■— x - - — = ~ 1 n Jo 2n Jo 2tc L 2 Jo 2 Hence fix) = 12 it it cos
2x cos 4x cos 6x + — - + • 1 . + —sin x 2 22-l 42 - 1 62 -1 Putting x = £ tn
(i), we get 1 = -- -(- + 7-7 - 7-= + -* "1 + ” 2 it lt\ 1-3 3.5 5,7 / 2 1 1 1 _ 1 ,
Whence — - - - + ■*■ w — —(it 2). wnence j g 3 & & ? 4 Ex a m pit' 10.7.
Ft no! the Fourier series for the function - 1 for -K„ sin nt * n^l n=l t r f-n/2
flt/3, fX a0=-H (-l)rff+ f (0)dt+ j (l)cit 0 7C [i-n l-K/2 Jn/2 j - sfl — C“ *1 -
— »-0 1 f r-nf2 f*/2 fir i„ ~ — J I (-1) cos ftf dt + (0) cos ntdt+ (l)cosntrff^
n n ^J-n J-*72 Jitn J >• sin nt -k/2 j_ 1 sin nt * 1 JY n T 1 -* n mf 2 J nn^
am nn sin nji t If r-*/a rn bn= — -M (-1) sin ntdt + j JI [J -ft ■M (0)sin fifdf
+ f (1) sin nt dt [ Inn J cos fit -is/ 2 cos nt is |_2J nit ^ 4 — — - cos - - cos
nil -fl n 7l/ 2 A [ nwi i. 2 y .M) Xi)
404 Higher Engineering Mathematics , 2,2, 2 1= K'b*~ to Hence
substituting the values of u*s and 6's in (i), we get/Cf) = — f sin f - sin 2 f +
isin 3f + ... ] . n\ 3 ) PROBLEMS 10.3 1 . Find the Fourier series to
represent the function fix) given by f (af) = x for 0 S X < re. and - 2n - x far
n < % < 2k. n . , 11 1 ti2 Deduce thut ja + ^2 + ^2 + - £* “ X' - . Anri!
r^rnati ng current n fler passing ihreugh a rectifier has the form I - !v sin fr
for 0 < x < ji - 0 for 7t _ i 1 ^ 1 1 * Hence prove that 1— — + — — — + ...
0,1 = t ■ .} o 7 4 (S. V.T. U., 2008 ; B.P. T. U. , 2005 Si (Modtxis 2000 S ;
V.T. if, 2000 Si [Mumbai-. 2009) Wsrnr, 2007) f U.P.T.V., 2005 J CHANGE
OF INTERVAL In many engineering problems, the period of the function
required to be expanded is not 2n but some other interval, say : 2c. In order
to apply the foregoing discussion to functions of period 2ct this interval
must be converted to the length 2m This involves only a proportional
change in the scale. Consider the periodic function fix) defined in («, a +
2c). To change the problem to period 2ir put z = Tix/e or x-czIk „.{1) so that
when x = a, z - caUc - f) (say) when x = o.+ 2/c, z - (ct + 2c Wc = |3 + 2fc.
Thus the function fix) of period 2r in {a, a + 2c) is transformed to the
function fi.cz/ k) [= Fiz ) say] of period 2it in ((3. (i + 2n). Hence ficz/n)
can be expressed as the Fourier series where ez^_°o * J 2 “? pa + ^ afi cos
nz + ^ hfi sin nz r = 1 Ff=I ...(2) “° = £ J II & rjv(f) “s'“rf2 > ...(3) *.-*j r
'(?)*-*
Fourier Serees and Harmonec Analysis 405 Making the inverse

substitutions 2 = jtx/c, dz — (itfc) dx in (2) and (3) the Fourier expansion of
f (a) in the interval (ctT a + 2c) is given by where nttx m n - i n = X 1 f ff +
3r “o-ef« fiX)dX a„ = ^ J“ 21 fix) cos ^dx \ ...(4) b = - [ D ’ 2 fix) sin m^-dx
*> c J« c Cor. Putting a = 0 tn (4), we get the results fur the interval (0, 2c i
and putting a = -c in (4), we gel results for the interval (- c, r). Example
10.8. Expand fix) c e~x u$ a Fourier aerie a in the internal (-i, IX Solution.
The required series is of the form e’r a " cos^ + Z b" sin ft = 1 n= l ] r' ._i 1 |
_* i< 1 . / _k 2 sinh l »= 7 j-i e *r“7r* l-i 7(e " * )=— — ftltx t i Kerala, 200
5 ; V.T.U.. 200X1 .M ) Then and 1 f* i nitx , a*=j\-te cos~rdx f e1* I eajr
cos bxdx - — - — {a cos bx + b sin bx) J oz +b2 1 e* ( njtx . «7t nTDr'l / 1
+ {nn/ if ' LUEl _ nr Mil ^ / f / J -l 2/(-l)n sinh/ il + (nitf tv COS ftTl = (- l)n
a, = - 21 sinh / 2/ sinh / 2/ sinh l etc. Finally, f p0^ V e'u sin 6x oh- = — — -
- (a sin hx — 6 cos 6x) J a2 + b1 6i = >2 , _s e~x ( - nrtr nn nitr'l - - - sin —
- - r cos — l + (nnfl?\ l l If • b% ~ 1 l -l -2nsinhi , 4nsinh/ . -Gnsinh/ (nn/lY ,
2nni- 1)H sinh t lJ + 1 nnf F+it* ‘ t + 2£K£ * l2+ 3V Substituting the values
of a’s and b's in fi), we get etc. e-* = sinh / 1 7CX COB 1 Znx 1 3nx cos —
— + — - - — — cos {l2+V? I 1**2 V ' /* + 3V l ”') - 2jt 1 nIt sm 2 . 2 tlx 3
■_ 3tlt -5- sin — — i- -7; - — — sin {(*+ k2 t lU 2V / /a+3V * Example
10.9. Fi« iAe Fourier .series expansion of fix) ~ 2x - Xs in ( 0 .
406 Higher Engineering Mathematics or Solution. The required

series is of the form m e# a ft = 1 Then 2x -x2 = ~ + ^ un cos— bn sin—â:
where / = 3/2. nm 1 “o-fC .2 £ = 0 1 r2f/n nTO j 2 fd m 2, 2niu , = 7 Jo )«*
—*- j J0 «»*-* )cos— 0 2 r3 2niLx a^sin 2nmc/3 _ , - cos 2nnx/3 , - sin
2mtt/3 ( 2x - x ) — ^--3^ - (2 - 2*) - - — — ^ — + (- 2)9 ^ 4n2n2 2fi7i/3
[(2 - fi) cos 2nn - 2] = (2nn/3) 9 (2nn/3) 2 2 n n i l Jo l 3 Jo 3 2nnx ,n 2v~
cos 2nnx/3 _ . - sin 2nnx/3 . cos 2njuc/3 (2a: ~x£) - - - - - (2-2:0 - — + (-2) -
|3 2nn/3 (2nn/3r (2nn/3) JQ 2 f 6 3 1 *V COS 2/iTt 27 4nV (cos 2 nn -»}■
JL nn Substituting the values of ct0, an, bn in (i), we get 2x - a:2 = - £ 9 _
2nrcx , v 3 . 2nroc Putting x - 3/2, we get 3-f -± cos ji-i sin nn 3 (A 22 3s
cos nn or -I cos nn n 3 T 4 .2 = nl * 12 ‘ IC vain pie 10.10. Obtain Fourier
series /br f be /unction. J IK, 0Sje<2 (V.T.U., 2011 ; JJbopoi, 2
Fourth Series and HARMONIC Analysis 407 - 0 when n is even ;
- when n is odd. n n rt ri bn - J nx sin mix dx + J ji(2 - x ) sin nroc dx f cos
nice \ f sin nnx ' 1 ,n .(— cos nm; 'i , .( sin mix ' HX - - It - - „ - ■ + *(2 - X)
■ - - - - (- It) - s-5l l bV ) a L nit J ^ nV Hence nx cos 3tk cos 5tec ^ cos nTt
j ! I cos ATI j _ Q Putting x = 2, 0 = ^ ^ ■ + ... « cos 2n cos 6 it cos 10lt + ...
» r 3 2 Whence -4- + -4- + -4- + . . r 32 fi“ 8 Example 10 1 1 . F md the
Fourier aeries far fit) = 0, - 2
408 Higher Engineering Mathematics IJ f 4 sin™0_ f 4 21 LflV
Sm 2 J U'v sin^H = 0 Substituting the values of a’s and ft’s in It), we get
PROBLEMS 10.4 1. Obtain the Fourier series for fix) = kx in 0 < x 5 2. 2,
(i) Find the Fourier series to represent .t2 in the interval (0, a). ft>) Find a
Fourier series for fit) « 1 - l2 when - I £ t £ 1t 3 n It cos nine , 4, Find the
Fourier series Cor fix) {x ir e-x ii (Mumbai, 200ft) (Mumbai, 2006) iV.T U.,
2006) (Aruta, 2008) 3, If fix) - 2x -x* in 0 £ x < 2, show that/'fa) = ~ i**l in
0 S x < 3 in 3 < x ^ 6 6. A sinusoidal voltage £ Bin (of is passed through a
half-wave rectifier which clips the negative portion of the wave Develop the
resulting periodic function Uit) = 0 when - T/2 < t < 0 = E sin oof when 0 <
t < 772, and T - 2a/«, in a Fourier series, JUT, 0 < jc < 1 6, Find the Fourier
series of the function f ix) - < 0, r = 1 it ix - 2),l < x. < 2 iCalicut, 1999)
Hence show that + ... 4 13 5 7 Mumbai, 2008 ) EVEN AND ODD
FUNCTIONS A function fix) is said to be even if fift) = fix), e.g., cos x,
sec jc, x2 are all even functions. Graphically an even function is
symmetrical about they-axis. A function f(x) is said to be odd iff(- x) =
~fix). Fig. 10. a e.g. sin x, tan x, x3 are odd functions. Graphically, an odd
function is symmetrical about the origin. We shall be using the following
property of definite integrals in the next paragraph : il *»--■£ f(x)dx, when
fix) is an even function. = 0, when fix) is an odd function. (2) Expansions of
even or odd periodic functions. We know that a periodic function fix)
defined in (— c, c) can be represented by the Fourier series ,, , o0 . v1 mix v
l ■ nnx f{x)= 2 + 2, CoS"T" + L 6" Sm ~c~* ft “ 1
Fcufijer Series and Harmonic Analysis 409 where a0 = ^ J
f(x)dxtan = ™ J ftejcos^—d*, fift = ™ J fix) j pc 2 r Case L When ffx) i$ an
even function a0 - ~ J f(x)dx = ™ f(x)dx. Since f(x) cos nnx is also an even
function, c ■.= !£w n tlv . 2 fS, \ cos - ax = — fix) c t Jn nJtx , cos - dx
Again since fix) sin nKX is an odd function, 6;j = ^ J fix) sin ni^x dx = 0.
Hence, if a periodic function fix) is even, its Fourier expansion contains
only cosine terms , and I rMd* , jr /■(*)«*—< Fig. 10.4 Example 1 0. 1 2.
Express f(x) = x/2 as a Fourier series iti the interval Solution. Since f (- *) =
- x/2 = - / (*). (J.N,T.U„ 2006)
410 HifjHen Engineers Mathematics where fix ) is an odd

function and hence fix)= ^ bn sin nx n = l 2. Cn g j 6 =— fix) sin nxdx = —
I — sinnxrfjf « it Jo n Jo 2 ( cos nx 'i / - sin nx 1 Jcos n tt h} = Vh b2 = -
1/2, b3 = 1/3, b4 = - 1/4, etc. Hence the aeries is x/2 = sin x - ^ sin 2x + ^
sin 3x - ^ sin 4x + . Ohs. The graphs of y - 2 sin jr. y = 2{ttin x ^ sin 2x) and
y - 2(sin X - ~ sin 2x + ^ sin 3jc) are shown in Fig. 10.4, by the curves 1# 2
and 3 respectively. These illustrate the manner in which the successive
approximations to the series f i) approach more and more closely to y = x
for all values ofxin-?t ] = | cos x 1 = fix), | cos x j is an even function /. fix)
= -~2 + cos nx where 2 2 rn a. = — I | cos x | dx = — cos x dx + I (- cos x)
dx 0 IT Jo n Jo in/2 1 v cos x is ...It) iS V.r.U., 2008) [See footnote p, 398]
fv cos nn = (— ll11] Jtl. - ve when it/2 < x < tt]
Fourier Series and Harmony Analysis and = f {l sin * £'* - 1 sin *
£,2} = |ffl - 0) - (0 - 1)I=| a = — f I cos x I cos n* dx n it Jo 2 rnf A r - —
cos x cos nxdx + \ (— cos a:) cos nx d ft[_Jo Jk/2 -—If [cos (n + l)jf + cos
(ft - 1)jc] dx - f [cos (n + Ibr + cos (n - l)jr| rfari ft [Jo Jn/a 1 n 1 ft sin (h +
1)jc sin (ft - l)je ft + 1 ft - I \Xf2 sin(ft + l)jc sin (ft - Dr + ft+ 1 ft - 1 n/2 |
sin (ft + l)ft/2 sin (ft — Dn/2 I | sin (n + 1 ft+1 + n— 1 j + I ft+1 2 { cos
nn/2 cos nvJ2 \ — 4 cos rt n/2 , - -r - — : - — r“ = - a - (» *1) Jl^n + 1 n-1 J
jt(n2«i) l)ft/2 sin (ft - 1W2 n- 1 In particular a 2 T f*'2 cos x dx -r Jtt/2 cos"
x dx H 2 4 [1 1 1 Hence | cos x \ = - + - r cos 2jc - — cos 4* + ...} . Tl Tl Id
15 | Example 10.15. Obtain Fourier series for the function fix) given by fix)
= I + 2x/n. - K Zx£ 0 . ~ 1 ~2xfn, 0£x= COS fix M) n=l where and 2 r* , , 2
r* ( 2x \ 2 ( I flx)dx - - I 1^ — — 1 =0 K Jo n Jo \ n j ' ft [ ft J0 2 f" 2 r* I '
2x\ 1 /'(i)cos ftjf dx =- \ 1 - cos nx dx TL ■ Jo n Jo ^ i ft ) 2 f 1 2x ^sin nx j.r
| ( COS ftJC 1 2 cos mi 2 ) JI n j n V ft J { ft3 J 0 n ^ no2 ntt2 J o | = 8/tc2,
a3 = 8/32 ft2, og = 8/527r, ... and tij — a.j — Qg — ... — 0. Thus
substituting the values of a’s in (r), we get fix) — 8 f cos x cos 3jc cos 5jc
[COS i r + ... XU) as the required Fourier expansion
Putting x = 0 in («), we get 1 - f( 0) = ~ f + ... | JE V 1 3 5" J
whence fallows the desired result. Higher Engineering Mathematics
PROBLEMS 10.5 I, Obtain the Fourier series expansion of fix} — a-2 in
(0, n J. Hence show that n2 1 1 1 , - ~S + —S + -s- + *’* 8 l2 22 3a
(Mumbai, 2009 ; S. V. TAJ., 2008) 2 sin an sin x 2 sin 2x 3 sin 3x ft l2 - a2
„2 2 1 o2 2 2 - a 3-o 2, Show that for - Jt < x < it, sin nx = a. Expand the
function fix) - x sin x as a Fourier series in the interval — n Sjc < it. Deduce
that — - + 1 - A - * ... ±* A (tt - 2). 1.3 3,5 5.7 7.9 4 4. Prove that in the
interval — n < x < it, x cos x = — — sin ar + 2 nA, 2 iL, »s - 1 ft = 2 sin nx
, 52 72 " 8 ' Deduce that ^ Show that fix) = — - — 2 it 1 1 „ l -B COB X + -
=■ COS 3* + — =■ cos 5.v + -] 5. For a function fix) defined by fix) = | x |
, - it < x < 7t, obtain a Fourier series. Deduce that -A + A l2 & ti. Find the
Fourier series to represent the function H i f(xl - \ sin x { , - « < x < n. tit)
fix! = j cos iitxfj) J in the interval (-1, I), I -x + 1 for - it < x £ 0, 7, Given f
U') = \ tr .. [ x + I for 0 < x < it. Is the function even or odd? Find the
Fourier series for fix) and deduce the value of 1 I 1 1 2 ^ 32 + 62 f R, Find
the Fourier series of the periodic function. /’(x): fix) — — k when — Jt < x
< 0 tmd fix Jl = ft when 0 < x < it, and fix + 2tc> = fix). Sketch the graph of
f (x > and the two parti td sums. (See Fig. 10.7) nr1 ir , 2n- 1 4 ‘ n =1 O. A
function is defined as follows : fix) = - x when - it < x < 0 = x ( V. T. U..
2008 ; Anna, 2002 1 (U.F.TU., 2005) (S.V.T U., 2009) (Bhopal, 2007 ,
V.T.U.. 2004 ) t S V.TAJ .. 2008 ; Kerala. 2005. PT.ll, 2005) I Mumbai ,
2008) (P.T.U., 2009 S) (Rohlak. 2005 ) when 0 < x < it. Deduce that frjifc-
i* 8 HALF RANGE SERIES Many a time is is required to obtain a Fourier
expansion of a function fix) for the range (0, c) which is haJf the period of
the Fourier series. As it is immaterial whatever the function may be outside
the range 0 < x < c, we extend the function to cover the range — c < x < r
so that the new function may be odd or even. The Fourier expansion of such
a function of half the period, therefore, consists of sine or cosine terms only.
In such cases the
Fourier Series and Harmonic Analysis 413 graphs for the values
of* in (0, c) are the same but outside (0, r) are different for odd or even
functions. That is why we get different forms of series for the same function
as is clear from the examples 10.16 and 10.17. Sine series. If it be required
to expand f (x) as a sine series in 0 < * < c ; then we extend the function
reflecting it in the origin, so that /"Or) - -f(-x). Then the extended function
is odd in {- c, c) and the expansion will give the desired Fourier sine series :
where fix) = £ bn sin ft = 1 2 nnx [‘ A*) sin — d* n c Jo c -d) Cosine series.
If it be required to express fix) as a cosine series in 0 < x < r, we extend the
function reflecting it in the y-axis, so that f (- x) - f ix). Then the extended
function is even in (- c, r) and its expansion will give the required Fourier
cosine series : where and f (jf) = % + S tos nnx n - 1 2 rc an =~ f U) dx ^ c
Jq 2 mix an = — fix) cos - dx c Jo c .,.(2) Example 10.16. Express fix) = x
as a half-range sine series in 0
414 Hfqher Engineering Mathematics where and 9 fS 1*2 “o” 2 L

f-/ J Hence -I- — + „ -re ~ ^ . 1.3 3.5 5,7 4 Example 10.19. Obtain a half
range cosine series for . I kx , 0 < x < f i 2 n* * |*(/-xU/2S*
Fourier Series and Harmonic Analvsjs 415 Then *-?{r***j>-*M

X 2 J/2 (l-xf t L ■ I l 2 0 2 in J 2k l\P_ ( t ' 2 I 4 -*) M 2 f f"s i. nnx j , |*f t,f
, nnr j ) 11 l [ Jo / il/2 l | 2k ! , f sinnrw// ^ 1 " Y l «n// J - cos + M n7tc//
(on//)2 (/ — .vi si n nnx /l nn/ 1 )- i2 / - — - . sin ™ + f cos 2«7l 2 J n“n2 v
r l2 -£( 2k /* [- All , , twi 1 2kl nn t , ndl nn cos mi - cos nix )] Hence the
required Fourier series is Thus kt 8 kl r i 4 n2 L22 :et hi Ski 1 rx. 4 it2 1 ...
22 J_ + J_ + j_+ f 32 52 lOrar K 8 Example 10.20. Expand fix) = ^ ~ i, ifO
< x < | , = x - | . if --
416 Higher Engineering Mathematics Thus Hence »i = sinxforO

£* ^ n/4 . * * i - cos x for n/4 S x 5 n/2. expand fix) in a series of sines. 14.
For the function defined by the graph OAfl in Fig 10,10, find the half-range
Fourier sine series. Fig. 10.10 Fig 10.11
Fcupieh Semes and Hahmonjc Analysis 417 10.8 TYPICAL
WAVEFORMS We give below six typical waveforms usually met with in
communication engineering : (1) Square waveform (Fig. 10.7) is an
extension of the function of Problem S. page 412, (2) Sau/ toothed
waveform (Fig. 10.5) is an extension of the function in Ex. 10.12, page 409.
(3) Modified saw-toothed waveform (Fig. 10.11) is extension of the
function f(x)~ 0, - 71 < x 5 0 -x, 0}3 dx = ^ | ( fix) dx + jr | a„ J ^ fix) cos ^
dx + bn J ^ fix) sin dx > Now Jf fix) dx = laQj J fix) cos dx-lan and J fix)
sin — — dx - lbnf by (4) of p. 405 J1-! t L ...(2) (2) takes the form | [f (*)]s
dx=l which is the desired ParsevaVs formula . ...(3) (Mumbai, 2005 S )
*Named after the French mathematician Mart Antoine Parseval U755-
1836).
Higher Engineering Mathematics Cor* 1- Iff (a) = ^ f an cos + blt
sin j i/i (0, 21), then n - 1 -21 ..E " t iAun2^=n Ji) “+ X (fl" +*«) > Ft = 1
Cor. 2. If the half-range cosine series is (0, t) for fix) is fix) = + jT o„ lob ^ -
y^ j * then ft — l £ I fix)? dx = ~ ^ + af + a| + a| + (nT. 3. If the half-range
sine series in (0, l ) for fix) is fix) = /* f>n 8 in | —j— J , then f IA*)? "—ft
f + if +t| +.-.«) Jo 2 i» -I -.(6) (2) Root mean square (rms) value* The root
mean square value of the function f ix) over an interval {a, b) is defined as
f/Mlr™ f \f{xf dx Jfl 6-fl .-(7} The use of root mean square value of a
periodic function is frequently made in the theory of mechanical vibrations
and in electric circuit theory. The rm.s. value is also known as the effective
value of the function. Example 10,21. Obtain the Fourier series for y - x2 in
-n
This page contains the following errors:
error on line 10 at column 839: Double hyphen within comment:  2 1 Z 2 1 -{a/2) " 2-z This series being
a G.P. is convergent if j z/2 | < 1 i.e.t \ z { <2. Hence ROC is | z | < 2. (b) By
definition, Z[u(n>] = ^ ^-y .z'n — 'S' b-0 n ’ 0 = e5fr The above series is
convergent for all values of z. Hence ROC is the entire 2-plane.
PROBLEMS 23.2 Find the Z-tripvsform nod its HOC in each of the
following sequences 1. u(n) = 4ft, n > 0. 2, tdn I = 2n, n < 0. ;}. ttin) = 4n.
for n < 0 and = 3" for n > 0. f. !t(o) = n&", n > 0. fi. u(n) = 2"/w, ft > 1, 6.
tt(ft) = 3n/nU it & 0. 7. u(n> - c
Z-Tpansfqfi^S 605 Example 21+ 1 4. Find the inverse Z-
transform of log (ziz + 1) by power series method Solution. Putting z = L/t,
U(z ) = lug f _M.iL 1 = - tog (1 + y) = -y + ~ V2 - ^y3 + — Vl/y + 1/ & 4 i
fy 1 2 --ar* + iz-z- ± (z-2)J Z"4 Readily we get D — 1/2. Multiplying
throughout by ( z - 2>3 (z — 4), we get zz - 20 = (A + Bz + Cz 2) (z - 4) +
D{z - 2?. Putting z - 0, 1, — 1 successively and solving the resulting
simultaneous equations, we get A = 6, B - 0, C = 1/2. Thus ... 1 12s + 2
U{z) = 1 2(z - 2)2 + 4z2 + 82 2 (z-2)3 z-4 2 (z - 2)3 2-4 = l{_L 2[z-'. + 2 2
z2 + 4z (z — 2>3 , 2-4
Higher Engineering Mathematics On inversion, wc get u = —(2"
+ 2 . n22”) - 4n n 2 = 2" - ! + n2 2n - 4'1. [Using § 23,10 (9) & (11)}
Example 23.17. Find the inverse Z -transform of 2(z* -5z + 6.5) (Hz - 2) (z
- 3)H for2< \ z\<3. Solution. Splitting into partial fractions, we obtain Viz)
2{£ - 5z + 6.5) (z-2)(z-3 f ABC 4 - + i/(2)= . 2-2 ' 2-3 ' (2-3)* 1 where A = B
= C = 1 v? - 2 2-3 (2-3) 2 If 2 i, 3l 3j 9l 3j ir 2 4 8 \ if, z z2 23 1 if z{ z z2 z3
J 3[ 3 9 27 J 9 so that 2/2 < 1 and zi 3 < 1 , 2z 32* 42d 1 + — + - + - + 3 9
27 -1 where 2 < | z | <3. f 1 2 2l 23 1 f ■* 2 3 > 1 z z z — 4- ■ — - A - h - -
b f 1 2z 322 423 [2 22 23 24 "'J 3 32 33 34 4 ^3* 33 34 3s “'J n = 1 n =■ 0
/( f 1 n - 0 (i 3 « 1 2 On inversion, we get un = 2" “ *, n > 1 and = - (re +
2)3'1 " 2, n £ 0. HI. Inversion integral method. The inverse Z-transform of
Ufz) is given by the formula u = ^-7 f Ciz)zn'1 dz " 2tu Jc = sum of residues
ofU{z)zn 1 at the poles ofU(z) which are inside the contour C drawn
according to the ROC given. The following examples will illustrate the
application of this formula : Example 23.18. Using the inversion integral
method, find the inverse Z-transform of Solution. Let Viz) U -Viz- 2) . Its
poles are at z = 1 and z - 2. ( V.T.U. . 2010 S) (2 - 1) (2 - 2) Using U(z) in
the inversion integral, we have u = —7 f Uiz)zR~1 dz , n 2m Jc where C is
a circle large enough to enclose both the poles of Viz), - sum of residues of
U[z) zn~ 'at z - 1 and z - 2. Now and ResWiz) zA~\ ,= Lt (2-1). - =■ - L=-l
*ml *-.il (2 — 1) (2 — 2) f Res [ Viz ) s»-\ _ , = Lt (2 - 2) - - - - [ = 2* '-2
{2 — 1) (2 — 2) f Thus the required inverse Z-transfbrm ur{ = 2/l — 1, n -
0* 1+ 2*
Z-ThawSforms 807 Example 23.10. Find the inverse Z transform
of2z/}(z - 1 J (s:- + 1)1 ( Madras, 2000 S ) 2 z Solution. Let U(z) = - iz - 1>
(z + 1) U - 1) Using Ufz) in the inversion integral, we have . It has three
poles at z - 1, z - ± i. u - — f U(z) zn~l dz , where C is a circle large enough
to enclose the poles of U(z). n 2 id JC 2id J c - sum of residues of U{z) .
z"'1 at 2 = 1, z = * i. Now (2- I) 2 zn U-l)(z2 + 1)1 = 1 Res \U{z)zn~\ , = Lt
Vi £ -I 1 Io^r i — (/vj 7 - — - — — - \ = -r— (z - 1) (a + i) (z - t)J 1 + t Res
[ U{z) zn~%^_i= Lt J - i (z + i) 2zn ( z - 1) (z + i) (z - i) (-if i -1 Hence t ur
(- a™ « = 1 - r * 1 + * 1 - i
808 Higher Engineering Mathematics 23.16 (1) APPLICATION
TO DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS Just as the Laplace transforms method is
quite effective for solving linear differential equations (§ 21.15), the Z-
transforms are quite useful for solving linear difference equations. The
performance of discrete systems is expressed by suitable difference
equations. Also Z- transform plays an important role in the analysis and
representation of discrete-time systems. To determine the frequency
response of such systems, the solution of difference equations is required
for which Z-transform method proves useful. (2) Working procedure to
solve a linear difference equation with constant coefficients by Z-
transforms : 1. Take the Z- transform of both sides of the difference
equations using the formulae of§ 26. 1 6 and the given conditions. 2.
Transpose all terms without U{z) to the right. 3. Divide by the coefficient of
U(z), getting U(z) us a function, of z. 4. Express this function in terms of
the Z transforms of known functions and take the inverse Z-transform of
both sides. Th is gives un as a function of n which is the desired solution.
Example 23.20. losing the Z-transform. solve un + ., + 4Un + , + 3un - 3"
with ti0 - 0, u J - 1. I U.P.T. U.. 2003) Solution. If Zin^) = Uiz), then Z{un +
,) = z\U{z) - u,,], Z(Un + a) = ZZ[U{z) - ua - uxz- M Also Z(2rt) = z/(z-2)
taking the Z-transforms of both sides, we get zHUis) -u0- 11,2-1] + 42
[U(z) - f/0] + 3t7(2) = z/{z - 3) Using the given conditions, it reduces to
Ulz) (z* + 42 + 3.) = 2 + 2/(2 — 3) U(z)_ 1 1 _ 3 _1 1 _1 5 1 2 (z+ l)(z + 3)
+ (z-3)
^Transforms 809 Example 23.22. Find the response oftkersMtem
v„ 4,w-5yM . , + 6'v„ = «„, with v,. = 0, v. = 1 and «„ = 1 for »=0. 1.2.3 . by
z-tmmtbrm method. ' (V.T.U., 2010) Solution. Taking Z-transform of both
sides of the given equation, we get zHYiz) - y0 -yiz l) - 6 z(Y(z)-y0) + 6
Y&) = Substituting the values j0 = 0, vl = 1, it reduces to (2Z - 52 + 6) Yiz)
= -2— + z = ** 2-1 z- 1 Yiz) z z • 1 or {z-X){z-2)(z-Z\ = A +_B_+ C 2-1 2-
2 2-3 where A - B ~ — 2tC = so that Yiz) = i— - 2 3 z On inversion, we
obtain 22-1 2-2 22-3 = I -2(2)* + £(3}" 2 2 Obs. The initial values given in
the problem automatically appear in the generated sequence. Example
23.23. Solve the difference equation yri + -j yn _s = »n + ~ un _j where un
is a a nit step sequence. Solution. Taking Z-transfonn of both sides of the
given equation, we get Y(z) + |z“1y(z)=l + Is-1 °r m = (i + 1 + i 2_,M* +
1)/(2 + ?) There being only one simple pole a iz - - 1/4, consider the contour
| z | > 1/4, /. Res [Yiz) zn " *1. j/4 = Lt J [■*«•(■* 1) hi)} = Lt ( 2 + i)^ =
(I+I' )(-!)" s 3' 4 3^ f V 4/ , id - 1 Hence by inversion integral method* we
have ■.-aht 12 Example 23,24, Using the Z-transform, solve un + 2 - 2f/n +
t + un = 3rt + 5. Solution. Given equation is un + £. - 2nn + [ + un - 3/t + 5.
Taking the Z-transforcus of both sides, we gel z2\Uiz) -u0- Ulz~l\ -
2211/(2) - u0] + Uiz) = 3 , 3 + 5 . 3 (SX.T.Ll, 2007 ) (z - ir 2-1 or or Uiz)
iz1 - 2z + 1) = — - ^ + «,,(22 - 2z) + n.z iz - l)z ° 1 TT{ , 52Z -2 2 Zl - 22
Uiz) = - — + Un - - + U iz- l)1 ' ‘ 0 (z - if " “* (z - if to I i*3
610 Higher Engineering Mathematics On inversion, we obtain
u=Z~x 5g - 2z (*-l>4 J .M) Noting that Z(l) = 2-1 ,Zin) = is - 1 f Z{n2) - z*
±1 , Z(n3) - * + 4*~ + Z U - 1) 3 <. u-i="" r="" s-="" c="" .="" rz2="" _=""
gz="" s="" we="" write="" a="" j="">4 _ U-l )4 <2-1)" Equating
coefficients of like powers of 2, we find A= |,B = 1,C«- |fC = 0 2j “ -- n3 +
n2 - — n = ^ n(n - 1) (n + 3> = z-' 2 2 -1 -Z (2 - ir = i—n z"feri ?(-»■
Substituting these vakies in (i> above, we get = -jj- n(n - 1} (n + 3) + w0l 1
- n) + Ujfi = 1 n(n - 1) Of + 3) + c„ + ryi. b1 where c0 = n0, et = ut - u0 or
Example 23,25. Using residue method, solve yk + ^ yA,_2 = — cos A >0.
Sol m i«m. Taking Z-transform of both sides of the given equation, we get
Y(z)+ i 2-* Y(z> = — * 9 22 + 1/9 or (1+F2) z Y{Z ) = *2 + h 9 or y(z> =
There are two poles of second order at z = i/3 and z = — i/3. Residue at (z =
i/3) = ,N! te2 + 1/9 )2 Jr +3 (2+t/3>2 (z + i/3)2 (k + 3)2* f 2 - 2 * + 31 . 2(z
+ i/3) Jr= i/3 L (g + i/3) (A 4- 3)2* * 2 - 2g* * 3 is + i/3)3 is + i/3)4 z=f/3 2
= i/3 p*+3 3,
811 Z-Tpansforms -!* * i ~yk = 0) given Lhat y(0l =yi 1 ) = 1. 2.

yin + 2) + 2>fn + 1) + y(it) « 0, given thsty (0) = ,y(l i - 0. yn , a - =' o given
that. yp = = 2. L /-(n) + Zfin - D - in - 2} = 0. » > 2, given that /"(0) = 3. /
■(!)»- 2. 5. y,ft . j, - 3y(n + 1 t + 2y(n > - 0. given that y(0) = 4, y f 1 > - 0
and y (21 - 8y„ + a - 6y„ + x + 6yN = 36. given that .yfCO = y(l) = O. 7. y'n
+ 2 — ®>'m * l + = 3'1. «■ 3ra + 2 - 43?„ + 1 + 3yn ~ &“■ y„ , , + = Q) (»
> m. y0 = o. {Kiillnynm, 2005 i ft T. U„ 2008 S) [U.P-T.U., 2008) {Madras,
2003 S) (Anna, 2005 S > (Aftftn, 2009) 50. u f ,,t us = 5(2*) given that u0 =
1, a, = 0. H. , a + 4y;J + , + 3y„ = S'1 with yfl = O.yj * 1. 12. uk + 3 - 2uk tt
+ uk = 2* with >0 - S. y | - 1. >3. yn + ? - 6ytt t , + %J( = 2* + 6n. 14, •>r*
+ ^ if1 ^ 0J i Find the response of the system given by yn +■ 3.v(„ _li = un
where u„ is a unit step sequence and y^ , = 1 1 8. Find Lhe impulse
response of a system described by y(n t li + 2y(r[J = 6n ; yfl = 0. HU
OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS (Marathwodn, 2008) {Madras, 2006)
PROBLEMS 23,5 Choose the correct answer or fill up the blanks in each of
the following problems : I, Z f I J = . 2, If uk is defined for ft = 0T 1, 2 .
only, then Z(un) = .... 3. Z-transforni of n - .... tAuno, 2009) *1. Zina”) =
...... ii. Z (sin nO) = 6. Z-transform of ! \fn\) is 7. Z (n2) s ...... 8. Linear
property of 2- transform states that... ». ..... II. fnilial vÎue Lhf?drem on
Z*t«mafonn thui .... * Z-1 1— ■ -.j\ - . t|e-+1)aJ 12* Z-ti‘angfomi linear
(True or Fal^) 1 4. ^transform of Hie sequence i 2k\ , h > 0 is z/{z - 21 lfi*
Z-transfoiro of \aNk\\f k>QM\i Z-lransform of (^yl, (Q < r < n‘) is (1 + zY
^ 1 7. Z- Iran sfn mi of unit impulse sequence b(n) = |JT ” ^ ^ , is zh - 1 . 1
K ZHtransform of unit fitep sequence il{n) - ^ q1 is L 13. = «U)t then Lt
(u7i)= Li (*-l )ul?). (True nr Fnlô) (True or False > i True or False I (True
or False! (True or FaJsiO (True or False)
Empirical Laws and Curve-fitting i - 1 j 1. Introduction. 2.
Graphical method. 3. Laws reducible to the linear (aw. 4. Principle of Least
squares. 5. Method | of Least squares, 6. Fitting of other curves. 7, Method
of Group averages. B. Fitting a parabola. 9. Method of ' Moments. 10.
Objective Type of Questions. 24.1 In many branches of applied
mathematics, it is required to express a given data, obtained from
observations, in the form of a Law connecting the two variables involved.
Such a Law inferred by some scheme is known as Empirical Law. For
example, it may be desired to obtain the law connecting the length and the
temperature of a metal bar. At various temperatures, the length of the bar is
measured. Then, by one of the methods explained below, a law is obtained
that represents the relationship existing between temperature and length for
the observed values. This relation can then be used tn predict the length at
an arbitrary temperature. (2) Scatter diagram. To find a rel ationship
between the set of paired observations x andy (say), we plot their
corresponding values on the graph taking one of the variables along the x-
axis and other along they-axis i.e. (Xj. v, ), (x2, y2), (xn, yn). The resulting
diagram showing a collection of dots is called a scatter diagram. A smooth
curve that approximates the above set of points is known as the
approximating curve. (3) Curve fitting. Several equations of different types
can be obtained to express the given data approximately. But the problem is
to find the equation of the curve of 'best fit' which may be most suitable for
predicting the unknown values. The process of finding such an equation of
’best fit’ is known as curve-fitting. If there are n pairs of observed values
then it is possible to fit the given data to an equation that contains n
arbitrary constants for we can solve n simultaneous equations for n
unknowns. If it were desired to obtain an equation representing these data
but having less than a arbitrary constants, then we can have recourse to any
of the four methods : Graphical method. Method of Least squares, Method
of Group averages and Method of Moments. The graphical method fails to
give the values of the unknowns uniquely and accurately while the other
methods do. The method of Least squares is, probably, the best to fit a
unique curve to a given data. It is widely used in applications and can be
easily implemented on a computer. 24.2 GRAPHICAL METHOD When the
curve representing the given data is a linear Jaw y - mx 4- r ; we proceed as
follows : (i) Plot the given points on the graph paper taking a suitable scale.
Hi ) Draw the straight line of best fit such that the points are evenly
distributed about the line* (m) Taking two suitable points {xv yf and (x2,
y2) on the line 5 calculate mt the slope of the line and c, its intercept on y-
axis. When the points representing the observed values do not approximate
to a straight line, a smooth curve is drawn through them. From the shape of
the graph, we try to infer the law of the curve and then reduce it to the form
y = mx + c. 812
Ewp»NrCAL Laws ano Csjave^fitting 813 243 LAWS
REDUCIBLE TO THE LINEAR LAW We give below some of the laws in
common use, indicating the way these can be reduced to the linear form by
suitable substitutions : (1 ) When the. law is y — mi*" + c. Taking x" = X
and .v = Y the above law becomes Y = mX + c (2) When the law isy = ax'1.
Taking logarithms of both sides, it becomes log]0y — log1(| u + n iogtnx
Putting log10 x = X and logl0y = Y, it reduces to the form Y= nX + c,
where c = logTU a. (3) When the law is y - ux" + b log x. v je" Writing it as
— - -a — — + b and taking x"/lagx = X and yflog jc = Y, log.r log 3d the
given law becomes, Y = aX + b. (4) When the law is y = as6* T aking
logarithms, it becomes log10 y -(b log10 e) x + lngJ(J a Putting x - X and
Iog1Dy = Y. it takes the form Y - inX + c where m = b logU) e and c =
log1{, a. (5) When the law is xy = ax + by. V Dividing by jc, we have y = b
— + a. x Putting ylx = X and y = Y, it reduces to Lhe form Y = bX + a.
Example 24.1. R is the resistance to main tain a train at speed V,- find a law
of the type R - a + b T connecting R and V, using the fallowing data : V
(miles J hour) : 10 20 30 40 50 R (lb I ton) ; 8 SO 15 21 30 Solution. Given
law is R - a + 5 V2 ...(/) Taking V2 = x and R - y, (i) becomes y = a+bx ,„(«)
which is a linear law. Table for the values of jc and y is as follows ; X 100
400 900 1600 2500 y s 10 15 21 30 Plot these points. Draw the straight line
of best fit through these points (Fig, 24.1 ) Slope of this line (= b) MN 21 -
15 LM ~ 1600 - 900 C - = 0.0085 nearly. 700 Since L (900, 151 lies on {«),
/. 15 = a + 0.0085 x 900, whence a = 16 - 7.65 = 7.35 nearly. Fig. 24.1
Example 24.2. The following values of x and y are supposed to follow the
law y = cur + b log10 x. Find graphically the most probable values of the
constants u and b , X 2.85 3.88 4.66 5.69 6.65 7.7 7 8.67 y 16.7 26.4 35.1
47,5 60.6 77.5 93.4
814 Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. Given law is y - +
b loglEl x ie. * ~a; — ...(t) log1()A- logmx Taking jc^/log^ x = X and
y/log10;e = Y (i) becomes Y -aX + b ,„(«) This is a linear law. Table for the
values of Jf and Y is as follows : X =■ x-ZlogjQ x 17.93 25.56 32.49 42.87
53.75 67.80 80.83 35.59 44.83 52.50 62.90 73,65 87,04 99.56 Points ■h P*
% ** Plot these points and draw the straight line of best fit through these
points (Fig. 24.2). Slope of this line (= a) = 73,65 -52*60 21.15 = 0.99 P3M
53.75-32.49 21.26 Since lies on {«), therefore, 52.50 = 0.99 x 32,49 + b
whence b - 20.2 Hence (/) becomes y - (0-99) x2 + (20-2) log]0 x. Example
24,3, The values of X and y obtained in an experiment are as follows ; X
2,30 3. JO 4.00 4.92 5.91 7.20 y 33.0 39.1 50.3 67.2 85.6 125.0 Th probable
law is y = tie*'*. Test graphically the accuracy of this law and if the law
holds good, find the best values of the constants. Solution . Given law is y =
aebx Taking logarithms to base 10 p we have lu glQy = log10 a + (6 log10
e) x Putting x = X and log10 Ly - Y * it becomes y = (6 log10^) A" + logm
a Table for the values of A and Y is as under : .M) .■Mi) X=x 2.30 3.10 4.00
4.92 5.91 7.20 Y=logloJ 1.52 1.59 1.70 1.83 1.93 2,1 Points Pl P* P* ^ P* P
6 X = x logic V Points
Empirical Laws and Djpve-fittinc. Scale : 1 small division along
r-axis = 0.1 10 small divisions along y-axis = 0.1, Plot these points and
draw the line of best fit. As these points are lying almost along a straight
line, the given law is nearly accurate (Fig. 24.3). Now slope of this line <=
b iog10 el “ NM 0.12 = 0.12 whence b = = 0.12 x 2.303 = 0.276 login «
Since the point h {4, 1.71) lies on fir), therefore, 1,71 = 0.12 x 4 + log10 a
whence a = 17 nearly. Hence the curve of best fit is y = 17 e° S7Gt.
PROBLEMS 24,1 \ , If p is the pull required Lo lift the weight by means of
a pulley block, find n linear law of the form p - a * but, connecting p and w.
using the following data : w (1b) : 50 70 IOC 120 j$b); IS 15 21 25
Compute p, when iv = 150 lb. 2. The resistance H of h carbon filament
lamp was measured at various values of the voltage V and the following
observations were made ; Voltage V... 62 70 76 64 92 Resistance 73 70.7
69.2 67.8 66.3 fi Assuming a law of the form R = — +b, find by graphical
method the best value of a and b. Verify if (he values of a and y, related as
shown in the following table, obey the law y - a * b •Jx If so, find
graphically the values or a and h. x : 500 1,000 2,000 4,000 6,000 y : 0.20
0.33 0.38 0.45 0.5! I, The Following values of T and l follow the law T =
aln. Test if this is so and find the best values of ft and n. 7 = 1.0 1£ 2.0 2.5 l
= 25 56.2 100 1.56 5. Find the best value of u and 6 ify = ax + b liig10 .V is
the curve which represents most closely the observed values given below : s
: 2 3 4 y: 3.74 5.99 7.47 6. FiL the curve y = oe-“ to the following data : xt
0 2 4 y; 5.1 10 31.1 5 8.92 6 9.86 (Coimbatore, 1997) 7, The following are
the results of an experiment on friction of bearings. The speed being
constant, corresponding values of the coefficient of friction and the
temperature are shown in the table ; i ; 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 U ; 0.0051
0-0059 0.0071 0,0085 0,00102 0.00124 0,00148 If ji and t. aw given by the
law jj = aeV, find the values of o and b by plotting the graph for p and t.
816 Higher Ewc±i&ffiERrNCi IVU™emmics 24.4 PRINCIPLE
OF LEAST SQUARES The graphical method has the obvious drawback of
being unable to give a unique curve of fit. The principle of least squares,
however, provides an elegant procedure for fitting a unique curve to a given
data. Let the curve, y = a + bx + cx2 + ... + fec/n " 1 ...(1) be fitted to the set
ofn data points (x,, >, (xa, ya),..tx tyn). Now we have to determine the
constants a, 6, c,...k such that it represents the curve of best fit. In case n =
m. on substituting the values (xt, yt) in (1), we get n equations from which a
unique set of n constants can be found . But when n > ni, we obtain n
equations which are more than the m constants and hence cannot be solved
for these constants. So we try to determine those values of a, h. which
satisfy all the equations as nearly as possible and thus may give the best fit.
In such cases, we apply the principle of least squares, At x = xjt the
observed (or experimental) value of the ordinate isy^ = Pt Lf and the
corresponding value on the fitting curve ( 1 ) is a + bxf + cx 2 + ... + kxf' =
MLt (= qy. say) which is the expected (or calculated) value (Fig24.4). The
difference of the observed and the expected values i.e. yi - q; (= ef) is called
the error (or residual) at x = x, Clearly some of the errors e,, e2, ... en will
he positive and others negative. Thus to give equal weightage to each error,
we square each of these and form their sum i.e. E = e2 + + ... e2. The curve
of best fit is that for which c's are as small as possible i.e.r E, the sum of the
squares of the errors is a minimum . This is known as the principle of least
squares and was suggested by Legendre * in 1806. Ohs. The principle of
least squares does not help us to determine the form of the appropriate
curve which can fit a given data. It only dete rmines the best passible values
of the constants in the equation when the lbrm of the curve is known before
hand- The selection of the curve is a matter of experience ami practical
considerations, Fig. J4.4 24.5 U) METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES For
clarity, suppose it is required to fit the curve y = n + bat + cx2 ..-( 1 ) to a
given set of observations (xry ,), fx2,y2), .... (x&,y5). For any xjt the
observed value isyr and the expected value is l), = a + bxt + cx 2 so that the
error ei - y . - t|r. the sum of the squares of these errors is E = ef2 + ez2 + ...
+ es2 = |y, - (ct + bx, + rx,2)!2 + [y2 - (a + bx2 + ex22)l2 + ... + |y5 - (a +
b*5 + rx5z)]2 ISee 5 5.12 (3)| For E to be minimum, we have iW “ = o =
2Lv, - (a + bx, + cx ,2)1 - 2[ya - (o + bx2 + c*/)) - ... - 2{yB - (a + bx6 +
cx62)] ,.,(2) — = 0 = - 2x,Jyj - (a + 6x, + cx,2)) - 2x2 [y2 - (a + bx2 +
exa2)l 3b - ... - 2xs Lvs - (a + + exj2)! --C3) dE — = 0 = - 2x,2 [y, - (a + 6x,
+ cx,2)| - 2xa2 ty2 - (a + bx2 +■ cx22)\ - ... - 2xfi2 |yfi - (a + bxrt + cxB2)l
,..(4) Equation (2) simplifies to y , + y2 + ... + ya = 5o + 6(x, + x2 + ... +
xs> + c(x,2 + x2z + ... + x52) i.e., Zyt = So + bZxi + c Xx2 ,..(5) * See
footnote on p. 311.
817 Empirical Laws and Curve-fitting Equation (3) becomes x^,
+ x^ya + ... + jyts - «(x, + xs + ... + x6) + ft(x^ + x| + ... + x^) + cix'f + xjf +
... + ar®) Le.t = alx{ + tiEx? + cZa^3 ...<6J Similarly (4> simplifies U>
Eep^ - aEjc^ + blx^ + e3jcf4 *..(7) The equations (5), (6) and (7) are known
as iVomia/ equations and can be solved as simultaneous equations in aT b,
c. The values of these constants when substituted in (I) give the desired
curve of best fit, (2) Working procedure (a) To fit the straight line y = a + bx
O') Substitute the observed set of n values in this equation. (u) Form normal
equations for each constant Le.y Ey =na + 6Ex, Exy = aEx + ftEx2 [The
normal equation Tor the unknown a is obtained by multiplying the
equations by the coefficient of a and adding. The normal equation for b is
obtained by multi plying the equations by the coefficient of 6 (Le.tx) and
adding.] iiii) Solve these normal equations as simultaneous equations torn
and ft. (iu) Substitute the values of a and b in y =a + hx d which is the
required line of best fit. (6) To fit the parabola : y = a + bx + cjt£ (£ ) Form
the normal equations Ey - na + blx ■+ rEv2 Exy = uEr + bLx2 + cE r3 and
Ix*y = alx2 4 frEr3 + clx4 |The normal equation forr has been obtained by
multiplying the equations by the coefficient of r and adding.] (ii) Solve
these as simuJtaneous equations fora, 6, c. [Hi) Substitute the values oiap b,
c iny = a + bx + cxzf which is the required parabola of best fit, (c) In
general the curve y = a + bx + cx2 + + kxm ~ 1 can be fitted to a given data
by writing m normal equations. Example 24 .1. IfP is the pull required to
lift a load W by means of a pulley block , find « linear fate of the farm P -
mW + c connecting P and IV, using the following data : P = 12 15 21 25 II .
70 100 120 where P and W arc token in kg-wL Compute P when W = 150
kg. wt. Solution. The corresponding normal equations are IP = 4c + mZW |
ywp = cmr + mm*] The values of XtV etc. are calculate] by means of the
following table (U.p.T U., 2007; V.T.U., 2002) W P W2 WP GO 12 2500
mo 70 1G 4900 1050 100 21 10000 2100 120 25 14400 3000 Total =340 73
31800 6750 i.e.f and .'. The equations (i) becomes 73 = 4c + 340m and 6750
= 340c + 31800m 2c + 170m = 365 34c + 3180m = 675 Multiplying (ft) by
17 and substracting from (i«), we get m = 0.1879 from (ii), c - 2.2785 ...(h)
...(in)
Higher Engineering Mathematics BIS Hence the line of beet fit is
P = 2.2759 + 0.1879 W When W = 150 kg.,F = 2.2785 + 0.1879 x 150 =
30.4635 kg. Ohs, The calculntinne get simplified when the central values of
x is zero. It is therefore, advisable to make the central value zero, if it be not
so. This is illustrated by the next example. Example 24.5. Fit a second
degree parabola to the following data ; X 0 l 2 3 4 y i L8 1.2 2.5 6.3 tP.T.U,
2006) Solution. Let u = x - 2 and u = y so that the parabola of fity = u + bx
+ cx2 becomes y = A + Bh + Cu2 The normal equations are Ze = 5A + Blu
+ CZtf2 or 12.9 = 5A + 10C Luv=Alu + 8Z«2 + CXw2 or 11.3 = 1013 Z
u2v = All ia + BLu* + CIuA or 33.5 = I0A + 34C Solving those as
simultaneous equations, we get A - 1.48, B - 1.13, C — 0.55, (0 becomes, e
= 1.48 + 1.13k + 0,55m2 nr y = 1 .48 + 1. 13 (* - 2) + 0.55 ( x - 2)z Hence y
= 1.42 - 1.07* + 0-55*2. Exnmpie 24.(5, Fit a second degree parabola to the
following data ; 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 y= J./ L3 1.6 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.1 (V. T.
LL, 2009 ; Bhopal. 2008 ) Solution. We shift the origin to (2.5, 01 and take
0.5 as the new unit. This amounts to changing the variable x to X , by the
relation X = 2r - 5. Let the parabola of fit be y = a + bX + cX1. The values
of XX etc., are calculated as below : X X y m A* A*y A 9 X{ 1.0 -3 i.i -3.3
9 9.9 -27 81 i.B -2 1,3 -2.6 4 5.2 -8 16 2.0 -1 1.6 -1.6 1 1.6 -1 1 2.5 0 20 0.0
0 0.0 0 0 3.0 1 2.7 2.7 1 2.7 1 1 3.5 2 3.4 6.8 4 13.6 8 16 4,0 3 4.1 12.3 9
36.9 27 81 Total - 0 16.2 14.3 28 69.9 0 196 The normal equations are 7a +
28c = 16. 2 ; 286 = 14.3 ; 28a + 196c = 69.9 Solving these as simultaneous
equations, we get a = 2.07, 6 = 0.511, c = 0.061 y - 2.07 + 0.51LY +
0.06LX2 Replacing X by 2x - 5 tn the above equation, we get y = 2.07 +
0.511 (2r — 5) + 0.061 (2r-512 which simplifies toy - 1.04 - 0.198* +
0.244*2. This is the required parabola of best fit.
bMF'ifttCM. Laws and Curve- fitting 819 Example 24.7* Fit a

second degree parabola to the following data : X J.9S.9 1990 1991 1992
1993 1994 1995 1996 1397 y 352 356 357 358 360 361 361 360 359
lU.P.T.U.. 2009 ) Solution , Taking u = x- 19 b3 and v = y - 357, the
equation y - a + hx + car2 becomes v = A + Bu + Cu 2 ,M) X u=x- 1993 > u
=y -357 tie u.* U* U4 1989 - 4 352 -5 20 16 - 60 -64 256 1990 -3 360 -1 3
9 -e -27 81 1991 -2 357 0 0 4 0 -8 16 1992 -1 358 1 -1 1 i -1 1 1993 0 360 3
0 0 0 0 0 1994 1 361 4 4 1 4 I 1 1995 2 361 4 8 4 15 8 16 1996 3 360 3 9 9
27 27 81 1997 4 369 2 8 16 32 64 266 Total Iu-0 P il Sffu = 51 Eu2e = - 6
Ik3 = 0 Ek* = 708 nr or or The normal equations arc In = AA + Bln + CLu2
or 11 = 9A + 60C Euc = AUtt + Blti2 + CTu3 or 51 - 605 or B lu2v = AIu2
+ + Clu* or - 9 = 6QA + 70SC On solving these equations, we get A 694
231 B- 17 C- 247 20 ’ 924 17 20 (i) becomes 694 17 247 a o = - + — u - u
231 20 924 694 17 V - 357 = — + — (x - 1933) 231 20 247 924 (x - 1933
)2 Hence 694 32861 247 17 247x3866 247 2 231 20 924 20 924 924 y = 3 -
1643.05 - 998823.36 + 357 + 0.85x + 1033.44ar - 0.267a:2 v = -
1000106.41 + 1034.29a: - 0.267x2, PROBLEMS 24.2 : . By the method of
least squares, find the straight line that best fits the following data ; «: 1 2 3
4 5 y ; 14 27 2. Fit a straight line to the following data : 40 $5 68 (i
U.P.T.U.. 2008) Yearx : 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 Production y : 8 10 12
10 16 (in thousand tons) and find the expected production in 2006, 3. A
simply supported beam carries a concentrated load P (lb) at its mid-point.
Corresponding to various values of P, the maximum defies Uon Y tin) t*
measured. The data are given below :
820 Higher Engineering Matmematics Pi 100 120 140 160 180
200 Y: 0.45 0.55 (J.DO 070 0.S0 0.85 Find & law of the form lr =• u + bP. 1
The results of measurement of electric resistance ff of a copper bar at
various temperatures PC are Hated below : / : 19 26 30 36 40 45 50 R : 7(5
77 79 80 82 83 85 Find a relation R = n + bt. where a and b are constants to
be determined by you. 6- Find the best possible curve of the form y = a +
ftje, using method of] east squares for the data : * : 1 3 4 6 8 y : 1 2 4 4 5 Fit
a straight lint to the following da ta foJ X : 1 2 3 4 5 y: 9 8 10 12 11 13 a.
The norma) equations for (i) are : Z Y - nA + bZX , 1XY = A1X + blX2
from which A and b can be determined. Then a can be calculated from A =
log10 a. <2 )y = aeb* Taking logarithms, Iugl0.y - lug|()£j + tx log,,, e i.e,, y
= A + Bx where Y - lng10y, A = ]og10 a and B-b lng10 e Here the normal
equations are : I V = nA + BLx, ZiT = AZx + Six® from which A, B can be
found and consequently a, b can be calculated. (3) xy" = b (or pvt = k)
Taking logarithms, log10x + a log10y = log,p h or log10y = - log,,, b - -
log10x (t> (Exponential curve) (Gan equation )
821 Empirical Laws and CuflvE-FrniMG This is of the form Y -
A + EX where X = log10 x, Y = lng10 y, A = - log10 htB = - — . a a Here
also the problem reduces to finding a straight line of best fit through the
given data. Example 24,8 , Find the least sqtutrett fit of the form y = a0 +
a^r to the following data : x : - 1 0 1 2 y: 2 5 3 0 (U.P.T.U., 2008 ) Solution.
Putting x2 = X , we have y = a0 + UyX the normal equations are : £y = 4a +
a1EX ; 2LY = a0LX + afEX*. The values of LX, LX2 etc. are calculated
below : X y X JE* XY -1 2 1 i 2 0 5 fi G 0 1 3 1 1 3 2 0 4 16 0 Sy = 10
EX^tQ = 18 1XY = 5 the normal equations become 10 = 400 + 6at ; 5 - 600
+ 18a : Solving these equations we get, n0 = 4.167, a ( - 1.111. Hence the
curve of best fit is y = 4.167 - 1.11 LX i.e., y = 4.167 - l.llljc2. Example
24.9. An experiment gave the following values : vtfUmin) : 350 400 500
600 t (ruin) ; 61 26 7 25 // is known that v and t are, connected by the
relation v = at*'. Find the best possible values of ei and h. Solution. We
have log10u = iogfc a + b tog10 t or y = A + 6X, where X = Jogl0/, y -
log1() v,A = log|0 a the normal equations are ZY=4A+bZX ...(t) !XY = AlX
+ bZX? ...(«) Now IX etc. are calculated as in the following table : 0 t >1 II
f y=tOgwu AY J P 350 61 1,7853 2.5441 4.542 3.187 400 2G 1.4150 2.6021
3.682 2.002 500 7 0.S45I 2.6990 2.281 0.714 600 2.6 0.4150 2.7782 1.153
0. 172 Total 4.4604 10.6234 11.658 G.D75 Equations (i) and (it) become
4A + 4.466 - 10.623 ; 4.46A + 6.0756 = 11.658 Solving these. A = 2.845. b
= - 0.1697 a = antilog A = antilog 2.S45 = 699.8. Example 24-10. Predict
the mean radio, t ion. done at an altitude of 3000 feet 6y fitting an
exponential nave to the given data : Altitude (x) ; 50 450 780 1200 4400
4800 5300 Dose of radiation (y) : 28 30 32 36 51 58 69 (S.V.T.IK, 2007 ;
J.N.T.U., 2003)
822 Hiciheh Engineering Mathematics Solution. Let y - ah* be
the exponential curve. Then log10 y = Jog1Q a +x IogJ0 b or Y = A + fit
where Y = log10.y, A - logJ(} a, B = logl0 b .v the normal equations are
IF=7A + B2j: .,.{() E*F = AIje + B£c2 .Jii) Now Lt etc. are calculated as
follows : * y T = h>g,ny xY ** 50 28 1.447158 72.3579 2500 450 so
1.477121 664,7044 202500 780 32 1.606150 1 1 74.01 70 608400 1200 3©
1.666308 1667.5636 1440000 4400 51 1.707670 7613.3080 19360000 4600
58 1.763428 8464.4544 23040000 6300 m 1.838849 9745.8997 28090000 I
= 16960 11.295679 29502.305 72743400 /. equations (i > and (ii) become
11.295579 = 1A + 169605 29502.305 = 16930.4 + 727434005 Solving
these equations, we get A = 1.4521015, B = 0.00GQ666289 loglQ y = Y= 1
.45210 1 6 + 0.0000666289x Hence y (at x = 3000) = 44.874 Le. 44.9
approx. Example 24.1 1 . The pressure and volume of a gat r ore related by
the equation pvl = k. yand k being constants. Fit this equation to the
following set of observations : p (kg /cm 2) : 0.5 J.O 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 v
(litres) : L62 1.00 0.75 0.62 0:52 0.46 (V.T.U., 2011) Si dull on. We have
log10p + ylog10 v = log10 k or L°g)n [! - “ lV XV A* .5 1.62 -0.3010
0.2096 - 0.0630 0.0906 1.0 1.00 0.0000 0.0000 - 00000 0.0000 E.5 0.76
0.1761 -0.1249 - 0.0220 0,0310 2.0 0.62 0.3010 -0.2076 - 0,0625 0.0906
2,5 0,52 0.3979 -0.2840 -0.1130 0.1583 3.0 0.46 0.4771 -0.3372 - 0-1609
0.2278 Total 1.0611 - 0.7442 - 0.4214 0,5981 equations (i) and (ti) become
6 A + 1.05115 = -0.7442
823 Empirical Laws and CuRvE-FirnMS 1.05114 + 0.5981S =

-0.4214 Solving these, we get A = 0.0132, B = - 0.7836. y = - 1/B = 1.1276
and k = antilog (Ay) = antilog (0.0168) - 1.030. Hence the equation of best
fit is pv121G - 1.039. PROS LEMS 24,3 I rrv (km/hr) and R ( kg/ton 1 are
related by a relation of the type R-a + b V':, find by the method' of least
squares a and 6 with the help of the following table : V: 10 20 30 40 50 R :
8 10 15 21 30 (Indore, 2008) y. Using the method offcast. squares fit the
curve y - ax +- 6x2 to following observations : x : l 2 3 jpf : 1.8 5.1 8.9 Fit
the curve y = ax + b/x to the following data : x: l 2 9 y : 5.4 6.3 8.2 4 14.1 5
19,8 [J.N.T U., 2003) (Madras, 2003) 4 5 6 7 8 10.3 12,6 14.9 17.3 19.S
(U.P.T.U., 2010) I. Estimate y at x - 2-25 by fitting the indifference curve of
the form *y = Ai *■ B to the following data . x: 1 234 v : 3 L5 6 7.5 6. Find
the least square curve y = ttx + b/x for the following data ; x : 1 2 3 4 y : -
1.5 0.99 3.88 7.66 il Predict y at.v - 3.75, by fitting a jmwer curve y =„)
quite closely. ...(1J (Fig. 24,5)
824 Higher Engineering Mathematics When X = Jtj, the observed
(or expenmenlu.1) value ufy = y^ = LjP, and from (1), y “ a + iij = L^MV
which is known as the expected (or calculated.) value ofy at Lr Then e, -
observed value at L( “ expected value at L j = yj - (a + 6jct) = AfjPp which
is called the error (or residual) at xy Similarly the errors for the other
observations are e2 = y3 - (a + bxf) = ATjP,, en=y„-ia+bxn)*Mnpn Fig, 24,5
Snmt* of then# errors may bt> positive and cithers negative. The method of
group averages is based on the assumption that the sum of the residuals is
zero. To find the constants a and b is (1), we require two equations. As such
we divide the data into two groups : the first containing k observations and
the second group having the remaining n - k observations * iâ * i>’ 2 + ■ +
.Vft k y* + 1 + y»+g + - + x. n - k = a + b = o+6 *1 + *g + ... + Xjt, k *t+i y
2 y n-k ...(2) ...(3) In (2), y Uj + jt2 + ... + xk ) and - (y t + y2 + ... + yh ) are
simply the average values of x’s andy’s of the first k k group. Hence the
equations (2) and (3J are obtained from ( 1) by replacing x and y by their
respective averages of the two groups. Solving (2> and (3), we get a and b
Obs. The main drawback of this method is that a different grouping of the
observations will give different values of a and b. In practice, we divide the
data in such a way that each group contains almost an equal number of
observations, Ex uni pie 24- L2, The latent heat of vaporisation of steam r,
is given tn the following table at different temperatures t : t : 40 50 60 70 80
BO 100 110 r: 1069.1 1063.6 1058.2 1052.7 1049.3 1041.8 1036.3 1030.8
For this range of temperature, a r elution of the form r = a + bt is know m to
fit the data. Find the. values of aand b by the method of group averages,
{Madras, 2003 ) Solution. Let us divide the data into two groups each
containing four readings. Then we have f r t r 40 50 80 70 1009.1 1063.6
1058.2 1052.7 m 90 100 110 1049.3 1041.8 1036.3 1030.6 If = 220 lr =
4243.6 If = 380 lr = 4166.2
Empirical Laws and Curve-fitting 625 Substituting the averages
of t's and r's of the two groups in the given relation, we get 4243.6 i 220 . i
r\r n d . trl. - — =u + o - i.e., 1060.9 = o + Bob 4 4 415B.2 , 380 = a + b 4 4
Solving (I) and fit 1, we obtain a = 1090.26, b = - 0.534. i.e,, 1039.55 = a +
956 ...ft) ..XU) FITTING A PARABOLA Wc have applied the method of
averages to linear law involving two constants only. To fit the y - a + bx +
ex2 which contains three constants, to a set of observations, we proceed as
follows : Let Uj , y j) he a point on ( 1 } satisfying the given data so that
>>., = £1+6*,+ ex,2 Then y -yt = b Of— *L) + c (a2 — Xj2) .v-yi *“Xt
Putting x + jc, = X and (y -yf)t{x - Xj) = Y, it takes the linear form Y = b +
cX. Now b and r can be found as before. or 6 + c (* + xt) parabola .-(I)
hxamplf 24 J 3. The corresponding values of x and y are given by the
fallowing table : x: 37.5 84.0 77,8 63.7 46,7 36.9 y ; 292 283 270 235 197
181 Solution. Taking* = 84, y = 283 as a particular point on y = e + bx +
cx2, we get 283 = a + b (84) + c (S4)3 y - 283 = 6 2| or — — ss 6 + c f* 4-
84) *-84 t.e„ y = 6 + cX where X = * + 84, Y = (y - 283 V(* - 84). Now we
have the following table of values : X y X = x + 84 Y = (y-283)f(x 87.5 292
171,5 2.571 84.0 2m — — 77.8 270 161.8 2.097 LX * 333.3 I Y = 4,668
63.7 235 147.7 2.364 46.7 197 130-7 2,306 36.9 18! 120.9 2.166 IX = 399.3
O' =6.836 ...
826 Higher Engineering Mathematics (in Wiii} gives c - 0.0014
and (iii) gives b ■ 2.0967 i.e.f 2.1 nearly From (i), we get a - 96,9988 i.e. ,
97 nearly. Hence the parabola of fit is y = 97 + 2.1* ■+• .0014**. Kxamplc
24.14. Tilt* train resistance R (tbs i ton) is measured for the following
values of its velocity V (km /hr) : V; 20 40 60 80 WO R: 5 9 14 25 36 If Ft
is related to V" by the formula R - a + hVn, [hid u b, >: it ’> Solutnui. To
find a, we take the following three values of v which are in G.P. : iij = 20,
u3 - 40, c3 = 80 Then Rt = 5, 9. A = 25 (ft1~a)(ft3-n) = (i?2-o)s whence it =
— — — — - 3.67 R^ + Rq - 2Rr, Thus R - 3.67 = bV* or logI0 (7? - 3.67) -
Jogl0 b + n log10 V i.e., Y = k + nX -<0 where X - log10 V, Y - log10 ( R -
3-67), k = logl0i». Now we have the following table of values : V ft X =
logm V V = log !n (R - 3.67) 20 5 1.3010 o.vm 40 9 1.6021 0,7267 60 14
1.7762 10141 EJ= 4,6813 I F= 1.8646 80 25 1,9031 1,3200 100 36 2.0000
1.5096 2* - 3,90:< 1 IX = 2.8396 Substituting the averages of X's and Y’s
in (i), we obtain 1.8646 = h + n 4.6813 i.e., 0.6215 = k + 1.5604 n ...Hi) 2 2
2.8386 — k + n 3.9031 i.e., 1.4193 = k + 1.9516 ;; ...(itt) 2 2 Solving (fi)
and (iii)t we get n = 2.04, k = - 2.56 approx. b = antilog ft = antilog (- 2,56)
= 0.0028. PROBLEMS 24.4 1. Fit a straight line of list? form y = « + bx to
the following do to by t he method of group averages : x: 0 5 10 IB 20 25 y
: 12 15 17 22 24 30 2. The weigh t* of a calf taken at weekly intervals arc
given below Age ; 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Weight : 52.5 68.7 G5.0 70.2 7G.4 81.1 .
87.2 Find a straight line of beet fit. (Ti/uchimjmHi, 2001) 6 95,5 9 102.2 10
108.4
Empirical Laws anc Curve “Fitttng 827 3. Using the method of
averages, fit a parabola y - or2 + 5* k- to the following data : x: 20 40 60 80
100 120 y ; 5.5 9.1 14.9 22.8 33.3 46.5 4. While testing a centrifugal pump,
the following data is obtained. It is assumed to fit the equation y - a + bx +
or*, whore * is the discharge in litrWsec and y, head in metres of water.
Find the values of the constants a, b, r by the method of group averages. *:
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5,5 6 y : 18 17.8 17.5 17 15.8 14.8 13.3 11,7 9 5. By the
method of averages. Fit a curve of the form y = ce*'1 to the following data :
X : 5 15 20 30 35 40 y : 10 14 25 40 50 62 {Madras, 2002 ) METHOD OF
MOMENTS Let {xv y j), (x2,ya), ... Oc^.y,,) be the set of n observations
such that *2~*i= *3 ~x2 = - = i - A (say) We define the momenta of the
observed values of y as follows : in ,, the 1st moment = hly m2, the 2nd
moment = hlxy tn~ the 3rd moment = hlx^y and so on. Let the curve fitting
the given data be y = fix). Then the moments of the calculated values of y
are g,, the 1st moment = Jyt£r p2, the 2nd moment = Jay dx |i;1, the 3rd
moment = Jiay dx and so on. This method is based on the assumption that
the moment of the observed values ofy are respectively equal to the
moments of the calculated values ofy Le., mt = Pj, m2 = m3 = p3 etc. These
equations (known as observation equations) are used to determine the
constants in fix). m’s are calculated from the tabulated values of jc and y
while p’s are computed as follows : In Fig, 24.6, yj the ordinate of'P^ (x -
Xj)( can be taken as the value ofy at the mid-point of the interval (X|- A/2,
Jfj + hJ2). Similarly, yftr the ordinate of Pn (ar = xn)t can be taken as the
value ofy at the mid-point of the interval (jrn - hi 2, xn + h/2). If .4 and B be
the points such that OA = *, - hf 2 and OB - + hi 2, then Pi = r flu + hf 2 y
dx = f(x)dx J lij-h/2 )h = rxh+ht 2 l xfix) dx j Xt-ftf'i and fXn ■* hJ 2 x2f(x)
dx. ix,-hn Example 21.15. Fit a straight liney - a + bx to the fallowing data
by the method of moments : x: 1234 y: 16 19 23 26 (Madras. 2001 S )
Solution. Since only two constants a and b are to be found, it is sufficient to
calculate the first two moments in each case. Here h = 1. mx = hly = 1 (16 +
19 + 23 + 26) = 84 ma = hlxy = 1 (1 x 16 + 2 x 19 + 3 x 22 + 4 a 26) =±
227
828 Higher Engineering Mathew khcs To compute the moments
of calculated values of y — a + bx, the limits of integration will be 1 A/2
and 4 + A/2 i.e.t 0.5 to 4.5 Pi= 2 f4 5 x2 : (a + bx) dx ax + b — Jos 2 = 4a +
106 p.> - I itti + 6jc) dx = 10a + — 6. Jos 3 91 Thus, the observation
equations mr - T)r (r = 1, 2) are 4a + 106 = 84 ; IGn + — 6 = 227 3 Solving
these, a = 13.02 and 6 = 3.19. Hence the required equation is j/ = 13.02 +
3,19*. IXajrijp!*' 24.10, Given the following data : x : 0 1 2 3 4 y; 1 5 10 22
38 find the parabola of best, fit by the method of moments. Solution. Let the
parabola of best fit be y — a + bx + ex2 ...ii) Since three constants are to be
found, we calculate the first three moments in each case. Here 6 = 1. m j =
hly = 1(1 + 5 + 10 + 22 + 38) = 76 rn2 = hlxy = 1 (0 + 5 + 20 + 66 + 152) -
243 ma = hlx*y - 1 (0 + 5 + 40 + 198 + 608) = 851 For computing the
moments of calculated values of (i), the limits of integration will be 0 - hi 2
and 4 + /t/2 i,e., - 0.5 and 4.5, f4-5 „ , p. = | (a + bx +■ cx^ydx = 5a + 106 +
30.4c p2 = 1 X (a + bx + ex2) dx = 10a + 30.46 + 102.5c J-os pa = f i2 (a +
bx + vx1 1 dx = 30.4a + 102.56 + 369.1c 1- 06 Thus the observation
equations mr- pr(r - 1, 2. 3) are 5u + 106 + 30.4c = 76 ; 10a + 30.4 + 102.5c
= 243 ; 30.4a + 102.56 + 369.1c = 851 Solving these equations, we get u =
0.4, 6 = 3.15, r = 1.4. Hence the parabola of best fit is^ = 0.4 + 3.15* +
1.4x2. PROBLEMS 24.5 1, Uee the method of moments to fit the straight
linay = a + be to the data : x : 1 2 3 4 y: 0 17 0.18 0.23 0.32 2, fit a straight
line to the following data, using the method of moments : x: 1 3 5 7 9 y: 1.5
2.8 4.0 4.7 6.0 (Madras. 200 1) ft Fit a parabola of ihe form v = a + bx +
cx2 to the data : * : 1 2 3 4 1,7 1.8 2.3 3.2 by the method of moments. i, By
using the method of moments, fit a parabola to the following data : x : 1 2 3
4 y: 0,30 064 1.32 5.40 {Madras, 2000 8\
Empirical Laws and Curve-pitting KEIM OBJECTIVE TYPE OF

QUESTIONS 829 PROBLEMS 24.6 Flit up the blanks or chome thr Cpjfrti
answer m the fnl fail ing problem* ; I The law y - ax* +- bx converted to
linear form Is . - ■ Thf^ gas equation pjtf - ft can be reduced to y - a + bx
where a - . . and h ■ ,1. The principle o fieast squares* states that i. y - + c
in linear form is ™™ 5+ To fit the straight lin'ey - mx + c to n observations
the normal equations are (i\Xy~ nix + Zim< Xrv = c lx2 + r (ii) Xy = m lx
+■ ncf Ley = m lx* + c L*, (tti) ly = c Ex + m In, I xy - c Jjt2 + m Lx, & To
fit > = aft* hy least square met hod, normal equations arp . . 7. The
observation equations for fitting a straight line by method of moments are .
K The method of group nvt'mges is based cm the assumption that the sum
of the residuals is . . H y - ax2 + b logIO x reduced to linear law takas the
form V+TT* it . , 10. Given r*= 0 i % 1 [yo 1.1 2.1 then the straight line of
best fit is ' * The method of momenta is based on Lhe assumption that . i 2.
In y = a + bx, lx = 150. ly = 80. Ixy = 1030, Lr2 = 750 and n = JO, then a =
. J> = .... : .. y = x/ittx + A) in linear form is . I t- If y a a + bx + ex* and xi 0
1 y i 1 1.6 then the first normal equation is : («} 15 - 5« + 10/j + 29t. (y)
12.9 = 5a + 106 + 30c 2 1.3 3 2.5 4 7,3 {JSJ 15 = 6a + 105 + 31r (5) 34 =
5a + 106 + 27 c. ! •'• Ify = 2.v + 5 is the best fit for 8 pairs of values lx, v)
by the method of least Squares and Lv - 120, then IX (d) 35 lb) 40 W45 Ufl
30.
Statistical Methods 1. Introduction. 2. Collection and
classification of data. 3. Graphical representation. 4. Comparison of
frequency distributions. 5, Measures of central tendency. 6, Measures of
dispersion, 7, Coefficient ol variation; Relations between measures of
dispersion. B. Standard deviation of the combination of two groups, 9.
Moments, 10. Skewness, It. Ku Hosts. 12. Correlation, 13. Coefficient of
correlation, 14. Lines of regression. 15. Standard error of estimate. 16. Rank
correlation. 17. Objective Type of Questions. 25.1 INTRODUCTION
Statistics deals with the methods for collection, classification and analysis
of numerial data for drawing valid conclusions and making reasonable
decisions. It has meaningful applications in production engineering, in the
analysis of experimental data, etc. The importance of statistical methods in
engineering is on the increase. As such we shall now introduce the student
to this interesting field. 25.2 (1) COLLECTION OF DATA The collection
of data constitutes the starting point of any statistical investigation. Data
may be collected for each and every unit of the whole lot (population), for it
would ensure greater accuracy. But complete enumeration is prohibitively
expensive and time consuming. As such out of a very large number of
items, a few of them ta sample) are selected and conclusions drawn on the
basis of this sample are taken to hold for the population. (2) Classification
of data. The data collected in the course of an inquiry is not in an easily
assimilable form. As such, its proper classification is necessary for making
intelligent inferences. The classification is done by dividing the raw data
into a convenient number of groups according to the values of the variable
and finding the frequency of the variable in each group. Let us, for
example, consider the raw data relating to marks obtained in Mechanics by
a group of 64 students ; 79 88 75 60 93 71 59 B5 84 75 62 68 90 62 88 76
65 75 87 74 62 95 78 63 78 82 75 91 77 69 74 68 67 73 81 72 63 76 75 85
BO 73 57 88 78 62 76 53 62 67 97 78 85 76 65 71 78 89 61 75 95 60 79 83
830
Statistical Methods 831 This data can conveniently be grouped
ant! shown in a tabular form as follows : Class Fr^qtamt-y Cumulative
frequency 50-54 l 1 65—59 2 3 60—64 9 12 66—69 7 19 70—74 8 27 75
—79 17 44 HO— 64 6 50 H5— 89 8 58 90-94 3 61 95—99 3 64 Total = 64
It would be seen from the above table that there is one student getting
marks between 50 — 54, two students getting marks between 55 — 59,
nine students getting marks between 60 — 64 and so on. Thus the 64 figure
have been put into only 10 groups, called the classes. The width of the class
is called the class interval and the number in that interval is c alled the
frequency. The mid-point or the mid-value of the class is called the class
mark. The above table showing the classes and the corresponding
frequencies is called a frequency table. Thus a set of raw duta summarised
by distributing it into a number of classes alongwith their frequencies is
known as u frequency distribution. While forming a frequency distribution,
the number of classes should not ordinarily exceed 20, and should not, in
general, be less than 10. As far as possible, the class intervals should be of
equal width. (3) Cumulative frequency. In some investigations, we require
the number of items less than a certain value. We add up the frequencies of
the classes upto that value and call this number as the cumulative frequency.
In the above table, the third column shows the cumulative frequencies, i. e. ,
the number of students, getting less than 54 marks, less than 59 marks and
so on. 25,3 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION A convenient way of
representing a sample frequency distribution is by means of graphs. It gives
to the eyes the general run of the observations and at the same time makes
the raw data readily intelligible. We give below the important types of
graphs in use : (1) Histogram. A histogram is drawn by erecting rectangles
over the class intervals, such that the areas of the rectangles are proportional
to the class frequencies. If the class intervals are of equal si/,e, the height of
the rectangles will be proportional to the class frequencies themselves ( Fig.
25.1). (2) Frequency polygon. A frequency polygon for an ungrouped data
can be obtained by joining points plotted with the variable values as the
abscissae and the frequencies as the ordinates. For a grouped distribution,
the abscissae of the points will be the mid-values of the class intervals. To
case the intervals are equal, the frequency polygon can be obtained by
joining the middle points of the upper sides of the rectangles of the
histogram by straight lines (shown by dotted lines in Fig. 25.15. If the class
intervals become very very small, the frequency polygon takes the form of a
smooth curve called the frequency curve. fie. 25.1 (3) Cumulative
frequency curve -Ogive. Very often, it is desired to show in a diagrammatic
form, not the relative frequencies in the various intervals, but the
cumulative frequencies above or below a given value. For example, we may
wish to read off from a diagram the number or proportions of people whose
income is not less than any given amount, or proportion of people whose
height does not exceed any stated value. Diagrams of
832 Higher Engineering Mathematics this type are known as
cumulative frequency curves or ogives. These are of two kinds 'more than '
or 'less than' and typically they look somewhat like a long drawn S (Fig,
25,2), Fig. 25.2 Example 25,1. Draw the histogram, frequency polygon,
frequency curve and the ogive 'less than* and more than ' from the
following distribution of marks obtained by 49 students : Class (Marks
group) Frequency {No. of students) Cumulative frequency (Less than)
(More than) 5—10 5 5 49 10—1 5 6 U 44 15—20 l' 15 26 38 20—25 W 36
23 25—30 5 41 13 30—35 4 45 8 35—40 2 47 4 40—45 2 49 2 Sola l ion.
In Fig. 25.1, the rectangles show the histogram ; the dotted polygon
represents the frequency polygon and the smooth curve is the frequency
curve. The ogives ‘less than* and ‘more than' are shown in Fig. 25.2. 25.4
COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS The condensation of
data in the form of a frequency distribution is very useful as far as it brings
a long series of observations into a compact, form. Rut in practice, we are
generally interested in comparing two or more series. The inherent inability
of the human mind to grasp in its entirety even the data in the form of a
frequency distribution compels us to seek for certain constants which could
concisely give an insight into the important characteristics of the series. The
chief constants which summarise the fundamental characteristics of the
frequency distributions are (i) Measures of central tendency , (it) Measures
of dispersion and in) Measures of skewness. 25.5 MEASURES OF
CENTRAL TENDENCY A frequency distribution in general, shows
clustering of the data around some central value. Finding of this central
value or the average is of importance, as it gives a most representative value
of the whole group.
Statistical Methods Different methods give different averages
which art1 known as the measures of central tendency. The commonly used
measures of central value are Mean, Median, Mode, Geometric mean and
Harmonic mean. (1) Mean, lfajj, jc2, i;a, ..., are a set of/i values of'a variate,
then the arithmetic mean (or simply mean) b> given by Xj + x2 + x3 + ... +
Ex. , i.e. ...il) n n In a frequency distribution, if*1P r2, be the mid-values of
the class-intervals having frequencies fv f2. ..., f respectively, we have = _
fi* i + fl*2 + - + /X _ - - - ~ t£: ...(2) A + A + "■ + A — i Calculation of
mean. Direct method of computing especially when applied to grouped data
involves heavy calculations and in order to avoid these, the following
formulae are generally used : , f _ Ef.rf, I. Short-cut method x = A + If. Ef.u
II. Step-deviation method x = A + h ^ 1 where d -x-A and u = (* - AVh. A
being an arbitrary origin and h the equal class interval. Proof. If jc^, .v0, xn
are the mid-values of the classes with frequencies fv f2, .... fn, we have
Zfixi = Lf'{A + di) = ALfi + Zfidi * - if, if, Further = d/h or dt - htij.
Substituting this value in (3), we get (4). Obs. The algebraic sum of the
deviations of all the variables from their mean is /'era, for Ef (r, - aM = Lfx
-xLf= Efext - . If, = 0. tor. If 3fj. x2 be the means of two samples of size
nâtid n2, then the mean x of the combined sample of size n j + n2 is given
by _ = ptx, + n3x3 ...(3) ..(4) n. + n. For nt xj = sum of all observations of
the first sample, and n. xo = sum of all observations of the second sample.
sum of the observations of the combined sample = ;t , + n2 r2 . Also number
of the observations in the combined sample = fij + n2. mean of the
combined sample = rtjX, + n2x2 Example 25.2. The following is the
frequency distribution of a random sample of weekly earnings of 509
employees ; Weekly earnings : 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 80 32 34 36
38 40 No. of employees : 3 6 10 16 24 42 75 90 79 58 36 26 19 13 9 7
Calculate, the average weekly earnings. Solution, The calculations are
arranged in the following table. The arbitrary origin is generally taken as
the value corresponding to the maximum frequency. By direct method, ive
have Mean x = = fo?15- = 26.16 Tf 509 By step -deviation method, we have
X 25, 2x HI = 25 + 1.16 - 26.16, which is same as found above.
834 Higher Engineering Mathematics Weekly earnings M id

value No, of employees f Step deviations X f* X u *tc-25J/2 f x u 10—12
11 3 33 -7 -21 12 — 14 13 6 78 -C -36 14—16 15 10 150 -5 -50 16—18 17
15 256 -4 — 80 1 8—20 !9 24 4.56 -a - 72 20—22 21 42 882 -2 -64 22—24
23 76 1725 -l - 75 24—26 25 90 2250 0 - 398 28—28 27 70 2133 l 79 28—
30 29 56 1595 2 110 30—32 31 36 1116 3 108 32 — 34 33 26 658 4 104 34
—36 35 19 665 5 95 36—38 37 13 431 6 78 38—40 39 9 351 7 63 40 — 12
41 7 287 8 56 + 693 27= 509 ifx = 13,315 tfk = 295 (2) Median. If the
values of a variable are arranged rn the ascending order of magnitude, the
median is the middle item if the number is odd and is the mean of the two
middle items if the number is even. Thus the median in equal to the mid-
value* i.e, , the value which divides the total frequency into two equal parts.
For the grouped data , Median = L + UN-Cj f x h where L = lower limit of
the median class, N - total frequency, f= frequency of the median class, h -
width of the median class, and C - cumulative frequency upto the class
preceding the median class. Quartiles* Quartiles are those values which
divide the frequency into four equal parts, when the values are arranged in
the ascending order of magnitude* The lower quartile ( Q t) is mid-way
between the lower extreme and the median. The upper quartile (Q3) is
midway between l he median Lhe upper extreme. For the grouped data,
these arc calculated by the formulae : and Q, = L.i^*h Qa = L + tjjN-O xh
where L = lower limit of the Hass in which or lies, / = frequency of this
class, h = width of the class and C - cumulative frequency upto Lhe class
preceding the class in which or Q ^ lies. The difference between the upper
and lower quartiles * he, P
835 Statistical Methods Aj - excess of modal frequency over
frequency of preceding class, Ag = excess of modal frequency over
following class, and h - size of modal class. For a frequency curve (Fig,
25,1), the abscissa of the highest ordinate determines the value of the mode.
There may be one or more modes in a frequency curve. Curves having a
single mode are termed as uninwdal, those having two modes as bi-modtd
and those having more than two modes as multi-modal. Obi,. la a
symmetrical distribution, the roeim, median and mode coincide. Fur other
distributions, however, they are different and are known to be connected by
the empirical relationship ; Mean - Mode = 3(Mcan - Median). kxiunplc
2G.3. Calculate median and the father and upper quar tiles from the
distribution of marks obtained by 49 students of example 25.1. Find also the
semi-interquartile range and the mode. Solution. Median (or 49/2) falls in
the class (15—20) and is given by _ (49/2) - 11 E ,e 13.5 lo + - — - *5=15
+ — = 19.5 marks. 15 d Lower quartile (or 49/41 = 12.25) also falls in the
class 15—20. (49/4) — 11 12 5 Qt = 15 + - - T|i - x 5 - 15 + ^ = 15.4 marks
XO1 d Upper quartile (or | x 49 = 36.75) falls in the class 25 — 30, 36.75-
36 , = 26 + x 5 = 25.75 marks. ~ . . . ... 1 tfx - . 25.75-15.4 10.35 _ Semi -
interquartile range - ± (Q3 — Q, ) = - - - - — - — - 5.175. Moile.* It is seen
that the mode value falls in the class 15 — 20. Employing the formula for
the grouped distribution, we have 15-6 Mode = 16 +■ (15 - 6) + (16 - 10)
x5 = 18-2 marks. i jbu, In fig. 25.2. the ogives meet at a paint whose
ato&rigsa is 19,5 which is t he median of the distribution- The values for
the lower and upper quartile* are similarly seen to be 15.4 (for frequency
12.25) and 25,7 (for frequency 36.75). Example 25.4. Given below are the
marks obtained by a batch of 20 student*; in a certain class test in Physics
and Chemistry * Roll No. of students Marks in Physics Marks m
Chemistry1 Roll No. of students Marks m Physics Marks in Ckenttsiry 1 53
58 11 25 10 2 $4 55 12 42 42 3 52 25 13 33 15 4 32 32 14 -IS 46 5 30 26 15
72 50 5 60 85 16 51 64 7 47 44 17 45 3$ 3 16 80 IS 33 38 3 35 33 19 65 30
10 2H 72 20 29 36 In which subject is the level of knowledge of the
students higher ? Solution* The subject for which the value of the median is
higher will be the subject in which the level of knowledge of the students is
higher. To find the median in each case, we arrange the marks in ascending
order of magnitude :
Higher Engineering Mathematics Sr . No. Marks in Physics

Marks m Chemistry Sr. No. Marks in Physics Murks in Chemistry 1 25 10
11 46 42 2 28 15 12 47 44 3 29 26 13 48 46 4 30 26 14 51 50 5 32 30 15 52
55 6 33 32 16 53 58 7 33 33 17 54 64 8 35 36 18 GO 72 9 42 38 19 65 80
10 45 39 20 72 8fi Median marks in Physics = A.M. of marks of 10th and
11th terms = 45^46 = 45.5 Median marks in Chemistry — A-M. of marks of
10th and 11th items. 39 + 42 .... 2 ~ 40-6 Since the median marks in Physics
is greater than the median marks in Chemistry; the level of knowledge in
Physics is higher. Example 25.5. Art incomplete frequency distribution is
given os below Variable : 10—20 20—30 30—40 40— SO SO— 60 60-70
Frequency : 12 30 f 65 f 25 Given that the total frequency is 229 and
median is 46, find the missing frequencies. 70—80 18 Solution. Let fr f2 be
the missing frequencies of the classes 30 — <10 and 50 — 00 respectively.
Since the median lies in the class 40—50, 46.40, + '■>,«, 65 which gives fY
= 33-5 which can be taken as 34, 4 = 229 - (12 + 30 + 34 + 65 + 25 + 16) =
45. <4) Geometric mean* if jCj, x2, are a set of n observations, then the
geometric mean is given by G.M. = (xx x2 ... xn)Vli or log G.M. = — (log
x * + log + . .. + log x ) n 1 4 n ...d> In a frequency distribution, x2, .... xf,
be the central values with corresponding frequencies frf„ ..., fllt we have
G.M. = [Vjej /’ . (x2 /* ... (xn /'■ Jl,M where n - Zfr or log G.M. = — I/-!
logXj + f2 logx2 + ... + f logxj ...(2) Tf L “ i ' i £ * f l Hence (1) and (2)
show that logarithm of G.M, = A.M. of logarithms of the values. (5)
Harmonic mean. If x2, ... xu be a set of n observations. then the harmonic
mean is defined as the reciprocal of the (arithmetic] mean of the reciprocals
of the quantities. Thus 1 H.M. = 11 + n \. v, 1 + ... +■ a:., x ) 1 /L+6+... + M
n\xi x,2 xj where n - Lfr In a frequency distribution. H.M. =
Statistical Methods 837 Example 25.6, Three cities A, B, C are:

equidistant from each other. A motorist travels from A to B at 30 km l hr r
from B to C at 40 km I hr, from C to A at 50 km l hr. Dr ter mi tie the
average speed. Solution. Let AB = BC = CA = s km Timer taken to travel
from A to B = s / 30 Time taken to travel from B to C = s, 140 Time taken to
travel from C to A -st 50 average time taken •*l + -£ 40 +io) Thus the
average speed = s 1 (JL + J_ + _«_\ 3 Uo 40 50 J In other words, the
average speed is the harmonic mean of 30, 40, 50 km i hr. 1 Hence the
average speed -I +-L + -L 30 40 50 - 38.3 km/hr. Ohs* Of the various
measures of central tendency, the mean is the rnciKt impnrUuit for it can he
computed easily, 77ic mpdian * though more easily calculable, cannot be
applied with ease to theoretical analysis. Median is of advantage when there
are exceptionally large and small values at the ends of the distribution. The
made, though most easily calculated, ha* the toast significance. It F
particular!1, misleading in distributions which are small in numbers or
highly unsymmetrical. The geometrical mean though difficult io compute,
finds application in cases like populations where wu are concerned with a
quantity whose changes tend to be directly proportional to the quantity
itself. The hurmamc mean is useful in limited situaitunE where time and
rate or prices are involved. PROBLEMS 25,1 L Draw the histogram and
frequency polygon for the following distribution. Also calculate the
arithmetic mean : (."lass interval : n-99 1PQ— 199 200—3(99 S(W— 390
400—499 500—509 GOO — 099 700-799 Frequency : 10 54 184 264 246
40 1 1 2* The Following marks were given to a batch of candidates i fi6 62
45 79 32 51 56 60 51 49 25 42 54 54 58 79 43 58 50 52 3S 67 50 59 48 65
71 30 46 55 82 51 03 45 58 40 36 m 70 52 67 55 67 30 63 42 74 58 44 55
Draw a cumulative frequency curveHence find the proportion of candidates
securing more than 50 marks. Also mark uiT the median, the first and third
qu&rtiletf. :i. Find the mean, median and mode for the following : Mid
Value : 15 20 26 30 35 40 45 50 55 Frequency: 2 22 10 14 3 4 6 ! 1 (Kerala,
1990) 4* Calculate mean, median and mode of the following data relating
in weight of 120 articles : Weight (in gm ) s 0—10 10—20 20-^30 30—40
40—50 GO--0O Mo. of articles* : 14 17 22 26 23 18 B. The population of a
country was 300 prulhorc in 1971, It became 520 million in 1909. Calculate
the percentage compound rate of growth per annum. Itlixit. Use Pn = Pt,[ I
+ r)Mp r being Ihe growth rated ft. The number of divorces per 1000
marriages in the United Slates turn used From 84 in 1970 to 108 in 1990.
Find the annual increase of the divorce rate for the period 1970 Lo 1990. 7.
An aeroplane Hies along the four sides* of a square at speed*, of 100, 200,
300 and 4CHJ km/hr. respectively What is the average speed of the plane in
i ts flight around the square, ftp A man having to drive 90 km. wishes to
achieve an average speed of 30 km/hr. For the first half of Lhe journey , he
averages only 29 km/hr, What must be his average speed for Lhe second
half of the journey if his overall eyomge is to be 30 km/hr.
338 Hkshef Engineering Maihei/atics B. Following tabfe gives
the eumulafive frequency of the age of a group of 190 teachers, Find the
mean and median age of the group. Age in years : 20—25 25—30 30— 35
35—40 40—45 45—50 5C5 — J55 55^60 &Q—m 65—70 Cum. frequ, :
21 40 90 130 146 166 176 tB6 195 199 10, Recast the following cumulative
table in the form of an ordinary frequency distribution and determine I he
median and the mode : No. of days absent No. of students No. of days
absent No. of students Lees than 5 29 Less than 30 644 Leea than 10 224
Less than 36 650 Less than 15 465 1^*- than 40 663 Less than 20 582 l-ess
than 45 655 Less than 25 634 25.6 MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Although measures of central tendency do exhibit one of the important
characteristics of a distribution, yet they fail to give any idea as to how the
individual values differ from the central value, i.e,, whether they are closely
packed around the central value or widely scattered away from it. Two
distributions may have the same mean and the same total frequency, yet
they may differ in the extent to which the individual values may be spread
about the average { See Fig. 26.3). The magnitude of such a variation is
called dispersion . The important measures of dispersion aTe given below :
(!) Range, This is the simplest measure of dispersion and is given hy the
difference between the greatest and the least values in the distribution. If the
weekly wages of a group oflabourers are ? 21 23 28 25 35 42 39 48 then
range. — Max. value — Min. value — 48 — 21 = ? 27. (2) Quart ile
deviation or semi-interquartile range. One half of the interquartile range is
called quartile deviation, or semi-interquartile range. If and are the first and
Lhird quartiles, the semiinterquartile range Q^liQa-QJ. (3) Mean deviation.
The mean deviation ts the mean of the absolute differences of the values
from the mean, median or mode. Thus mean deviation (M.D.) Some mean
different dispersion Fig. 25.3 where A is either the mean or the median or
the mode. As the positive and negative differences have equal effects, only
the absolute value of differences is taken into account. (4) Standard
deviation. The most important and the most powerful measure of dispersion
is the standard deviation {S.D. ) : generally denoted by o. It is computed as
the square root ofthe mean of the squares of the differences of the variate
values from their mean. Thus standard deviation (S.D. ) where N is the total
frequency E/\ a= ^ - x)2 N ...(1) If however, the deviations are measured
from any other value, say A, instead of x , it is called the root mean-square
deviation. The square of the standard deviation is known as the variance.
Calculation of S J). The change of origin and the change of scale
considerably reduces the labour in the calculation of standard deviation.
The formulae for the computation of
Statistical Methods 839 L Short cut method a = V 1L Step
deviation method r sr > j \*i*;2 j f^Tl 1 m 1 l if, J —(2) -{3) where iif = x{ -
A and d\ — (x( - A )/Vi , being the assumed mean and h the equal class
interval. Proof. We know that - x - - -A) - l x - A) m Xf - x )2 = I fid. — ( jc
- A)l2 = Zfd?- + (x -A)2 X/j-2(5 -A) I/rd[ -Ud*JH6L ~ if, [- A + Further d'f
= Or- - AVA = t/r/A or = /id'r then substituting this value in (2}t we get (31.
Ohs, T/if mean square deviation is feast when measured from the mean,
TEta root mean square deviation is given lay o2 and the leas! value of s2 =
a2 This occurs when A - x (4) 25.7 (1) COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
The ratio of the standard deviation to the mean, is known as the coefficient
of variation. As this is a ratio having no dimension, it is used for comparing
the variations between the two groups with different means. It is often
expressed as a percentage, /. Coefficient of variation - tt * 100 (2) Relations
between measures of dispersion {i} Quart ile deviation = 2/3 (standard
deviation} (ii) Mean deviation = 4/5 (standard deviation) 25,8 STANDARD
DEVIATION OF THE COMBINATION OF TWO GROUPS If m j , o, be.
the. mean and S.D. of a sample of size n , and m2> a., be those for a sample
nf size n2, then the S-O. o of the combined sample of size + n2 is given by
(n, + n2)o2 = n,af + natj| + o, D2 + n^D2 where D{ = mi - m, m being the
mean of combined sample. From {4), we have ns2 = no2 + n(x - A)2 where
n i s the size of the sample. t.e. sum of the squares of the deviations from A
- no2 + ni x - A)2. Now let us apply this result to the first given sample
taking A at m. Then, sum of the squares of the deviations of n£ items from
m ~ MjCT2 + n1(im1 — m)2 ,„(5) Similarly for the second given sample
taking A at m, sum of the squares of the deviations ofn2 items from m =
n2o% + n2(m2 - mf ,.,(6) Adding (5) and (6), sum of the squares of the
deviations of tij + h2 items from m = + n2a| + - m)2 + «2(m2 - m)2 (Kj + n2
) o2 = Rid® + n2tr| + n + n^D'S This result can be extended to the
combination of any number of samples, giving a result of the form (Xn.) a’1
- Hn .a.2) + llnfi-2).
Higher Engineering Mathematics 840 Example. 25.7. Calculate

the mean and standard deviation for the following : Size of item ; 6 1 8 9 10
11 12 Frequency : 3 6 9 13 8 5 4 (V.T.U. , 2001) Solution. The calculations
are arranged as follows : Size of item x Frequency f Deviation d - x - 9 f*d
fxd* G 3 -3 -9 27 7 6 -2 -12 24 8 9 -9 9 9 13 o 0 0 10 8 8 , 8 11 5 2 10 20 12
4 8 12 36 Zf - 48 Zfd*0 Zfd1 = 124 mean = 9 + I fd - 9 Standard deviation
(ifix-xf- [w2' 1“-1 1 V "vl v J Vl 48 J 1.607. Example :: 1 .8. Calcula te the
mean and standard deviation of the following frequency distribution :
Weekly wages is 7 No. of men 4,5—12.5 4 12.5—20,5 24 20.5—28.5 21
28.5—38.5 18 36.5—44.5 5 4-1.5—52.5 3 52.5 —60.5 5 60.5—66.5 8 68.5
—76.5 2 Solution. The calculations are arranged in the table below : Wages
class ? Mid value x No. of mm f Step deviation x - 32-5 8 fd1 fd'2 4,5 —
12.5 8.5 4 -3 - 12 36 12,5—20.5 16.5 24 - 2 -48 96 20,5—28.5 24.5 21 - 1
-21 21 2fi.fi— -06.5 32.5 18 0 0 0 36.0—44.5 40,5 5 1 5 5 44.5—52.5 48.5
3 2 6 12 62,5 — 60.6 56.5 6 3 16 45 60.5—68.5 64,5 8 4 32 128 68.5-76.5
72.5 2 5 10 50 Zf = 90 tfd‘ = ~-i3 Ifd’1 = 393 Ifd' f — 13^ mean wage =
32.5 + 8x — 32.5 + S -ar J-*81* = = f 16.64.
Statistical Methods 841 Example 25-9, The following are scores
of two ba tsmen A and B in a series of innings : A: 12 115 6 73 7 IS 119 36
84 29 B: >17 12 16 42 4 51 37 48 13 0 Who is the better si'Ore getter and
ivko is more consistent ? ( V.T.U. Solution. Let x denote score of A and y
that of B, Taking 51 as the origin, we prepare the following table : X di^ x -
51) d 2 V 5 (=y-5l) 12 - 39 1521 47 -4 16 115 64 4096 12 -39 1521 6 - 45
2025 16 - 35 1225 73 22 464 42 -9 81 7 - 44 1936 4 -47 2209 19 — 32
1024 51 0 0 119 68 4624 37 - 14 196 36 - 15 225 48 -3 9 84 33 1089 13 -38
1444 29 — 22 484 0 -Si 2601 Total - 10 17508 -240 9302 For A, A.M. x =
51 + — = 51 n 10 -50 io “50 S.D. A.M. of B, it follows that A is a better
score getter (La. , more efficient} than B. Since the coefficient of variation
of B < the coefficient of variation of A, it means that B is more consistent
than A. Thus even though A is a better player, he is less consistent. Example
25,10. The numbers examined, the mean weigh i and S.D . in each group of
examination by three medical examiners are given below. Find the mean
weight, and S.D. of the entire data when grouped together. Med. Exam, No.
Examined Mean Wt. (lbs*) S.D. ( lbs.) A 50 113 6 a 60 120 7 c 90 115 8 n1
= 50, 5rt = 113, Oj = 6 n2 = 60, - 120, Cf2 = 7 n3 - 90, *3 = 115, g3 = 8.
Solution. We have
942 Engineering Mathematics If x is tho mean of the entire data,

_ _ + n2x2 + /j.3£3 50 x 113 + 60 x 120 + 90 x 1 15 _ 23200 x = «,+«,+»%
~ 50 + 60 + 90 200 ” If a is the S.D. of the entire data* No2 - nACTj +
>i2cr| + rc3o|j + n:D^ + n2D| + n:iD^ where N = n1 + n2 + n3 = 200, = 5fj -
if = - 3. D2 = x2 - x =4 and D 3 = x.t - x = - l. 200a2 = 50 x 36 + 60 x 49 +
90 x 64 + 50 x 9 + 60 x 16 + 90 x 1 = 1800 + 2940 + 5760 + 450 + 960 +
90 t2 12000 200 60. Hence a = >/60 = 7.746 lb. PROBLEMS 25.2 1. The
crushing strength of® cement con ere I, r experimental blocks, in metric
tonnes per sq. can., was 4.8. 4.2, 5.1 , 3.8, 4.4, 4.7, 4.1 and4.fi. Find the
mean crushing- strength and the standard deviation 2. Show that, the
variance of the first n positive integers is ^ (n® - 1 1. (V.T U., 2003) 3. The
mean of five items of an observation is 4 and the variance is 5.2. IT three of
the items are 1, 2 and 6, then find the other two. I V. T.l r.r 2002) 4. For the
distribution X: 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 fz 18 15 34 47 68 90 80 62 35
27 11 Find i he mean, median and lower and upper quantiles, variance and
the standard deviation. «• The Following table shows the marks obtained
b.v 100 candidates in an examinat ion. Calculate the mean, median and
standard deviation ; Marks obtained : 1— 10 11—20 21—30 31—40 41—
50 51—60 No. of candidates ; 3 16 26 31 16 8 (Usmania, 2603 S . V.T.U.,
2003 ,S> 6. Compute tlie quart! ie deviation and standard deviation for the
full owing : X'. 100— 109 110—119 120—129 130—139 140—149 150—
159 160—169 170—179 f\ 15 44 133 160 125 82 35 16 7. Calculate fi)
mean deviation about the mean, (if) mean deviation about the median for
the foil owing distribution : Chut# : 3 — 4.9 5—6.9 7—8.9 9—10.9 11—
12.9 13—14.9 15—16.9 f : 5 8 30 82 45 24 6 (Madras, 2002) 8. Two
observers bring the following two sets of data which represent
measurements of the same quantity : L 106.1 103,4 104.2 104.7 104.8 105.0
104.9 II. 105.3 105.1 104.8 105.2 106.7 102.9 103.1 Calculate the standard
deviation in each case. Which set of data is more reliable ? Can the same
conclusion be reached by calculating the mean deviation ? Ob'.. The smaller
the coefficient of variation, the greater is the reliability or consistency in the
data. 9. The heights and weights of the 10 armymen are given below. In
which characteristics are they more variable ? Height in cm. 170 172 108
177 179 171 173 1 78 1 73 179 Weight iu kg. 75 74 75 76 77 73 76 75 74
75 10. The index number of prices of two articles A and B for six
consecutive weeks are given below : A: 314 326 336 368 404 412 B : 330
331 320 318 321 330 Find which has a more variable price ? 11. The scores
of two golfers A and £f in 12 rounds are given below. Who is the belter
player and who is Liu- more consistent player ? A : 74 75 79 72 78 77 7R
81 79 76 72 71 B : 87 84 80 89 69 85 86 82 82 79 86 80 1 2. The scores
obtained by two batsmen A and B in 10 matches are given below : A : 30 44
66 62 60 34 80 46 20 38 B : 34 46 70 38 55 48 60 34 46 30 Calculating
mean, S.D. and coefficient of variation for each batsman, determine who is
more efficient and who is more consistent.
STATieTfCAL MeTHOPS 843 KS. Kind I he me&n and standard
deviation of the following two samples put together : Sample No. Stic Mean
SB 1 50 158 5.1 2 60 164 4.6 14. A distribution consists of three
components with frequencies 200, 250 and WO having means 25+ 10 and
15 and SDs. 3, 4 and 5 respectively, Show that the mean of the combined
distribution *s 15 and its S,D is T.2 approximately. 25,9 (1) MOMENTS
The rth moment about the mean x of a distribution is denoted by p.,, and is
given by Mr ~ — ^ Tlie corresponding moment about any point a is defined
as Mr' = jj UMi ~ a)r In particular, we have p0 = |i0' = 1 Mj = jt ZfiiXi -
3?)= 0; (J-j' = ~ Xfjlx j - a} = x - a -d, say M2 = -x)2 =a*. (2) Moments
about the mean in terms of momenta about any point. We have ...(2) ~.(3) „.
(5> Mr = Jj ^(xi “ x? = VI Uj -«)-
844 Higher Engineering Mathematics (ii) Quartile coefficient of
skewness Q;t - Qi Its value always lies between - 1 and + 1 , (iii }
Coefficient of skewness based on third moment yt = , where (5j = g2/]i|
Thus y1 - gives the simplest measure of skewness. 25.11 KURTOSIS Kurt
os is measures the degree of peakedness of a distribution and is given by |32
- jj4/g|. A \ (o ) Leptokurtic ( b ) Platyku rtic (c ) Mesok urtic Fig. 25.5 Va
•=■ pjj — 3 gives the excess of Kurtosis. The curves with > 3 are railed
Leptokurtic and those with fJ2 < 3 as Platykurtic. The normal curve for
which - 3, is called Mesokurtic [Fig, 25.3). Exam pie 25. 1 1 . The first fimr
moments about the working mean 285 of a distribution are 0.294. 7, 144,
42.409 und 454.98. Calculate the moments about the mean. Also evaluate
fij, P2 and comment upon the skewness and kurtosis of the distribution. (
V.T.U. , 2.. \. £> ? Solution. The first four moments about the arbitrary
origin 28.5 are \l,1 = 0,294, p’2 = 7,1/14, = 42.409. p'4 = 454,98. M\ = £ fM
- 28,5) = — £ £*
Statistical Methods j W/4 -C . „ 57,5 “30 „ oc Q.= L + - *A = 90hi

- — x 10 = 9/. 85 f 35 Similarly, 3JV/4 = 172.5 i.e. Q;i is 173rd item which
lies in 120-130 group. Qo - L + 3 N/4-C f x h = 120 + 172.5-157 45 x 10 =
123.44 Q -\- Q _ 20. -1 Hence quart ile coefficient of skewness - — - - - Qs-
% 97.85 + 123.44 -2x 111.6 123.44 97.85 = — 0.07 (approx.). 845
PROBLEMS 25.3 L Calculate tbe final four moments of the following;
distribution about the mean ; a:: 0 1 2 3 4 & 0 7 8 f: 1 8 28 56 70 66 28 6 1
Alan evaluate p1 and ( V\T, U. m 2004 : Madras, 2003 ) 2. The following
Uible givos the monthly wages of 72 workers in a factory. Compute the
standard dovmUutn quartile deviation, coefficients of variation and
skewness, (V< T> U , 2001 ) Monthly wages (in T) No. of workers
Monthly wages (in Kj No. of workers L2.5 — 17.5 2 37,5 — 42,5 4 17.5—
22.6 22 42,5—17.5 6 22.5—27.5 19 47.5—52.5 1 27.5 — 32,5 14 62,5—
57.5 1 32.5 — 57.5 3 Kind I'eareon^ coefficient nf skewness tor the
following data : Class : 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-19 50-50 60-69 70-79 80-89
Frequency : 5 9 14 20 25 15 8 4 (Y.TM^2000$) 4. < tomptljk i lie quartilo
coefficient of skewness fur the fallowing distribution : x] 3-7 8-12 13—17
18-22 23^27 28-32 33-37 38^2 f: 2 108 680 175 80 33 18 6 (Madras, 2002 ;
V.T U mt 2000 > Also compute the measure of skewness ba&ed on the third
moment. 5, The first three moments of a distribution about Lhe value 2 of
the variable are ip 16 and - 40 Show that the mean = 3, the variance = 15
and - — 86, £ V. T. II , 2003 S ) Ik Computer skewness and kurtoris, if Lhe
firsl four moments of a frequency distribution f ix) about the value a - 4 are
respectively ], 4, 10 and 45. (Coimbatore, 1999t 7. In a certain distribution,
the first four moments about a point are - 1.5, 17, —30 and 108. Calculate
the moments aliout the mean, |it and fLj ; and slate whether the distribution
is Icptfikurtic or phUykurtic ? 25.*2 CORRELATION So far we have
confined our attention to the analysis of observations on a single variable.
There are, however, many phenomena^ where the changes in one variable
are related to the changes in the other variable. Fur instance, the yield of a
crop varies with the amount of rainfall, the price of a commodity increases
with the reduction in its supply and eo on. Such a simultaneous variation,
i.e. when the changes in one variable are associated or followed by changes
in the other, is called correlation. Such a data connecting two variables is
called bivariate population. If an increase (or decrease! in the values of one
variable corresponds to an increase (or decrease) in the other, the
correlation is said to be positive. If the increase (or decrease) in one
corresponds to the decrease (or increase) in the other, the correlation is said
to be negative. If there is no relationship indicated between the variables,
they are said to be independent or uncorrelated.
646 Higher Engineering Mathematics To obtain a measure of
relationship between the two variables, we plot their corresponding values
on the graph, taking one of the variables along the x-axis and the other
along the y-axis. (Fig. 25.6), Let the origin be shifted to tx. y ), where x, y
are the means ofx’s and y’s that the new co-ordinates are given by X - x-xf
Y - y-y. Now the points Y) are so distributed over the four quadrants of .XT-
plane that the product XT is positive in the first and third quadrants but
negative in the second and fourth quadrants. The algebraic sum of the
products can be taken as describing the trend of the dots in all the
quadrants. (i) If £XY is positive, the trend of the dots is through the first
and third quadrants, Fie- 25-& (if) if IXY is negative the trend of the dots is
in the second and fourth quadrants, and (Hi) if LXY is zero, the points
indicate no trend i.e. the points are evenly distributed over the four
quadrants. The LXY or better still — IXY, i.e., the average of n products
may be taken as a measure of correlation. If n we put X and Y in their units,
£,e., taking a, as the unit for* and 2 )j (б) Step-deviation method. The direct
method becomes very lengthy and tedious if the means of the two series are
not integers. In such cases, use is made of assumed means. If d and are
.step-deviations from the assumed means, then r nZdf dy - LlIx Idy Vf [nld*
- {Idx ) | x Inldy - (Idy f II (3) where d - (.v — a )/h and
Statistical Methods 847 _ nOfdydy)-afdxKIfdy) ylUnlfd* - ( Ifd^

f ) x \nZfxi , 2 - (Tfdy f )) where dx = deviation of the central values from
the assumed mean of jc-series, dv - deviation of the central values from the
assumed mean ofy -series, f is the frequency corresponding to the pair (x,
y} and n(= If) is the total number of frequencies. Example 25. 1 3.
Psychological tests of intelligence and of engineering ability were applied
to 10 students. Here is a record of ungrouped data showing intelligence
ratio (I.R.) and engineering ratio (E.R. >. Calculate the coefficient of
correlation. Student A B C D E F G H I J I.R. 105 104 102 101 100 99 98
96 93 92 E.R . 101 103 100 98 95 96 104 92 97 94 t Andhra . 2000)
Solution. We construct the following table ; Student Intelligence ratio x x —
x = X Engineering ratio y y- 5 =y x? r 1 XY A 106 6 101 3 36 9 18 B 104 6
10,3 5 26 25 25 C 102 3 100 2 9 4 6 D 101 2 Sfi 0 4 0 0 E 100 1 96 -3 1 9
-3 F 99 0 96 -2 0 4 0 G 98 -1 104 6 1 36 -6 H 96 -3 92 -6 9 36 18 f 93 -6 97
-1 36 1 6 J 92 -7 94 - 4 49 16 28 Total 990 0 980 0 170 140 92 From this
table, mean of*, t.e, , x = 990/10 ■ 99 and mean ofy . i.e. y = 980/10 = 98.
ZX2 = 1 70, ZYA - 140 and IXY = 92. Substituting these values in the
formula (1) p. 744, we have r Z XY Vi ixBzr“) 92 V C 170 x 140) =
92/154.3 = 0.59. Fîini pie 25. 1 4. The correlation table given below shows
that the ages of husband and wife of 53 married couple $ living together on
the census night of 1991, Calculate the coefficient of correlation between
the age of the h unhand a nd that of the wife. (J.N. T, U., 2003 i Age of
husband Age of wife Total 15-25 25-35 35-15 4.5-55 55-65 65-75 15-25 l 1
— — — 2 25-35 2 12 / 15 35-45 4 w 1 15 45-55 6 1 10 55-65 2 4 2 8 65-75
1 2 . 3 Total 3 17 14 9 ft t 53
848 Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. Age of hustmnd

Age of wife x-xenen d a Suppose r =*"40 15-25 25-35 I 35-45 45-55 5,5-65
65-75 Total Years Mid pt. X 20 30 40 60 60 70 1 10 , _.v - 40 ■' It 10 | -20 -
10 0 10 20 30 f ■Age Mid \dx -2 -1 0 1 2 3 fdy fd2 fdA group pt.y 1 7 4 2 6
15-25 20 -20 -2 i i % -4 8 4 12 0 16 25-35 30 -10 -i 2 12 1 15 -15 15 0 0 0 0
35-45 40 0 0 4 in 1 15 0 0 0 fi 2 a 45-55 50 10 1 1 3 G 1 ID 10 10 4 16 12
32 55-66 60 20 2 2 4 2 8 16 32 6 IB 24 65-75 70 30 3 | 1 2 3 9 27 Total f 3
17 14 9 6 4 ■ 53 c ri 16 92 R6 fit. -6 -17 0 9 12 12 10 Thick figures in fd 2
12 17 0 9 24 36 96 smalf aqs stand for j. d fdd B 14 0 10 24 30 86 Check :
2# i,d = 8S 1 from both sides With the help of the above correlation table,
we have nafdxdy)-(?fdx)M2H 53 x 86 - 10 x 16 _ _ 4398 4398 \|<53 x 98 -
100) x <53x92 - 256 )J “ V(5G94 x 4G20) “ 4850 0.91 (approx.). 25.14
LINES OF REGRESSION tt frequently happens that the dots of the scatter
diagram generally t tend to cluster along a well defined direction which
suggests a linear relationship between the variables x andy, Such a line of
hest-fit for the given distribution of dots is called the line of regression (Fig.
25.6). In fact there are two such lines, one giving the best possible mean
values of y for each specified value of x and the other giving the best
possible mean values of x for given values of y* The former is known as
the line of regression ofy on x and the latter as the line of regression of x on
y.
Statistical Methods Consider first the line of regression ofy on a,
Let the straight line satisfying the general trend of n dots in a scatter
diagram be y = a + 6* ...(1) We have to determine the constants a and b so
that 11) gives for each value of x, the best estimate for the average value
ofy in accordance with the principle of least squares (page 816), therefore,
the normal equations for a and b are Zy = na + 6£r ...(2) and Exy = aZr +
6Zx2 *..(3) — Zy = a + b . — lx i,e. , y = a + bx. n n (2) gives This shows
that (x, y), Le., the means of a- andy, lie on ( 1 ). Shifting the origin to (a,
y), (3) takes the form Z(x-xXy-y) = allx -x) + hUx-x)2, but al(x- x) = 0, b =
»*-x)(y-y) IXY IXY Ux-x)2 IX 2 no2 Gx v r IXY Thus the line of best fit
becomes y-y = r— (x-x) .,.(4) which is the equation of the line of regression
ofy on x. Its slope is called the regression coefficient ofy on x.
Interchanging a andy, we find that the line of regression of x ony is ax , a —
x = r — (y - y) Thus the regression coefficient ofy on x = ray/cx and the
regression coefficient of x on y = raJoy Cor. The correlation, coefficient r is
the geometric mean between the two regression co-efficients . ...(5) *..(6)
— fT) For «v o, 2 r — xr— = r. Example 25, i G, The two regression
equations of the variables x andy are x ~ 19. 13 - 0.87y and y - 11.64 - 0.5
Ox. Find (i) mean of x’s, Hi) mean of y’s and ( iii ) the correlation
coefficient between x andy. (V.T. U„ 2004 ; Anna , 2003 ; Burdwan, 2003 )
Solution. Since the mean ofx’s and the mean of y’s lie on the two regression
lines, we have x = 19. 13- 0.87 y _ /[(- 0.50 X- 0.87)] - V{0,43) = - 0-66. I-
ve sign is taken since both the regression coefficients are - ve| Example 2G.
1 6. In the following table are recorded data showing the test scores made
by salesmen on an intelligence test and their weekly sales : Salesmen 1
23456789 10 Test scores 40 70 50 60 80 50 90 40 60 60 Sales <000) 2.5 6.0
4.5 5.0 4.5 2,0 5.5 3.0 4.5 3.0 Calculate the regression line of sales on test
scores and estimate the most probable weekly sales volume if a salesman
makes a score of 70.
850 Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. With the help of
the table below, we have x - mean of x (test scores) - BO + 0/10 = 60 y =
mean ofy (sales) = 4.5 + (- 4.51/10 = 4.05. Regression line of sales (y) on
scores ( x ) is given by y-y = riay/ax)(x-x) where 1XY ov YXY 0^ axav Gj
(o,r y n 1400 x (—4.5) IQ 2400-0*/ 10 the required regression line is 140
2400 = 0.06 y — 4.05 = O.Q6Qr - 60) or y = O.OG.v + 0.45. For x = 70, y
= 0.06 x 70 + 0.45 = 4.65. Thus the most probable weekly sales volume for
a score of 70 is 4.65. Test stores X Sales y Deviation of X from assumed
mean ( =m Deviation of y from assumed average (= 4-5) < dx*dy d/ 40 2.5
-20 -2 40 400 4 70 6,0 10 1.6 15 100 2.25 50 4.5 - 10 0 0 100 0 60 5.0 0 0.5
0 0 2.25 BO 4.5 20 0 0 400 0 SO 2.0 - 10 -2.5 26 100 6.26 90 5.5 30 1 30
900 1.00 40 3.0 -20 -1.5 30 400 2.25 60 4.5 0 0 0 0 0 60 3.0 0 - 1.5 0 0 2.25
X£=0 Idy =-4,5 ^.a Idf = 140 = 2400 =18.25 Example £5,17. If Q is the
angle between the furo regression lines, show that 1 -r2 o,(T. tan 0 = - „ ■ ~
» r +°f Explain the significance when r = 0 and r — ± L {U.P T.U,, 2007 ;
V.T.U., 2007) Solution. The equations to the line of regression ofy on x and
x on y are y - y = r — (jc — if) and jr — x = r— (y - y) av their slopes are
ntj = rov/ax and m2 = oy/rox ftlg HI | CFy / rfTx — rCTy / (Tjj 1 — /* TT y
TT ^ Thus tan 6 r +cr^ l + rrtjma 1 + ^/cj* When r = 0, tan 0 or 0 = Jt/2 i.e.
when the variables are independen t, the two lines of regression are
perpendicular to each other. When r = ± ip tan 0 = 0 i.e. ,0 = 0 or n. Thus
the lines of regression coincide Le. * there is perfect correlation between
the two variables*
Statistical Methoos 851 Example iiG. IB. In a partially destroyed
tabdratory record > only the lines uf regression ofy on x and x on y are
available as 4x — 5y +- 33 = 0 and 20.x - By = 10 7 respectively. Calculate
x, y and the coefficient of correlation between x and y. (S,V. TM.r 2009 ;
U.PjT. V.f 2009 ; 71 U.f 2005) 8uluticm. Since the regression lines pass
through ( xf y ), therefore, 4x - 5 y + 33 = 0, 2Qx - 9 y = 107, Solving these
equations, we get x = 13* S = 17. 4 33 Rewriting the line of regression of y
on x as y = — x + — , wTe get 5 5 i, = ,3l«i >* o, 5 9 107 Rewriting the
line of regression of x on y as x = - — y h - , we get 20 9 . ex 9 * ay 20
Multiplying ft) and («)„ we get r2 = — x — = 0.36 r = 0.6 5 20 Hence r =
0.6, the positive sign being taken as b and both arc positive. xy ^ v ^ g
Example 23.19. Establish the formula r = — — --- 2ctj
852 Higher Engineering Mathematics 2 ^ 1 CT* = N ~\ m (IY> *
N 1 lx j |2 Xx-y] |E l: ** N 1 2.YY 5328 f10 - f — } = 532.8 - 64 * 468.8 l
10 J If 'f1359.6- 1225= 134.6 From Hit* above formula, r = (^ + Of2 - EX2
- net* - 2r/ojc) r . naxay + i^{c2yl<52). no2 - na2 (1 - r2). Denoting this
sum of squares by nS2, we have Sy = ay \j(\ - r2 ) ,..(1) Since Sy is the root
mean square deviation of the points from the regression line ofy on x, it is
called the standard error of estimate ofy. Similarly the standard error of
estimate of x is given by Sx=oxsia-r2) ...(2) Since the sum of the squares of
deviations cannot be negative, it follows that r2
Statistical Methods regression- Thus the departure of r2 from
unity is a measure of departure from linearity of the relationship between
the variables. 25.16 RANK CORRELATION A group of n individuals may
be arranged in order to merit with respect to some characteristic. The same
group would give different orders for different characteristics. Considering
the orders corresponding to two characteristics A and B, the correlation
between these n pairs of ranks is called the rank correlation in the
characteristics A and B for that group of individuals. Let x(,y, be the ranks
of the ith individuals in A and B respectively. Assuming that no two
individuals are bracketed equal in either case, each of the variables taking
the values 1, 2, 3, „.t n, we have _ _ _ _ 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n _ n(n + 1) _ n + 1
X n 2n 2 IfX, The the deviations of x, y from their means, then IX* = Hx. -
x )2= Zxf + nix )s- 2 x Ix( . = In* n(n + if -2 n + 1 .In or n(n + IH2n + 1)
n(n + 1>‘ - - + Similarly Now let n{n + 1 r 1 , a D * - 2 ZY?=±in‘-n) di = x
• - yi so that dt = (x ■ - x } - fy • - y ) = X}- Yt Idf^lXf + lYf-SlXY, rx, Y, =
i (IX? ♦ TY* - 5a,2) = ^ (n3 - - ) - § 7d*. Hence the correlation coefficient
between these variables is r IX, Y. - 12 iVn‘1_n) = 1 6i
854 Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. Here n = 10. A ( =

x) Ranks by B(~ yj m*- ~ m: ' C(=z) 4 4 y-z 4 Z~ X df M 4 I 3 6 - 2 -3 5 4 9
25 6 G 4 1 1 -2 L 1 4 5 8 9 - 3 - 1 4 9 1 16 10 4 8 6 -4 -2 36 16 4 3 7 1 - 4 6
-2 16 36 4 2 10 2 -8 8 0 64 64 0 4 2 3 2 - 1 -1 4 3 1 9 1 10 8 -9 1 64 81 1 7
*6 5 1 i - 2 l 1 4 8 9 7 - 1 2 -1 1 4 1 Total 0 0 0 200 214 60 p U,y) = 1 62>i
n(/i - 1) 1—1p (y, z) = 1 6 Id. ■2 n(n£ - 1) 16x200 10x99 6x214 10x99 = -
0.2 = -0.3 , v 6 Id* p (z, x) = 1 nfn — 1) 10 x 99 Since p (z, x> is
maximum, the pair of judges A and C have the nearest common approach.
PROBLEMS 25.4 L Find the correlation co-efficient and the regression
lines of y and * and * ony for the following data : x : 12 3 4 5 y : 2 5 3 8 7
(V.T.U., 2010) 2. Find the correlation coefficient between x and y from the
given data ; x : 78 89 97 69 59 79 68 57 y : 125 137 156 112 107 138 123
108 (J.N.TU., 2005} 3. Find the co-efficient of correlation between
industrial production and export using the following data and comment on
the result. Production fin erore tons) : 55 56 68 59 60 60 62 Exports fin
crore tons) ; 35 38 38 39 44 43 45 (Madras, 2000) 4. Ten people of various
heights as under, were requested to read the letters on a car at 26 yards
distance. The number of letters correctly read is given below ; Height (in
feel) : 5.1 5.3 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5,10 5.11 6.0 61 No. of letters : 11 17 19 14 8
15 20 6 8 12 Is tli ere any correlation between heights and visual power ? a*
+ av - ox_ 5. Using the formula r = — - jr - - — 1 — , find r from the
following data : x y m 86 89 88 87 91 86 77 83 68 77 85 71 52 63 82 53 37
50 57 >>. Find the correlation between x (marks in Mathematics) and y
(marks in Engineering Drawing) given in the following data :
■Statistical Methods 855 vs j r 10-^10 40—70 70—200 Total 0—

,30 5 20 — 25 30—60 — 28 2 30 60—90 — 32 13 45 Total 5 80 15 100 7.
Find two lines of regression and coefficient of correlation for the data given
below : n = 18, lx = 12, ly = 18, £r2 3 = 60, Ty* = 96, Ixy = 48. (U.P.T. I L
MCA, 2009) 8. If the coefficient of correlation between two variables x and
y is 0.6 and the acute angle between their lines of regression is ton" * 1
(3/8), show that
856 Higher Engineering Mathematics 3. S.n. is defined, as <6)21

f correlation lies between . and . 33. If the two regression coefficients are —
0,4 and — 0,9, then the correlation coefficient, is 34, A distribution with the
following constants is positively skew* : Qj - 25.8, median - 49.0, Q. j ■=
64.2. (Trip* or False) 36. Quartile coefficient of skewness is ^ « iTriu; or
Fsd*e) 30. Skewness indicates peakedness of the frequency distribution.
fTftir^ or False i
Probability and Distributions ■ 1. Introduction, Principle of
counting, Permutations and Combinations. 2. Basic terminology. Definition
of I probability. 3. Probability and Set notations, 4. Addition law of
probability. 5, Independent events — Multiplication i law of probability. 6,
Baye's theorem. 7. Random variable. 8. Discrete probability distribution. 9.
Continuous probability distribution. 10. Expectation, Variance, Moments.
11. Moment generating function. 12. Probability generating function. 18.
Repeated trials. 14. Binomial distribution. 15. Poisson distribution. 15.
Norma! I distribution. 17. Probable error. 18. Normal approximation to
Binomial distribution. 19, Some other distributions. 5 I 20. Objective Type
of Questions. 26.1 il) INTRODUCTION We often hear such statements : 'It
is likely to rai n today", *1 have a fair chance of getting admission", and
There is an even chance that in tossing a coin the head may come up\ I n
each case, wc are not certain of the outcome, but we wish to assess the
chances of our predictions coming true. The study of probability provides a
mathematical framework for such assertions and is essential in every
decision making process. Before defining probability* let us explain a few
terms : (2) Principle of counting. If an event can happen in ways and
thereafter For each of these events a second event can happen in n<2 ways,
and for each of these first and second events a third event can happen for
ways and so on, then the number of ways these m event can happen is given
by the product nx . n2 . n3 nm . 13} Permutations- A permutation of a
number of objects is their arrangement in some definite order. Given three
ietters ar hf c, we can permute them two at a time as *hcT rh ; ca, ac ; aft,
ftcr yielding 6 permutations. The combinations or groupings are only 3, i.e.,
ftc, cat ah . Here the order Is immeirial. The number of permutations ofn
different thing taken rat a time is n (n - 1) ( n - 2) .,. (n - r + 1), which is
denoted by nPr Thus "P^/Mn-lHn-2)... («-*-+ l)= , „ Permutations with
repetitions . The number of permutations of n objects of which n, are alike,
n2 OTe alike and n, are alike is - - * 14) Combinations. The number of
combinations ofn. different objects taken r at a time is denoted by nCr. If we
take any one of the combinations, its r objects can be arranged in r\ ways.
So the total number of arrangements which can be obtained from all the
combinations is nPr = nCr . r\. Thus Also eg- , ”C = np — n\ r! r!(n-r)J 25P4
= 25 X 24 X 23 X 22; 25C3, = ®C4 = 25 x 24 x 23 x 22 857 4 x3x 2x 1
858 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 26.1. In how
many ways cart one make a first, second, third and fourth choice among 12
firms leasing cons truetio n eg u ipmen t. (J.N. T. U. , 2003 ) Solution. First
choice can be made from any of the 12 firms. Thereafter the second choice
can be made from among the remaining 11 firms. Then the third choice can
be made from the remaining 10 firms and the fourth choice can be made
from the 9 firms. Thus from the principle of counting , the number of ways
in which first, second, third and fourth choice can be affected = 12 x11x
10x9 = 11880. Example 26.2, Find the, number of permutations of all the
letters of the word (i) Committee (Hi Engineer 'Absolution. (i) n - 9, nl (/ft.
ml - 2, nz (t, f) - 2, na (e, e) = 2 no. of permutations = - — - - - — - - 45860.
n,J.n2!.n3! 2! . 2! . 2! ( * can a student make Liu* u^t paper with onu
answer to each question. (J.N.T.U., 2003} 2. How many 4 -digit numbers
can he formed from the tux digits 2P 3, 5* 6S 7 and 9, without repetition ?
How many of these are I ess thpn 500 ? A student has to answer 9 out of 12
questions How many choices has he f i) if he m ust answ er first two
questions (fi> if he must answer nt least four of Lhe first five questions. -i.
How many car number plates can be made if each pi ate contains two
different letters followed by three different digits ? Solve the problem (a )
with repetitions and (6) without repetitions. 26.2 (I) BASIC
TERMINOLOGY (i) Exhaustive events, A set of events is said to be
exhaustive, if it includes all the possible events. For example, in tossing a
coin there are two exhaustive cases either head or tail and there is no third
possibility. (if) Mutually exclusive events- If the occurrence of one of the
events precludes the occurrence of all other, then such a set of events is said
to be mutually exclusive. Just as tossing a coin, either head comes up or the
tail and both can’t happen at the same time, i.e., these are two mutually
exclusive cases. (fit) Equally likely events. If one of the events cannot be
expected to happen in preference to another then such events are said to be
equally likely. For instance, in tossing a coin, the coming of the head or the
tail is equally likely.
PftOBABiin > f and Distributions 859 Thus when a die * is
thrown, the turning up of the sbc different faces of the die are exhaustive,
mutually exclusive and equally likely, (w) Odds in favour of an event. If the
number of ways favourable to an event. A is m and the number of ways not
favourable to -A is n then odds in favour of A = m/n and odds against A =
n/m. (2) Definition of probability* If there ore n exhaustive* mutually
exclusive and equally likely eases of which m are favourable to an event A,
then probability fp) of the happening of A is P(A) = m/n. As there are n —
m cases in which A will not happen (denoted by A')f the chance of A not
happening is q or P (Af) so that n — m . m - - — = 1-— - 1 -P n n Le., P(A')
= 1 - P(A } so that P(A) + P(A') - lt ire,t if an event is certain to happen then
its probability is unity w while if it is certain not to happen, its probability is
zero. Ohs. This definitions of probability fails when (i) number of outcomes
is infinite (not exhaustive) and
360 Higher Engineering Mathematics .*. total number of
favourable ways = 6 + 4 + 6 + 4+4 + 6 = 30. 30 5 Hence the required
probability = — = — ■ 96 16 Example 26.7. j4 bag contains 40 tickets
numbered. 1, 2, 3, ... 40. of which four are drawn at random and arranged in
ascending order (i, < t? < ?3 < Find the probability of t3 being 25? Solution.
Here exhaustive number of cases = A0C4 If t3 ~ 25, then the tickets f, ami
t2 must come out of 24 tickets numbered 1 to 24. This can be done in 24C2
ways. Then tA must come out of the 15 tickets (numbering 25 to 40) which
can be done in IE’C, ways, favourable number of cases = 24C.j x 16Cj
Hence the probability of fa being 25 = - — ■ C| 9139 Example 26.8. Aji urn
contains 5 red and 10 black balls. Eight of them are placed in another urn .
'What is the chance that the latter then contains 2 red and 6 black balls ?
Solution. The number of ways in which 8 balls can be drawn out of 15 is
lSCe. The number of ways of drawing 2 red balls is SC2 and corresponding
to each of these SC2 ways of drawing a red ball, there are ,()C6 ways of
drawing 6 black balls. .\ the total number of ways in which 2 red and 6
black balls can be drawn is 6C2 x l0Cfi. t, . . . ..... sCa X t0C6 140 A the
required probability - — - — - Cjj 429 Example 20,9. A committee consists
of 9 students two of which am from 1st year, three from 2nd year and four
from 3rd year. Three students are to be removed at random. What is the
chance that (i) the three students belong to different classes, (it) two belong
to the same class and third to the different class, (Hi) the. three belong to
the same class ? (V, T. U., 2002 SI Solution, (i) The total number of ways of
choosing 3 students out of 9 is 9C3, i.e, , 84. A student can be removed
from 1st year students in 2 ways, from 2nd year in 3 ways and from 3rd
year in 4 ways, so that the total number of w ays of removing three
students, one from each group is 2 x 3 x 4. 2x3x4 24 2 Hence the required
chance = 9C, 84 7 (ii) The number of ways of removing two from 1st year
students and one from others = 2Ca x 7Cr The number of ways of removing
two from 2nd year students and one from others = 3C2 x «Cr The number
of ways of removing 2 from 3rd year students and one from others = *C2 x
5C,. .*. the total number of ways in which tw'o students of the same class
and third from the others may be removed = aC2 x 2C, + 3C2 x ®C1 + 4C2
x 5C, = 7 + 18 + 30 = 55. 55 Hence, the required chance = — . 84 (iii)
Three students can be removed from 2nd year group in aC3, i.e. 1 way and
from 3rd year group in 4C3, i.e., 4 ways. the total number of wTays in
which three students belong to the same class = 1 + 4 = 5. 5 Hence the
required chance = 84
PrtQ&ABlUTY ANO Dl&tFlItlUTIONS 861 Example 26, 10. A
has one share in a lottery in which there is 1 prize and & blanks ; B has
three shares in a lottery in which there are 3 prizes and 6 blanks ; compare
the probability of A 's success to that of B‘s success. Solution. A can draw a
ticket in ;,C1 = 3 ways. The number of cases in which A can get a prize is
clearly 1. the probability of A’s success = Again B can draw a ticket in 5C,t
1_ 3 98 7 3-2*1 = 84 ways. The number of ways in which B gets all blanks
= cC3 = 6 5-4 12 1 = 20 the number of ways of getting a prize = 84 - 20 =
64. Thus the probability of B’s success = 64/84 - 16/21. 1 16 Hence A' S
probability of success ; J3’s probability of success = — : — -=7:16. 3 21
26.3 PROBABILITY AND SET NOTATIONS (1) Random experiment.
Experiments which are performed essentially under the same conditions and
whose results cannot be predicted are known as random experiments, e.g..
Tossing a coin or rolling a die are random experiments. (2) Sample space.
The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called sample
space for that experiment and is denoted by S. The elements of the sample
space S are called the sample paints, e g., On tossing a coin, the possible
outcomes are the head (H) and the tail IT). Thus S = {H, T|. (3) Event. The
outcome of a random experiment is called an event . Thus every subset of a
sample space S is an event. The null set ) = 0. (4) Axioms (i) The numerical
value of probability lies between 0 and l. i.e., fur any event A of S, 0 < P
(A) < 1. (it) The sum of probabilities of all sample events is unity i.e. . P (S)
= I. (iii) Probability of an event made of two or more sample events is the
sum of their probabilities. (5) Notations (i) Probability of happening of
events A or B is written as P (A + B) or P (A u B), (ii) Probability of
happening fj/both the events A and B is written as P (AB) or P (A n B). (iii)
‘Event A implies (=>) event B' is expressed as A c5. iiv) 'Events A and B are
mutually exclusive ’ is expressed as A n B ~ 0(6) For any two events A and
B , P {A r\B')=P (A) - P(AnB) Proof. From Fig. 26. 1, (A nB'luWnfl)^ P[(A
n S') u (A n B)] = P (A) or P (A i"i B') + F (A n B) = P (A) P(An B‘) = P (A)
P (A n B > Similarly. P (A' n B) = P (B) - P (A n B) or Fig. 26.1
862 Higher Engineering Mathematics 26.4 ADDITION LAW OF
PROBABILITY or THEOREM OF TOTAL PROBABILITY (1) If the
probability of an event A happening as a result of a trial is Pi A) and the
probability of a mutually exclusive event B happening is P(B ), then the
probability of either of the events happening as a result of the trial is P(A +
Bl or P{A u B) = P(A) + P(B). Proof. Let n be the total number of equally
likely cases and let be favourable to the event A and m2 be favourable to the
event B. Then the number of cases favourable to A or B is m, + tn.r Hence
the probability of A orB happening as a result of the trial - = El + = P(A) +
PU3). n n n (2) If A, B, are any two events (not mutually exclusive), then P
(A + B) = P (A) + P . (3) If A, Bt C are any three events, then P (A + B +
C) » P (A) + P (B) + P (C) -P (AB) - P {BO - P + P(AnBnO Proof Using
the above result for any two events, we have PWuBuC) = P|WuB)uC! =
P (A uB) + P (C) - P M o 8) ri Cl = \P (A ) + P (B) - P (A n B)] + P (C) - P
l(A r, C) u (B n C>] (Distributive Law) = P (A) + P (B) + P (C) - P (A n
B) - {P (A n C) + P{B nC)~P{A^B n C)1 [v (AnClri(J)nC) = J4r»finC) =
P (A) +■ P (B) + P (O - P (A n B)- P{B r\C) - P(C r\A) + P {A nB r\C) [v
A nC = CnA.J Example 26.1 1. In a race, the odds in favour of the four
horses H }. H2, H:it H4 ure 1:4, 1 ; 5, 1 : 6, 1 : 7 respectively. Assuming
that a dead heat is not possible, find the chance that one of them wins
the rare. Solution. Since it is nut possible for all the horses to cover the
same distance in the same time (a dead heat), the events are mutually
exclusive. If pr p,,t p3, pA be the probabilities of winning of the horses
Hv H.„ H3, Hi respectively, then jD, = - — - — =i lv Odds in favour of
H. are 1 : 41 1+4 5 and 1 _ 1 _ 1 P2~ j* Hence the chance that one of
them wins = p, +/)._, + pa + pA 1 1 I 1 533 = — H - + — + — = 5 6 7 8
840
Probability and Distributions 863 Example 26.12. A bag contains
8 white and 6 red balls . Find the probability of drawing two halts of the
same colour. Solution. Two halls out of 14 can he drawn in l4C, , ways
which is the total number of outcomes. Two white balls out of 8 can be
drawn in dC2 ways. Thus the probability of drawing 2 white balls aC2 _ 28
~ “Ca “ 91 Similarly 2 red balls out of 6 can be drawn in SC2 ways. Thus
the probability of drawing 2 red halts _ 15 ' “c/91 Hence the probability of
drawing 2 balls of the same colour (either both white or both red) 28 IS 43 “
91 + 91 _ 91 Example 26.13. Wind the probability of drawing on ace or a
spade or both from a deck of cards* ? Solution. The probability of drawing
an ace from a deck of 52 cards = 4/52. Similarly the probability of drawing
a card of spades = 13/52, and the probability of drawing an ace of spades -
1/52. Since the two events ii.e., a card being an ace and a card being of
spades) are not mutually exclusive, therefore, the probability of drawing an
ace or a spade 4_ 13 _ I_ _ 4_ 52 + 52 52_13 26.5 (1) INDEPENDENT
EVENTS Two events are said to be independent, if happening or failure of
one does not affect the happening or failure of the other. Otherwise the
events are said to be dependent. For two dependent events A and B, the
symbol PiB/A ) denotes the probability of occurrence of B, when A has
already occurred. It is known as the conditional probability and is read as a
'probability of B given A’. (2) Multiplication law of probability or Theorem
of compound probability. If the probability of an event A happening as a
result of trial is PLA) and after A has happened the probability of an event
B happening us a result of another trial ii.e. , conditional probability of B
given A) is P(B /A), then the probability of both the events A and B
happening as a result of two trials is PiAB) or PiA n B) = P(A) , P(BIA).
Proof. Let n be the total number of outcomes in the first trial and m be
favourable to the event A so that P(A) = min. Let n , be the total number of
outcomes in the second trial of wh ieh m t are favourable to the event B so
that PiB/A) = mj/ttj. Now each of the n outcomes can be associated with
each of the n , outcomes. So the total number of outcomes in the combined
trial is nni. Of these mm, are favourable to both the events A and B. Hence
PiAB) or PiA nB)= = PiA) . PiB/A). rtUj Similarly, the conditional
probability of A given B is PiAiB). PiAB ) or PiA n B) = P{B) . PiAiB )
Thus PiA n B) - PiA) . P{B/A > = PiB) . PiAiB). (3) If the events A and B
are independent, i.e., if the happening of B does not depend on whether A
has happened or not, then PiB/A) = P(B) and PiA/ B) — PiA). PiAB) or
PiA n B) = PiA) . P(B), In general. PfAjA^.A^) or PtA, m A0 f'l ... r'l An) =
fJ(Aj ) , P(A2).., . /TA^). * Cards : A pack of cards consists or four suits
Hearts, Diamonds, Spades and Clubs, Each suit has IS cards ; an Ate* a
King, a Queen, a Jack and nine cards numbered 2, 3, 4* ,.r| K>. Hearts and
Diamonds are red while Spades and Clubs are black.
864 Higher Engineering Mathematics Cor, lfplPp£ be the
probabilities of happening of two independent events, then (i) the
probability that the first event happens and the second fails is p% (1 -p2).
Hi) the probability Lhat both events fail to happen is (1 — px) (1 — p2).
(iii) the probability that at least one of the events happens is 1 - (I — pt) { 1
“ p2). This is commonly known as their cumulative probability. In general,
if plf p2, p3> pn he the chances of happening of n independent events, then
their cumulative probability (Le. , the chance that at least one of the events
will happen) is l-tl -p^d-PsMl -p3) .**{1 -pnl Example 26*1 4* Two cards
are drawn in succession from a pack of 52 cards. Find the chance that the
first is a king and the second a queen if the first card is (£) replaced, (it) not
replaced* 4 1 Solu linn, (z > The probability of drawing a king = — - - 52
13 If the card is replaced, the pack will again have 52 cards so that the
probability of drawing a queen is 1/13, The two events being independent,
the probability of drawing both cards in succession = ^ x ^ = ‘ 07) The
probability of drawing a king = — ■ 13 If the card is not replaced, the pack
will have 5 1 cards only so that the chance of drawing a queen is 4/51. 14 4
Hence the probability of drawing both cards = — x — = - - ■ 13 51 663
Example 26*1 5* A pair of dice is tossed twice. Find the probability of
scoring 7 points (a) once, ft) at least once fc) twice . (Kurukshrtm, 2009 S ;
V. T. U*, 2004) Solution. In a single toss of two dice, the sum 7 can be
obtained as (1, 6), (2, 5), (3, 4)> (4, 3), (5, 2)t (6t 1} Le.9 in 6 ways, so that
the probability of getting 7 = 6/36 = 1/6. Also the probability of not getting
7=1- 1/6 - 5/6(a) The probability of getting 7 in the first toss and not getting
7 tn the second toss = 1/6 * 5/6 = 5/36. Similarly, the probability of not
getting 7 in the first toss and getting 7 in the second toss = 5/6 x 1/6 = 5/36,
Since these are mutually exclusive events, addition law of probability
applies. 5 5 5 /. required probability ~ — - + — = — 36 36 18 5 5 ib } The
probability of not getting 7 in either toss = — x — = 6 6 25 11 a the
probability of getting 7 at least once = 1 - — = — 36 36 {c} The probability
of getting 7 twice - - x \ = — 6 6 36 25 36 Example 26*16* There are two
groups of objects ; one of which consists of 5 science and 3 engineering
subjects, and the other consists of 3 science and 5 engineering subjects. Art
unbiased die is cast If the n umber 3 or number 5 turns up * a subject is
selected at random from the first group, otherwise the subject is selected at
random from the second group. Find the probability that an engineering
subject is selected ultimately 2 1 Solution, Prob. of turning up 3 or 5 = — =
— 6 3 3 Prob. of selecting an engg. subject from first group - 8 a Prob of
selecting an engg. subject from first group on turning up 3 or 5 1 3 1
665 Probability a*jd DsamrBirc ions 1 2 Now prob. of not turning
3 or 5 - I — — = — ■ 3 3 Pr«b, of selecting au engg. subject from second
gro up = -« 8 prob. of selecting an cngg, subject from second group on
turning up 3 or ft 2 5 __ 5 “ 3 X 5 “ 12 Thus the prob. of selecting an engg.
subject l+ 5_= 13 = 8 + 12 24 ’ Xii ) | From Cr) and («)l Example 26.17. A
box A contain a 2 white ami -i black bulla Another box B contains 5 white
and 7 block balls. A ball is transferred from the box A to the box B. Then a
bull is drawn from the box B. Find the probability that, it is white. ( V, T.U.,
2004) Solution. The probability of drawing a white ball from box B will
depend on whether the transferred ball Is black or while. If a black ball is
transferred, its probability is 4/6. There are now 5 white and 8 black balls in
the box B. 5 Then the probability of drawing white ball from box B is — ■
J J 4 _5 " 6 X 13 Thus the probability of drawing a white ball from uni B, if
the transferred hall is black 10 39 Similarly the probability of drawing a
white ball from urn if, if the transferred ball is white 2_ 13 2 6 6 X 13
Hence required probability - — + — = — ■ ' 39 13 39 Example 26. 18. (a)
.4 biased coin ts tossed till a head appears for the first time. What is the
probability that the number of required tosses is odd. (Mumbai, 2006) (b)
Two persons A and B toss an unbiased coin alternately on the understanding
that the first who gets the head wins. If A starts the game, find their
respective chances of winning. [Madras, 2000 S) Solution, la) Let p be the
probability of getting a head and q the probability of getting a tail in a
single toss, so that p + q - 1. Then probability of getting head on an odd toss
= Probability of getting head in the 1st toss + Probability of getting head in
the 3rd toss + Probability of getting head in the 5th loss + ... m = p+ qqp+
qqqqp + ... “ -p{l + qi + qA P ...)=p . 1 = P 1 “ 9“ 1 l<7 < If (1-t/Xl + r/) /Hl
+
866 MH3H6R EfJfiiNEERINQ MAtHfiMMlGS Example 26.19.

Two cards ore selected ut random from W cards numbered 1 to 10. Find the
probability p thut the sunt isttdd, if (i) the two cards are drawn together. (if)
the two Cards are drawn one after the other without replacement. Uii) the
turn cards are drawn one after the other with replacement (J,N.T.U., 2003) -
Solution. (0 Two cards out of 10 can I>p selected in 10C72 = 15 ways. The
sum is odd if one number is odd and the other number is even. There being
5 odd numbers ! 1 , 3, 5, < ,9t and 5 even numbers (2,4, 6, 8, KM, an odd
and an even number is chosen in 5x5 = 25 ways. Thus 25 _ 5 45 ~ 9 (if)
Two cards out of 10 can lie selected one after the other without replacement
in 10 « 9 =• 90 ways. An odd number is selected in 5 x 5 = 25 ways and an
even number in 5 x 5 = 25 ways 25 + 25 5 90 ” 9 Thus P = Uii) Two cards
can be selected one after the other with replacement in 10 x 10 = 100 ways.
An odd number in selected in 5 x 5 - 25 ways and an even number in o x 5
= 25 ways. Thus 25 + 25 1 100 ~ 2 Example 26.20. Given PiA) = l !4, P\B)
= / 13 and PIA R) = 1/2, evaluate PiA /B),P (BMhP < A n B') and P
Solution, ft) Since P (A u B) = P (A) + P (i?) - P (A r> B) l 2 Thus P(A/B) =
U'i) P iB/A) = i id ) P (A ^ B") = (i(0 P(A/P') = - + - - P (A n B) or P (A n B)
= — 4 3 12 P(A nPi _ 1/12 _ 1 PlP) 1/3 ~4 P (A r\ B) _ 1/12 _ 1 P (A) ~ 1/4
~3 P(A)-P(AnS) = - — =~ 4 12 6 P (A n Z3') _ 1/6 _ 1/6 1 PUF) ~ l - P {B)
1-1/3 ” 4
Probability AMO Distributions Finally, prob. that all the three are
favourable = - x — x — = — 7 7 7 343 Since they are mutually exclusive
events, the required prob. 80 45 j24_ + _ 209 + “ “ + ‘ "343 343 343 343
343 Example 26,22. / ca n hit u target 3 times in 5 shots, B 2 times in 5
shots and C 3 times in 4 shots. They fire a volley. What is the probability
that (i) two shots hit, (ii) offcast turn shots hit ? I A.M.I.E.T.E. . 2003 ;
Madras, 2000 S) Solution. Prob. of A hitting the target = 3/5, prob. of B
hitting the target = 2/5 Prob. of C hitting the target = 3/4. ii) Tn order that
two shots may hit the target, the following cases must be considered : 6 3 2/
3 s! p , = Chance that A and B hit and C fails to hit = — x — x I 1 - = 1 5 3
l 4) p~ = Chance that B and C hit and A fails to hit = — x — xfl — 5 4 \ 5)
3 3 f 2 p., - Chance that C and A hit and B fails to hit - — x — x 1 - — = —
• 13 4 5 t 5) 100 Since these are mutually exclusive events, the probability
that any 2 shots hit 6 100 12 100 27 “ P i + Pv. + Pa 12 27 + 0.45. 100 100
100 (it) In order that at least two shots may hit the target, we must also
consider the case of all A, B, C hitting the target lin addition to the three
cases of {*)] for which 3 2 3 18 n , - chance that A , U, C all hit = — x — x
— = — — 4 5 5 4 100 Since all these are mutually exclusive events, the
probability of ut least two shots hit fi Pi + Pt * Pa + Pa = 100 -il + JL +
il=0.63. 100 100 100 Example 26.23. A problem in mechanics is. given to
three students A, B, and C whose chances of solving [V.T.V., 2004) it arc —
, - and — respectively.- What is the probability that the problem will he sol
red. J? Solution, The probability that A can solve the problem is 1/2. The
probability that A cannot solve the problem is 1 - yrib Similarly the
probabilities that B and C cannot solve the problem are 1 — ~ and 1 ■\ the
probability that Ap B and C cannot solve the problem is ( ^ _ ^ _ ^ j [ ^ _
Hence the probability that the problem will be solved, ite. * at least one
student will solve it -‘-(‘-iJNIKl-r Example 26.24. The students in a class
are selected at random, one after the other, for an examination. Find the
probability p that the hoys and girls in the class alternate if ii ) the class
consists of 4 boys and $ girls, lit) the class consists of .7 bays and 3 girls.
tJJV. T. LI, 2003) Solution, (i) As there are 7 students in the class, the first
examined must be a boy.
Higher EN«SiN€fniNS Mathematics prob. that first is a boy = —

3 Then the prob. that the second is a pi rl = 3 prob. of the next boy - —
Similarly the prob- that the fourth is a girl = — , 4 2 the prob. that the iifth
is a boy = — , 3 the prob. that the sixth is a girl - ^ and the last is a boy - —
1 Thus 1,3 3,2,2 11 J_ V 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 35 Cm J The first student is a bay and
the? first student is a girl aro two mutually exclusive cases. If the first
student is a buy, then the probability that the students alternate is 3 3 2 2 1 1
1 /J* 6 5 4 3 2 1 20 If the first student is a girl, then the* probability p,, that
the students alternate is n . = 3 .3 2 2 1 l= _1__ * 6 5 4 3 2 1 20 Thus the
required prob. p = p, + p,, - — +■ — = -- ■ i ri 2 go 20 10 Example 26.25, l
Hityghen’x ]>rahtem)A and B throw alternately with a pair of dirt . A urns
if hv throws 6 ,'uf. re B throws 7 ami B wins if hi throws 7 brforc A titrates
6'. If A t>< pins, find his ckann of win /tin:;, {Madras, 2006 , , in 5 ways. 5
Tile probabilit y of A'fi throwing 6 with 2 dice is “ ■ the probability of'A's
not throwing 6 is 31/36. Similarly (he probability of R's throwing 7 is 6/36,
/,*’., — 6 the probability of BTs not throwing 7 is 5/6, Now A can win if he
throws 6 in the first, third, filth, seventh eLt, throws, the chance ofA's
wining 5 31 5 5 31 5 31 5 G - - +, - X — X - + - X— X - X — X - I 36 36 6
36 36 6 36 6 36 36 5 1 + 1 36 6) [36 6 J [36 fiJ 1 36 x 6 30 36 1 -(31/36)
xlG/G) 36 61 61 PROBLEMS 26.2 1, ti) Given P (A > = 1/2, P A'iBr).
iKum ksht’tra. WOP; V.T.U.. 2003 8!
PflOBA&LlTY AMD DiSrUieUTJQNS 869 2. In n m* gic throw

with two dice, what is i he chants of i browing (a > two aces ? lb) ? ? Is this
probability the same ns that For getting 7 in two throws of a single die ? 3-
Compare the chances of throwing 4 with one dice, 8 with two dte and 12
with three dice 4, Find the probability that a non-leap year should have 53
Saturdays ? f Afotims, 2003} S+ When a coin tossed four times, find l he
probability nf getting ti) exactly one head,, (ii) at most three beads mid f | f )
st least 1 wn heads ? (V T.i l . £006 S ) 6. Ton emia« nri thrown
simiiltamôusly. Find this probability of getting at least seven head*. IP/f,
IL. 2003} 7. If all the Inters of word RNGINEKIF ho wrif ten at random,
what is the probability that ah the l ot m s fc* are hamd together, Sp A ten
digit member in formed using the digits frenjn re rn in nine, every digit
being used only nun . Find the probability that the number is divisible by 4
9* Four mrdiS Eire drawn from a pack of 52 etirdb. WlmL is the chance
that 4> no two cards are of equal value 7 (ii) each belongs to :i different suit
7 10* Suppose 5 cards are drawn at random From s pack of 52 cards If all
gards are red what is the prubability that nil oi the m it re hop rte? ( Mu
mhaU 2005 \ 11* Out of 50 fare hooks, 3 of which are especially valuable*
5 art: smleii at random by a thief What is thv protehilily that fir? i none of i
he 3 i* induded ? tb) 2 of the 3 are i m l tided ? 12, Five men in a company
of twenty are graduates. if 3 men are picked mil of £0 at random . wtet is
the probability that selected at imodom from on*- of the two purees* what
is the latitebilily that it is a silver coin ? (Ofimatifa 2002) 19, A box 1 route
in.. 6 v hif.c balls no- 1 G I latjl. halls Another b m El contains 6 white balls
am I ! likuk hall.-. A l-ox as selected at random and I ten a ball is drawn
from it : (r> what is the probability that the ball drawn will be white ? . (ii)
Given that the ball drawn i H white, whnt is the probability that it canto
from box J iMurn&fti* 2(Hh'P 20* A party of n fu rsous lake i heir-fseiiuar
rondo m at a round table ; find H w probability thai Live yprciiied pi:* r nns
do net sir iagclher, 21. A cperifcsi I he truth m 75% eosu£,tmd B in HOW of
the u»sg£. Id what pervontiLgo bf uases* are they likely rn ronlredici eiteh
<4 her In gtgUiig the snruc fact 7 tVr,7' f7.+ 2002 hi £2, The pmhnhility
Ihni teshU will -nlve a prnhkm is 1/4 and the probability that Ham will
solve it ts ?Jti. IfSiist d and Ham work independent I v„ what is the
probability that the problem vH|l \y* solved by (a) both of them lf> 1 at 1c
:i vt oni idihem? 23. A stpdr-nl fake 3 hift eyarninrslinn in four PT Q* R*
■?* He e^-1 i mates his chtlnres of pussing in P hs 1/5. In Q es in Has 5/G
and in .S as 2f>+. To qualify, he must puss in P and at Jens I two other
Bubjerts.. What is thtt jirutvihihly ihat he qua I i fits ? iMitdx&K 2000 S)
24* The probability lhat a 60 yft&r ntd man will be alive ni GO is 0.83 and
the probabilfty that < 45 year old women wit! bn ahvc at 55 is 0,87. Whutis
tho.pr.mabi.lity that u man who 50 and his wife who is 45 will both be alive
10 yen r ; hence ? 25. If nn nn average one hiriji in 80 15 u cose of twin^,
wliat is the prnfeabihty that there will be at least one e^c uf Uvm.^ in a
maternity hnepitel on a day when £0 births occur ? 26. Two poi sons A and
/J fire ill .» target indvpcndrr.dy unci hove a protebility 0.6 arid 0.7
respectively af hitting thlargpt Find the prnb.ihifiiy l hut t\w laygei is da^
rayed. 27. A anil ti throw nll^rnrttely ' with ;t jpiir nf dire The nnp who
throws 9 first wans. Hltuw lhai the chanra^ « f their winning arc c> , H
870 Higher EnG!Ni££niN& Mathematics 26.6 B AYE'S
THEOREM An event A corresponds to u number of exhaustive events Br
B2 Bn. If P{Bi ) and P(A/B-) are given, then PiB !A) = PiB> * 1
mB,)PiA/B,) Proof. By the multiplication law of probability, P(ABl ) = Pi
A) Pt B/A ) = PiB')PlAJB() 1 P(At Since the events corresponds to Br B2,
.... Bfl, we have by the addition law of probability, PfA) - PiAEj + P(AB.2)
+ ... + PiABn) ~ !P(ABt) - LPi HA/B,) PiBi)PiA/Bt) ...ID ...{2) [By (1)1
Hence from ( 2 ), we have PiB-fA) = LP(Bt)P(A/B,) which is known as the
theorem of inverse probability. OLis. The probabilities P(Bt), i = 1, 2. n are
called a prion probabilities because thene exisi before We get any
information from the experiment. The pro ha bill ties P
PKOEwmrrv *WD Oistsibejtonis 871 PROBLEMS 26.3 1 . In a

certain cullcgc, 4rt of the boys and Vfr of girls are taller than 1.8m. K urthcr
more 60' * of the st infants arc- td rls^. If ri student is i* elected at rand urn
and is found io be taller than L8 itl, what is die probability that the student
is a girl ? 2. 3n j± bolt factory* itmchiJiM A, B And C manufacture 2Sî ,
Sfiflfr and 4(F5f of L lw total. Of their output Wf , 4^ and 2f* are defective
bolts. A holt is drawn at random from die product and is found to be
defective. What are the probabilities ihwl it was manufactured by machines
A B or C ? \ V.T. U.t 2006 ; Rnhfitk, 2(j$B ; Mvdm$M 2000 S) :h In n bolt
factory, Llinre are four machines A L\ C. D manufacturing 2IK£t £s% and
40% of the Into I on I pul respectively Of ihejr outputs Sf,K 4$. 8'* und 2%
in the same order are defective bolts. A holt i* chosen at random from the
far Lory’s production and is found defective. What is the probability that
the holt was manufactured by machine A or machine D ? (Hisstir. 2007 ;
J.N.T. U4 20QH] L The contents of three urns are : 1 white* 2 red, 3 green
balls ; 2 while, 1 red, 1 greed balls and I white* 5 red, grmm brills Two
balls are drawn from an urn chosen at random. These are found to be one
white and one green. Find the probability that the balls so draw n frame
front the third urn. ffiarnk$fieirtin 2007 ) 26.7 RANDOM VARIABLE If a
real variable X be associated with the outcome of a random experiment,
then since the values which X takes depend rm chance, it is called □
random variable or a stochastic variable or simply a variate. For instance, if
a random experiment E consists of tossing a pair of dice, the sum A' of the
two numbers which turn up have the value 2? 3, 4S ...* 12 depending on
chance. Then A' is the random variable. II is a function whose values are
real numbers and depend on chance. If in a random experiment, the event
corresponding to a number a occurs, then the corresponding random
variable A" is said to assume the value a and the probability of the event is
denoted by Pi X = a). Similarly the probability of the event A" assuming
any value In the interval a < X < b is denoted by Piu < X < b K The
probability of the event X < c is written as HA < c}* If a random variable
takes a finite set of values, it is called a discrete variate. On the other hand,
if it assumes an infinite number of uncountable values, it is called a
continuous variate. 26.8 (1) DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Suppose :< discrete variate A is the outcome of some experiment. If the
probability that A' takes the values xjt is /j(1 then P (A = x.) = Pj or /j(xp)
for i — 1, 2,,.. where (r) p{xp) > 0 for ail values of i, !.«) Spt.v() ■ 1 The set
of values xi with their probabilities pf constitute a discrete probability
distribution of the discrete variate X. For example, the discrete probability
distribution for A. the sunt of the numbers which turn on tossing a pair of
dice is given by the following table : A — ,r, 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 U 12 plxf
1/36 2/36 3/36 *1/36 5/36 6/36 5/36 4/36 3/36 2/36 1/36 fv There are 6 x 6
= 36 equally likely outcomes and therefore, each has F(x)i the probability
1/36. We have A' = 2 for one outcome, i.e. f 1, l) ; A = 3 for two outcomes
(1,2) ant! (2, 1 ); A” = 4 for three outcomes U, 3), (2, 2) ant! (3, 1 ) and so
on.] (2) Distribution function. The distribution function F ix) of the discrete
Variate X is defined by F(x) = l3l X £ x) = y plxr ) where x is any integer.
The graph of Fix) will be i = t stair step form (Fig. 26.2). The distribution
function is also sometimes called cumulative distribution function. «*J)
\P(x2) P(x]\ H - 1 - i - 1— xt x2 X3 xA Fig. 26.2
872 HiGHiin ENSweeRiNG Mathematics Example 26.28, A die
is tossed thrice- A success is 'getting l or 6’ on ti toss. Find the mean and
variance of the number of successes. (V. Ti/., 2011 S ; Rohtuk. 2004) 2 1 12
Solution. Probability of a success = — = — , Probability of failures - 1 - —
= — ■ 6 3 2 2 2 8 prob. of no success = Prob. of all 3 failures = - x - x — =
— 3 3 3 27 Probability of one successes and 2 failures - 3 Itj « ^ x - x - = ^
3 3 3 9 112 2 Probability of two successes and one failure = 3ca x x — x —
= 3 3 3 9 Probability of three successes = — x — x — = — 3 3 3 27 3 3
Now* />, - 8/27 1 4/9 2 2/9 3 1/27 mean Also variance ^ ,441, ll = I p x = 0
+ - + — + — =1. p 1 1 ’ 9 9 9 4 8 9 5 Zp,X< ~°+9 + 9 + 27 3 (J3 = I Pixf -
Ma= |-1-| 6 13k tV.T.V., 2010) i.e.. Example 26.29. The probability density
function of a variate X is X : 0 1 2 3 4 5 p(X> : k 3k 5k 7k Ok Ilk m Find
MX < 4 1, MX >51, P13 < X < 6). lir) What will be the minimum value of
k so that PfX £2) > 3. Solution, (i) IfJf is a random variable, then <5 7 p(x, I
= 1 i.e., k + 3k + 5k + Ik + 9k + lift + 13ft = 1 nr k = 1/49, i‘ — 0 MX < 4 )
* k + 3k + 5k + 7k = IGA = 16/49, MX > 5) = 1 Ik + 13* = 24ft = 24/49.
P(3 < X< 6) = 9k + lift + 13ft = 33ft = 33/49. fit) P (X < 2) = ft + 3ft + 5ft =
9ft > 0.3 or ft > 1/30 Thus minimum value of ft = 1/30. Example 26.30. A
random l ariablc X has the foilou ing probability function . * ; 0 / 2 3 4 5 6 7
pix) : 0 k 2k 2k 3k ft- 2ft- 7ft- + ft til Find the value of the ft (it) Evaluate P
(X < 6), PCX > fi) fit i) PW = 1, i.e., 0 + ft + 2ft + 2ft + 3ft + ft2 + 2ft2 +
7ft2 + ft = 1 1 - 0 7ft2 + 9ft - 1 - 0 i.e. (10 - ft) fft +11 = 0 i.e,. ft = — 10 (it)
P (X < 6) = P (X= 0) + P (X = I) + P (X= 2) + P(X = 3) + P (X= 4) +■ P(X=
5) 81 = 0 + ft + 2ft + 2ft + 3ft + ft2 = 8ft + ft2 = — + 1 10 100 100
B73 PW'ObADILIT'f AND DISTRIBUTIONS P iX> 6 ) = P i X
= 6) + P iX = 7} = 2A* + Ik1- + k = — + — 100 10 Ui) P(0(_t ) be the
density function denoted for the variate x in the interval (a, ft), then it can
be written as f fjtrl = 0, x < a — dx < x < x + — dx I = f tx l dx. Then f f.v)
is called the probability density function and the - u b. The density function,
fix) is always positive and j / ( x I dx = ] ii.e., the total area under the
probability J - HI curve and the x-axis is unity which corresponds to the
requirements that the totai probability of happening of an event is unity 1.
(2) Distribution function IfFtx\ = P(X£x)= f fix) rfx< tl — -CH then F far)
is defined us the cumulative distribution function or simply the distribution
function of the (untitiuoi/R variate X. It is the probability that the value of
the variate A' will be < v The graph nf Fix) in this case is as shown in Fig.
26.3(/>). The distribution function Fix) has the following properties : (/) F'
f.vl - fix) > 0, so that F f.vt is a non-decreasing function. (i) F t- ™>) = 0 ;
(Hi > F f”) “ 1 tic) Pia 0 for every x in f L, 2) and
874 Higher Engineering Mathematics Hence the function f hr)
satisfies the requirements for a density function. (£i) Required probability =
P(l i (discrete distribution) or E( X) - J xf (x ) dx (continuous distribution)
In general, expectation of any function 0(.t) is given by (discrete
distribution) or £W*>J = | tfx)f{x)dx (continuous distribution) (2) Variance
of a distribution is given by O2 - - p)2 f (x\) 1 (discrete distribution) or o2 =
f (x - p)2 f The rth moment about the mean (denoted by \ir) is defined by
(discrete distribution) or Pr = J (x - gT f UJ dx (continuous distribution) (4)
Mean deviation from the mean is given by 51 j “ £1 | f Ofj) ( discrete
distribution ) or by [ I X I f (jc) dx J - M (continuous distribution) Ksamph'
26.32. In a lottery, m tickets are drawn at a time out af it tickets numbered
from l to n Find tin expected value of the sunt of the numbers on the tickets
drawn.
875 PnCaABflJTY AKO DtSTfllBUTlONS Solution. Let*,, x2,
.... be the variables representing the numbers on the first, second, ..., nth
ticket. The probability of drawing a ticket out of n tickets being in each case
1/n, we have Eix) = l 1 + 2 - + 3 - + ... + n - = - in + 1) n n n n 2 .%
expected value of the sum of the numbers on the tickets drawn - £(*j + +
xni } - El j£j) + + ... + E(xm) = mE(xt) = i. m (n + 1). 2 Example 26.3a. X is
« continuous random variable with probability density function given by
fix) - itx (0
676 Higi+eh Engineering Mathcmatics Solution. Tola) frequency
N = [ a-3 dx + f (2 - a)'* dx = — + — = — Jq Ji 4 4 2 4/ (about the origin)
=7- f i)t't(/x+ f x(2 - a)'1 dx N Jo Ji = 2 -x (2-xf (2 - xf 20 J1 1 1 = 2 + — +•
— , 5 4 20 ]_ ” I 2 4./ (about the origin) - ^7 Jo x~ - xAdx + £ x~ (2 - .vi!
dx J = 2 J 6 2 (2 - ac)4 „ [1 1 i 1 1 = 2 < — +■ — + — — s — 16 4 2 [5 30
Hence i.e.. standard deviation o = a* = v0 = \xf-U) = Ipieilx.- which is a
function of the parameter / only. Expanding the exponential in ( 1 )„ we get
f 2 f M ft) = Ip. + /Ip, (a:, - a) + - Ip, I x. - t i f + ... + — Ia, (x, - uV + ... n 4
i r) i 2i f f r* 1 * t 2 tr - 1 + #gj' + l— p'2 + ... + ^-4', + ... ..(2) where 4',, is
the moment of order r about a. Thus Af((i/J generates moments and that is
why it is called the moment generating function. From (2), we find p'r —
coefficient of t7r! in the expansion of A *,//)Otherwise differentiating (2) r
times with respect to i and then putting / = 0, wo get dr dt. vM,tm ..,(3) t = 0
Thus the moment about any point* = a can be found from (2) or more
conveniently from the formula (31 Rewriting < 1) aw Mjt) - or Mnit ) - p
“rrf „.f4> Thus the tn.g.f. about the point a — e~tt( ( m.g.f [ about the
origin). Obs* The m.g.f of the sum oftuo mdepewolent tianablt'S is the
prodturt of tint r m **-/& ...m
877 PnUMfiJLJTV AND DlSrFHBUTTOHS (2) If fix) is the
density function of u continuous variate X, then the moment generating
function of this continuous probability distribution about x = a is given by
M tJ(f>= J en*-u'f{x) dx. Example 26*36. Find the mother# gnu-ruling
function of the exponential distribution fix J - - e~*!' , 0 r >0. Hence find its
mean and S, D, (Kuntk*hetrit, 2000} Solution. Tilt1 moment generating
Function about the origin is 1 e~x/c .J _ 1 f*_u c MM ) = fetx - e~ x,r dx = -
fV ~ l/t* dx JO I? C JO J. t - Itf'x c |U-l/r)| °_ = ( 1 - rf )“ 1 = 1 + ct + r 2f2
+ c3f3 + ... V , = dt i -0 " Â/„m = ic + 2cH + 3c®t2 + ...)|=f0= c - 2c2, and
= g'j, - (p'j )2 = 2c'2 - c2 - c2. J i =0 Hence the mean is e and S.D, is also c.
"IPn = P2'-î' y* A-i
878 Hsghfh Engineering Mathematics (i) Probability generating

function of x + 2 = ^ pk tk * 2 = tv‘ ^ pktk - I2 Px(t). *=o A-0 n tow Ut)
Probability generating function of 2.r = ^ pt (i>! - F. pk ( tA )* = P {tA ) .
*=o Jt =o PROBLEMS 26.4 1- A random variable x hua the following
probability function ; Values of x : -2 -1 0 1 2 3 pUi : 0.1 h 0.2 2h 0,3 k Find
the value of k and calculate mean and variance. CS. V. T. U.t 200? ; V T.U^
2QiM , Madr&s, 2003) 2, Find the standard deviation for the following
discrete distribution : x : 8 12 IB 20 24 p{x) : \m 1/6 3/B 1/4 1/12 X Obtain
the distribution function of the total number of heads occurring in three
Losses of an unbiased ruin. 4* Show that for any discrete distribution p2 >
l. 0, From an urn containing 3 red and 2 white balls, a man is to draw 2
bulls Ed random without replacement t being promised Rs. 20 for each red
ball be draws and Its. 10 fur each white one. Find ins expectation. 6. Four
coins are tossed. What is the expectation of the number of heads ? 7* The
diameter of an electric cable is assumed to be a continuous variate with pdf.
/U i = 6x (I — x)t 0 £x 5.1* Verify that the above is u p.dX Also find the
mean and variance. H, A random variable gives measurements -V between
0 and 1 with a probability function fix} = I2x*-2lx2 + 10*. 1 = 0 Up Find P
£a' < j and P \ X >ij 9* {iii Find a number k such that P (X < k) - ~ ( J.N.T,
U.t 2003 ) £m The power reflected by an aircraft that is received by a radar
can he described by an exponential random variable A. The probability
density of X is given by /U; - r'**\ *o 0. .riO x“ 4. 8hnw that il is a density
function. Find the probability that a variate having this density will fall in
the interval 2 £ x < 3 ? 11- A continuous distribution of a variable x in the
range f— X 3) is defined as fix)= -1- {3 +*)*,■ 16 - 3 < x < - 1 = — (2-
Sx3). 16 = — (3-*)2, 1
”
PBOBAEIIUTV AND DISTRIBUTIONS 879 Verify thai the area
under the curve is unity. Show chat the mean is zero. {KUruk$h4tra, 2005 }
1". The frequency function of a continuous random variable is given by fix)
- i‘2 - i), l)Si£ 2. Kind the value of y0, mean and variance of r. i Kerala,
2005 ; J.N,7\l 2003) 13. The probability density pix) of a continuous
random variable is given by pU> =y0e_ ™ < x < ™. Prove that - 1/2. Kind
the mean and variance of the dist ribut ion. iS.V.T.LL, 2001 < ; kurukshetra,
2007; V.T.U. > $004) m. tsrw-\i,x+u- ~' = 0, elsewhere. Find tho cumulative
distribution of the variate r when k sa tidies Lbe requirements tarf{x) to be a
density function. 26.13 REPEATED TRIALS We know that the probability
of getting a head or a tail on tossing a coin is — . If the coin is tossed thrice,
JL the probability of getting one head and two tails can be combined as H
— 7 — T, T — H — T, T — T — H. The pm bald I* ity of each one of
these being i x — x i , i.e., | n , their total probability shall be 3f 1/2 J3, A
’W fi Similarly if a trial is repeated n times and if p is the probability of a
success and q that of a failure, then the probability of r successes and n - r
failures is given by pr qn ~ r. But these r successes and n - r failures can
occur in any of the "Cr ways in each of which the probability is same. Thus
the probability of r successes in "0, p' " ~r. Cor. The prubabilities of at least
r successes in n trials ~ the sum of the probabilities of r, r + 1, ..., n
successes _ nff nr jn/i — r . + 1 - r - 1 . nf^ nn “ L r P ¥ + P H- ^ ■ 26.14 fl)
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION* It is concerned with trials of a repetitive
nature in which only the occurrence or non-occurrence, success or failure,
acceptance or rejection, yes or no of a particular event is of interest. If we
perform a series of independent trials such that lor each trial p is the
probability of a success and q that of a failure, then the probability of r
successes in a series of n trials is given by "C,.pr q" r. where r takes any
integral value from 0 to n. The probabilities of 0, 1, 2. ... r , .... n successes
are. therefore, given by q\ ,lClPq>s ~ \ "C^V ' 2 . HCr peqn ..... p“. The
probability of the number of successes so obtained is called the binomial
distribution for the simple reason that the probabilities are the successive
terms in the expansion of the binomial l q + PY‘. the sum of the
probabilities - qn + “Cjpq" J 1 + nCtfj2qn ~ 2 + ... + p" = (<7 + pT = 1. (2)
Constants of the binomial distribution. The moment generating function
about the origin is Mfjt) = Etc*) ~ X -* (By (1) g 26.11| = I r‘Cx tpe
Higher Engineering Mathematics Differentiating with respect to t
and putting / = 0 and using 13 > 5 26.11, we get the mean M'i = «PSince
Mr[(/ 1 - e~ at the m.g.f. of the binomial distribution about its mean (m) =
up, is given by Mm(t) = e~ nf,‘ {(] + pelyi = (qe~ !>l + pP1' )n *> A \n .2 .3
1 >2 Ji\l , . „3 z.t* 1 + pq — + pqiq- - /)"> — + WW +//) — + •■■ 4! 2! \ /
fa t3 t4 <>r 1 + M+Ma — +U3 — + Ri — + = 1 + npq — + npq(q - p) — +
npq [1 + 3 (n - 2) pq\ j- + it O -B Tt 4 Equat ing the coefficients of like
powers of / on either side, we have p^ = npq , p., = npq(q - p), p., - npq [1 +
3(n - 2)pq\. Abo P Jl-lpP ^ u p2a npq npq p2 npq Thus mean - np, standard
deviation = ^j(npq) ■ skewness = (1 - 2p)l Ji npq), kurtnsis Oba. The
skewness is positive For p < -f and negative for p > — 2 2 When p = — ,
the skewness is zero, i.e., Lbe probability curve of the binomial distribution
will be symmetrical (bell-shaped ). As tt the number of trials increase
indefinitely, pj —t 0. and P2 — * 3. (3) Binomial frequency distribution. If
n independent trials constitute one experiment and this experiment be
repeated Af times, then the frequency of r successes is JV f‘Cr pr qH ~r.
The possible number of successes together w ith these expected frequencies
constitute the binomial frequency distribution* (4) Applications of
Binomial distribution. This distribution is applied to problems concerning :
(/> Number of defectives in a sample from production line, (u) Estimation
of reliability of systems, (Hi) Number of rounds fired from a gun hitting a
target, Uii) Radar detection. Example 26.38. The probability that a pen
manufactured by a company will be defective is 1 / 10. If 12 such pens are
manufactured, find the probability that (a) exactly two will be defective. (h)
at least two will be defect ice (c S none will be defective. (V. T. V.. 2004 ;
Burdwan, 2003) Solution. The probability of a defective pen is 1/1(1 - 0.1 /.
The probability of a non -defective pen is i - 0.1 = 0,9 (а) The probability
that exactly two will be defective - 52C, (0.1)2 (0.9)™ = 0.2301 (б) The
probability that, at l rust two will be defective - 1 - ( prob. that either none
or one is non -defective) = 1 - |12C(i(0.9)i2 + 12C/0.1) (0.9)11} = 0.3412
(r) The probability that none wilt be defective - l2ri2(0.9)ia = 0.2833.
Example 26.39. In 266 sets of 12 tosses of a coin, in how many cases one
can expect 8 heads and 4 tails. U.N.T.U,, 2003 ) Solution. Ahead) = — and
P (tail) = — 2 2
Probability and DistrebutionS 881 By binomial distribution,
probability of 8 heads and 4 tails in 12 trials is 495 P(X=8) = ,2C8 f-1 (-1 =
8 UJ UJ 8! 4! 212 4096 the expected number of such cases in 256 sets =
256 x P ( X = 8) = 256 495 4096 - 30.9 - 31 (say). Example 26.40. In
sampling a large number of parts manufactured by a machine , the mean
number of defectives in a sample of 20 is 2. Out of 1000 such samples, how
many would be expected, to contain at least 3 defective parts. (V. T. 17.,
2004) Solution. Mean number of defectives - 2 - np - 20p. .\ The probability
of a defective part is p = 2/20 = 0.1. and the probability of a non-defective
part — 0.9 .*. The probability of at least three defectives in a sample of 20.
= 1 — (prob. that either none, or one, or two are non-defective parts) = 1 -
[20Co(0.9)2° + 20C,(O.l) (0.9)19 + 20C2(0.1)2 (0.9)18] = 1 -(0.9)1B x 4,51
=0.323. Thus the number of samples having at least three defective parts
out of 1000 samples - 1000 x 0.323 = 323. Example 26.4 1 . The following
data are the number of seeds germinating out of 10 on damp filter paper for
SO sets of seeds. Fit a binomial distribution to these data : X : 0 1 2 3 4 5 *
6 7 8 9 10 f: 6 20 28 12 8 6 0 0 0 0 0 Solution. Here n = 10 and N - X f —
80 f.e., mean = *ft 20 + 56 + 36 + 32 + 30 80 Now the mean of a binomial
distribution - np 174 80 2.175 np = lGp = 2.175 p = 0.2175, q = 1 -p =
0.7825 Hence the binomial distribution to be fitted is Niq+pf- 80 (0.7825 +
0.2175)10 = 80.1UCQ (0.7825)1U + 80.10Cj (0.7825)9 (0.2175)1 + ,0C2
(0.7826)e (0.2175)2 + ... + eoC9 ( 0.7825 J1 (0.2 175)9 + 80Clc (0.2175)10
= 6.885 + 19.13 + 23.94 + ... + 0.0007 + 0.00002 the successive terms in
the expansion give the expected or theoretical frequencies which are x: 0 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 f: 6.9 19.1 24.0 17.8 8.6 2.9 0.7 0.1 0 0 0 PROBLEMS
26.5 I Determine the binomial distribution for which mean = 2 (variance?
and mean + variance = 3. Also find P { X £ 31 {Kerala* 20051 2. An
ordinary eix-faced die is thrown four times. What are the probabilities of
obtaining 4, 3, 2, 1 and 0 faces 7 3. If the i hancc that one of the ten
telephone tines is busy at an instant is 0,2. (a) What is the chance Lhal 5 of
Lhe lines are busy ? (fO Wliat is the most probable number of busy lines
and what is the probability of this number ? (c) WhuL is the probability that
all the lines are busy ? {V.T. U.t 2002 S) 4. If the probability that a new-
born child is a male is 0,6. find the probability that in a family of 5 children
there are exactly 3 buys- iKuruk$kHr% 2005)
802 Higher Engineering Mathematics fp. If cm iin average 1

vessel in every 10 is wrecked, End the probability that out of 5 vessels
expected lu arrive, at leasl 4 ft ill arrive safely. (P.T, L/.. 2005) 6. The
probability that a bomb dropped from a plane will strike the target is 1/5. If
six bomb.s are dropped, find the probability that f i) exactly two will strike
the target* (ft) ut least two will strike the turget. 7. A soi ih of TO
aeroplane^ is sent on an operational Might. The chances that an aeroplane
fails to return is 5%. Find the probability that (i). one plane does not return
(iiJ at the most 5 planes do net return, and Uii) what is the most probable
number of returns ? iHissur* 2097 ) The probability that an entering student
will graduate is 0.4. Determine the probability that out of 5 students ia)
none (h) one and (c i at least one will graduate. 0. t ml of BOO families
with 5 children each, how many would you expect to have fa> 3 boys, (b* 5
girls, (c) cither 2 or 3 boys ? Assume equal probabilities for boys and girls.
\W1\LI, 2004) I fh If 10 per cent of the rivets produced by a machine are
defective, find the probability that out of 5 rivets chosen at random til none
will be defective, (ii) one will be defective, and (Hi) at least l wo will be
defective. 11. In a bombing action there is 50^ chance that coy bomb will
strike the target. Two direct hits are needed to destroy lbs.' target
completely. How many bombs are required to be dropped to give a 99'T
chance or better of completely defraying the target, (V.Trb\l 2003 &) 12. A
product is 0.5'$ defee live and is packed in carLons of 100. What
percentage contains not more than 3 defectives ? 1 3* I fin a lot of 500
solenoids 25 ore defective, find the probability or 0, 1 „ 2* 3 defective
solenoids in a random sample of 20 solenoids. M 500 .articles were selected
at random oul or a batch containing 10,000 articles, and 30 were found io
be defeclive Flow many defectives articles would you reasonably expect to
have in Lho whole batch ? Gf.Mttl/., 2003) 15p Fit a binomial distribution
for the follow Log data end compare the thepreticuJ frequencies with the
actual ones : x : 0 I 2 3 4 5 f : 2 14 20 34 22 8 (Ma/xtl. 2006) UL Fit it
binomial distribution to the fallowing frequency distribution : x i 0 1 2 3 4 5
6 f 13 25 52 58 32 16 4 ffiurukshetrat 2009; S.V.T.U.. 2G07> 26.15
POISSON DISTRIBUTION* it is a distribution related to the probabilities
of events which itrt> extremely rare, but which have a large number of
independent opportunities for occurrence. The number of persons born
blind per year in a large city and the number of deaths by horse kick in an
army corps are some of the phenomena, in which this law is followed. This
distribution can be derived as a limiting case of the binomial distribution by
making n very large and p very small, keeping np fixed ( = tn, say). The
probability of r successes in a binomial-distribution is P(r) = "Crprqri~r n(n
l)(n - 2) - ■ (n. -r -*-1) - j - P Q " "r r ! njAnp - p) {tip - Ip) {np - r - Ip) r !
(i-pr As n -» p — > 0 {np - tn), we have P(r)= — Lt _nC_rm r ! (J - mint r\
so that the probabilities of 0, 1. 2..., r,... successes in a Poisson distribution
are given by
Probability and Distributions ass (2) Constants of the Poisson
distribution. These constants can easily be derived from the corresponding
constants of the binomial distribution simply by making n 0, (q 1) and
noting that np = m Mean - Lt (np ) - m Pjj = Lt {npq ) = m Lt lr/} = m
Standard deviation - -Jm Also p3 = m, p4 = m + 3m2 Skewness (= ) = l/m,
Kurtosis (= p2) = 3 + 1 /m. Since p3 is positive, Poisson distribution is
positively skewed and since > 3, it is Leptakurtic. 13} Applications of
Poisson distribution. This distribution is applied to problems concerning :
Arrival pattern of ‘defective vehicles in a workshop', ‘patients in a hospital'
or ‘telephone calls', (it) Demand pattern for certain spare parts, (tit) Number
of fragments from a shell hitting a target, (in) Spatial distribution of bomb
hits. Example 26.4 2, If the probability of a bad reaction from a certain
injection is 0.001, determine the chance that out of 2,000 individuals more
than two will get a bad reaction- {V.T.U., 2008 , Kattayam, 2005) Solution.
It follows a Poisson distribution as the probability of occurrence is very
small. Mean m — np = 2000(0.001) = 2 Probability that more than 2 will
get a bad reaction = 1 - [prob. that no one gets a bad reaction + prob. that
one gets a bad reaction + prob. that two get bad reaction! = 1 ' m mV" | ’cu
M £ ■jl “ 1 r i _ 4_ 2 + 2.1 1! 2! |y *2 e2J tv m - 2] = 1 - -5- = 0.32. e |v e =
2.718 ] Example 28.43. In a certain factory turning out razor blades, there is
a small chance vf 0.002 for any blade to be defective. The blades arc
supplied in packets of 10, use Poisson distribution to calculate the approx i
mate number of packets containing no defective, one defective, and two
defective blades respectively in a consignment of 10,000 packets.
(Kurukshetra, 2009 S; Mad ins. 2006 ; V.T.ll, 2004 ) Solution. We know
that m - np = 10 x 0.002 = 0.02 ;-0D2 = l- 0 02 + (0.02)" 2! — ... - 0.9802
approximately Probability of no defective blade is e~ m - e~ 0 02 = 0.9802
no. of packets containing no defective blade is 10,000 x 0.9802 = 9802
Similarly the number of packets containing one defective blade = 10,000 x
me~ ' = 10,000 X (0.02) x 0.9802 = 196 Finally the number of packets
containing two defective blades (0.02}2 = 10,000 x mV* 21 = 10,000 x 2! x
0,9802 - 2 approximately. Example 26.4 1. Fit a Poisson distribution to the
set of observations ; xl 0 12 3 4 f ; 122 60 IS 2 1 (Bhopal 2007 S ; V.T.U.,
2004 ; U.P.T.U., 2003) Sul ut inn. Mean = 2ftxi 60 +36 + 6 + 4 I ft ~ 200 =
0.5.
884 *\ mean of Poisson distribution i m - 0-5, Hence the

theoretical frequency for r successes is 200e-°5(.5f r! r ! where r = 0, 1, 2, 3,
4 •\ the theoretical Frequencies are x : o l 2 /: 121 61 15 3 4 2 0 Higher
Engineer's Mat>hewmic5i (v e_-5 = 0.6l) PROBLEMS 26.6 L If a random
variable has a Poison distribution such that P[l) - P{2), find it) mean of the
distribution. f U ) IX 4J. (V* 2V U ^ 2003) *i* X is 2i Poisson variable and
it is found that the probability that A =■ 2 is two-thirds of the probability
that X = 1 Find the probability that X 0 and the probability that A" - 3 Wliat
is the probability that X exceeds if ? 3- For Poisson distribution, i prove that
m p2 yt /^ = lt whore symbols have their usual meaning [&.Y. / . f.L 2008)
4. A certain making machine produces **n average of 2 defective screws
out of 100* and packs them in boxes of 500, Find the probability Lhat a box
contains 1.5 defective screws, (Kurukshetra, 200(i I 5, A manufacturer
know? that the condensers he makes contain on the average 1 ft defectives.
He pack? them in boxes of TOO. What is t he probability that a box picked
at random will contain 3 or more faulty condensers ? 0- A car-hire firm has
two cars which it hires out day by day. The number of demand? for a car on
each day is distributed as a Poisson distribution with mean 1.5, Calculate
the proportion of days U) on which there i> so demand, ( ii ) on which
demand is refused, (e ' 3 - 0,22311 {Bhopal, 2008 & , J.N. T. LI, 2003) 7,
The incidence of occupa tional disease in an industry is such that the
workmen have a 1.0ft chance of suffering from it. Whai is probability that
in a group of 7, five or more will suffer from it ? 8, The frequency of
accidents per shift in a facLory is us shown in the following table :
Accidents per shift : 0 1 2 3 4 Frequency : 180 92 24 3 1 Calculate the mean
number of accidents per shift and the corresponding Poisson distribution
and compare with actual observations. 8, A HOMvm of liquid is known lo
contain bacteria with the mean number of bacteria per cubic c&itti metre
equal to 3. IVn 1 eti teal-tubea are filled with the liquid- Assuming that
Poisson distribution if AppH^dttle, calculate the probability that all the test-
tubes will show growth Le.t contain alleast 1 bacterium each, 10. Find Ute
expectation of the function = xe~ J in a Poisson distribution. (V.T.LIt 2003)
mint ; If m ha the mean of the Poisson distribution* Lhen expectation of
cK*J - y - — --- - - m exp. m Ur 1 — m - 1 ) c=0 X 1JL Fit a f'oisspn
distribution to the following : * a: : 0 J 2 3 4 f ; 46 36 22 9 1 tKunthsh*trnt
2009 ; Bhopal, 2008 ; V.T.t'.. 2003 $\ 12. Fit a Poisson distribution to the
following data given the number of yeast cells per square for 400 square? :
No. of cells per sq. : G 1 23456 789 10 No. of squares : 103 143 98 42 8 4 2
0 0 0 0 • (S.V.TM., 2007) 26.16 (1) NORMAL DISTRIBUTION* Now we
consider a continuous distribution of fundamental importance, namely the
normal distribution. Any quantity whose variation depends on random
causes is distributed according to the normal law. Its importance lies in the
fact that a large number of distributions approximate to the normal
distribution. * In 1924. Karl Pearson (bund this distribution which Abraham
Dr Mowrr had discovered a& early as 1733. See footnote p. H43 and 647.
PrtOeABiuTf And Distributions Let us define a variate z = =
\j(npq) where x is a binomial variate with mean np and S.D. -Jinpq) so that
z is a variate with mean zero and variance unity. In the limit as n tends to
infinity, the distribution of z becomes a continuous distribution extending
from — « to ™. It can be shown that the limiting form of the binomial
distribution (1) for large values of n when neither p nor q is very small, is
the normal distribution. The normal curve is of the form y cry (2ji) ...(2)
where g and a are the mean and standard deviation respectively. {2}
Properties of the normal distribution I. The normal curve (2) is bell-shaped
and is symmetrical about its mean, it is unimodal with ordinates decreasing
rapidly on both sides of the mean (Fig. 26.3), The maximum ordinate is 1 / ,
found by putting x = p in (2). As it is symmetrical, its mean, median and
mode are the same. Its points of inflexion (found by putting d?y/dx2 = 0
and verifying that at these points d'Ay{di r3 * 01 are given by x = p ± <7,
i.c.f these points are equidistant from the mean on either side. II, Mean
deviation from the mean p ^ f | jc - M I — 1= e~(x~ pI? ' 203 dx J— ajm) =
f |z| e-^^dz V(2n) J— ' 1 I Put a = (,v - pl/tsf III. Moments about the mean
dl2nl LJ-“ « I v/l2it> « :-la o(0 - 1) = 0.7979 a = (4/5) o ‘hi * I “ | (JC - pi
tr2"*1 ,2u + 1 1= re‘ J= 0, since the integral is an odd function. Thus all odd
order moments about the mean vanish. g2a = f + (2n-l)c2 P5„_3 Repeated
application of this reduction formula, gives p2„ = (2n - I) (2n - 3) ... 3 . lc2'*
In particular, p2 = a2, p4 = 3a4. ^4 = 0 and p2= -% =3 g/ Pa Hence
886 Higher Engineering Mathematics z,< the coefficient of
skewness is zero ii.e. the curve is symmetrical) and the Kurt os is is 3. This
is the basis for the choice of the value 3 in the definitions of platykurtic and
lepfcokurtic {page 844). IV. The probability of x lying between and x2 is
given by the area under the normal curve from to x2, i.e., P (.Vj { Xs e *
/2rf2’Jo e *1,2ds\ =Ps&-Pti*) The values of each of thif above integrals can
be found from the table Ill-Appendix 2, which gives the values of O'JiZK) 1
P{Z) = 1 r e~^ndz Jo for various values of z. This integral is called the
probability integral or the error function due to its use in the theory of
sampling and the theory of errors. Using this table, we see that the area
under the normal curve from z - 0 to z = 1, i.e. from X = p to p + a is
0.3413. /. (i) The area under the normal curve between the ordinates x = p
— a and x = p + a is 0.6826, ~ 68% nearly. Thus approximately 2/3 of the
values He within these limits. (it) The area under the normal curve between
x = p - 2a and x = p + 2o is 0.9544 - 95.5%, which implies that about 4— %
of the values lie outside these limits. (it } .99. 73% □/ the values lie between
x = p - 3a and x p + 3a r,e., only a quarter % of the whole lies outside these
limits. (in) 95% of the values lie between x = p - 1.96
pRoaAD^Lmr mo DistmaimoNs 837 26.17 PROBABLE ERROR
Any lot of articles manufactured to certain specifications is subject to small
errors. In fact, measurement of any physical quantity shows slight error. In
general, these errors of manufacture or experiment are of random nature
and therefore, follow a normal distribution. While quoting a specification of
an experimental result, we usually mention the probable error (X). It is such
that the probability of an error failing within the limits p - X and p + X is
exactly equal to the chance of an error falling outside these limits, i.e. the
chance of an error lying within p - X and p + X is 2 L= (9rr\ Jo-JL 9 or 1
r*'" JT2n) l 4 The table V, (Appendix 2) gives X/cr - 0.6745 Hence the
probable error X = 0.6745d - — c. J f z ** ~ M o 1 2 4 OIih. Quartile
deviation = - (Qa Q,) ~ — o ; Mean deviation = — rj Q.D. : M.D. : SI). =
10 ; 12 : 15. Ip. 8391 l Madras, 2003) Example 26,45. X is a normal variate
with mean 30 and S.D. 6, find the probabilities that fi) 2$ 5, 0MfM, 2005)
Solution. We have p = 30 and o = 5 X-p X -30 z ~ - — = a 5 - 0.5 - 0.4986 -
0.0014 {Hi) P [ | X - 30 | <51 = P[25 51 = 1 - P i | X- 30 1 < 5J = 1 -
0.6826 - 0.3174. Example 26.46, A certain number of articles manufactured
in one batch were classified into three categories according to a particular
characteristic, being less than 50, between 50 and 50 and greater than tit i.
If this characteristic is known to be normally distributed, determine the
mean and standard deviation for this batch if 60*%., 35% and 5% were
found in these categories , Solution. Let p be the mean (ate = 0) and d the
standard deviation of the normal curve (Fig. 26.5), Now 60% of the articles
have the characteristic below 50, 35% between 50 and 60 and only 5%
greater than 60. Let the area to the left of the ordinate PQ be 60% and that
between the ordinates PQ and ST be 35% so that the areas to the left of PQ
(2=2,) and ST (2 = z2) are 0.6 and 0.95 respectively, i.e., the area OPQR =
0.6 0.5 = 0.1 and the area OSTR = 0.45.
988 Higher Engineering Mathematics Exsiiitpl*' 26,47. In a
normal distribution, 31% of the. item# are under 4o and 8% are over 04.
Find the mean and S.D. of the distribution. (V.T, V., 2009 ; S.V.T. U.. 2008 ;
Kurukshetm, 2007 S) Solution. Let x be the mean and (z) dz = 0.08 or f 4>
(z)dz- f J
FnaawJurv and DisTnieimons area against z — 1.83 in the table
III - 0,4664. We, however, require the area to the right of the ordinate at z =
1.83. Thi s area = 0.5 - 0,4664 = 0.0336, Thus tiie number of bulbs expected
to burn for more than 2150 hours = 0.0336 x 2000 = 67 approximately.
(b)Forx= 1950,* = x-p = - 1.5 f.e., The area required in this case is to the
left of ? - — 1.33 — 0.5 - 0.4082 (table value for z — 1.33) = 0.0918. /. the
number of bulbs expected to burn for less than 1950 hours = 0.0918 x 2000
= 184 approximately. 1920 - 2040 (c) When x — 1920, zWhen x - 2160, z =
60 2160-2040 60 = — 2 _ 2. The number of bulbs expected to burn for
more than 1920 hours but less than 2160 hours will be represented by the
area between z - - 2 and z - 2. This is twice the area from the table for.? = 2,
t.e., = 2 x 0.4772 = 0.9544. Thus the required number of bulbs = 0.9544 x
2000 - 1909 nearly. Example 26.49. If the. probability of commit ting an
error of magnitude x is given by v_ * . y — — f = e , vtt compute (he
probable error frorn the following data : m} = 1.305 ; mz = 1.301 ; m3 *
1.295 ; m4 = 1.286 ; m. = 1.318 ; m6 = 1.321 ; m7 = 1.283 : ms - 1.289 ;
mg =■ 1.300 ; m)0 - 1.286 . Solution. From the given data which is norm
ally distributed, we have 1 _ 12.984 , „qo. mean = — Tm - - = 1.2984 10 '
10 {Ktt ruks hetra , 2005 ) and ct2 = — — Z(m; - mean)2 10 1 = — 1(0.007
f + (0.003 >2 + (0.003)“ + (0.012)2 + (0,02>2 + (0,023)a 10 + < 0.Q16)2 +
(0.009 )2 + (0.002)“ + (0.012)“ 1 - 0.0001594 whence cr - 0.0126. probable
error - ~ a = 0.0084 approx. 3 Example 26.50. Fit a normal curve to the
following distribution. x : 2 4 6 8 10 f: 1 4 6 4 1 ( V.T.U. , 2001) Solution.
Mean = 2fx = 2 + 16 + 36 + 32 + 10 If 16
890 Higher Mathematics Taking n = 6, a = 2 and N= 16 t the

equation of the normal curvt* is 1 y = r— e G\J 2tt ■^| —.0*84. 4, In a
certain examination, the percentage of candidates passing and getting
distinctions were 46 and B respectively. Estimate the average marks
obtained by the candidates* the minimum pass and distinction marks being
40 and 75 respectively. (Assume the distribution of marks to be normal}.
(Kotliq yutnr 2005) 3 A manufacturer of air-mall envelopes knows from
experience that the weight of the envelopes is normally distributed with
mean 1.95 gm and standard deviation 6.05 gm. About how many envelopes
weighing ft 3 2 gm or more ; Or) 2.05 gm or more can be expected in a
given packet of 100 envelopes. ft Tile menu height of 500 students is 151
cm. and Lhe standard deviation is 15 cm. Assuming that the heights are
normally distributed, find how many students* heights lie between 120 and
155 cm. {Burdwnn, 2008 3 7. The mean and standard deviation of the
marks obtained hy 1000 students* in an examination are respectively 34.4
and 16.5. Assuming the normality of the distribution, find the approximate
number of students expected to obtain marks between 30 and 60. h* In an
examination taken by 500 candidates, the average and the standard
deviation of marks obtained t normally distributed I are 40% and 10% Find
approximately (i) how many will pass, if 50% is fixed as a minimum ? (fj)
what should be Lhe minimum if 350 candidates are to pass ? hi/') how many
have scored marks above 6Q% ? 9. lhe mean inside diameter of a sample of
200 washers produced by a machine is 5.02 mm and the standard deviation
is 0.05 mm. The purpose for which these washers are intended allows a
maximum tolerance in the diameter of 4.96 Lu 5.08 mm, otherwise the
washers are considered defective Determine the percentage of defective
washers produced by the machine, assuming lhe diameters are normally
distributed. [Hint, 4.96 In standard units - (4.96 - 5.02V0.05 = —1.2 5*08
in standard units — (5.08 - 5.02V0.05 - 1_2 Proportion of non-defective
washers = 2 (area between * - 0 and z - I.2J = 0 7698 or 71% nearly. *\
percentage of defective wishers 100- 77 = 23%. | 10. Assuming that the
diameters of 1000 brass plugs taken consecutively from u machine, form a
normal distribution with i>i(?an 0-7515 cm. and standard deviation 0.0020
cm.t how many of the plugs are like!} to be rejected if the approved
diameter is 0,752 * 0.004 cm, ? {Bhopal, 2002)
Probability and Distributions 691 5 1. 31 is given I hat the age of

thermostats of a particular make fallow the normal law with mean 5 years
and S.D. 2 years. 1000 unit# are 8old out every mnti th. Hnw many of them
will have to he replaced at Lhe end of the second year 'i 2. The income of a
group of 10,000 persona was found U> be normally distributed with mean
Rs. 750 p.TO.< and standard deviation of R s. 5U. Show that r of this
group, about 95ft had income exceeding Rs. 668 and only 5ft had income
exceeding Ks. B&3L Also find the lowest income among the richest 1()th
IU.RT.U., 2004 S > E3, Rind the equation of the best fitting normal curv« to
the following distribution : x : 0 I 2 3 4 5 >■: 13 m 34 15 11 4 l * Obtain t
he equation of the normal probability Curve that may be fitted to the
following data : Variable ;■ 4 6 8 10 12 14 10 18 20 22 24 Frequency: 1 7
15 22 35 43 38 20 13 5 1 15- A factory turns out an article by mass
production and it Is found that 10% of the product is rejected. Find the R.D.
of the number of rejects and the equation tn the normal cum? to represent
the number of rejects. ■Hint, p - 0.1, q - 0.% fi = 100. binomial distribution
uf rejects gives mean = rip = 10. S,D, = Jtnpq) = 3 If this b inn m ml
distribution is approximat ed by a normal distribution^ then the equation Lu
the normal curve is y ™ fi~ix~ v 1 * where p ~ 10* c = 3.1 0 sli2n) 10.
Given that the prob&bi Li ty of’ committing an error of magnitude x is y -
e~ ** x , show that the probable error is 0. 1769/5. vn 26.18 NORMAL
APPROXIMATION TO BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION If the number of
successes in a Binomial distribution range from xt to x%w then the
probability of getting these successes = f; ”CF pr q*-r Fm*l As the number
of trials increases, the Binomial distribution becomes approximated to the
Normal distri bution- The moan np and the variance npq of the binomial
distribution will he Quite close to the mean and standard deviation of the
approximated normal distribution. Thus for n sufficiently large (> 30), the
binomial distribution with probability of success p, is approximated by the
normal distribution with p = npt a - ■Jnpq . We must however, be careful to
get the correct values afz. For any success*, real class interval is (x \J% x +
112). Hence 1 1 Xj - --np a yf^pq z2 so that P {Xj < x < Xj) = P (x, < z <
z.,) = tyz)dz which can be calculated by using table III— Appendix 2.
Example 26,51. In a referendum 80% of voters voted in favour. A random
sample of 200 voters was selected What is the probability that in the sample
(a l more than 130 voted in favour ? (A) between W& and 130 inclusive
voted in favour ? (c) 120 voted in favour ? Solution. Here n - 200, p - 0.6, q
— 0.4 p = np — 200 x 0.6 — 120; a — -Jnpq 130.5-120^ M ) (a) P (x >
130) = P(x > 130.5) = P^x> = ^48 =6.928 = P{2 > 1.516) = 0.0648
892 HjGHEPI ElêJNEtHlN^ Mati ICS (b)P(W5 k). If p he the
probability of occurrence of an event then P{k,r) = r-* 1Ck^y tf~* It
contains two parameters p and k. If k - 1, the Negative binomial distribution
reduces to the geometric distribution. (3) Hypergeometric distribution.
Suppose a bag contains m white and n black balls. If r balls are drawn one
at a time { with replacement) t then the probability that k of them will be
white is P(k) - mCfl ,,Cr _ k!m k = 0, 1, ... r, r < m, r < n. This distribution
is known as Hypergeometric distribution. For since £ mCk nCr_k = m +
nCr This can be proved by equating the coefficient of f in a + om (/+ ir = a
+nm+rt Continuous distributions (4) Uniform (or Rectangular) distribution.
A random variable Ar is said to bp uniformly distributed over the interval -
if its density is given by fix) = ~ — ,a
893 Probability and Distributions (5) Gamma distribution. This
continuous distribution is given by fix ) = - Oixf~ 1 e ~ ** for all x >, 0, Hr)
where r and X (both > 0) are called the parameters of the gamma
distribution. Its mean - r!X and variance = rflA Gamma distribution tends tn
normal distribution as the parameter r tends to infinity. (6) Exponential
distribution. This distribution is a special case of gamma distribution when r
= 1 so that fix) = Xe- ** for x > 0, where X is a parameter. It can be seen
that mean = 1/X, standard deviation = 1/X. This distribution plays an
important role in the reliability and queuing theory. (7) Weibull
distribution*. This distribution is given by fix) = — xa ~l e~^ !c ,x >0,00 c
where c is a scale parameter and o a shape parameter. Initially this
distribution was used to describe experimentally observed variation in the
fatigue resistance of steel and its elastic Limits. But it has also been
employed to study the variation of length of service of radio service
equipment. Example 2ti.52.j4 die is cast until 6 appears. What is the
probability that it m ust be cast mare than 5 times ? Solution. Here
probability of getting 6 is p = — . Then q = — . 6 6 ff X is the number of
tosses required for the First success, then PiX - x) = qx ~ 1 p for x = 1, 2, 3,
... required probability = P {X > 5) = 1 — P [X < 5) Example 25.53. A
random variable X has a uniform distribution over (- 3, 3), find k far which
P (X > k) = -. 3 Also evaluate PiX < 2) and P 1 1 X - 2 \ <2\. Solution, (i)
Density of X - fix) = - = - — * = b — a 3 — (- 3) 6 PCX>fe) = l-P(Xo 2
PROBLEMS 26.9 1. Show that the mode of the geometric distribution P{x)
= , x - I+ 2, 3 is unity. 2. Show 1 hat. for the rectangular distribution
ftlx}=l30^x< IT mean - - , variance = — and mean deviation - — * 2 12 4 It
was first used by Swedish scientist Weibull in 1951.
894 Higher Engineer WQ Mathematics S. H. 7, 8, (.Mumbai, 2005 ) 9. 10.

Find the mean and variance of the uniform distribution given by fix) - 1 in.x =1,2....,
a. Shew that for the exponential distribution dP = .Vff~ I,a. 0 < x < the mean and S.D
are both equal to c. Find the mean and variance of the exponential distribution fix}
=-■' a}tl>x> a. b Find the moment generating function for the triangular distribution
given by f(x) = x, 0 < r < 1 = 2~x, l 0, at the origin. rUJ UIMT.a, 200G ; Madras,
2000 S) ICIebyshev^ inequality*. If x is a continuous random variable with mean [i
and variance c~t then for any positive real parameter f, P{\r-2\ >nl-vVt2> This result
is known as Ckebyvhe&'s inequality, I [ gives limits to the probability that the value
of the variate chosen at random will differ from mean by more than i..| For the points
on a symmetrical die, prove that Chebysheus inequality gives Pi |x ~ x \ > 2 3) <
0A78f while the actual probability is zero, For the Geometrical distribution P{x) s=
3r\x = l, 2* 3» prove that Chtibyxbev s inequality gives P(| x-2 | <2)> i M 26.2 w hile
the actual probability is 15/16 a OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS PROBLEMS
26.10 Select the correct on suer or fill up the blanks m mch of the following
problems : 1 . The probability that *4 happens is 1/3. The odds against happening of
A are (a) 2 : t (6)2:3 (c) 3 : £ (rf) 6 : 2. 2, The odds in favour of an event A ore 5 to 4,
The probability of success of A is (ft) 4/5 lb) 5/9 (e) 4/9. .1. The probability that A
passes a test is 2/3 and the probability that B passes the same test is 3/5. The
probability that only one of them passes is Ut\m ib) 4/15 (cl 2/15 (rf) 7/15. i. A buys
a lottery ticket in which the chance of winning is 1/10 ; B has a ticket in which his
chance of winning is 1/20. The chance that a (least one of them wins is
Probability awo Distributions 895 9, The S.D, tif the Binomial

distribution is to) Jnpq (b ) to! npg W) pg. 1 0. In a Poisson distribution if
2P Ur - 1) = Fte - 2)t linen the variance is to) 0 to) - 1 to) 4 Oli 2. It, If the
probability of hitting a Inrgel by one shot he p - 0.8, then the probability
that out of ten shot#, seven will hi! the target is 1 2* For a Poisson variate x
: P(x = 1 ) = IHx = 2)p then the mean of x is ... 1 ;h ! f P (A) = ti.36> P iB)
= 0.73 and P tA n B) = 0.14, then P iA n B’\ = ... 14. If A and R ore
independent, P (B) = 0J4 and P (A/0) = 0,24, then P {A ) 1 5* The
probability distribution of the number of heads, when two coins are loosed,
is ... ) 6- The muLtiplicsi'&M law of probability stales that 1 7 The area
under the standard normal curve which, lies between z " D.R0 and z - - 1.85
is ... [Given P (0 ^<1 .851 = 0.4678, P (0 < z < 0.9) = 0.31591 18, The
mean, median and mode of a normal distribution are ... 1 !j, The mean and
variance of a Poisson distribution are .. 20. If A and B are two mutually
exclusive events, then P IA kj B) ^ ... 2 f . For a normal distribution |Jr - ...
and = ... *12* The number of ways in which five pouplc can to lined up to
get on a bus are ... 23, A shipment of 10 television sets contain# 3 defective
sets The number of ways in which one can purchase 4 of these seta and
receive 2 defective seta are 2 I . The probability of getting a total of 5 when
a pair of dice is tossed is 25. If P lli) = 0.81 and P IA n B) = 0. 18. then P
(A/B) * ... 2i i. If two unbiased dice are thrown simultaneously, the
probability that the sum of the numbers on them is at least 10. * is . *27. If
X is a Poisson variate such that P {X - 2) = P QC = 3)p then P (X =■ 0* = ...
28. An unbiased die is tossed twice, then the probability of obtaining the
sum 6, is ... tih The variance of Poisson distribution with parameter X - 2 m
... 30. The distribution in which mean, median, mode are equal is 31. For
the Poisson variate* probability of getting at least one success is 32. Total
number of even ts in rolling of an ideal die is ... 33. If X be normal with
mean 10 and variance 4* then P (X < 3 1 ) = ... :M. UX is a binomial variate
with para me L er&n and p, then it# m.g.f. about the origin is ... 35. In a
normal distribution, mean deviation : standard deviation = ... 36. If A and B
are independent and PiA} = 1/2, P iB) = .1/3 then PiA nfll- ... .17. If X is
the random variable representing the outcome of the roll of an ideal dieh
then E ( X ) - ... 18. If X is n binomial variate with p - 1/5 for the
experiment of 50 trials, then the standard deviation is ... 3*J. The area under
the whole normal curve is ... 40. Given X = B {n9pj}t then the conditions
under which X lends to a Poisson dislrihution, are ... 41. If A and B rue
mutually exclusive events then p (A u B) = ... ■. The probability of
selecting x white hulls from a bag containing y white and z red balls is 13.
The mean of the binomial distribution is ... 4-L If A and B are mutually
exclusive events, P (A 1 = 0.29, P (Bl - 0.43T then P (A u B) - ... on d P ( A
n R*) = .. 45. I f the mean and variance of a binomial variate are 12 and 4>
then the distribution is ... 4th It a is a Poisson variable such that P (x ~ 2) =
9 P (x ~ 4) + 90 P (x = 6)* then the mean = 47 p/ the rth moment about the
origin in terms of the m.g.f. is 48, The chuntc of throwing 7 in a single
throw with two dice is Hr If A imd B are any two event# with P(A) = 1/2, P
i B ) = 1/3 and P (A n B) - lPk> then P iAfB t = ... 50. In the roll of an ideal
die, the probability of getting a prime number is 51. IF A and B are
mutually exclusive events , P (A = 0.6, P(B) = 0.4, then PiA) a 52. The
probability that a leap year should have 53 Sundays is ... The probability
densi ty function of a binom ial distribution is ... 54, The probable error is ...
limes S.O. approximately, 55, To fit a normal distribution, the parameters
required are
696 Higher Eng!NEEMj«g Mathematics 56. A card is drawn from

a well-shuffled puck of 52 cards, then the probability of this card being a
red coloured ace is 57, If P ( l ) = P (2k then &e mean of the Poison
distribution is ... 5b. Bayefs theorem slates that 59* If x is a Poisson variate
such that I\x = I) - 0-3 and P (x - 2) ~ 0.2, then A.x ~ 0) ... GO, If A gnd B
are events such that P(A u E) = 3/4* f\A riyS) = l/4? and AVI) = 2/3, then
PA) “ ... , The chance of throwing 7 in a single throw with two dice is the
same as that of getti ng 7 m two throws of a single die. 02. If the mean of a
Poisson distribution is 5* then its variance is 10. 63* If A’ is normal with
mean 3 and variance 1 , then X - 3 is a variate with mean (J and variance L.
8i If A' is a binomial variable with parameters n - 10, p - 1/4, then its
standard deviation is 2.26, 65, The mean of a binomial distribution is G and
S.D. is 3. 66. Tim mean and variance of Poisson distribution are equal. 67 .
The graph of t he normal distribution is symmetric with respect to the liney
= x. 68* The standard deviation of a binomial distribution is np. 60. fix ) -
irm0 0 0, elsewhere, is the p.dT. nf .r, then k = ,.. Sfl. If x is a uniform
distribution defined in Lhe interval (4, 7), then its variance is ... 86. The
p.d+f- of a continuous random variable is fix) = kfx G = Aril — xh 0 < x <
I, then k = ... rri. ,■ - Ax“f 0 < X < 891- The function f(x) = \ , | 0*
otherwise, is j ! a probability function, then k - ... 92, If the random variable
x is uniformly distributed in [0, 3], then its p.d.f, is fix) = 3„ 0 ^ then & ~ .,.
S4* The p.d.f. of BeLa distribution with a. = I, p = 4 is fix) - ... 95. For a
standard normal variate z* Pi- 0.72 < 0) = ...
Sampling & Inference 1. Introduction. 2. Sampling distribution ;
Standard error. 3. Testing of Hypothesis ; Errors. 4. Level of significance ;
Tests of significance. 5, Confidence limits. 6. Simple sampling of attributes.
7. Test of significance for large samples. 8. Comparison of large samples. 9.
Sampling of variables. 10- Central limit theorem. 11. Confidence limits for
unknown means. 12. Test of significance for means of two large samples.
13. Sampling of variables— small samples. 14. Student's /-distribution. IS.
Significance test of a sample mean. 16. Significance test of difference
between sample means. 17. Chi-square test. 18. Goodness of fit. 19. F -
distribution. 20. Fisher’s distribution. 21. Objective Type of Questions. i _ j
(1) INTRODUCTION We know that a small section selected from the
population is called a sample and the process of drawing a sample is called
sampling. It is essential that a sample must be a random selection so that
each member of the population has the same chance of being included in
the sample. Thus the fundamental assumption underlying theory of
sampling is Random sampling . A special case of random sampling in which
each event has the same probability p of success and the chance of success
of different events are independent whether previous trials have been made
or not, is known as simple sampling. The statistical constants of the
population such as mean (p), standard deviation (cs> etc. are called the
parameters. Similarly, constants for the sample drawn from the given
population i.e., mean ( x ), standard deviation (S) etc. are called the statistic.
The population parameters are in general, not known and their estimates
given by the corresponding sample statistic are used. We use the Greek
letters to denote the population parameters and Roman letters for sample
statistic. (2) Objectives of sampling. Sampling aims at gathering the
maximum information about the population with the minimum effort, cost
and time. The object of sampling studies is to obtain the best possible
values of the parameters under specific conditions. Sampling determines the
reliability of these estimates. The logic of the sampling theory is the logic of
induction in which we pass from a particular (sample) to general
(population). Such a generalisation from sample to population is called
Statistical Inference. SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION Consider ail possible
samples of size n which can be drawn from a given population at random.
Fur each sample, we can compute the mean. The means of the samples wrill
not be identical. If we group these different means according to their
frequencies, the frequency distribution so formed is known as sampling
distribution of the mean. Similarly we can have sampling distribution of the
standard deviation etc. While drawing each sample, we put back the
previous sample so that Ihe parent population remains the same. This is
called sampling with replacement and all the subsequent formulae will
pertain to sampling with replacement. 897
898 Higher Engineering Mathematics 12) Standard error- The
standard deviation of the sampling distribution is called the standard error
(S.E. ). Thus the standard error of the sampling distribution of means is
called standard error of means. The standard error is used to assess the
difference between the expected and observed values. The reciprocal of the
standard error is called precision. If n > 30, a sample is called targe
otherwise small. The sampling distribution of large samples is assumed to
he normal. 27.3 (1) TESTING A HYPOTHESIS* * To reach decisions
about populations on the basis of sample information, we make certain
assumptions about the populations involved. Such assumptions, which may
or may not be true, are called statistical hypothesis. By testing a hypothesis
is meant a process for deciding whether to accept or reject the hypothesis.
The method consists in assuming the hypothesis as correct and then
computing the probability of getting the observed sample. If this probability
is less than a certain preassigned value the hypothesis is rejected, (2) Errors.
II' a hypothesis is rejected while it should have been accepted, we say that a
Type I error has been committed. On the other hand, if a hypothesis is
accepted while it should have been rejected, we say that a Type 11 error has
been made. The statistical testing of hypothesis aims at limiting the Type I
error to a preassigned value (say : 5% or 1 %) and to minimize the Type II
error. The only way to reduce both types of errors is to increase the sample
size, if possible. (3) Null hypothesis. The hypothesis formulated for the sake
of rejecting it, under the assumption that it is true, is called the null
hypothesis and is denoted by Hti. To test whether one procedure is better
than another, we assume that there is no difference between the procedures.
Similarly to test whether there is a relationship between two variates, we
take Ha that there is no relationship. By accepting a null hypothesis, we
mean that on the basis of the statistic calculated from the sample, we do not
reject the hypothesis, It however, does not imply that the hypothesis is
proved to be true. Nor its rejection implies that it is disproved. 27.4 iii
LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE The probability level below which we reject
the hypothesis is known as the level of significance. The region in which a
sample value falling is rejected, is known as the critical region. We
generally take two critical regions which cover 5 % and 1% areas of the
normal curve. The shaded portion in the figure corresponds to 5% level of
significance, Thus the probability of the value of the variate falling in the
critical region is the level of significance. Depending on the nature of the
problem, we use a single Jail test or double-tail test to estimate the
significance of a result. In a doubletail test, the areas of' both the tails of the
curve representing the sampling distribution are taken into account whereas
in the single tail lest, only the area un the right of an urdinate is taken into
consideration. For instance, to test whether a coin is biased or not, double-
tail test should be used, since a biased coin gives either more number of
heads than tails (which corresponds to right tail), or more number of tails
than heads (which corresponds to left tail only). (2) Tests of significance.
The procedure which enables us to decide whether to accept or reject the
hypothesis is called the test nf significance. Here we test whether the
differences bet ween the sample values and the population values (or the
values given by two samples^ are so large that they signify evidence against
the hypothesis or these differences are so small as to account for
fluctuations of sampling. 27.5 CONFIDENCE LIMITS** Suppose that the
sampling distribution of a statistic S is normal with mean p and standard
deviation a. As in the Fig, 27.1 the sample statistics tan be expected to lie in
the interval f|i - F96a, p + 1.96a) for 95% times Le., we can be confident of
finding p in the interval tS - 1,96a, S + 1,96a) in 95% cases. Because of this,
we call *The American statistician J \ Neymati ( 1894 — 1981) and the
English statistician E.S, Pearson (1895 — 198(1 )— hoti of Karl Pearson
(See Footnote p, &43)T developed a systematic theory of tests around 1930.
*V. Neyman developed the modem theory and terminology of confidence
limits.
Sampling and Inference 899 iS - l,96o> S + 1 ,96a) the 95%
confidence interval for estimation of p. The ends of this intenâl (Le* S ±
1,96a) are tailed 95% confidence limits ( or fiducial limits) for S _ Similarly
S ± 2,58a are 99% confidence limits. The numbers L96T 2,58 etc. are called
confidence coefficients. The values of confidence coefficients
corresponding to various levels of significance can bo found from the
normal curve area table VI - Appendix 2. 27.6 SIMPLE SAMPLING OF
ATTRIBUTES The sampling of attributes may be regarded as the selection
of samples from a population whose members possess the attribute K or not
K. The presence of K may be called a success and its absence a failure.
Suppose we draw' a simple sample of n items. Clearly it is same as a series
of n independent trials with the same probability p of success. The
probabilities of 0, 1, 2, n successes are the terms in the binomial expansion
of {q + pY‘ where q - 1 - p. We know that the mean of this distribution is up
and standard deviation is J(npq) i.e., the expected value of success in a
sample of size n is np and the standard error is J(npq). If we consider the
proportion of successes, then (i) mean proportion of successes = np/n - p,
{it ) standard error of the proportion of successes -Rli-lf! and tiff >
precision of the proportion of successes ■ J(nfpq), which varies as Vo, since
p and q are constants. 27.7 TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE FOR LARGE
SAMPLES We know that the binomial distribution tends to normal for large
n. Suppose we wish to test the hypothesis that the probability of success in
such trial is p. Assuming it to be true, the mean p and the standard deviation
a of the sampling distribution of number of successes are tip and JUtpq)
respectively. For a normal distribution, only 5% of the members lie outside
p ± 1.96a while only 1% of the members lie outside p ± 2,58a. 11' x be the
observed number of successes in the sample and z is the standard normal
variate then z - (x - p )/c. Thus we have the following test of significance : (
i > If \z | < 1.96, difference between the observed and expected number of
successes is not significant. (ii) If \z | > 1.96, difference is significant at 5%
tenet of significance. ( iii ) If \z\ > 2,58, difference is significant at 1% level
of significance. Example 27.1. A min was tossed 400 times and the head
turned up 216 times. Test the hypothesis that the coin is unbiased at 5%
level of significance. (V, T. U., 2007) Si du lion. Suppose the coin is
unbiased. Then the probability of getting the head in a toss = 2 .\ expected
number of successes = — x 400 — 200 2, and the observed value of
successes = 216 Thus the excess of observed value over expected value =
216 - 200 = 16 Also S.D. of simple sampling - -fnpq = 400 x x j = 10 x - tip
16 Hence z = . = — = 1.6 yfinpq) 10 As z < 1 .96, the hypothesis is
accepted at 5% level of significance i.e. , we conclude that the coin is
unbiased at 5% level of ‘significance.
900 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example; 27.2. A dig was
thrown 9000 times and a throw of 5 or 6 was obtained 3240 times. On the
assumption of random throwing, do the data indicate cm unbiased die ? (V.
T. U., 2010 ) Solution. Suppose the die is unbiased. Then the probability of
throwing 5 or 6 with one die = — 3 The expected number of successes = - x
9000 = 3000 anti the observed value of successes - 3240 Thus the excess of
observed value over expected value 3240 - 3000 = 240 Also S.D, of simple
sampling TT x - np 240 Hence z - - - = ing - yjnpq = 9000 * ^ x | - = 44.72 -
5,4 nearly. biased. finfxj) 44.72 As z > 2.58, the hypothesis has to be
rejected at 1% level of significance and we conclude that the die is Example
27.3. //* a locality containing 18000 families, a sample of 840 families was
selected at. madam. Of these 840 families, 206 families were found to have
a monthly inconie of \ 250 or less . It is desired to estimate how many out of
18,000 families have a monthly income off 250 or less. Within what limits
would you place your estimate ? Solution. Here 206 103 . 317 p — - = —
— and q - 840 420 420 standard error of the population of families having a
monthly income of? 250 or less = 1TmT= lri03x317x n = VL n ) VU20 420
840 } 015 = 1.5% 103 Hence taking - for 24.5%) to be the estimate of
families having a monthly income of? 250 or less in the 420 locality, the
limits are (24.5 ± 3 x 1.5}% i.e. , 20% and 29% approximately. 27.8
COMPARISON OF LARGE SAMPLES Two large samples of sizes ttj, n2
are taken from two populations giving proportions of attributes A’s as Pj, p2
respectively. (.a) On the hypothesis that the populations are similar as
regards the attribute A. we combine the two samples to find an estimate of
the cummon value of proportion of As in the populations which is given by
n\Pi + tt'iP'i rt] + rt2 If pp «2 be the standard errors in the two samples then
ef = ^ and e22 = ™ “ «2 If e be the standard error of the difference between
pl and p2, then e* = e, + e.. m Pi Z Pi e If z > 3, the difference between and
p2 is real one. If z < 2, the difference may be due to fluctuations of simple
sampling. But if z lies between 2 and 3, then the difference is significant at
5% level of significance. (5) If the proportions of ATs are not the same in
the two populations from which the samples are drawn, but and p,, are the
true values of proportions then S.E. e of the difference p1 - p2 is given by
Sm.ipl.hmg and Ikfefiencc 901 p5f _ Pl*?l ) Ptfh »1 If z- ■— —

— < 3, the difference could have arisen due to fluctuations of simple
sampling. e Example 27.4.1/1 a city A 20% of a random sample of 900
school boys hud a certain slight physical defect, In another city 8, 18.6% of
a random sample of 1600 school boys bud the same defect. Is the difference
between the proportions significant ? (V.T. U., 2003 S ) Solution. We have n
. = 900, tu = 1600 and and Pl ' 100 " 5,Pa 100 gQ _ l 100 = 5' nlPl + tlzP'2
18.5 L00 180 + 296 nx + fta 900 + 1600 q = 1 - 0.19 - 0.81 = 0.19 Thus e2
= pq giving Also 1 1 — + — e - 0.04 nearly. 1.5 P\ ~P2 = = 0.015 = 0.19 x
0.81 f — + — = 0,0017 1900 1600 J _ Pi ~ P2 _ -015 z — 100 e .04 As z <
1, the difference between the proportions is not significant. = 0,37 Example
27.5. In tutu large populations there, are 30% and 25% respectively affair
haired people h this difference likely to be hidden in samples of 1200 and
900 respectively from the two populations ? (Coimbatore. 200 j) Solution,
Here p, = 0.3, p2 - 0,25 so that p, — p2 = 0.05. _ Pi9i . Ps2 _ 0.3 >c 0.7 _
0.25x0.75 ■ 4 P “ ■ "H “ f 1200 so that Jl2 e = 0.0195 _ Pi - Pa _ 0-05 _
900 - 2.5 nearly e 0.0195 Hence it is unlikely that the real difference will be
hidden. PROBLEMS 27.1 I , A die is tossed 960 limes and it fella with 5
upward* 184 Limes. Is the die biased ? ( VJ\lLt WOfi j 2* 12 dice are
thrown *1086 times and a throw of 2t 3, 4 is reckoned as a success.
Suppose that 19142 throws of 2, 3* 4 have been made out. Do you think
that this observed value deviates from the expected value ? If so, van the
deviation from the expected value he due to fluctuation* of simple
sampling? 3. Halls are drawn from a bag containing equal number of black
and white balls, each ball being replaced before drawing another. In 2250
drawings 1018 black and 1232 white balls have been drawn, Du you
suspect some bias on the part of the drawer ? L A sample of 1000 days is
taken from meteor© logical records of a certain district and 120 of them are
found bo be foggy. What are the probable Limits io the percentage of foggy
days in the district ? 5. In a group of 50 first cousins there were found to he
27 males and 23 females. Ascertain if the observed proportions are in
consistent with the hypothesis that the sexes should be in equal proportion,
t;. A random sample of 500 applet was taken from a large consignment and
6S were found to be bad. Estimate the proportion of the bad apples in the
consignment as wTell as the standard error of the estimate. Deduce that the
percentage of bad apples in the consignment almost certainly lies between
8.5 and 17.5. 7, 400 children are chosen in an industrial town and 350 are
found to be under weight. Assuming the condi bon*, of simple sampling,
estimate the percentage of children who are under weight in the industrial
town and assign Limits within which the percentage probably lies ?
902 Higher Engineering Mathematics S. A machine? produces 16
imperfect articles in a sample of 500. After machine is overhauled, it
produces 3 imperfect articles in a batch or 1 00, Hat* the machine teen
improved ? iRohtuk. 2005 ; Madras 2003 1 9. One type of aircraft is found
to develop engine trouble in 5 flights out of a total of 100 and another type
in 7 flights Gill of a total of 200 flights. Is there a significant difference in
the two types of aircrafts so far as engine defects art concerned ? 1 0. t n e
sample qf 600 men from a certain city, 450 are found smokers, in another
sample of 900 men from another city, 450 are smokers. Do the data indicate
Lhat the cities are significantly different with respect to the habit of
smoking among men ? (J.N.T.U,, 2003) 11. In a sample of 500 people from
a state 2SO take tea and rest take coffee. Can we assume that tea and coffee
are equal Tv popular in the state at 5% level of significance ? 27.9 (1)
SAMPLING OF VARIABLES We now consider sampling of a variable
such as weight, height, etc. Each member of the population gives a value of
the variable and (he population is a frequency distribution of the variable.
Thus a random sample of size n from the population is same as selecting n
values of the variables from those of the distribution. (2) Sampling
distribution of the mean. If a population is distributed normally with mean g
and standard deviation a, then the means of all positive random samples of
size n, are, also distributed normally with mean g and standard error a 1 4n.
This result shows how the precision of a sample mean increases as the
sample size increases. 27.10 CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM Thiis is a very
important theorem regarding the distribution of the mean of a sample if the
parent population is non-normal and thv sample size is large. If the variable
X has a non-normal distribution with mean p and standard deviation is the
standard normal distribution (i.e. , with mean 0 and unit S.D,) Gdn There is
no restriction upon the distribution of X except that it has a Unite mean and
variance. This theorem holds well for a sample of 25 or more which is
regarded as large. Thus if the population is normal, the sampling
distribution of the mean is also normal with mean g and S.E. o!-Jn, while
for large samples the same result holds even if the distribution of the
population is non-normal. This property is of universal use aod throws light
on the importance of normal distribution in statistical theory. 27.11
CONFIDENCE LIMITS FOR UNKNOWN MEAN Let the population
from which a random sample of size /; is drawn, have mean p and S'.D,
903 Sampling ano Inference As z > 1.96, the deviation of the
sample mean from the mean of the population is significant at 6% level of
significance. Hence it cannot be regarded as a random sample. Example
27,7, The mean of a certain normal population is equal to the standard error
oft he mean of the samples of 100 from that distribution. Find the
probability that the mean of the sample of 25 from the distribution will be
negative ? Solution, If p be the mean and a the S.D. of the distribution, then
p - S.E. of the sample means = V100 10 Also for a sample of size 25, we
have z x - p _ x - a/10 _ 5.v a/V 25 6/5 Since x is negative, z < - j. the
probability that a normal variate z < - -g • 2 dz - - — f 2 e 2* dz = 1 f" 44k
J- 42k -U — 0.5 - 0.915 = 0.3085, from the tallies. 1 2 Example 27.8, An
unbiased min is thrown, n times. It is desired that ike relative frequency of
the appearance of heads should tie between 0.49 and 0.51. Find the smallest
value of ti that wilt ensure this result with 90% confidence. ie.. Solution,
S.E. of the proportion of heads = 1_ 2 ]_ n 1 90% of confidence = 45% or
.45 of the total area under the norma) curve on each side of the mean. the
corresponding value of z = 1.645, from the tables. Thus p + 1.645a = 0.49
or 0.51. 0,6- 1.645 . - 0.49 and 0.5 + 1.645 . = 0.51 whence 1.645 2 4n =
0.01 or or n - 6765 approximately. 27.12 TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE FOR
MEANS OF TWO LARGE SAMPLES (o) Suppose two random samples
of sizes and «2 have been drawn from the same population with S.D, a. We
wish to test whether the difference between the sample means Jc, and x, is
significant or is merely due to fluctuations of sampling. If the samples are
independent, then the stand ard error e of the difference of their means is
given by e2 - ef + ef where Cj = otjn^, e2 = olJn4 are the S.E.s of the means
of* the two samples. e = a — + — . Hence z = 0-^(1/^ + l/n2 ) is normally
distributed with mean zero and S.D. 1. 7>sf of significance (n^, n2 being
large) : Ifz > 1.96, then the difference is significant at 5% level of
significance. Ifz > 3, it is highly probable that either the samples have not
been drawn from the same population or the sampling is not simple.
904 Higher Engineering Mathematics (6) If the samples are.
known to be drawn front different populations with means |J.1P p2 and
standard deviations nl and Then the standard error e of their means is given
by f? Assuming that the two populations have the same mean ii.e., p, - pv),
the difference of the means of the samples will he normally distributed with
mean zero and S.D. e. Now the same procedure of test of significance is
applied. Example 27.9. 77ie means of simple samples of sizes WOO and
2000 are 67,5 and 6S.0 cm respectioely. Can the samples be regarded as
drawn from the same population of S.D. 2.5 cm. [Madras, 2002 ) Solution.
We have xt - 67.5, x2 = 68.0 n , = 1000, n2 = 2000. On the hypothesis, that
the samples are drawn from the same population of S.D. o - 2.5, we get . _
*1 - *z 67.5 ~ 68.0 2.5 . If— + 1 ) \{ nl *2 J VI 1000 2000 J 0,5 0.5 = 5,1
2.5x0.0387 0.09675 Hence the difference between the sample means i,e. .,
5.1 is very much greater than 1.96 and is therefore significant. Thus, the
samples cannot be regarded as drawn from the same population. Example
27. 10. A sample, of height of 6400 soldiers has a mean of 67. 85 inches and
a standard deviation of 2.56 inches white a simple sample of heights of
1600 sailors has a mean of 68,55 inches and a standard deviation of 2.52
inches. Do the data indicate that, the sailors are on the average taller than
soldiers? Solution. Here x, ■ 67.85, o, — 2.56, n1 = 6400 = 68.55, a2 =
2.52, n2 = 1600. S.E. of the difference of the mean heights im | *h£ | ^ .
(2.56)2 ( 12.52)2 |L "i . V 6400 ' 1600 = ^1 00 1024 +■ .0039691 = 0.005
nearly. Also difference between the means - x2 - X\ - 0.7, which > 10c. This
is highly significant. Hence the data indicates that the nailers are on the
average taller than the soldiers. PROBLEMS 27.2 L A of 400 items if?
taken from a norma! population whose mean is 4 and variance 4 If the
sample mean is 4.45* ran the samples be regarded as a simple sample ? &
To know the mean weights of all iG^yeur old boys in Delhi* a sample of
225 is taken The mean weight of the sample is found to be 87 pounds with a
S.D. of 12 pounds. Can you draw any inference from it about thu mean
weight of I he population ? X A normal population baE a mean 0.1 and a
S,D. of 2.1. Find the probability that the mean of simple sample of 900
members will be negative. 1. If the mean breaking strength of copper wire
is 575 Lbs. with a standard deviation of 8,3 lbs., how large a sample must
bo used in order that there bo one chance in 100 that the mean breaking
strength of the sample is Jess than 572 lbs. ? [Hint, |'*t h:3 Also from table
W, z - 2.33. Hence n = 42 nearly.!
90S Sampling and In^fthnce 5- A research worker wishes to
estimate mean of a population by usrng sufficiently large sample. The
probability i* 96% that sampit! mean will not differ from UNe true mean by
more than 25% of the SD. Hpw large a sample should be taken ? ft. The
density function of a random variable x is fix) - ke^21 4 10*. Find the upper
5% point of the distribution of the means nf the random sample of size 25
from the above population. 7, The means of two large samples of 1000 and
2000 members are 168.75 cms. and 170 cms. respectively. Can the samples
be regarded as drawn from the same population of standard deviation 6.25
cms. ■ws If 60 new entrants in a given university are found to have a mean
height of 68.60 inches and 50 seniors a mean height of 69.51 inches ; is the
evidence conclusive that the mean height of the seniors is greater than that
of the new entrants ? Assume the standard deviation of height to he 2,48
inches. 9, A sample of 100 electric bulbs produced by man ufacturer A
showed a mean life time of 1190 hours and a standard deviation of 90
hours. A sample of 75 bulbs produced by manufacturer B showed a mean
life time of 1230 hours, with a standard deviation of 120 hours. Is there a
difference between the mean life lime of two brands at n significance level
of U) 0.05 (it) 0,0L 10, A random sample of 1000 men from North India
shows that their mean wage is ? 5 per day with a S.D, of? 1.50. A sample of
1500 men from South India gives a mean wage of? 4,50 per day with a
standard deviation of? 2. Dotifr the mean rate of wages varies as between
the two regions ? 27.13 SAMPLING OF VARIABLES— SMALL
SAMPLES In case of large samples, sampling distribution approaches a
normal distribution and values of sample statistic are considered best
estimates of the parameters in a population. It will no longer ho possible to
assume that statistics computed from small samples are normally
distributed. As such, a new technique has been devised for small samples
which involves the concept of ‘degrees of freedom’ which we explain
below. Number of degrees of freedom is the. number of values in a set
which may be assigned arbitrarily. For instance, tfjc, +x2 + jc3 = 15 and we
assign any values of two of the variables (say : xp x2), then the values of xa
will be known. The two variables are therefore, free and independent
choices for finding the third. Hence these are the degrees of freedom. If
there are n observations, the decrees of freedom id.f. ) are in - 1). In other
words, while finding the mean of a small sample, one degree of freedom is
used up and in - 1} d.f. are left to estimate the population variance. 27.14
(1) STUDENT'S t-DISTRIBUH01M Consider a small sample of size n,
drawn from a normal population with mean p. and s.d. a. If x and os be the
sample mean and s.d., then the statistic, Y is defined as nr , = a a. where v =
n - 1 denotes the df. of t. If we calculate t for each sample, we obtain the
sampling distribution for t. This distribution known as Student's t -
distribution*, is given by ' a + ti/vf*™ where yn is constant such that the
area under the curve is unity. (2) Properties of t-di$tri tuition. /. This curve
is symmetrical about the line t - 0, like the normal curve, since only even
powers of t appear in (1). Bui it is more peaked than the normal curve with
the some S.D. The t curve approaches the horizontal axis less rapidly than
the normal curve. Also f-curve attains its maximum value at t = 0 so that its
mode coincides with the mean, (Fig. 27.2) ...(1) t- curve 0 Ftg. 27.2 Norma!
curve *This distribution was first found by the English statistician W.S.
Gasset in 1908 who wrote under the pen. name of ‘S/r«fen(\ It. A. Fisher
defined t correctly and found its distribution in 1926.
906 Higher Engineering Mathematics 7/. The limiting form of t-
distribution when v — * «> is given by y = y0 e a which is a normal curve.
This shows that t is normally distributed for large samples. III. The
probability P that the value of t will exceed t0 is given by The values of t0
have been tabulated for various values of P for various values of v from 1 to
30 (Table IV - Appendix 2). IV. Moments about the mean All the moments
of odd order about the mean are zero, due to its symmetry about the line t =
0. Even order moments about the mean are V _ 3va M2 “ 0> 1*4 “ j nw i\ v
— 2 (v-2Hv-4) The /-distribution is often used in tests of hypothesis about
the mean when the population standard deviation o is unknown. 27.15
SIGNIFICANCE TEST OF A SAMPLE MEAN Given a random small
sample jq, x2, x,j... xn from a normal population, we have to test the
hypothesis that mean of the population is p. For this, we first calculate t = (x
— p)yfn/ toos, the difference between x and. p is said to he significant at
5% level of significance. If t > r0_0l, the difference is said to be significant
at 1% level of significance. If t < f0 0s, the data is said to be consistent with
the hypothesis that g is the mean of the population. Example 27.11. A
certain, stimulus administered to each of 12 patients resulted in the
following increases of blood pressure : 5, 2, S, — l, 3, 0,~2. t. 5, 0 , 4 . 6.
Can it be concluded that the stimulus will in genera! be accompanied by an
increase in hlfssi pressure. (V.T. I/., 2007) Solution. Let us assume that the
stimulus administered to all the 12 patients will increase the B.P. Taking the
population to be normal with mean p = 0 and S.D. a. d = 5+2+8— 1+3+0
-2+1+5+0+4+6 12 = 2.583 Idd n = 8.744. = — [52 + 22 + 82 + (- la) + 3* +
02 + (- 2)2 + l2 + 52 + O'2 + 42 + 62! - (2.5S3)2 1 2 t0 05, our assumption
is rejected i.e. , the stimulus does not increase the B.P. Example 27,12. The
nine items of a sample hove the following values : 45, 47, 50, 52, 48, 47,
49, 53, 51. Does the mean of these differ significantly from the assumed
mean of 47.5 ? (V.T. ll„ 2010)
90? Sampling and Inference Solution We find the mean and
standard deviation of the sample as follows X d^x-48 . d2 45 — 3 9 47 1 50
2 4 52 2 4 48 0 0 47 t 49 1 1 53 5 25 51 3 9 Total in 66 Id 10 x - mean = 48
+ — = 48 + — - 49. 1 9 9 . g_Srfa fSrff 66 ~ 9 { 9 ) ~ 9 100 494 a, = 2.41
Hence Here l = o. ■-V(« - 1) = 81 SI 49.1 - 47.5 2047 s/8 = 1.83 d.f v = 9 -
1 = 8 For v = 8, we get from table IV. fQ = 2.31. As calculated value of t <
t0 nr,, the value ot'i is not significant at 5 % level of significance which
implies that there is no significant difference between x and p. Thus the test
provides no evidence against the population mean being 47.5Example 27-
13- A machinist is making engine parts with axle diameter of 0. 7 inch. A
random sample of 10 parts, shows mean diameter 0.742 inch with a
standard deviation of 0,04 inch. On the basis of this sample, would you say
that the work is inferior ? (V. T. U., 2000 ) Solution. Here we have p =
0.700, ,v = 0.742, oT — 0.040, n - ID. Taking the hypothesis that the
product is not inferior i.e., there is no significant difference between x and
p. i=£rMj5T3l5, 0742 -°-7O0V(l0Tl) = ?4?l = 3.16 0.040 0.040 Degrees of
freedom, p = 10 — 1 = 9. For p = 9, we get from table IV, = 2.262. As the
calculated value of / > os, the value of t is significant at 5% level of
significance. This implies that x differs significantly from p and the
hypothesis is rejected. Hence the work is inferior. In fact, the work is
inferior even at 2% level of significance. Example 27.14. Show that 95 %
confidence limits for the mean p of the puptdation are x dn Dedate that far a
random sample of 16 values with mean 41.5 inches and the sum of the
squares of the dpi inlions from the mean 135 inches? and drawn from a
normal population, 95 % confidence limits far the mean of the population
are 39.9 and 43.1 inches. So! ii t ion. (a) The probability P that / < t(] Q5 is
0.95. Hence the 95% confidence limits for p are given by 0 05 or | x |i | < —
wn a or
Higher Engineering Mathematics We can, therefore, say with a
confidence coefficient 0,95 that the confidence interval x ± -“fOOB
contains vn the population mean p. (6) Here, n = 16, v = n - 1 = 15, a = ,p^
= 3* * \ 15 Also from table IV, t0 (for v = 15) — 2.13 -^r t0 os = — x 2.1 3
= 1.6 approx. ■Jn 4 Hence the required confidence limits are 41.5 ± 1.6 i.e.,
39.9 and 43.1 inches. 27.16 SIGNIFICANCE TEST OF DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN SAMPLE MEANS Given two independent samples x j, x3, xs,
..., xrt] and yt, ya* ...,y„a with means x and y and standard deviations cx
and av from a normal population with the same variance, we have to test the
hypothesis that the population means pA and p2 are the same. For this, we
calculate t x - y where •JFI) 1 A , 1 & =~2>*=“2> ...Cl) and = nj + n% i— -
i)0» -h^ - 1>0?] =_i— It can be shown that the variate t defined by (1)
follows the t- distribution with Oj + n2 - 2 degrees of freedom. [f the
calculated value of t > t00$, the difference between the sample means is
said to be significant at 5% level of significance. If t > f0(m the difference
is said to be significant at 1% level of significance. If / < (0 M, the data is
said to be consistent with the hypothesis, that pj = Cor, If the twn Rumples
are of the same size and the data are paired, then / is defined by n t = rf-0
where o2 = — - — "V U?i - df ft — 1 Jl c/L = difference of the tfch
members of the samples ; d - mean of the differences = Xd/n ; and the
number of tl.f. = n — l. Kxampte 27-1 5. Eleven students were given a test
in statistics. They wen given a month 's further tuition and a second test of
equal difficulty was held at the end of it. Do the marks give evidence that
the students have benefitted by extra coaching ? Boys : l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 Marks I test : 23 20 19 21 IS 20 18 17 23 16 19 Marks II test : 24 19 22
18 20 22 20 20 23 20 17 tV.T.U., 20US) Solution. We compute the mean
and the S.D. of the difference between the marks of the two tests as under :
11 „ „_2 Z(d-df 50 d = mean of d* s = — = 1 ; tr„ 11 * n — 1 — =5 i.e. ,
<5=2.24 10 s Assuming that the students have not been benefited by extra
coaching, it implies that the mean of the difference between the marks of
the two tests is zero i.e., p = 0.
909 Sampling and Inference Then . ^ M r t = — ■■-■Vn = \ .
■■■VTT - 1.48 nearly and dfv =11 w. w 4 1 = 10. Students *i ** d = x,-Xj
d- d id- dp i 23 24 l 0 0 2 20 19 - 1 - 2 4 3 19 22 3 2 4 4 21 18 -3 - 4 16 0 IS
20 2 1 1 6 20 22 2 1 1 7 18 20 2 1 1 8 17 20 3 2 4 9 23 23 — - 1 1 10 16 20
4 3 9 11 19 17 - 2 -3 9 Id = 1 1 From table IV, we find that f„ 0(; (for v =
10) = 2.228. As the calculated value of t < fn the value of t is not significant
at 5% level of significance i.e. „ the test provides no evidence that the
students have benefited by extra coaching. F \ample 27. 1 H. From a
random sample of 10 pigs fed on diet A, the increases in weight in a certain
period were 10, 6, 16, 17, 13, 12, 8t 14, 15, 9 lbs. For another random
sample of 12 pigs fed on diet B , the increases in the same period were 7,
13, 22, 15, 12, 14, 18, 8, 21, 23, 10, 17 lbs. Test whether diets A and B
differ significantly as regards their effect on increases in weight ? Solution,
We calculate the means and standard deviations of the samples as follows :
Diet A Diet B x.-x (*,-*>* y i y
910 Higher Engineering Mathematics Here d.f. v = n t + n ., - 2 =

10+ 12-2 = 20. For v = 20, we find f0(jS - 2.09 (From table IV the
calculated value of t < f0 05. Hence the difference between the sample
means is not significant i.e. , the two diets do not differ significantly as
regards their effect on increase in weight. PROBLEMS 27.3 1, Kitin'] ihe
student's t for the following variable values in a sample of eight : - 4, - 2( -
2, Qr 2, 2, 3, 3 ; taking the mean of thy universe to b *t Kero. 2, A random
sample of 10 hoys had the following I.Q. ; 70, 1.20, 110, 101, 88, 83, 95*
98. 107, 100* Do these data support the assumption of a population mean
LQ* of 100 5^ level of significance! ? t 20Q6 ; Coimbatore, 2001) 3, A
sample of 10 measurements of the diameter of a sphere gave a mean of 12
cm and a standard deviation 0, 15 cm. Find 95f£ confidence limits for the
actual diameter. 4, A random sample of size 25 from a normal population
has the mean x = 47.5 and s.d S = 8,4. Dues this information refute the
claim that the mean of the population is p = 42. L {J.NT. U.f 2003) 5, A
prxTcess For making certain bearings is under control if the diameter of the
hearings have the mean 0.5 rm What can we say about this process if a
sample of 10 of these bearings has a mean diameter of 0.508 cm, nnd s.d. of
0.004 cm ? 5. A machine is supposed to produce washers of mean thickness
0,12 cm, A sample of 10 washers was found to have a mean thickness of
0.128 cm and standard deviation (LOOS- Test whether the machine is
working in proper order at 5% level of significance. 7. Find out the
reliability of the sample mean of the following ddta : Breaking strength of
10 specimen# of t.04 erm diameter hard-drawn capper wire ; Specimen : 1-
% 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Breaking Sti c n^th^kgs) : 578 572 570 563 572 570 570
572 526 534 8. Test runs with 6 models of an fexpofrimviiu I engine
showed that they operated for 24, 28* £1 , 23, 32 and 22 minute? with a
gallon of fuel. If the probability of a Type l error m &i the most 0.Ult is this
evidence against a hypothesis ihai on the average this kind of engine will
operate for atic&st 29 minutes per gallon of the same fuel. Assume
normality. (JN.T.U..2003) 0. Two horses A and B were tested according Up
the time (in seconds) to run « particular race with the following results :
HnrseA : 28 80 32 33 33 29 and 34 Horse : 29 30 30 24 27 and 29 Test,
whether you can discriminate between two holies ? iHohtak, 2005 : l
'oiminifore, 2001} 10. A group of 10 rats led on a diet A and another group
of 8 rats fed on a different diet B, recorded the following increase in
weights : Diet A : 5 6 8 1 12 4 3 9 fi 10 gm Dietfl ; 2 3 6 8 10 1 2 8 gm.
Does it show' that superiority of diet A over that of R ? I Madras, 2003} 11.
A group of boys and girls were given an intelligence teat. The mean score,
8.1 1.9 and number? in each group are as follows ; Boys Girls Mean 124
121 S.D. 1.2 10 n lfi 14 Is the mean score of boys significantly different
from lhat of girls ? E2< The mean? of two random samples ofsizee 9 and 7
are 196,42 and 193.82 respectively, The im of Ihe squares nf tht deviation?
from the mean are 28.94 and 18.73 respectively. Can the sample toe
Considered to have been drawn from the same normal population ?
(Mumbai, 2004}
SamPLtNQ AMD INFERENCE 911 27.17 (1) CHI-SQUARE
(x2) TEST When a fair coin is tossed 80 times, we expect from theoretical
considerations that heads will appear 40 times and tail 40 times. But this
never happens in practice Le., the results obtained in an experiment do not
agree exactly with the theoretical results. The magnitude nf discrepancy
between observation and theory is given by the quantity %2 {pronounced as
chi-square). If xz = 0, the observed and theoretical frequencies completely
agree. As the value of /z increases, the discrepancy between the observed
and theoretical frequencies increases. (1) Definition. If O,, 02, ..., On be a
set of observed (experimental) frequencies and Er Ev En be the
corresponding set of exported ( theoretical ) frequencies, then x* is defined
by the relation . lOi-Eg (0,-^j2 lO„-Ej X - - p - + El + ■" + - P Aj Jt>2 (Oj
Ef .(1) with « - 1 degrees of freedom . IXO, - ZEi - n the total frequency!
(2) Chi-square distribution'* Ifjtj, jc2, .... x„ be n independent normal
variates with mean zero and s.d unity, then it can be shown that + x| + ... +
xf, , is a random variate having ^-distribution with ndf. The equation of the
x2-curve is ...{2) where v = n — 1 (Fig, 27,3). (3) Properties of ^-
distribution L If v = 1, the x2-curve- 12) reduces to y = yug~ which is the
exponential distribution. II. If v >1, this curve is tangential to x-axis at the
origin and is positively skewed as the mean is at v and mode at v - 2. III.
The probability P that the value of from a random sample will exceed xfi is
given by P= }“ ydx. The values of have been tabulated for various values of
P and for values of v from 1 to 30, (Table-V- Appendix 2) For v > 30, the -
curve approximates to the normal curve and we should refer to normal
distribution tables for significant values of x2IV. Since the equation of x2-
curve does not involve any parameters of the population, this distribution
does not depend on the form of the population and is therefore, very useful
in a large number of problems. V, Mean = 7 and variance = 27. 27.18
GOODNESS OF FIT The value of x2 is used to test whether the deviations
of the observed frequencies frum the expected frequencies are significant or
not. It is also used to test how will a set of observations fit a given
distribution, x2 therefore, provides a test of goodness of fit and may be used
to examine the validity of some hypothesis about an observed frequency
distribution. As a test of goodness of fit, it can be used to study the
correspondence between theory and fact. This is a non parametric
distribution -free test since in this we make no assumption about the
distribution of the parent population. * Hamlet discovered this distribution
in 1875. Karl Pears/ us rediscovered it independently in 1900 and applied it
to test ‘goodness of fit'.
912 H usher Engineering Mathematics Procedure to teat
significance and good ness of fit. (t) Set up a ‘null hypothesis' and calculate
X*=Z (O, - Ef (u) Find the df and read the corresponding values of %2 at a
prescribed significance level from Table V, (Hi) From Stable, we can also
find the probability P corresponding to the calculated values of x2 for the
given df. (to) IfP < 0.05, the observed value of yf is significant at 5% level
of significance, IfP < 0.01, the value is significant at 1% level. If P > 0,05, it
is a good fit and the value is not significant. Example 27. i 7. In
experiments on pea breedings the following frequencies of seeds were
obtained : Round and Wrinkled and Round and Wrinkled and Total. yellow
yellow green green 315 101 108 32 556 Theory predicts that the frequencies
should be in proportions 9:3:3: 1. Examine the correspondence between
theory and experimen t. Solution. The corresponding frequencies are Hence
— x 556, — x 556, — x 556, — x 556 i.e. , 313, 104, 104, 35. 16 16 16 16
„ (315- 3 13)2 {101- 104 f X = - + - - - + 313 9 104 4 9 16 9 ,, - 1 - 1- - - 1 -
- — 0.51 313 104 104 35 (108-104)2 ( 32 - 35}a 104 + 35 and df v = 4-1 =
3. For v = 3, we have xfj os = 7.815 IFrom Table V Since the calculated
value of x2 is much less than there is a very high degree of agreement
between theory and experiment. Example 27. 18. A set of five similar coins
is tossed 320 times and the result is No. of heads 0 1 2 3 4 5 Frequency : 6
27 72 112 71 32 Test the hypothesis that the data follow a binomial
distribution. iKottoyam, 2005 ; P. T. V., 2005 ; V.T. LA, 2004) Solution. For
v = 5, we have Xo.qs = 11.07, p, probability of getting a head = ^ ;q,
probability of getting a tail - ^ . Hence the theoretical frequencies of getting
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 heads are the successive terms of the binomial expansion 320
(p + q)s = 320 {ps + 5p4q + 10pV + 10pV + 5p4 + Q*\ i s io io [32 32 32
32 5 1 + - + - 32 32 - 10 + 50 + 100 + 100 + 50+10 Thus the theoretical
frequencies are 10, 50, 100, 100, 50, 10. Hence and a (6-10)2 (27 - 50)z
(72-10O)2 (112-100)2 (71-50)^ (32— ID)2 Io + 50 + ioo ” + i"oT — + so
m~ dfv = ^ (160 + 1058 + 784 + 144 + 882 + 4840) = 6-1 = 5. 7868 = 78.68
100
913 Since the calculated value ol‘ is much greater than Xqckj, the
hypothesis that the data follow the binomial law is rejected.
914 HlGHEfl EwGlNisfcttMG a (5 _ 4.13)2 (18 - 20.68)® (42 -

38. 92)2 (27 - 27.71)® (8 - 7.43)2 X ~ 4/13 ^ 20,68 ' 38.92 + 27.71 + 7.43 =
0.1833 + 0.3473 + 0.2437 + 0.0182 + 0.0437 = 0.8362 As regards the
number of degrees of freedom (7), there are three constraints (i)
discrepancy between total observed and total estimated frequencies (ii) and
{Hi) mean (m) and standard deviation (a) have been estimated f rom the
sample data. r = 5 - 3 = 2. For 7=2, Xo os = 0- 103 from table V. Since x2 =
0.8362 > 0.103. Hence the fit is not good. PROBLEMS 27.4 i - Five dice w
ere thrown 96 times and the number of times 4, 5 or 6 were thrown were :
No. of dice showing 4, 5 Ot S : 5 4 3 2 l 0 Frequency : ft 18 35 24 10 1 Find
the probability of getting this result by chance 7 2. Genetic theory states
that children Having erne parent of blood type M and other bloud type jV
will always be one of the three types Mt MN„ N and that the proportions of
these typeH will on average be 1 ; £ : 1. A report states that out of 3fKl
children having one M parent and one N parent, 30% were found to be of
type Mt 45% of type MN and remainder of type A?. Test the hypothesis by
X2 test. 3* A die was thrown 60 times and Lhe following frequency
distribution was observed : Faces : 1 2 3 4 5 6 fn : 15 6 4 7 11 17 TesL
whether the die is unbiased ? 4. The following table ghfM the number uf
aircraft accidents that occurred during the various days of the week. Find
whether the accidents are uniformly distributed over the week ? Days Sun
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sal Total No. of accidents ; 14 Ifl fi 12 11 9 14 fi4 (H
ism rp 2005} 5* Fit a binomial distribution Lo the data : x ; 0 1 2 3 4 5 f :
38 144 342 287 164 25 and test f or goodness of Htp at Lhe level of
significance 0.05, 6* In 1000 extensive sets of trials for an event of small
probability, the frequencies f0 of the number x of successes proved to be ; r
: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4 : 306 366 210 80 28 9 2 1 Fit a Poisson distribution to the
data and test the goodness of fit, 7. The frequencies of localities according
to the number of deaths duo to cholera during eight years in 1000 localities
is as follows : No. of deaths : 0 1 2 3 4 5 67 No. of localities : 314 355 204
86 29 9 3 0 Fit a suitable distribution to the data and test the goodness of fit.
8, Obtain the equation of the normal curve that may be fitted to the data and
test Lhe goodness of fit. *: 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 £0 22 24 Total fMi 1 7 15
22 35 43 38 20 13 5 1 200 27.19 m F-DISTRIBUTION* Let xlw x2, ,.. xn
and yJ? y^t —y,u be the values of two independent random sampler drawn
from the normal populations &2 having equal variances. * This distribution
was introduced by the English statistician Prof. R.A. Fisher (1890— 1962)
who had greatly influenced the development of modem statistics.
Sampling and Inference 1 | Let £j and r2 be the sample means and
sf = - ]T (j^ - xf, sf = — — (y, - yf be the sample nt — 1 i n$ — I j
variances. Then we define F by the relation -2 p _ si 4 (s f > s|) This gives
F- distribution (also known as variance ratio distribution) with Tj = - 1 and
y2 = n - 2 degrees of freedom. The larger of the variances is placed in the
numerator. (2) Properties. I. The F-distribution curve lies entirely in the first
quadrant and is uni modal. II. The F-distribution is independent of the
population variance cf2 and depends on yt and only. III. FJyp y2) is the
value ofF for Yj and y2 of such that the area to the right of Fa is ct. IV. It
can be shown that the mode of F-distribution is Less than unity. (3)
Significance test. Snedecor's F-tables give 5% and 1% points of
significance lor F. (Table VI - Appendix 2). 5% points of F mean that area
under the F-curve to the right of the ordinate at a value of F, is 0, 05.
Clearly value of F at 5% significance is lower than that at 1%. F-
distribution is very useful for testing the equality of population means by
comparing sample variances. As such it forms the basis of analysis of
variance. Example 27.21. Two samples of sizes 9 and 8 give the sum of
squares of deviations from their respective means equal to 160 inches2 and
91 inches2 respectively. Can these be regarded as drawn from the same
normal population ? iV.T.U ., 2002 ) Solution. We have Hx x J2 = 160 and
Hy - y}5 = 91 160 s? = and ,2 _ "2 8 91 T •2 = 20 = 13. Hence F= — jj- =
— ^ = 1.54 nearly. St 13 For Yj = 8, ya = 7, we have F0 05 = 3.73. [From
Table VI] Since the calculated value of F < Fu 0&, the population variances
are not significantly different. Thus the two samples can be regarded as
drawn from two normal populations with the same variance. If the two
populations are to be same, their means should also be the same which can
be verified by applying Z-test provided the sample means are known, Exit
m pie 27.22. Measurements un the length of a copper wire were taken in 2
experiments A and B as under t A’s measurements (mm) ; 12.29, 12.25,
11.86, 12.13, , 12.44, 12.78, 12.77, 11.90, 12.41. B's measurements (mm) :
12.39, 12.46, 12.34 , 12.22, 11.98, 12.46, 12.23, 12.06. Test whether B's
measurements are more accurate than A’s. (The readings taken in both cases
being unbiased) Solution. Headings in both cases being unbiased. B's
measurements will be taken more accurate il its population variance is less
than that of A's measurements. Under the hypothesis that the two
populations have the same variance (i.e. of = ajjj ), we have 4 with yx = rij -
1 = 8 and y2 = n2 - l * 7.
916 HrGMEH Engineering Mathematics We calculate the s.d.’s of

the iwo senes as follows A 's m t'tis u m rut it t$ It’s measurements X ! | H
S; y v - lOOty - 12} if 12.29 29 641 12.39 39 1521 25 625 12.46 46 2116
11.86 -14 196 12,34 34 1156 12.13 13 169 12.22 22 nrCHi 12.44 44 1936
11.98 — 2 4 12.78 78 6DS4 12.46 46 2116 12,77 77 5929 12.23 23 529
11.90 - 10 100 12.06 6 36 12.47 47 2209 289 18089 214 7962 4= 1 2 18089
(289)* = -(16089-9280) = 1101.1 "l 8 1 7962(214)* = -r (7962 - 5724) =
319.7 n,-l n2 7 .. s? 1101.1 F = 1 = 3,44 s| 319.7 For Yl - 8 and y2 = 7, from
table VI, F0 0B — 3.73 and F001 = 6.84. Since the calculated value of F is
less than both F(l os and F„ ot, the result is insignificant at both 5% and
V3b level. Hence there is no reason to say thal flTs measurements are more
accurate than those of A’s. 27.20 (1) FISHER'S z-DISTRIBUTfON
Changing Lhe variable F to z by the substitution z ~ - log, F or F = e27 in
the ^-distribution, we get the F ish its z-di stri bud on , It is more nearly
symmetrical than F-di stri button. Table showing the values of> that will be
exceeded in simple sampling with probabilities 0, 05 and 0.01 have been
prepared for various values of ti, and v2. (2) Significance test. As stable
give only critical values corresponding to right hand tail areas, therefore
5'Zi tor 1%I points of z imply that the area to the right of the ordinate at? is
0.05 (or 0.01). In other words, 5% and 1 % points of z correspond to 10%
and 2*?- levels of significance respectively. Example 27.23. Two guuge
operations are tested for precision in making measurements. One operutor
completes a set of 26 readings -with a standard deviations of 1.34 and the
other dons 34 readings with a standard deviations of 0.31 S. What is the
level of significance of this difference. {Given that for v( = 25 and v.. - 33,
z00$ — 0.305. z0(f} = 0.432) Solution. We have ft t = 26, = 1.34 ; = 34, crv
= 0.9S 26 .aj = — (1.34)*= (1.34)3 and 4 = -- . o; = — <0.9fl)y = (0.98)“ 1
25 n., - 1 ■ 33 n j — 1 2 Hence F~ [ — 1 = 1.8696 and ? = - log F = 1.1513
log... 1.8696 = 0.3129 ^0.98 } 2 1 10 Since the calculated value of z is just
greater than *0J(n and less than the difference between lhe standard
deviation is just significant at 5% level and insignificant at 1 % level.
Sampling and Inference 917 PROBLEMS 27,5 I* Two sampler of

9 and 7 individuals have variances 4.8 and 9,6 respectively* Is the variance
dS significantly greater than the variance 4 6 ? 2. Test for breaking strength
w ere carried out nn two lots of 5 and £i steel wires. The variance ol one lot
was 23.0 and that of other was 492. Is there a signi ficant difference in their
variability ? A. Show ln»w you would use Fisher's 2-tesi to decide whether
the two sets of observation* 17. 27. lb, S$t 27, 29. 27. 23. 17 and IG* 16,
29, 16t 20, 17, I5t 21, indicate sample? from the same uni verse „ 4, In two
groups of ton children each, the increase in weight due to different diets
during the panw period, were in pounds 3* 7, G,5P4, 4, S+3, 6 K 5, 7, 8, 3,
2, 7, 6, f>, 7. is there a significant difleronce in their variability ? 5, The
mean diameter i>f rivets produced by two firms A and B are practically the
same bin. their d in ndurd deviations arc different. For 1G rivets
manufactured by firm A. the S.D. is 3,8 mm white for 22 rivets
manufactured by firm B h 2,9 nun. Do you think products of firm B art* of
bettor quality than those of firm /V, 6, The l.Q.’s of 25 students from one
college showed a variance of lb and those of an equal number from the
other college had a variance of 8. Discuss whether there is any significant
difference in variability of intelligence 7, Two random Kampfes from two
normal population* are given below Sample I : 16 26 27 23 24 22 Sample II
: 33 42 35 32 28 31 Do the estimatpp of population variances differ
significantly? Degrees of freedom : (5, 5) (B* 6) (6, B) 5Ft value off ; 6,06
4.39 4.9fi 8, Two independent samples of sizes 7 and 6 have the following
values : Sample A: 28 30 32 33 33 29 34 Sample B 2& 30 30 £4 27 29
Examine Whether the samples have been drawn from normal populations
having the same variance ? [Given that the values ol 'Fat. 6^ level for (6, 5)
dX is 4,95 and for ffi, 63 d.f. is 4+391. OBJECTIVE TYPE OF
QUESTIONS PROBLEMS 27.6 Sdetl (he tarter* answer arfilt up the
blanks in each of the fbihnvmg quantum# : 1. The "null hypothecs’ implies
that . 2* The uses of * -distribution are a.„_+... 3. Type / and type // errors
are such that .. .*.,+.. 4. A si ogle- tailed te*t is used when . 5. Coairo! Limit
theorem states that . . 6. A hypothesis is true, but i# rejected- Then this is an
error of typo . .. 7. Tf the standard deviation of a y? distribution is Kb then
its degree of freedom is . . B, Range of F-distributmn is ... . 9. A hypo thesis
is false but accepted, then there is au error of type 10, The mean and
variance of a x2 distribution with H dermis of freedom are . . and .,....„.
refjpeiftiveJy. 1 1 . In a ^distribution of saihpU* size nT the degrees of
freedom are ... _ _ £ 12. The test statistic F - \ is used when Sn (i ) s|>sj{ in)
£
Numerical Solution of Equations | 1* Introduction. 2. Solution of
algebraic and transcendental equations — Bisection method. Method of
false | I position, Newton's method. 3. Useful deductions from the Newton -
Raphson Formula, 4. Approximate solution of | equations — Homer's
method, 5. Solution of linear simultaneous equations. 6* Dimct methods of
solution — Gauss , elimination method, Gauss- Jordan method,
Factorization method. 7. Iterative methods ol solution — Jacobi's ' method,
Gauss-Saidai method. Relaxation method, 8. Solution of non-linear
simultaneous equations — Newton I Raphson method. 9. Determination of
eigen values by iteration. 10, Objective Type of Questions. 1 28,1 The
limitations of analytical methods have led the engineers and scientists to
evolve graphical and numerical methods. As seen in § 1.8, the graphical
methods, though simple, give results to a low degree of accuracy.
Numerical methods can, however, be derived which are more accurate.
With Lhe advent of high speed digital computers and increasing demand for
numerical answers to various problems, numerical techniques have become
indispensable tool in the hands of engineers. Numerical methods are often,
of a repetitive nature, These consist in repeated execution of the same
process where at each step the result of the preceding step is used. This is
known as iteration process and is repeated till the result is obtained to a
desired degree of accuracy. In this chapter, we shall discuss some numerical
methods for the solution of algebraic and transcendental equations and
simultaneous linear and non-linear equations. We shall close the chapter by
describing an iterative method for the solution of eigen- value problem. For
a detailed study of these topics, the reader should refer to author’s hook
"Numerical Method* in Engineering & Science'. 28,2 SOLUTION OF
ALGEBRAIC AND TRANSCENDENTAL EQUATIONS To find the roots
of an aquation f{x) = 0, we start with a known approximate solution and
apply any of the following methods : (I) Bisection method. This method
consists in locating the root of the equation fix) = 0 between a and b . If fix)
is continuous between a and b, and f(a) and f (b) are of opposite signs then
there is a root between a and b. For definiteness^ let/fa) he negative and fib)
be positive. Then the first approximation to the root is xx- i lo + 1 2 Tf /
■(jc1) = 0, then x t is a root of/"(x) = 0, Otherwise, the root lies between a
and xl orxx and b according as f(xx) is positive or negative. Then we bisect
the interval as before and continue the process until the root is found to
desired accuracy. 918
Numerical Solution Of Equations 919 In the Fig. 28.1,/'{x1) is
+ve, bo that the root lies between a and xr Then the second approximation
to the root is x2 = l(a + xt). lff(x2) is — ve, the root lies between x, and x2.
Then the third approximation to the root is ^ (xj + x2) and so on. Example
28.1. (a) Find a root of the equation x3 - 4x - 9 - 0, using the bisection
method correct to three decimal places . {Mumbai, 2003) (6) Using
bisection method, find the negative root of the equation Xs - 4x + 9 = 0.
{J.N.T U., 2009) Solution, (a } Let /" (x) = x3 - 4x - 9 Since f(2} is -ve and
f (3) is +ve, a root lies between 2 and 3 first approximate to the root is x. =
1(2 + 3) = 2.5 1 2 Thus /'(x1) = (2.5)3 — 4(2.5) - 9 - - 3.375 i.e., -ve the
root lies between x1 and 3. Thus the second approximation to the root is x,
= 1 (x, + 3) = 2.75 2 2 1 Then f(x2) = (2.75J3 - 4(2.75) - 9 = 0.7969 i.e., +
ve /. the root liew between x} and x2. Thus the third approximation to the
root is *3=1 (*1 + = 2 625 Then f(x3) = (2.62S)3 - 4(2.625) - 9 =- 1.4121
i.e.,-ve the root lies between x2 and Thus the fourth approximation to the
root is x4=| + *a) = 3-6875 Repeating this process, the successive
approximations are x6 = 2.71875, x6 = 2.70313, x7 = 2.71094 xB =
2.70703, x9 = 2.70508, x10 = 2.70605 xn = 2.70654, x12 = 2.70642 Hence
the root is 2.7064 (6) If re, p, 7 are the roots of the given equation, then —
a, - |i, - y are the roots of (- xV1 - 4{-x) + 9 = 0 /. the negative root of the
given equation is the positive root of x3 - 4x - 9 = 0 which we have found
above to be 2.7064. Hence the negative root for the given equation is -
2.7064. Example 26.2. By using the bisec turn method., find an
approximate root of the equation sin x - Hx. that lies between x = J and x =
1.5 (measured in radians). Carry out computations iipta the 7th stage. (
V.T.U. , 2003 S) Solution. Let/Tx) = x sin x — 1. We know that Y = 57.3°.
Since f (1) = 1 x sin (1) - 1 = sin (57.3°)- 1 = - 0.15849 and fa-5) = 1.5 x sin
(1.5r - 1 - 1.5 x sin (85.95)° - 1 - 0.49625 ; a root lies between 1 and 1.5.
first approximation to the root is x, 1(1 + 1.5) = 1.25. 2 Then ^(x,) = (1.25)
sin (1.25) - 1= 1.25 sin (71.625°) - 1 = 0.18627 and/ (l)< 0. a root lies
between 1 and x, = 1.25. Thus the second approximation to Lhe root is x,2 -
1(1 + 1.25) = 1.125. Then f(x2) = 1.125 sin (1.125)- 1 = 1.125 sin (64.46)°-
1 =0 01509 and/(l)<0_ a root lies between 1 and x2 = 1 . 125. Thus the third
approximation to the root is x.( = 1(1 + 1.125) = 1.0625 2
920 HkjHer {Ehgikeering MATHEWA’nCS Then f{x3) - 1,0625
sin (1.0625) - 1 = 1.0625 sin (60.88) 1 = - 0.0718 < 0 and /'(x2) > 0, i.e.
nnw the mot lies between ,v3 = 1.0625 and .t, = 1.125. fourth
approximation tn the root is xt = * (1.062.5 + 1.125) = 1.09375 Then f i.v,)
= - 0.02836 < 0 and fix2) > 0, i.e., the mot lies between x4 - 1.09375 and x2
- 1,125. fifth approximation to the root isxs - (1,09375 + 1,125 ) = 1.10937
— Then f fxg) - — 0.0066 0. the root lies between xs = 1.10937 and x2 -
1.125. Thus the sixth approximation to the root is x- - 1(1.10937 + 1.125)=
1.11719 B g Then f(x(.) - 0.00421 > 0. But f(x-\ < 0. the root lies between
Xg - 1,10937 and x6 = 1.11719. Thus the seventh approximation to the root
is x7 - (1.10937 + 1.11718) = 1.11328 2 Hence Liu* desired approximation
to the root is 1 .1 (2) Method of false position or RegLila-faisi method. This
is the oldest method of finding the real root of an equation f (x) — 0 and
closely resembles the bisection method. Here we choose two points x0 and
x, such that f (xn) anil fix,) are of opposite signs i.e. , the graph ofy = fix)
crosses the x-axts between these points ( Pig. 28,2). This indicates that a
root lies between x(J and Xj consequently fixu) fix,) < 0. Equation of the
chord joining the points Al.r0, /{,v(|)| and /# | .v , . /‘(x, )| is rt > /'(x. ) - fix0
) . y - f (x-l = - — - — - - - (x - x„) ...( 1 ) X, - x0 The method consists in
replacing the curve AB by means of the chord AB and taking the point of
intersection of the chord with the x-axis as an approximation to the root. So
the abscissa of the point where the chord cuts the x-axis (y = 0) is given by
1328. = *0 " *[> /(%) which is an approximation to the root. fix„) ...(2) If
now fix„) and /(x2) are of opposite signs, l hen the root lies between r0 and
vy So repJactngXj by r., in 12), we obtain the next approximation ,iy (The
root could as well lie between Xj and x,2 and we would obtain xa
accordingly). This procedure is repeated till the root is found to desired
accuracy. The iteration process based on ( 1) is known as the method of
false position. fixampie 28.3. Find u j real root of the equation x? 2x 5-0 by
Ike method of false position correct to three ilevitnal p/tt ces. ( Mti ) i /pal.
2 005 ) Solution. Let f (x) = .v3 - 2x - 5 so that f{2) - - 1 and fiti) - 16 Le.. A
root lies between 2 and 3. taking x0 = 2, .y = 3, /‘(.vrj) - - l , f lx, } = 16. in
the method of false position, we get J./, V2 ~ *’(] fix,) -fix 0) ' ^ fix.f) = /■(
2.0588 1 = -0.3908 f(x0) = 2 Ijt\ + — = 2.0588 17 l he root lies between
2.0588 anil 3. ...(() Now
921 Numerical Solution Of Equations taking x{) = 2.0588, Xj —
3, f (xh) — — 0.3908, f ) — 16, in (i), wn got X:i = 2.0588 - 0;âlJ: (-
0.3908) = 2.0813 1 o+oBUo Repeating this process, the successive
approximations are .v4 = 2,0862. xs = 2.0915, xc = 2.0934, X7 = 2.0941, =
2.0943 etc. Hence the root is 2.094 correct to 3 decimal places. Example
28.4, Find the root of the equation COS x = jrc* using the regtdu-fitlsi
methotl rarrert to four decimal pi ares. {Bhopal, 2000) Solution. Lei fix) =
cos x - xe* = 0 So Lhat /( 0) = 1,/<1) = cos 1 -e = -2.17798 i.e., the mot lies
between 0 and 1. taking x0 = 0, x, - ]./(xnJ = 1 and f (x, ) = —2.17798 in
the regula-falsi method, we get /4wX- r^°* m - 1 -°-3Ufi7 Now /■( 0.3
1467) = 0.51987 i.e., the root lies between 0.31467 and 1. taking x0 =
0.31467. xt = 1, f(xt)\ = 0.51987, fixf) - - 2. L7798 in (t), we get x,( =
0,31467 + * 0.51987 = 0.44673 3 2.697S5 Now f (0.44673 ) - 0. 20356 i.e. ,
the mot lies between 0.44673 and 1. taking x0 - 0.44673, Xj = 1, f(xt}) =
0.20356, /’ Now fix2) = f( 2.72102) - - 001 709 i.e., the root lies between
2.72102 and 3. taking x(1 = 2.72102, x, = 3,/-{x0l = - 0.01709 and A(x,) -
0.23136 in }, we get x.. = 2.72102 + - °'2'B98 - x 0.01709 = 2.74021 *
0.23136 + 0.01709 Repeating this process, the successive approximations
are x4 - 2.74024, x. = 2.74063 etc. Hence the root is 2.7406 correct to 4
decimal places. Example 28.6. Use the method of fahr position, to find the
fourth roof ofliScarmt to three i treanuf plan's. Solution. Let x = (32),/| so
that x* — 32 = l)
922 Higher Engineering Mathematics Take/(x) = xi — 32. Then
f{2) = - 16 and /( 3) - 49, i.e., a root lies between 2 and 3. -\ taking i0 - 2,
JCj = 3, f fr0) = - 16 .fixf) = 49 in the method of false position, we get Now
f(xs 1 = /( 2.2462) - - 6.5438 i.e. the root ties between 2.2462 and 3. /.
taking = 2.2462, jc, = 3, f{xQ) = - 6.5438, f(xj = 49 3 - 2 246 2 in ft), we
get xs - 2.2462 - — - - 543g (- 6.5438) = 2.335 Now f (x3) = f{ 2.335) - —
2.2732 i.e. the root lies between 2.335 and 3. /. taking *0 = 2.335 and = 3,
f(xQ ) - — 2.2732 and fixf) = 49 in (i>, we obtain Q _ O QQt x. = 2.335 -
— — {- 2.2732) = 2.3645 4 49 + 2.2732 ...ft) Repeating this process, the
successive approximations are x5 — 2.3770, xe = 2.3779 etc. Since xs = xs
upto 3 decimal places, we take (Z2)m - 2.378. (3 ) N e wton -Raph so n
method*. Lotar0 be an approximate root of the equation /(*) = 0. If xi = + h
be the exact root, then f(xf) = 0. expandi ng f (*(> + h ) by Taylor’s series
f(*0)+^(je0)+ r, £ no.)* ffa) + Enf"(ti) + ... ~ IBy Taylor’s expansion.) £
„/'(«> + \ /■"(«) + ... /'(ft) + e „/"(ft) + ... [v /(a) = 0J e„ /"(a) ^ /*(a) T
neglecting third andl 2f/'f«) + £n/"(a)l “ 2 ‘ a) ‘ [higher powers of e„.J This
shows that the subsequent error at each step, is proportional to the square of
the previous error and as surh the convergence is quadratic. iP.T.U., 2005) t
tbs Geometrical interpretation. Let xfl be a point near the mot u of the
equation fix) - 0 (Fig. 28.31. Then the equation of the tangent at A0 [x0,
/(xa)| is y -/(*„) = /' (*„) (x - x0). *See footnote p. 466. Named after the
English mathematician Joseph Raphson (1648-1715) who suggested a
method simitar to Newton’s method.
Numerical Solution Of Equations It cuts the je-aids &tx* =
*oflXf}) n*o) which is a first approximation to the root a. IM1 is the point
corresponding to on the curve, then the tangent at Ax will cut the r-axis of
xt which is nearer to « and is, therefore, a second approximation to the root.
Repeating this process, we approach to the root a quite rapidly. Hence the
method consists in replacing the part of the curve between the point An and
the x-axis by means of the tangent to the curve at j4„,1 Example 28.7. Find
the positive, root ofx4 -x= 10 correct to three decimal places, using
Newton- Rap kson method . [J.N. T. U„ 2008 ; Madras, 2006) Solution. Let
fix) = x* — x — 10 So that ni) = - 10 = - ve,f(2) = 16-2-10 = 4 = + ve a
root of fix) - 0 lies between 1 and 2. Iêt us take x0 — 2 Also f'ix) = 4x3 —
1 New ton - Raphso n 's formula is FI + J ..■CO = 2 - -5L = 1.871 31
Putting « = 0, the first approximation JCj is given by Y _ r a%) _ m _ o 4 10
r&b) n »~4*2>-i Putting n = 1 in (i), the second approximation is * „ Uhl -
x B71 [» 3™ 1 * f'U ,) /'(1.87I) = LW1 _ own*- (1.871) -io _ _ . ,.856
4(1.871) -1 25.199 Putting n = 2 in ft), the third approximation is (3.856)* -
(1.856) -10 - *2 “ = 1.856 — , i q*6 ruT) 0.010 4(1. 856 r - 1 1.856 24.574
Here .Kg = x3. Hence the desired is 1.856 correct to three decimal places.
Example 28,6. Find the Newton’s method, the real root of the equation 3x ~
cos x + 1. (V.TM 2009; S,V.T.U.. 2007) Solution. Let fix) - 3x — cos x — 1
fiO) = - 2 = - ve, /“(l) = 3 - 0.5403 - 1 = 1.4597 = + ve. So a root of fix) = 0
lies between 0 and 1. It is nearer to 1 . Let us take x0 = 0.6, Also f'(x)= 3 +
sin x Newton's iteration formula gives *"*1 *» f'(Xn) =*„“ 3x„ - cos x. - 1
fi FI 3 + sin x„ x„ sin + cos x„ + 1 ft n H: 3 + sin xn Putting n - 0, the first
approximation xl is given by Xp sin Xq + cos xq 4 1 (0,6) sin (0.6) + cos
(0.6) + 1 3 -i- sin x0 3 sin (0.6) -.(i) X1
Hifinen Engineering Mathsmaocs 0,6 x 0,5729 + 0,82533 + 1 =
0,6071 3 + 0.5729 Putting n = 1 in , the .second approximation is xt sin xv +
cos X| + 1 0,6071 sin (0.6071 ) + cos {0.6071}+ l 3 + sin x 0.6071 x
0.57049 ■+ 0.82 13 + 1 3 + sin (0.6071) - 0.607 1 Clearly, a:, = x2. 3 +
0.57049 lie net the desired rout is 0.607 L correct to four decimal places.
Example 28.9. Using Ntuetvns iterutiw method, find the real root ofx
log{UX — 1.2 correct to five decimal places, (V.T. K, 2005 ; Mutnbui, 200-1
; Rurdwan , 2002) and Solution. Let fix) = x logl0 x - 1.2 f(l) = - 1.2 = -ve,f{
2) = 2 logIO 2 - 1.2 = 0.59794 » - ve /"f 3 > = 3 logh) 3 - 1.2= 1.4314 - 1.2
= 0.23136= + ve So a root of fix) = 0 lies between 2 and 3. Let us lake ,vu
= 2 Also f'lxi = log10x + x . 1 log,u t- - log,()x + 0.43429 Newton’s
iteration formula gives = V _ /K> 0.43429 r„ + 1.2 nt1 " f'lxn ) log I0 x„ +
0.43429 ...(
NuiWETifcCAL Solution Of Equations 925 (2) Let x - yfN or x2

- N - 0 Taking fix) - x2 — N, we have f* (,ir) - 2rc Then Newton's formula
gives ** ♦ i = ^ " f{ x" \ = x nx„) « x*-N 1 ^ - = lf* +N/xJ 2x_ 2 n n (3) Let
x = or **-—-=0 Taking fix) - x2 - \/N, we have f '(.v ) = 2v Then Newton's
formula gives fix ) e — v _ _ _ ^ — v — rt*1 rt f\xa) * X^-t/N if 1 - = - X..
+ 2*. 2 Wr„ (4) Lct.v = \fN or xk-N = 0 Taking fix) = x*° - N. we have f'( x)
= hx>; ~ 1 Then Newton’s formula gives V “ v- _ - - - "V _ ■■ + I « f'ixlt) "
K -N_\ hx {k “ l)x» + “FT (Mtidrus, 2006) Example 28-10. Evaluate the
following (correct to four decimal places) by Neu ttm's iteration method :
dm 31 (if) Js (Anna, 2007) — 2.23G1. {iii) Taking N — 14, the above
formula (3), becomes xn + t = 1 l.v^ + l/(14.v;|)l j£i Since an approximate
value of 1/ Vl4 - U\flS = ^ = 0.25, we take ar0 - 0.25 Then *, = 1 |jt„ + (l^Hl
= 1 |0.25 + {14 x 0.26)"1) = 0.26785 ^ 2 *2 = \ ixx + (14*,)-1! = 1 10.26785
+ ( 14 x 0.26785)- 3 ] = 0.2672618 2 2 ■r3 " | - I [0.2672618 + { 14 x
0.26726 IS)1] - 0.2672612 Since upto 4 decimal places, we take l/J\4 -
0*2673. tiu) Talking N - 24 and k = 3, the above Ibrmula (4) becomes^ + }
^ \2xfi + 24/^ | o
926 Higher Engineering Mathematics Since an approximate value

of (24)1/3 = {27)m = 3, we take;c0 - 3. Then x1 = | (2x0 + 24 /x* } = I (6 +
24/9) - 2.88889 u u x5 = 1 (2.V, + 24/ xf ) = ^ [12 x 2.88889) + 24/(2-888
89 )z| = 2.88451 ^3 3 xa = 1 <2x5, + 24/*| > = | 12 * 2.88451 + 24/(2.88451
)z] = 2-8845 3 3 Since x2 - x3 upto 4 decimal places, we take (24)V3 -
2.8845 (v) Taking N = 30 and k - - 5, the above formula (4> becomes 1 - r5
Jl3 (U.P.T.U., 2008) («) s/10 (J.N.T.U., 2008) iP.T.U. 2005) (Mumbai, 2004)
(Madras, 2003)
Multifile*! Solution Of Equations* 927 12. Find the cube root of
41, using Newton-Kaphson method. (Madras, 2003) 1 3. Develop an
algorithm using N-R method, to find the fourth root of a positive number N
and hence find (321’*. f W.B.T.U. , 2005) 14. Evaluate the following
(correct to 3 decimal places) by using the NewUin-Kaphsgn method : (i)
1/18 J.N.T. U., 2004) (it ) Wl5 (tiij (2R)V*. 28 A APPROXIMATE
SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS— HORNER'S METHOD This is the best
method of finding approximate values of both rational and irrational roots
of a numerical equation. Horner’s method consists in diminution of the root
of an equation by successive digits occurring in the roots. If the root of an
equation lies between a and u + 1, then the value of this root will be a . bed
where b, c, d ... are digits in its decimal part. To obtain these, we proceed as
follows : (?) Diminish the roots of the given equation by a so that the root
of the new equation is 0 . bed ... (it) Then multiply the roots of the
transformed equation by 10 so that the root of the new equation is b . cd...
(Hi) Now diminish the root by b and multiply the roots of the resulting
equation by 10 so that the Toot is c. d.„ (ip) Next diminish the root by r and
so on. By continuing this process, the root may be evaluated to any desired
degree of accuracy digit by digit. The method will be clear from the
following example. Example 28.1 1. Find by Homer's method, the positive
root of the equation x3 + xs + x - 100 = 0 correct, to three decimal places.
Solution. Step 1. Let f(x) - *3 + x2 + jc — 100 By Descartes’ rule of signs,
there is only one positi ve root. Also / (4) = — ve and f(&) — + ve,
therefore, the root lies between 4 and 5. Step II. Diminish the roots of given
equation by 4 so that the transformed equation is jc3 + 13x2 + 57* - 16 = 0
-..(£) Its root lies between 0 and 1, (We draw a zig-zag line above the set of
figures 13, 57, - 16 which are the coefficients of the terms in (?) as shown
below. Now multiply the roots of (0 by 10 for which multiply the second
term by 10, the third term by 100 and the fourth term by 1000 {i.e. attach
one zero to the second term, two zeros to the third term and three zeros to
the fourth term). Then we get the equation /■,{*) = *3 + 130*2 + 5700* -
16000 = 0 ...(it) 1 A 5 4 1 20 21 36 - 100 84 (4.264 - 16000 11928 9 5700 -
4072000 4 264 3788376 130 5964 - 283624000 2 268 132 623200 2 8196
134 631396 2 8232 1360 63962SG0 6 1366 6 1372 6 13780
928 Higher Engineering Mathematics Its root lies between 0 and
10. Clearly ft{ 2) - - ve, /j(3) = + ve /, the root, of («') lies between 2 and 3
Le., first figure alter decimal is 2. Step Ill . Diminish the roots of f^x) - 0 by
2 so thiit (he next transformed equation is x* + 136*2 + 6232* - 4072 = 0
Its root lies between 0 and I, (We draw the second zig-zag line above the set
of figures 136, 6232, — 4072), Multiply the routs uf (iii), by 10, i.e. attach
one zero to second term, two zeros to third term and three zeros to the
fourth term. Then the new equation is f2(x) = x3 + 1 360*“ + 623200* -
4072000 = 0 Its root lies between 0 and 10, which is nearly = 4072000
623200 = 6 Hence second figure after decimal place is 6, Step IV. Diminish
the roots of/^l*) = 0 by 6, so that the transformed equation is x3 + 1378a:2
+ 639628* - 283624 = 0. Its mot lies between 0 and t. (We draw the Lhird
zig-zag line above the set of figures 1378, 639628, - 283624.) As belbre
multiply its roots by 10, i.e. attach one zero to the second term, two zeros to
the third term and three zeros to the fourth term. Then the equation becomes
/^(jc) = x:' + 13780*- + 63962800* - 283624000 = 0 Its root lies between 0
and 10, which is nearly = 383624000 _ 4 Thus the roots of fix) = 0 are to be
63962800 3 diminished bv 4 Le. the third figure after decimal place is 4.
But there is no need to proceed further as the root is required correct to
three decimal places only. Hence the root is 4.264. Obs. 1. After two Nt.ip.s
of diminishing, ice apply the principle of trial divisor nt which we dictrte
the hist coefficient by hist but one coefficient to get the next integer A.y
winch the routs are to be .diminished. Them: last tutu coefficients should
ktivc opposite signs. Obs. 2. At any stage if the trial divisor suggests the
next integer to be sera, then ice should again multiply the roofs by Wand
write Hero in t levtmal place of the root. Example 26,12. Find the ctibe root
of SO correct to ■'# decimal places, using Horner's method. Solution. Step
/. Let* - ^30 Le. fix) - jc* - 30 = 0 Now f(3) — — 3 (— ve), f(4) s= 34 (+
ve) the root lies between 3 and 4. Step 11. Diminish the roots of the given
equation by 3 so that the transformed equation is x3 + 9x2 + 27* — 3 = 0 ,..
(/) Its roots lies between 0 and 1 (We draw a zig-zag line above the set of
numbers 9, 27. 3 which are the coefficients of the terms in (i». Now
multiply the roots of (!) by 10 for which attach one zero to the second term,
two zeros to the third term and three zeros to the fourth term. Then w'e get
the equation /",(*) = *s + 90x2 + 2700x - 3000 = 0 .Mi) Its roots Lies
between 0 and 10. Clearly /^(l) = — ve, f/%) = + ve the root of (if ) lies
between 1 and 2 i.e. , first figure alter decimal place is 1, Step 111.
Diminish the roots of f{(x) = 0 by 1, so that the next transformed equation
is X3 + 93x2 + 2883* - 209 = 0 ...(/if) Its root lies between 0 and 1. (We
draw a second zig-zag line above the set of figures 93, 2883, - 209j.
Multiply the roots of (m> by 10 Le., attach one zero to second term, two
zeros to third term and three zeros to the fourth term. Then the new
equation is f2{x) =*:} + 930* ^ + 288300* - 209000 = 0 [Ls root lies
between 0 and 10, which is nearly = 209000/288300 = 0.724 > 0 and < 1.
Hence second figure after decimal place is 0
929 Numerical Solution Of Equations 1 0 3 3 1 6 3 90 1 91 1 92 1
9300 0 9_ 9 18 _ 2700 91 2791 92 28830000 — 30 (3.107 27 — 30000
2791 - 209000000 Step IV. Diminish the root oi'f2(x) = 0 by 0 and then
multiply its roots by 10 so that f.Aix) ~x3 + 9300*“ + 28830000* -
209000000 = 0. Its root lies between 0 and 10, which is nearly =
209000000/28830000 - 7.2 > 7 and < 8. Thus the roots of f3(x) - 0 are to be
diminished by 7 i.e., the third figure after decimal is 7. Hence the required
root is 3.107. PROBLEMS 28.2 L Find by Hornets method, the root
(correct to three decima l places) of the equation a3* + hy + H* = dz. Step
I. To eliminate x from second and third equations. ...(1) Assuming at * 0, we
eliminate x from the second equation by subtracting (a^/a^) times the first
equation from the second equation. Similarly we eliminate x from the third
equation by eliminating (aâ^ times the first equation from the third
equation. We thus, get the new system *See footnote p. 37.
930 Higher Engineers Mathematics axx + bty + Cj z — t/j b^y +
c^z = d'2 y t%y + c3z = dz Here the first equation is failed Lhv pivotal
equation and al is called the first pivot. Step IL To eliminate y from third
equation in (2). Assuming b2 * Q* we eliminate y from the third equation
of (2), by subtracting ib^h2) times the second equation from the third
equation. We thus, get the new system 0|X + 6iy + c1z = d1 b2y + c2z — d2
1 w 1* c3z - d3 \ Here the second equation is the pivotal equation and b!2 is
the new pivot. Step III, To evaluate the unknowns. The values of x, y, z are
found from the reduced system (3) by back substitution. Obs. I. On writing
the given equations as J £ & _ l Vj y raa ^ %_ 2 kJ i.c.. AX = D, this
method consists in transforming the coefficient matrix A tv upper triangular
matrix by elementary TOW transformations only. Obs. 1 Clearly the
method wilt fail if any one of the pivots a,. b2 or c£ becomes zero. In such
cases, we rewrite the equations In a different order so that the pivots are
non-zero. (Hus. 3. Partial and complete piloting. In the first step, the
numerically largest coefficient ofac is chosen from nit the equations and
brought as the first pivot by interchanging the first equation with the
equation having the largest coefficient of x. In the second step, the
numerically largest coefficient of y is chosen from the remaining equations
« leaving the first equation) and brought as the sectmd pivot by
interchanging the second equation with the equation having the largest
coefficient of y‘. This process is continued till we arrive at the equation
with the single variable. This modified procedure is called partial pivoting.
If we are not taken about the elimination of x,y.g in a specified order, then
we choose at each stage the numerically largest coefficient of the entire
matrix of coefficients. This requires not only hr interchange of equations
btn also an interchange of the position of the variables. This method of
elimination is cal let! complete pivoting. It is more complicated and docs
not appreciably improve the accuracy. Example 28.13. Apply Gauss
elimination method to solve the equations x + 4y - z = - 5 ; x +y-fiz = - 12 ;
3x - y - 2 - 4. i Mumbai 2009) Check sum Solution. We have x + 4y-z = -5 -
l je + y-6z = -12 -16 3 x—y — z — 4 5 Step I. Operate (ii) - (i) and I in ) -
3{f ) to eliminate x : Check sum -3y-Sz = -7 - 15 - 13y + 2z = 19 8 Step II.
Operate (t>) - ~r2 (if) to eliminate y : Check sum 73 3 3 Step III. By back-
substitution, we get From (of) : z = = 2.0845 71 From (to) : y - J - ® f— ) =
- — = - 1 .1408 3 3 wl / 71 ...(ft) ...(*!/> ...(y) ...(pi)
Numerical Solution Of Equations From (t) : 148 117 = 1.6479 71
71 Hence x = 1.6479. y = - 1.1408, * = 2.0845 Note. A useful check is
provided by noting the sum of the coefficients and terms on the right,
operating on those numbers as on the equations and checking that the
derived equations have the correct sum. 1 4 -1 Otherwise : We have 1 1-6 3
-1 -1 X ■ -5" y = - 12 z 4 '1 4 -1 X 5' Operate R2 — /?, and - 3/fj, 0 -3 - 5 y
= -7 0 -13 2 z 19 13 Operate Ra - R,£, 4 -1 -3 -5 0 71/3 -5 — 7 148/3 and
Thus, we have z - 148/71 = 2.0845, 3y = 7- 5* = 7-10.4225 = - 3,4225 t.e.,
y = - 1.1408 x--5-4y + z= -5 + 4 (1,1408) + 2.0845 = 1.6479 Hence x -
1.6479, y = — 1.1408, z - 2.0845. Example 28.14. Solve Wx - 7y + 3z + 5u
- 6, - Gx + Sy - z - 4u = 5. 3x + y + 4z + llu = 2, 5x ■ 9y - 2z + 4it = 7 by
Gauss elimination method. iS.V.T.U., 2007) Solution. We have lOx - ly + 3z
+ 5u = 6 — 6x + 8y — z — 4m = 5 3x +y + 4 z + llu - 2 5x - 9y - 2z + 4u =
7 Check sum 17 2 21 5 Step I. To eliminate x, operate (iv) - “(i) 3.8y + 0.&?
— u = 8.6 3.1y + 3.1z + 9.5a = 0,2 - 5.5y - 3.52 + 1.5« = 4 Check sum 12.2
15.9 -3.5 Step II. To eliminate y, operate |\ui) - |^(o) J, (vii) - (f) 2,44736842
+ 10.315789u = - 6.8157895 - 2.3421053 2 + 0.05263 15« = 16.447368 _ ..
. f,. , /-2.3421053V ' Step III. To eliminate z, uperate (tx) - [ 2 4473684 J
WM .4473684 9,9249319w = 9,9245977 ...(tit) ...(tu) *-.(») ..,(t ri) ...{viii)
Step IV. By back -substitution, we get u ~ 1, z = - 7, y - 4 and x = 5. (2)
Gauss-Jordan method4. This is a modification of the Gauss elimination
method. In this method, elimination of unknowns is performed not in the
equations below but in the equations above also, ultimately reducing the
system to a diagonal matrix form Le,, each equation involving only one
unknown. From these equations the unknowns x. y, z con be obtained
readily. Thus in this method, the labour of back-substitution for finding the
unknowns is saved at the cost of additional calculations. “See footnote p.
37.
932 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 28. 15. Apply
Gauss- Jar dan method to solve the equations x +y ±z = 9 ; 2x -3y + 4z - 13
; 3x + 4y + 5z - 40. Solution. We have x +y + z = 9 2x — 3> + 4z = 13 3x +
4y + 5z = 40 Step 1. Operate (it) — 2(f ) and (iii) — 3(r ) to eliminate x
from (it) and (Hi). x +y + a - 9 - 5y + 2z = - 5 y + 2z = 13 Step II. Operate
(iu) + ^ (u) and (ot) + ^ (u) to eliminate y from (tv) and (ui) : x+ ~z = 8 - 5;
y + 2z = — 5 fa, 12 D 7 5 Step in. Operate (oil) - — ( ix ) and (uiii) - — (ix)
to eliminate z from (fit) and (mi) : 12 a x = 1 - 5y , - 15 12 (V.T.U., 2009 ;
P.T.V., 2005 \ ■M) —(a) -Aiii) „.(/t>) Uv) ..Avi) ...(uix) ...(mi) ..Aix) z = 12
Hence the solution is x = 1, y = 3, z — 5. Otherwise : Rewriting the
equations as Operate J?2 Rs - 3RV Operate R3 + — R2, 5 1 1 2 — 3 3 4
Operate - /?„, 5R, Operate R2 + -J?3, —Rs Operate R 2 5 * Operate Ri-Ri-
Rs Hence, x = lry = 3, z - 5. 1 1 1 0-5 2 0 12 1 1 -5 2 0 12/5 1 1 1 0 5-2 0 0
12 1 1 1 0 5 0 0 0 1 1 1 1' 0 10 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 1 9 13 40 9' -5 13 9' - 5
12 9 5 60 ' 9' 15 5 9 3 *J luJ Ohs. Here the process of elimination of
variables amounts to reducing the given, coefficient metric to a diagonal
matrix by elementary row transformations only.
Numerical Solution Of Equations 933 Example 28.16. Solve the
equations of example 28.14, by Gauss -Jordan method. Solution. We have
10x - 7y + 3? + 5u = 6 - 6x + 8y — z - 4u = 5 3x + y + 4z + llu = 2 ...(fit) 5x
— 9y - 2z + 4u = 7 .Mv) Step I. To eliminate x, operate j\i£) - (^j (i) J . ) - ]
= lOx - 15.698923u = 34.301075 3.8y - 4. 3 7 204 29 u = 10.827957
2.4473684? + 10.315789u = - 6.8157895 9.9247309U = 9.9245975 Step IV.
From the last equation u = 1 nearly. Substitution of u = 1 in the above three
equations gives x = 5, y = 4, z - - 7. —
MlKHE.FI EnGIHEESING MATHEMATICS Then (1) becomes
Writing (3) becomes LUX=B UX= V, LV = B which is equivalent to the
equations Ut = ’ <21U1 +tlz=^' <31^1 + <31^2 + ^3 = Solving these for t>
,, v2, u3, we know V. Then, (4) becomes «u*| + “1^2 + “lS*3 = V\ j U22*2
+ “2^3 = V2 = U33*3 = y3> from which xA, x2 and x, can be found by
back-substitution. To compute the matrices L and U, we write (2) as 1 ...(3)
...(4) 4i _<3i 0 1 (32 "11 0 0 “*2 “22 0 U13 “23 U33j L°31 °hi “21 °12 “22
°32 “13 °23 °33 Multiplying the matrices on the left and equating
corresponding elements from both sides, we obtain O') «lt = V U12 ~ °12*
“l3 (0) f21«lt = °21 nr <21 = a2/°n <31° 11 = “31 or <31 = a»/ai 1 iiii)l21un
+ ue2 = a 22 or °21 U22 “ a22 *ni °12 <21U13 + U23 = a23 or °21 "23 “
a23 - a °ll a13 0u>/3iu12 + <33W22 — °32 or <32 ~ “ aS2 ~ “22 L °3) “ll
(v) ls jl/|3 + <33U23 + U33 = Q33 which gives uXr ~ a 13 Thus we
compute the elements of L and U in the following set order (i) First row of
U, Hi) First column of L, (Hi) Second row of U, {in) Second column of L,
(o) Third row of U. This procedure can easily be generalised. Ohsu This
method is superior bo Gauss elimination method and is often used for the
solution of linear systems and for rinding the inverse of a matrix. Among t
he direct methods. Factorization method is also preferred as the software for
computers. Example 28. 1 1. Apply factorization method to solve the
equations : 3x + 2y + 7z = 4 ; 2x + 3y + z - 5 ; + 4y + z = 7. ( Madras .
2(K>0 S) Solution, ‘ 1 0 0 “ll «12 “13 '3 2 7 " Let <21 1 0 i 0 “22 U23 =*T
2 3 1 .<31 <32 1 : 0 0 °33. 3 4 1 so that (i) ult = 3, u l9= 2, 12 (it) = 2, <3l“ll
~ 3* 0«) /.,,w12 + »22 = 3, <2l“l3 + U23 = (tl.1) 1 21**1 2 + <32U22 =
(i.1) + ^32u23 + u33 “33 “l3=7‘ f21 = 2/3 <31 = !■ u 22 = 5/3, u23 - - 1
1/3. ^32 = 6/5. = 1 = -8/5 A = 1 0 0] 3 2 7' 2/3 1 0 0 5/3 -11/3 1 6/5 1 0 0
-8/5 (ie. A), Thus
NlwefltCAL SotuT(ON O Equations Writing UX = V, the given
system becomes Solving this system, we have = 4, 2 _ -Oj + 5 1 2/3 1 0 1
6/5 ui+ 5V2 + VZ=7 or ur 7 V,i ~ 3 c, = i 3 5 Hence the original system
becomes '3 2 5/3 □ 7 -11/3 -8/5 X ' 4 “ y 7/3 z 1/5 i.e.t 3* + 2y + 7z = 4 ; |y
- = | ; - g* = | 8 1 5 2 By back-substitution, we have z = - 1/8, y = 9/8 and x
= 7/8. Example 28.1 H. Salve the equations of Example 28.14 by
factorization method. Solution. Let * r i o « « 23 74 - "S T 'l ”«7 so that " 1
0 0 0" ’“11 “l2 “)3 “13* ' 10 -7 3 5' 4j 1 0 0 0 U22 U23 ^24 — 6 8 -1 -4 4i
4st 1 0 0 0 u33 US4 3 1 4 11 k U'i. Us 1 _ 0 0 0 “44 j 5 -9 - 2 4 10, “l3 ~ -7.
U13 — 3, “l4 = 5 (if) C, of L : /2t = - 0.6, /31 = 0.3, /4l = 0.5 («i) of U : lijj -
3.8, «23 = 0.8, u24 = - 1 (fo) C2 of L : /32 - 0.81579, lVi = - 1.44737 (u) of
U : u33 - 2.44737. m34 - 10.31579 (ei) C3 of £.:/43 = - 0.95699 (ini) B4 of
U : u(1 = 9.92474 Thus A = 1 -0.6 0.3 0.5 0 1 0.81579 0 0 1 1.44737 -
0.95699 Writing UX = V, the given system becomes 10 0 - 0.6 1 0 0.3
0.81579 1 0.5 - 1.44737 - 0.95699 10 0 0 0 -7 3.8 0 0 3 0.8 2.44737 0 5 - 1
10.31579 9.92474 ’6 5 US 2 _ -L'4. 7 Solving this system, we get yi = 6, u2
= 8.6, l>3 = - 6.81579, e4 = 9,92474. Hence the original system becomes 10
- 7 3 5 X 6 0 3.8 0,8 - 1 y 8.6 0 0 2.44737 10.31579 z - 6.81579 0 0 0
9.92474 u 9.92474 i.e. , lOx - 7y + 3z + 5k = 6, 3.8y + 0.8z - u = 8.6,
2.44737* + 10.31579k = - 6.81579, u- 1. By back -substitution, we get u - 1
, z = — 7* y = 4, x = 5.
936 Higher Engineering MathematicsPROBLEMS 26.3 Solve the
Hit lowing equations by Gauss elimination method ; 1. 2i + y + 1 - 10 ; 3x +
2y + 3? = 18 : X + 4y + 9? = 16. 2. 2x + 2y + z - 12 ; 3x +• 2y i 2z - 8 ; 5* +
10 y - 8? = 10. 3. 2K-.y' + 3? = 9;x*jy4-^ = 6;i-iy + R=2, ■1. iir, + -lxs + xa
= 3 ; 3a:, + 2jr3 *- 2x3 = — 2 ; x, - x.t + x3 = 6. Jj. 5x, +■ x5 + x3 -t- xt = 4
i + ac3 + x4 = 12 ; *1 +' x2 + 6*a + JC* = - B ; xt + xs + x3 + 4x4 = -6.
Solve the following equations by Gauss Jordan me Iliad ; 8. 2x + 5y + ?z -
52 ; 2x +„y - z = 0 ; * + y 4 z - 9, 7, 2x - 3y + z r - l ; * + 4y + 5x = 26 ; 3x -
4y + 3 = 2. 8. x + 3y +■ 3z = IS \z + 4y + 3z = 18 ; x + 3y + 4z = 19, fl. 2x
+ y + z = 10 ; 3* ■*- 2,y + 3z = 18 ; x + 4 y + 92 - 16. 10. 2x, + Xg + 5x3 +
x4 = C ; Xj + xa — 3x3 + 4x4 = — J ; 3.t, + Sxa - 2x3 + x4 = 8 ; 2x, + 2x2
+ 2x3 - 3x4 = 2, Solve the following equations by factorization method : 1
1. lOx +y + z= 12 ; 2.r + IQy + z = 13 ; 2x + 2y + l(k = 14. 12. x + 2y + 3z
= 14 ; 2r + 3y + 4z = 20 ; 3x + 4y + z = 14. 13. 2x + % +■ z = 9 ; x + 2y +
3z - 6 ; 3* + y + 2z = 8. 14- 2X| — Xj, + x3 - - 1 ; 2xj, — xa + x4 = 1 ; xx +
2x3 - xf = — 1 ; x, + x2 + 2jc4 =s 6. 15. Find the inverse of the matrix 1 - 1
l I -2 4 J 2 2 by Grout’s method. {P-T.IL, 2006 > (W.B.TU., 2004) (Bhopal.
2009 > ( Maralftutada , 2009 1 (VT.U.. 2010) (Kerala, 2003 1 (Anna, 2006
1 (V.T.IL 2008) (Andhra, 2004 ; P.T.U.. 2003 ) 28.7 ITERATIVE
METHODS OF SOLUTION The preceding methods of solving
simultaneous linear equations are known as direct methods as they yield
exact solutions. On the other hand, an iterative method is that in which we
start from an approximation to the true solution and obtain better and better
approximations from a computation cycle repeated as often as may he
necessary for achieving a desired accuracy. Simple iteration methods can be
devised for systems in which the coefficients of the leading diagonal are
large compared to others. We now explain three such methods : (1) Jacobi’s
iteration method*. Consider the equations OjX + 6,y + cxz = ef, ajX + b2y
+ caz = d2 ■ W + l^y + c3z = (£, If av b2, c3 are large as compared to other
coefficients, then solving these for x, y, z respectively, the system can be
written in the form x = A, - {y - m^z y = h 2 — fjX — ffl3Z / /n\ z^k3-l3x-
nhy\ Let us start with the initial approximations x0, y0, z0 (each - 0) for the
values of x,y, z. Substituting these on the right, we get the first
approximations x, = At,yj = k,ltz , = k3. Substituting these on the right-hand
sides of (2), the second approximations are given by x2~ki-tiyl-m1zl “ ^2
— ^2^1 ” z2 = k3- Z3xl - m3y1 This process is repeated till the difference
between two consecutive approximations is negligible. *5ue footnote p.
215.
Numefucw Solution Of Equations 937 Example ~8. ! R, Solve by
Jacobi's iteration method , the equations Wx+y-z = 1 1-19 , x + lOy + z - 28
08, x + y + lOz = 55.67, correct to two decimal places. {Anna. 2007)
Solution. Rewriting the given equations as x — JL (11.19 -31 + z),y = -L
{28.08 —x - z),z - ^L (35.61 + x -„y) We start from an approximation, *0 =
>c = 2o = 0. First iteration Second iteration *1 = Third iteration LL1£ = 1
H9 v = 28,08 10 10 x3= ^(11.19 -^+^>=1.19 y9 = JL(28.08-x, -z.) = 2.24 2,
= — (35,61 + jt, — — 3.39 2 10 11 x- = — (11.19 -y2 + xJ ~ 1.22 d IQ * £
& 2.808, z, - ~ 3.561 *3 = —(28.03 —x0 — z9) — 2.35 10 Fourth iteration
Fifth iteration z, = _L (35.6 1 + -y.) - 3.45 J 10 £ £ ^=X(11.19-y3+z3)=1.23
.V4 = ^L (28.03 — x3 — z3) = 2.34 z4 = -L (35.61 + x3 —y3) = 3.45 *5 =
^ (11.19 -j-4 + z4)= 1,23 y5= -L (28.08 -x4-z4) = 2.34 z&= _L (35.61 + x4 -
jk4) “ 3.45 Hence x = 1.23, y = 2.34, z = 3.45. Example 28.20. Solve, by
Jacobi’s iteration method, the equations 20x + y -2z = 1 7 ; 3x + 20y - z = -
18 } 2x - 3y + 20z = 25. Solution. We write the given equations in the form
x=±
938 Higher Engineering Mathematics y9 = -L (- 18 - 3*. + zj = -
0.965 ^ 20 11 = _L <25 - 2*. + 3v J = 1.1515 z 20 Substituting these values
in the right sides of the equations (i ), we have *3= JL <17 -y2 + 2z2) =
1.0134 y- = JL (- 18 - Bx9 + z J = - 0.9954 3 20 2 2 za ~ -L <25 - 2x2 + 3
y2) = 1.0032 20 Substituting these values, we get x*='kai~y^2z^ = 10009
>4=^(- 18 — 3x3 + z3J = - 1.0018 z . = J- (25 - 2*, + 3yJ = 0.9993 4 2Q 3 -
'S' Putting these values, we have jc = JL <17 -y. + 2z4) - 1.0000 5 20 -M 4
y, = -L (- 18 - 3x 4 + z J = - 1.0002 B 20 4 4 2, = JL (25 - 2x. + 3yJ =
0.9996 5 20 4 4 Again substituting these values, we get x6=±(i7-y6 +
2z6y~i.o(m y6 = JL (- is - 3*6 + *s) = - 1.0000 *6= ^ (25 -2zB + 3y5) =
1.0000 The values in the 5th and Gth iterations being practically the same,
we can stop. Hence the solution is x = l.y = — 1, z = 1, (2) Gauss -Seidel
iteration method*- This is a modification of the Jacobi's iteration method.
As before, we start with initial approximations *0,y0, pleach - 0) forx, y,z
respectively. Substitutingy = y0, z = z0 in the first of the equations {2) on
page 837, we get xi “ Then putting x = xlw z = z0 in the second of the
equations (2) on page 837, we have y\ = ^2 ~ ^2*1 ” ^2^0 Next substituting
x - xiTy =y1 in the third of the equations 12) on page 837, we obtain = A3
— t^c L — and so on, i.e.t as soon as new approximation for an unknown is
Found , it is immediately used in the next step. This process of iteration is
continued ti ll converge nc y to the desired degree of accuracy is obtained,
i.M.kv i. Since the most recent approximation of the unknowns are used
while proceeding to the next step, the convergence In the Gauss-Seidet
method is faster than in Jacobi's method. Otte i. Gauss -SediaJ method
converges if in each equation, the absolute value of the largest coefficient is
greater than the sum of the absolute values of the remaining coefficients.
*See footnote p. 37. After Philipp Ludwig Von Seidel (lS21-18fMi) who
also suggested a similar method
Numerical Solution Of Equations 939 Example 28.21, Apply
Gauss-Seidel iteration method to solve the equations of Ex. 28.20. (V.T.U.,
2011 ; Rohtak, 2005 ; Madras. 2003) Solution. We write the given equation
in the form _ 1 x — ^-U7-y + 2z);y = ^ (- 18 - 3x + z) ; * = X<25-2x + 3y)
20 20 .
940 Highs n Engineering Mathematics Second iteration Putting
x2 = 1.56, x3 - 2.886, x4~- 0.1368 in (i), we obtain x, = 0.8869 Putting x1 =
0-8869, xg = 2.886, x4 ‘ - 0.1368 in (it), we obtain x2 = 1.9523 Putting jc-j
— 0.8869, x2 = 1.9523, x4 — - 0, 1368 in (Hi), we have x3 = 2.9566
Putting jfl = 0.8869, x2 = 1.9523, x3 = 2.9566 in (iu), we get xA- 0.0248.
Third iteration Putting x2 - 1.9523, x3 = 2.9566, xA-~ 0.0248 in (0, we
obtain xl = 0.9836 Putting = 0.9836, x3 = 2.9566, x4 = — 0.0248 in (ii), we
obtain jf2 = 1.9899 Putting xt = 0.9836, x2 - 1.9899, x4 - — 0.0248 in (Hi),
we get x3 = 2.9924 Putting xt = 0.9836, Xj = 1.9899, x3 = 2.9924 in (iu),
we get x4 = - 0.0042. Fourth iteration. Proceeding as above Xj = 0.9968,
Xy = 1.9982, x3 = 2.9987, x4 = — 0.0008. Fifth iteration is Xj _ 0.9994, x2
= 1.9997, x3 = 2.9997, x4 = — 0.0001, Sixth iteration is Xj - 0.9999, x2 =
1-9999, x3 = 2.9999, x4 = — 0.0001. licncc the solution is Xj = 1, x2 = 2,
x3 = 3, x4 = 0. (3) Relaxation method*. Consider the equations ap + b1y +
c1z = dl;a2x + b2y + c2z = d2;asx + bliy + c3z = d3 We define the residuals
i?r, J?yf R, by the relations Iix - dA — OjX — b^y — CjZ ; H = d2 — a2x
— b2y — c2z ; = rf3 - a3x - b3y -c3z ...(1) To start with we assume x =y =
z = 0 and calculate the initial residuals. Then the residuals are reduced step
by step by giving increments to the variables. For this purpose, we construct
the following opera (ion table: 6/?, fiKv fix = 1 -“2 6y = 1 ~b3 fie = 1 -*i
~c* ~C3 We note from the equations (1) that if x is increased by 1
(keepingy and z constant), Rx, Ry and Rz decrease by u)t a2, a.,
respectively. This is shown in the above table alongwith the effects on the
residuals wheny and z are given unit increments. (The table is the transpose
of the coefficient matrix). At each step, the numerically largest residual is
reduced to almost zero. To reduce a particular residual, the value of the
corresponding variable is changed ; e.g., to reduce by p, x should be
increased by p/ay When all the residuals have been reduced to almost zero,
the increments in x,y, z are added separately to give the desired solution.
(Hi's. As a check, the computed values of x, y, z are substituted in (1) and
the residuals are calculated. If these residuals are not alt negligible, then
there is some mistake and the entire process should be rechecked. Example
28.23. Solve, by Relaxation method , the equations : 9x -2y + 2 = 50, x + 5y
-* 3z — 18, - 2x + 2y + 7z — 19. ( Madras, 2000 S ) *This method was
originally developed by fi,V. Southwell in 1935, for application to structural
engineering problems.
941 Numerical Solution Of Equations Solution. The residuals are
given by RJ = 50 - 9x + 2y - z ; Ry - 18 - x - 5y + 3z ; Rz The operations
table is 19 + 2x - 2y - lz mr ] Sr =• 1 -9 - 1 2 5y = 1 2 -5 -2 & = 1 - 1 3 -7
The relaxation table is ■■n 1 % x — y — s =0 50 ■18 19 .40 Sr =6 5 13 29
UU) & = 4 1 25 1 Uiii) 6y =5 11 0 — 9 ...( iv ) fix w I 2 - 1 -7 „.(tr) fie =—
1 3 -4 0 ...(hi) 6y = -0.8 1.4 0 1.6 ..,(nii) Sr = 0.23 1.17 0.69 -.09 ...(iriii) 5*
= 0.13 0 0.56 0.17 ...(ix) fiy w 0.112 0.224 0 - 0.0D4 ...Of) I&c = 6.13, Ifiy
= 4.31, I& = 3.23 Thus x = 6.13, y = 4.31, z - 3.23, [Explanation. !n (i). the
largest residua) is 50. To reduce it, we give an increment dr = 5 and the
resulting residuals are shown in («). Of these = 29 is the largest and we
given an increment Sr = 4 to get the results in (irr >. In (ui), ft = — 4 is the
(numerically) largest and we give an increment fty = -4/5 = - 0.8 to obtain
the results in (uni), Similarly the other steps have been carried out.]
Example 28.24. Solve fey Relaxation method, the equations ; I Ox -2y-3z -
205 ; - 2x + IOy - 2z = 154 ;-2x~ y + IOz = 120.(V.T. U„ 2011 S ; Rohtak,
2005) Solution. The residuals are given by Rx ~ 205 - 10* + 2y + 3a ; Ry =
154 + 2jc - 30y + 2z ; Rg = 120 + 2x + y - ID*. The operations table is 6^ m
m. &r= 1 -10 2 2 fey - 1 2 -10 - 1 & - i 3 2 - 10 The relaxation table is : R>
x =y -z =0 205 154 120 fir = 20 5 194 160 5y= 19 43 4 179 & = 18 97 40 -
1 fir = 10 -3 60 19 fiy = 6 9 0 25 fie = 2 15 4 6 fir = 2 -5 6 9 fir= 1 -2 ID -1
6y = 1 0 0 0 I&c = 32, ly 26, Yz = 21. Hence x = 32, y = 26, z = 21.
942 Higher Engineering Mathematics PROBLEMS 28.4 |. Solve
by Jacobi's method, the equations : 5* - y + z - 10 ; 2x + 4y = 1.2 ; x + y +
5? = - 1 Start with the solution 12, 3, 0). 2. Solve the equations 27x +
%-2=8S;*H-y + 54* = 110 ; fir + 15y 2z = 72, by to J Jacobi's method (b)
Gauss -Seidel method. (Anna, 200b') Solve the following equations by
Gauss-Seidel method : 3, 2v + y + 6* = 9 ; Sr + 3y + 2z - L3 ; x + by + z -
7. j. 28x + 4y - s = 32 x + 3y + 10? = 24 ; 2x + 17> + 4 z = 35. (Mumbai,
2009) 5, 10* 4y + z = 12 ; U + % 4 i *'13 ; 2x +%+ 10b = 104. iV.T.U .
MCA , 2W7> 0, 83* + lly - 4? = 95 ; 7* + 62y + 13? = 104 ; 3* + 8y + 29?
= 7 1 . ( Huzonbagk, 2009) 7. 3x, -O.Lrj.-O.2x3 = 7 .85 ; O.Uj + 7x, - 0.3xg
= - 19.3 ; O.&oj - 0.2*, + 10xg = 71.4 (Mumbai, 2004) 1.2x + 2.1y + 4.2s =
9.9 ; 5-3* 4 61y + 4.7a = 21,6 : 9,2* + 8.3y +s - 15.2. 2-1 0 O' X ro' -1 2-1 0
y 0 0-1 2-1 2 0 0 0-1 2 U 5 Solve by Relaxation, method, the following sets
of equations : 10. 3* + 9y - 2z = 1 1 ; 4* + 2y + i3z - 24 ; 4x - 4y + 3z - - 8.
(Bhopal, 2002) 11. 10* - 2y - 2* = 6 ; - * 4 l$y - 2* = 7 ; - * - _y + 10* = 8.
12. - 9* 4 3y + 4z + 100 = 0 ; x - 7y + 3* + 80 - 0 ; 2x 4 3y - 5* 4 60 = 0.
13. 54* + y + z = 110 ; 2* + 15y + 6z = 72;— *4-&y4 27? = 85. tBhopal,
2003) 28.8 SOLUTION OF NON-LINEAR SIMULTANEOUS
EQUATIONS— NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD Consider the equations
flx.y) = Q,g(x,y) = 0 ...(1) If an ini tial approximation (x0, y0) to a solution
has been found by graphical method or otherwise, then a better
approximation (jC],.Vj) can be obtained as follows : Let Xj = x0 + ft,y, = y0
4 ft, so that/
943 Numerical SoumoN Of Equations the better approximation to
the root is Xi = x0 + A = 3.5855, y, = ya + k = - 1.8485 Repeating the above
process, replacing (x0, by {x,, y^), we obtain x2 = 3.5844, y2 = - 1.8482,
PROBLEMS 28.5 1. Solve the equations x- 4 y = 5 : ya-4 x = 3. 2. Solve
the non -linear equations x - £(y +1), y* - 3xy - 7 correct to three decimals,
3. Use Newton- Rapiison method to solve the equations x = x* + y2ty ~x*
—y* correcr to Iwn decimals, starting with the approximation (0.8, 0.4i. h
Solve the non linear equations x2 - y3 4, + y 2 = 16 numerically with x0 =
yQ - 2.828 using N.R, method, Carry ou L two iterations { V T, U.r MCA,
200%) fi. Solve the equalions 2x 2 + 3aey + y* = 3 i + 2xy + y1 = 30,
CorrecL to three decimal places, using Newton -H&phacm methods given
that xa - - 3* and yQ - 2, 28.9 DETERMINATION OF EIGEN VALUES
BY ITERATION In § 2. 14, we came across equations of the type (ti21 —
Xjjfj + ..,(2) °n - A aiz rai3 a21 a22 ~ ^ %3 a31 a32 a33 “ This gives a cubic
in X whose roots are eigen values of (2) and corresponding to each eigen
value, we have a non-zero solution X = lx,, x2, x,J which is called an eigen
vector. Such an equation can ordinarily be solved easily, In some
applications, it is required to compute the numerically largest eigen value
and the corresponding eigen vector. In such cases, the following iterative
method is more convenient which is also well-suited for computing
machines. If X,, X.,t X3 be the eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen
values A,, L,, ^g, then an arbitrary column vector can be written as X = klXl
+ hfX2 + A;irX3 Then AX = A, AX, + kÂX2 + kÂX.^ = A^X, + k2XJC2
+ A3XjX3 Similarly A2X = klXfXl + A2A|X2 + A3A=Xg and A'X = k x X,
+ k2\ pC2 + AgX£X3 If | j > | Xjj | > | Xg | , then the contri bution of the
term A , A[X: to the sum on the right increases with r and therefore, every
time we multiply a column vector by A, it becomes nearer to the eigen
vector X,. Then we make the largest component of the resulting column
vector unity to avoid the factor A,. Thus we start with a column vector X
which is as near the solution as possible and evaluate AX which is written
as kU] X1' after normalisation. This gives the first approximation X Jt to
the eigen value and X1} to eigen vector. Similarly we evaluate AX*n - XiSi
X 2> which gives the second approximation. We repeat this process till \Xri
- Xfr iJ] becomes negligible. Then A(r) will be the largest eigen value of (I)
and X™, the corresponding eigen vector. This iterative procedure for
finding the dominant eigen value of a matrix is known as Rayleigh’s power
method. * * After the English mathematician and physicist John William
Strut known as Lord Rayleigh (1842-1319) who made important
contributions tn the theory of waves, elasticity and hydrodynamics. He was
professor at Cambridge and London.
944 Higher Eng weering Mathematics Example 28.26. Determine
the largest eigen value and the corresponding eigen vector of the matrices
using the power method : 2 - 1 01 t] m a = - J 2-1 0-1 2 (V.T.U., 2007 ) A
beX = Solution, (l) Let the initial approximation to the eigen vector
corresponding to the largest eigen value of 1 0 Then AX = rfi 4" ’1-5 1 " 1 2
krL1 0.2 = So the first approximation to the eigen value is Xn) = 5 and the
corresponding eigen vector is X11 = ^q\>J • Now AXX> = 5 4 1 2 [o*2]=
[?:!] =6-8 [0.^1]=^'^ Thus the second approximation to the eigen-value is
X1 2i - 5.8 and the corresponding eigen-vector is X2) = 0.241 , repeating
the above process, we get Now AX2) = [-] [o.241 = 5.966 j" AX3,= 1 I? S]
[o.249_ = 5.994 J AX4J - j PS] [ 0.250 = 5.999 [" AXGl = PS] [0.25] = 6
[0.25] r 1 ' | 0.248 = Xia>X3) Clearly X(5) = Xf6- and XSJ = XG> upto 3
decimal places. Hence the largest eigen-value is 6 and the eorre1 sponding
eigen vector is 0.25 (ii) Let the initial approximation to the required eigen
vector beX = 11, 0, 0}'. Then AX 2-1 O' -1 2 -1 0-1 2 “ T 2 1 0 = -1 = 2 -0.5
0 0 0 = X<1>X1>. So the first approximation to the eigen value is Xa* = 2
and the corresponding eigen vector X1J= [1, -0.5, oy. '2-1 O' -1 2-1 0-1 2
Repeating the above process, we get = X<4,X4> Hence AX» = 1' -0.5 2.5
-2 — 2,5 1 -0.8 0 0.5 0.2 = X(2)X2\ AX2) = 2.8 1 -1 = X<3>X3>;AX^ =
3.43 '0.87' -1 0.43 0.54 '0.80' '0.76' 0.74' AX41 = 3.41 -1 0.61 = X X61 ;
AX5) = 3.41 -1 0.65 = Xt6t X6} ; AX6) = 3.4 1 -1 0.67 = Xt7>X7J Clearly
X<6) = X<7i and X6> = X11'1 approximately. Hence the largest eigen
value is 3.41 and the corresponding eigen vector is [0.74, - 1, 0.67]'.
NuwtftJCAL Solution Of Eouatiows PROBLEMS 28.6 1- Find

by power method, the larger eigen- value of the matrices ; fl 2] (o) [3 4J
(Anna,2005) (6) 4 1 1 3 2. Obtain the largest eigenvalue and the
corresponding eigen-vector for the equations (2 - iUsfj ~x.2 = 0 ; - Jtj + (2 -
Xbc2 = 0 ; -jr? + (2 -Xlur3 = 0 by Rayleigh Quotient method. 3. Find the
dominant eigen value and the corresponding eigen vector of the following
matrices using ihe power method : (a) la) 4 1-1 6 -2 2 2 3-1 iV.T.U.,2011)
ibi -2 3-1 -21 6j [2-13 4. Find the largest eigen-v&lue and the
corresponding eigenvector of the matrices : 1-3 2] 25 1 2 4 4 — 1 1 (Anna,
2005) l/>) 13 0 6 3 5 2 0-4 it) 13-1 3 2 4 - 1 4 10 with initial approxi motion
11. 1,01' iV.T.U.,2QUS) {V.T.ll, 2008) (Madras, 2006) 28,10 OBJECTIVE
TYPE OF QUESTIONS PROBLEMS 26.7 Fill up the blanks or select ihe
correct answer to each of the fallowing problems : I Out of Regula-falei
method and Newton-Rephaon method, the rate of convergence is faster for .
. 2. If xn is the nth iterate, then the Newton-Raph&on formula is * . 3. In
the Reguta-f&lsi method of finding the real root of an equation, the curve
AS is replaced by . 4. Newton’s iterative formula to find the value of is . 5.
Newtondi&phson formula converges when „*.,*„* * In solving
simultaneous equations by Gauss -Jordan method, the coefficient matrix is
reduced to . matrix, 7. In the ease of bisection method, the convergence is
(a) Linear lb) quadratic (c) very slow. 8. The order of converge nee in
Newton-Raphson method is la) 2 mS (e) 0 id) none. 9. The Newton-
Raphaon algorithm for finding tile cube root oT N is ID. The bisection
method for finding the root of an equation fix) = 0 ifi . 1L Ln Regula-falsi
method, the first approximation is given by . . 12. The order of convergence
in Newton -Raphson- method is (a) 2 tb) 3 Ic) 0 Id) none. 13. The iterative
formula for finding the reciprocal of N is xn ^ t . 14. As soon us a new value
of a variable is found by iteration, it is used immediately in the following
equations, this method as called (a) Gauss-Jordsm method (6) Gauss-SeidaJ
method (c.) Jacob V& method id) Relaxation method. 16. Out of Regula-
falsi method; and Newton-Raphson method, the rate of convergence is
faster for . . Ifi. The difference between direct and iterative methods of
solving simultaneous linear equations is . . „ . 17. To which form the
coefficient matrix is transformed when AX = B is solved by Gauss
elimination method. 15. Jacobi* 1* iteration method can be used to solve a
system of nond inear equations, (True or FaUc i 19, The convergence in the
Gau-ss-Seidal method is thrice a* fast as in Jacobi's method. 2D. By Gauss
elimination method, solve x + y = 2 and 2 x ± 3y = 5. (Annar 20071
Finite Differences and Interpolation | t. Finite differences, 2.
Differences of a polynomial, 3. Factorial notation 4. Relations between the
operators. 5. To ^ . find one or more missing terms. 6. Newton’s
interpolation formulae. 7. Central difference interpolation formulae — J
Gauss's interpolation formulae ; Stirling's formula ; Bessel’s formula ;
Everett’s formula. 8. Choice of an interpolation ! formula. 9. Interpolation
with unequal intervals. 10. Lagrange’s formula 11. Divided differences. 12.
Newton's ] divided difference formula. 13. Inverse interpolation. 14.
Objective Type of Questions. 29.1 FINITE DIFFERENCES Suppose we are
give a the Following values of y = fix) for a set of values of x : x : xtk X, *2
- ^ >r= y I Then the process of finding the values of y corresponding to any
value of x = xf between xn and xn is called interpolation ■, Thus
interpolation in the technique of estimating the value of a function for any
intermediate value of the independent variable while the process of
computing the value of the function outside the given range is called
extrapolation. The study of the interpolation is based on the concept of
differences of a function which we proceed to discuss. For a detailed study,
the reader should refer to author’s hook ' Numerical Methods in
Engineering and Science*. Suppose that the function y - f (x) is tabulated
for the equally spaced values x - x xv 4- ht ■+ 2ft, *.+1 X0 + nh giving y
=y^ylty2 . To determine the values affix) or fix) for some intermediate
values ofx, the following three types of differences are found useful : (I)
Forward differences. The differences y} - y0, y2 - yv yn —yn _ L when
denoted by AyE)1 Aylf ...f A; -vw 1 respectively are called the first forward
differences where A is the forward difference operator . Thus the first
forward differences are Ayr =yr+ } -,yr. Simllarlyp the second forward
differences are defined by &yr-tyr+1-&yr la general, N'yr - N1 ~l yr+l - A"
_1 yr defines the pth forward differences. These differences are
systematically set out as follows in what is called a Forward Difference
Table. In a difference table, x is called the argument and y the function or
the entry y0, the first entry is called the leading term and Ay0> A^0, A:iyQ
etc, arc called the leading differences. Ob«, Any higher ardnr forward
difference can be eoprosstid in terms of the entries . We ! lavt - Av, - Ay() -
(y3 - y , ) - i.y , -y0) = >'2 - r + >0 = ' , + y0) = - 3>s + 3y , -_VD =■ A'\ = -
%3 + 3>'a-yi' - ty, J 3.Vs + 3.V1 -ô' = >'« - 1.va + % - 'J>', 4 y0 The
coefficients occurring on the right hand side being the binomial coefficient,
we have in general, A"^ = yn - ni j yH , + ”c2yn _a - ... + t- \ T y0 946
947 F?ni*e Differences awo Interpcuation Forward Difference

Table Value of x Value of > 1st. diff. 2nd diff . 3rd diff. 4fA th/7: 5th diff. xa
70 Ay* *v + a yt A7i A3.Vo *o + 2A y2 Aiy1 AV3 AHyi xa + 3 A y% Aya
A’VS *o + 4A y* Ay* *u + 5A y5 Aô AS'i (2) Backward differences* The
differences yx -y0,y2—yv »,yn ~yn { when denoted by Vyp Vy2r Vyn
respectively * are called the first backward difference# where V is the
backward difference operator \ Similarly we define higher order backward
differences. Thus we have Vyr = yr -yr- 1 • y2yr = Vy* - vyf _ i» Va>r =
V^»r- , etc. The differences are exhibited in the following : Backward!
Difference Table Vu/iir of * Value of y ffflt, diff. *0 y0 V-Vj a;* + A >i Vy,
xc + 2h >2 %a *o + 3 A y« vy* *0 + JA y* VvG x0 + 5A y* 2nd diff. VV*
3rd diff V% V;J.v4 (/;//: 5tA c/t/r ^y5 (3) Central differences. Sometimes it
is convenient to employ another system of differences known as cent rat
differences. In this system, the centrul difference operator 5 is defined, by
the relations : -y0 = -y% = *-.y« -y„~ i = $y« - 1/2 Similarly, higher order
central differences are defined as — 1/2 = %'s/2 — §Va/2 = 5^2* -I 62ya -
S^y, = and so on. These differences are shown in the following : Central
Difference Table Vd/r/t x Value ofy i?nf/ rfi/7: 3rd diff. 4th diff 5f A r/1/7:
% y& ^ ftyi SV, 63ysrc x0 + 2h ys S*y2 frlyvj x0 + 3ft ya «*y* fiya jc0 +
4ft y* + 5ft yB
948 Higher Engineering Mathematics We see from this table that
the central differences on the same horizontal line have the same suffix.
Also the diff erences of’ odd order are known only for half values of the
suffix and those of even order for only i ntegral values of the suffix. It is
often required to find the mean of adjacent values in the same column of
differences. Wc denote this mean by p. Thus nSy, - |%i/2 + &ya/2>’ - 2^1 +
e^2> etcOb*, The reader should n sin A| - - 4 sin2 A cos (2x + 2A ).
Example 29,2, Evaluate (i) AK [ 5x + 12 "| U“ +Sx + 16 J diff\ renvirig
being unify. {Mumbai, 2003 } {i.i ) A2 (abx) (fit) Ar'() l(x + 2)(x + 3)| l* +
2 x + 3 = ^2A{(* + 2Hx + 3)} "3A {{x + 3Hx + 4)} 1 1 1 _ 3 J _ 1 _ _ _ 1 _
l (x + 3)(x + 4) {x + 2)(x + 3)J | (x + 4) (x + 5) (x + 3)(x + 4)J
949 Finite Differences *no Interpolation 4 ] 6 _ 2 (5* + 16) ' (x +
2)(x+3)U + 4) + (x + 3)(x + 4)(x + 5) {x + 2)(x + 3)(x+ 4) (x +■ 5) (it )
Uub* } = a A where b\ c\ ..., V are new constant coefficients. Thus the first
differences of a polynomial of the nth degree is a polynomial of degree (n -
1). Similarly A^/Xx) = Al/X* + h) -f(x)} = Af(x + k) - Afix) - attAK* +
W4-1-*"- lJ + 6' Ox + hY‘-2-xn-2\ + ... + k'h = fm(cj - 1) AV- 2 + bV ~s +
cw x" + ... + |by (1 )) the second differences represent a polynomial of
degree { n - 2). Continuing this process, for the nth differences we get a
polynomial of degree zero t.e. A" fix) = an(n - 1 ){* - 2)... I . hn = an ! kn ...
(2) which is a constant. Hence the In + l}th and higher differences of a
polynomial of nth degree will be zero. Obs, The converse of this theorem is
also true t-e. tf the nth differences of tt function tabulated at equally spaced
intends are constant. the function is a polynomial of degree n. This fact is
important in numerical analysis as it enables us Lo approximate a function
by a polynomial of nth degree, if its nth order differences become nearly
constant Example 29-3. Evaluate Al0f( l - ax} (1 - bx>:) ( 1 - ex’) (1 - dx4)
]. Solution. A10f(l - ax) U - 6x2) (1 -cx3Xl -dx^l = A™\abcd x10 + { ) x9 +
( )x8 + ... + If AJ0 (x*) = 0 for n < 101 = abed A10 (x10) = abed (10 I). I
[bv (2) abovel 29.3 (1) FACTORIAL NOTATION A product of the form x(x
- 1} (x - 2}... (x - r + 1) is denoted by ]x|f and is called a factorial. In
particular [xl = x, [x|2 =x(x - 1) fxl3 - x(x - 1) (x — 2), etc. In general fx|" =
xfx - 1) (x - 2)..,(x — n + 1) In case, the interval of differencing is It. then
[x)" - xfx - h )(x — 2 h)...(x - n - lh ) which is called a Factorial polynomial
or function. The factorial notation is of special utility in the theory of finite
differences. It helps in finding the successive differences of a polynomial
directly by simple, rule of differentiation. The result of differencing [xf is
analogous to that of differentiating x? ,
950 HjGHEn Engineering Mathematics (2) To express a
polynomial in the factorial notation U) arrange the coefficients of the
powers of x in descending order, replacing missing powers by zeros : (if )
using detached coefficients divide by x. x - 1, x - 2, etc. successively. Obs.
Ever,' polynomial of degree n cun be expressed as a factorial polynomial of
the same degree and vice versa. Example 28.4. Express y = 2.r '* - 3x + 3x-
10 in a factorial natation and hence show that A?y - 12. ( Bhopal r, 200 7 ;
P.T.U., 2005 ) Solution. First method : Let y - A[x|n + 6|xF + C|x] + D.
Than I X3 2 X 2 -3 2 X 3 -1 2 2 - 1 tJ 11 — 4 3 2 3 = 6 2^ A Hence y =
2{x|3 + 3(x]2 + 21x1 - 10 Ay - 2 * 3[x]2 + 3 * 2|xj + 2 (fiy = 6* 2|x] + 6
A3y =12, which shows that the third differences ofy are constant, as they
should be. Oiis. The coefficient of the highest power of x remains
unchanged while transforming a polynomial to factorial notation. Second
method ( Direct method) : Let y = 2X3 - 3x2 + 3* - 10 - 2x(x - 1) (x - 2) +
Bx{x - 1) + Cx + D Putting x = G,-10 = D Putting x = 1, 2-3 + 3- 10 -C + D
C = “8-D = — 8 + 10 = 2 Putting x = 2, 16-12 + 6-10 = 2B + 2C + D B = i
(- 2C - D) = 4 (- 4 + 10) = 3. 2 2 Hence y = 2x (x - 1) (x - 2) + 3x(x - 1) +
2x - 10 = 2|x]3 + 3Jx]2 + 2[xl - 10 Ay = 2 * 3|xl2 + 3 x 2[xl + 2, iffy = 6k
2[x] + 6, A^y = 12. Example: 28.5. Find the missing values in the following
table : x : 4b SO 55 60 6S y: 3.0 — 2.0 — -2.4 i Bhopal 2007 : V.T.U.,
2001) Solution. Thu difference table is as follows ; X y Av A > 45 Lx II ip
>1-3 50 >1 2 ~>'i 5-2>, 3y, + >3 “ 9 55 >2 = 2 >3-2 >i+>3-4 3.6 - yt - 3 y3
60 -2.4-y, — 0.4 - 2y3 65 yA - - 2.4
Finite Diffehenc££ and Interpcxatoh 951 As on ly three entries
y0, y2,y4 are Riven, the function y can be represented by a second degree
polynomial. /, A^, = 0 and A^ = 0 Le.t 3yt +y3 = 9 ; y, + 3ya = 3.6 Solving
these, we gety, - 2.925, ya = 0.225. Otherwise : As only three entries yQ =
3, y2 - 2, y4 = - 2.4 are given, the function y can be represented by a second
degree polynomial. > o II Q and A3yj = 0 t.e.. (ft' — l)3 y0 = 0 and (E —
ll^yj = 0 (E:i - 3J?S + 3ft - l)yfl = 0 and 3 + 3>2 -y i = 0 Le. s ,V3 + 3y, - 9 ;
3ya +yt - 3-6 Solving these, we getyt = 2.925, y3 ~ 0.225. Example 29,6,
Assuming that the following valves ofy belong to a polynomial of degree 4.
compute the next three values : x : 0 12 3 4 5 6 7 y : 1 - 1 1 - 1 1 — — —
Solution. We construct the following difference table from the given data :
X y Ay A^y A V (1 3jq = 1 - 2 s> t *i = - 1 2 4 — 8 2 *a“ i - 2 — 4 8 16 3
y*=-1 2 4 *%. 16 4 y4 = i Ay4 A% a2)'3* 16 5 ■vB Ays a% 16 6 Av0 A*. 7
>7 Since the values of y belong to a polynomial of degree 4, the fourth
differences must be constant. But A4y = 16. .\ The other fourth order
differences must also be 16. Thus A4y! = 16 = AV2 i.e., A ay2 = Aay! +
A'S’j = 8 + 16 = 24 A2ya - Azy2 + A3y2 = 4 + 24 = 28 Ay4 = Aya + A2y3 =
2 + 28 ~ 30 and y5 = y4 + Ayt = 1 + 30 = 31 Similarly starting with A4y2 =
16, we get A3y3 = 40, A2y4 = 68, Ayfi = 98, y6 = 129. Starting with A4ya =
16, we obtain A3y4 = 56, A*y6 = 124, Ayfi = 222. y, - 351,
Higher Engineering Mathematics 2. 3. 4. 6. PROBLEMS 29.1

Construct the table of differences for the data below : jt : 0 1 2 3 4 fix) : 1.0
1.5 2.2 3.1 4 6 Evaluate Aa/r(2). If wu - 3, r. j - 12, u2 =18, h3 = 2000, a, =
100, calculate Au0. Show that A\v, = yt «. 3 - 3v, + , + + j - y(. Form the
table of backward differences of the function fix) = Xs — 3x2 — So: - 7 for
.r = -1,0, 1,2. 2. 4,5, Form a table of differences for the function fix} = Xs +
f5ar- 7 for jc * - 1, 0, 1, % 3, 4, 6 Continue the table to nblam f{ 6). Extend
the following table to two more terms on either side by constructing the
difference table : * : - ,2 0.0 y : 2,6 3.0 Show that 6. Evaluate life ^ A/]x) _
= fix) fix + 1) 0.2 ‘ 3.4 (Raipur, 2005) 0.4 4. 26 0.6 7.08 0.8 14.2 1.0 29.0 <
r> A ix ►. jc) («) A tan ■'m [t-S— ] U + 5x + 6j i if) A log fix) - log 1 1 +
(«f) A J - - - 1 1*) A2 Evaluate * U) Ale*1 log 2x ) {Madras, 200 I) iP.T.U ..
200/) (it) A(2Vjc 1) (tii) A"(u*) {Btirduun, 2003) (iv) A" Q) . 10. 1L 12. 13.
14. 15. 16. 17. m t Mumbai, 2003) if fix) + that its leading differences form
a geometric progression. Prove that (f ) JT, = y ., + Ay, + A% + A*y0 (if) =
yfl - 2y„ + y6 ; = y, - %5 + yv Evaluate : U) A3 in) A,0[(I - x) (1 - &r*) (1 -
3**) U - 4x4)l if the interval of differencing h 2 , Express _r8 - 2x2 + x -* l
into factorial polynomial. Hence uhow that A4 fix) = 0 iP.T. U>r 2001)
Erperesa u = X* — 12&3 + 24x2 - 3®x + 9 and its successive differences
in factorial notation. Hence show that &hi = 0* Kind the first and second
differences of jc* - da'1 + 11a? - 6be + 8 with A = 1. Show that the fourth
difference is constant. Obtain the function whose first difference is £,v3 + -
&t + 4, Find the first term of the series whose second and eubfiequent terms
srfe S, 3, ft, - !f 0. if i (i-1 and vix) be two functions of x, prove that itix) A
uix) - uix) Av(x) vix) vix + 1) fi) i \u{x) t'Cxil = uix) Ac(x) + vix + 1)
Au(x). IU} 29.4 (1) OTHER DIFFERENCE OPERATORS Wo have
already introduced the operators A, V and 5. Besides these, there are the
operators E and p, ■which we define below : U) Shift operator E is the
operation of increasing the argument x Ay h so that Efix) = fix + h\ E2 fix )
= fix + 2 ft), E* fix ) =/(* + 3A1 etc. The inverse operator E~l is defined by
E_i fix) = fix - h ) If yt is the function fix), then Eyx — yx + w =y,„A. Enyx
=yx + nh. where n may be any real number.
953 FINITE DIFFERENCES AND lNT£RPQLATlON (Li)
Averaging operator |i is defined by the equation j iyx = (yx + ^ Ohs- in the
difference calculus A and E are regarded as the fundamental operators and
Vh 5. m ^ expressed in terms of these. (2) Relations between the operators.
We shall now establish the following identities : (i) A = E - 1 (fi) V - 1 - E “
1 fm) 5 = E,/2 - E ‘ irL (iv) p = | (E1'2 + E‘ ,/2> Hu) 5 = £i* tin) (i>) Also
Hence (ui) W5* = + -v*-.v/2> - 1 tEV2yx + £ + £ " “)y« |i= i, « Ay, SE"2 =
A A = £V = V£ = 6 £f(x) = F A*> £ - eht> CflftL S^l + A^r^. ». D = “■ log
<1 + A) = ~(a - | AH + “A3 - ...) iBurdwtm. 20ft?) Note- A showing the
symbolic tvtations between the various operators is given below for ready
reference, To prone such relations between the operators r always express
each operator in terms of the fundamental operator E. (3) Relations between
the various operators hi term a of K A V 6 hD E A + 1 a + v) 1 t + |s2 + s^/a
+ s2/4j A E-l — 11 -V) *~1 |fi2 + Sâ + 62/4) M- 1 V 1 - E 1 i - a +rl - 1 —
- + b^l + 62/4) l-p w‘ £ Eh--E V2 Al l + A) L'2 va - vy — 2 sinh t/UQ/2) It
1 t£,/a + E V*) 2 (1 + A/2) (1 + A)"1'5 a + vm a + vrw l/(l+ 6E/41 cosh
fAD/2) fiD log£ log (1 + A) Kg (Hr1 2 siiih-3
954 Higher Ewjwtefw.Ui Mathematics Example 29.7. Prove that
the in ter oaf of differencing being h. [Bhopal, 2009 ) Solution. Since ^ A2^
E ex = A 2 ,E~ V = AV ~h = &2e* . e~ h - e~ h AV R.H.S. - e‘ 4aV .
ê~hEe>- =erf} . e*+h = e*. AV Example 29.8. Prune with the usual
notations, that (£) hD = log ! 1 + A} = - log (1 - v| - smh1 fjaSJ {Rohtak.
2005) {it HE"5 + £" »JJ(I + 4)"^2 + A {Bhopal, 2009 ; U P. T. U. , 2009)
[Hi) A - ^ 6^ + ^JiU+WJT) fey) A3vy = V^g. Solution, (i) We know that
ehD = E = 1 + A hD = log (1 + A) Also hD = log E - - log [E - *) = - log (1 -
V) f.' £- 1 = 1 - VI We have proved that (i = A (Em +■ E “ l/2) and S = Em
— E ~ 1/2 £ p6 = 1 (E1'5 + E ~ w) (EJ'a ~E-1/2)=A(EÊ-1>=± te*/J - e-
ftP) = sinh ( hD ) i.e. hD = sinh-1 (pS). Hence hD = log (1 + A) = — log (1
- V) ~ sinh-1 (p6) (ti) (£1/2 + E ~ l/*) (1 + A)1'3 = {£I/2 + E - I/S) Em -
E+l=l+A+ 1 = 2 + A. iiii) |63 + 8^(1 + 52/4) = | [Em-E l/2)2 + (E,'2-E-
I/2)>/ll +(^^2 _ E- ^)2/4j = ±(E + E~1-2) + (Elf2-E-i/2) >/f(E + E_1 + 2V41
= {{£ + £-‘-2}+ ±(El/2-£-1/2)lE1'5: + E-1'2) = 1|(E + E-1- 2) + (£-£“ *)| =
A(2E-2) = E-1 = A. tin) A% -(E- l)3.y. ■- [E3 - 3 E2 + 3£ - l).y2 = y5 - 3y4
+ 3y3 - y2 = <1 - E~*)% ~ a - 3£~! + 3E -2 - E - 3) ,ys - y5 - 3y* + 3y3 -y2
F rom ( 1 ) and (2), Aay2 - Vay6. (v A = E-1| ,..U) [v A = 1 - E -1] ...<2)
29.5 TO FIND ONE OR MORE MISSING TERMS When one or more
values of y = fix) corresponding to the equidistant values of X are missing,
we can find these using any of the following two methods : First method ;
We assume the missing term or terms as a, ft etc. and form the difference
table. Assuming the last difference as zero, we solve these equations for a ,
ft. These give the missing term /terms. Second method : If n entries of v are
given, fix) can he represented by ain - l)th degree polynomial i.e. , A *y - 0.
Since A = E - 1, therefore (E - 1 F y = 0. Now expanding (E — 1 F and
substituting the* given values, we obtain the missing term/tenns. Example
29.9. Find the missing term in the table : x : 2 3 4 5 6 y : 45.0 49.2 54.1 ...
67.4 (U.P.T.U., 200S)
955 Finite Difference and Interpolation Solution. Let the missing
term be a. Then the difference table is as fallows : Ay A=y A*y A'y 2
45.0(=yp) 4.2 3 40.2 ( = yJ ) 49.9 0.7 a — 59.7 4 54.1 < = y?) a -54.1 a -
©ao 180.5 — 3a 240.2 - 4a 5 = y3> 67.4 - a 121 .5 — a 6 67.4 t=y4) We
know that A4y - 0 i.e. , 240.2 - 4ct = 0. Hence a — 60,05. Otherwise: As
only four entries y0, y]( y^, 3';t are given, therefore y — fix} can be
represented by a third degree polynomial. A3y - constant or A4y = 0 i.e., (E
— l)4 = D i.e, , (E1* — 4Er> + 6£2 - 4 E + 1) = 0 or y4 — 4yg + 6y,, - 4y,
+ y0 =. 0 Let the missing entry y.t be a so that 67.4 - 4a + 6154. 1) -4<49.2)
+ 45 = 0 or -4« = - 240.2 Hence a - 60.05, Example 20.10* Find the missing
values in the following data : x : 45 50 55 60 65 y: 3.0 ... 2.0 ... -2.4
Solution. Let the missing value be a, h. Then the difference table is as
fallows : {Bhopal, 200 7) X y Ay A*y a3> 45 3(=y0) u -3 50 a{= yt) 2 — a
3a + b — 9 55 2f=y2) ft - 2 b + a - 4 3.6-0-36 60 W=y3) — 2.4 — b -0.4-26
65 — 2.4 < = y4) As only three entries y0, y„, y4 are given, y can be
represented by a second degree polynomial having third differences as zero.
A:jy0 = 0 and A^yt - 0 i.e., 3a + 6 = 9, a + 36 = 3.6 Solving these, we get o -
2.925, h + 0.0226. Otherwise. As only three entries y(J = 3, y2 - 2, y4 = -
2.4 are given, y can he represented by a second degree polynomial having
third differences as zero. /. A^q - 0 and A’Vi - 0 Le ( E - l)3yc = 0 and (E -
U1 y, = 0 i.e., (E3 - 3£:t + 3E - l)y0 = 0 ; (E3 - 3E2 + 3E - 1 ) . y t = 0 or y3
- 3 yt + 3 yx - y0 = 0 ; y4 - 3y3 + 3y2 - y , = 0 or ya + 3y1 = 9 ; 3ya + y , =
3.6 Solving three, we gcljj - 2.925, y2 - 0.225.
956 Husher Engineering Mathematics Example 29.1 1- lfyw = 3,
yn = 6, y12 = 1 1> Vts = 18> yM " 27 ’ find y.r (Mumbai, 2005) Solution.
Taking yt4 as u0, we are required to findy4 i.e. , u_so. Then the difference
table is X u &2u 3 *-3 yM = H a = 6 2 5 0 X-'£ .V]2 = n_ j = LI 2 7 0 X-l
yus = u-t = 18 2 9 *9 yVA = t*0 = 27 Then y4 = u_J0 = (£-^ «0 = ( 1-V)10 -
uQ - 10Vu0 + 45V3u0 - 12OV3u0 = 27 - 10 x 9 + 45 x 2 - 120 x 0 = 27.
Example 29. 1 2. IfyT is a polynomial for which fifth difference is constant
and y, + y7 = - 7845 , y\, + ye G86, y3 +ys = 1088, find y4. ( Mumbai ,
20Q4J Solution. Starting with y j instead ofy0, we note that A6yj = 0 [v
Aftyt is constant. Le., ( E - l)6^ = (E6 - 6 E& + 15 E* - 20 £a + 15£a -6 E +
l)yl = 0 y7 - 6yf} + 15y 5 - 20y4 + 15ya - 6y2 + y t = 0 or ] - — f- 784 -
6(686) + 15(1088)] = 571. 20 Example 29.1.1. Prove the following
identities : ,2 (i) la tijX + + u.y + ... = Au! + [ y~^x I A*Ul + ttjjf „ . U3X*
A i(j H - — 7 A"i/j + *■* = R.H.S. (i - *r
FinIIE DtFFfcHENCES AND 1 NT EflPQLATIGN (ii) L H.S. - +

Ai?«„ + + ... , xE x2E‘* *3E3 1 + _ 4- — + . . + . 1! 2! 3 ! U{, = el£«0 =
e*fl + a) k0 = ex . e*A it0 = tf* xA x2A2 X3A3 1+tt+-2 r+^r+it-. = «* [' “o
+ Âu0 4- lyA^ + I-, Asu0 + ...j = R-H.S. PROBLEMS 29-2 1. Explain the
difference between f A2 ) . AV —jT' i(x ariC* ■ ■ Eu * 2* BvsJuate taking
h as the; interval of differencing : &*li) -— &Jn x E an it)-.is um (t Rin (jr
+ ft) + A~ sin ti + ft) E sin < Jt + li J 3. With the usual notations, show that
(r > V = 1 -i.l5» + sjl + ? (ii) i + *2/2 = ifu) Va » ft2/?2 - ft3/?8 + — ft4/?4 -
. . 12 th ) + 8^/4)^ + &(2. 7. Prove that Vyn „ , = ft [ i + 1 V 4- -j| V2 + ,..j
(Maofras, 2003) (H'.B T.l’., 2f/W) (Afumfttu, 200ft) (t/P.r.f/, 2000)
(U.P.T.U., MCA, 2008) U.N.T.U., MCA, 2006) 5 3126 6 7777 8. The
following table gives the values of y which is a polynomial of degree five.
It is known that { (3) is in error Correct the error. jc : 0 1 2 3 4 .v; 1 2 33
264 1025 9, Estimate the missing term in the following table : x : 0 1 2 3 4
fix) : t 3 9 — 81 10, Find the missing terms of the following data : * : I 1.5
2 2.5 3 fix): 6 ? 10 20 ? 3.5 1.5 4 6 i Mumbai, 2004 ) (SV.Tll, 2007)
iVP.T.V., 2010)
958 Higher Engineering Mathematics 11. Find the missing values
in Ihft following to bio : * : 0 I 2 3 4 B 6 y : 5 11 22 40 ... HO 12. r r II l3 s I
, u 14 - - 3, ulS = - 1 , u lu = 13 find u9. 13. Evaluate from the following
data (staling the assumptions you make) : y(, ♦’J'a * 1.9243, V, +y7 =
1.9590, ya + ys = 1.9823, y3 + y.t = 1.9956. N. Using the method of
separation of Kymbols, prove that (/) i/„ + w i + u9 + - + u = w * ’CjU,. + "
* 'C, A2uu + - . + ' + ’C . A"uu, 3 {V.T.U,,200f,} [Mumbai, 2001 )
(Mumbai, 200b ) 29,6 NEWTON'S INTERPOLATION FORMULAE* We
now derive two important interpolation formulae by means of the forward
and backward differences of a function. These formulae are often employed
in engineering and scientific problems. Cl) Newton’s forward interpolation
formula. Let the function y = f (x) take Hie values y0, ylt y2, ...
corresponding to the values jcft, x(1 + h , acl( + 2/f, ... ofx. Suppose it is
required to evaluate fix) for x = x(t + ph, where p is any real number. For
any real number p, we have defined E such that EPfW = f^y0+p^y0 + pip-
1) , pip + 1) (p - 2) 21 3! A-V + .. ...(11 It is called Newton's forward
interpolation formula as (1) contains y0 and the forward differences ofyfi.
Obi, This formula is used for inteiprlatmg {hr »u.laes of y near the
beginning of a set of tabulated values and extrapolating values ofy a little
hoik ward ti.e. to the left J of y,t (2) Newton's backward interpolation
formula. Let the function y = f(x) take the values jy0, yv y2, ...
corresponding to the values xc, x0 + h,xu + 2/f, ... of x. Suppose it is
required to evaluate f (a) for x = x0 + ph, where p is any real number. Then
we have y/t = ft*n + ph j - EP fixn) = (1 - n* yn 1 + pV pip + 1) VJ) + pip +
l){p + 2) V2 2! 3! [v £-l=l-V| lUsing Binomial theorem! i.e.. y» =ytl + p*y„
+ p{}*+, h vzv» + /H/>+1j.(/) + 2) + ... rP Jn ■ r -J„ ■ 2 J ' 'll ’ 3 ! It is
called Newton s backward interpolation formula us (2) contains yn and
backward differences ofy„ ...(2) Ohs. This formula is used for interpolating
the values ofy near the end of a set of tabulated values and also for
extrapolating l rallies of y a little ahead (to the right) ofy . Example 29.14.
The table gives the distances in nautical miles of the visible horizon for ike
given heights in feet above the earth '$ surface : x = height : WO 150 200
250 300 350 400 y = distance : W. 63 13.03 15.04 10. 8 1 18.42 W .00
21.2? Find t he values ofy when (it x = 218 ft (Madron, 2003 8 ) Ui ) 410 ft.
( V, T. I L, 2002 ) * See foot n ote p.46H.
959 Finite Differences and Interpolation Solution. The difference

table is as under : A* AJ 100 10.63 2.40 150 13.03 2.01 -0.39 200 15.04
1.77 -IK24 250 1681 1.61 «- 0.16 300 18.42 1.46 -0.13 350 19.90 1.37
-0.11 400 21.27 0.15 0.08 0.03 0.02 -0.07 -0.06 - 0.01 <0 If we take x0 =
200, then y„ = 15.04, Ay0 = 1.77, = - 0.16, A\ - 0.03 etc. Since x — 218 and
h - 50, p = . — = — = 0.36 ' h 50 Using Newton's forward interpolation
formula, we get , p(p- 1) 1? pip -Dip -2) >2i8=>c + P4v0 + y-g ASC + - ]-
£~3 - A~vo + „ 0,36(- 0,64) 0.36(- 0.64) (- 1.641 f (218) = 15.04 +
Q.36U.77) + - - - -{- 0.16) + - — - (0.03) + ... 2 o = 15.04 + 0.637 + 0.018 +
0.001 * ... = 15.696 Le., 15.7 nautical miles (if) Since x — 410 is near the
end of the table, we use Newton’s backward interpolation formula. taking *,
= 400,p = Using the line of backward differences y„ = 21.27, Vyn = 1.37,
V*yn =-0.11, V^(1 - 0.02 etc. newton’s backward formula gives V ~V +
pVv + pip + 11 y2y + + 1H)J + y3 >410 _ >400 + /JV>4040(1 + 1 2 3 V
>100 + "■ 0.2(1. 2} = 21.27 + 0.2( 1.37) + - - - (- 0.1 1) + ... - 21.53
nautical miles. Fix ample 29.15. From the following table, estimate the
number of students luho obtained marks between 40 and 45 : Marks : 30 —
40 40—5(1 50— SO 60—70 70—80 No, of Students : 31 42 51 35 31 (V.T.
U.. 3011 S ; S.F.T.U., 3007 ; Madras, 2006) Solution. First we prepare the
cumulative frequency table, as follows : Marks less than (x) : 40 50 60 70
No. of Students (yx) : 31 73 124 159 Now the difference table is 80 190 X y
Ay, A *yx AV, AS', 40 31 42 50 73 9 51 -25 60 124 - 16 37 35 12 70 159 -4
31 80 190
HiGhEH Engin£eh
96 1 Finite Differences and Interpolation Solution The difference

table is X y 4y A*y A3y A*y 3 4.8 3.6 4 8.4 6.1 2.5 0.5 5 14,5 9.1 3.0 0.5 0
6 23.6 12.6 3,5 0.5 0 7 36.2 16.6 4.0 0.5 0 8 52.8 21.1 4.5 9 73.9 have To
find the first term, use Newton's forward interpolation formula with x(J = 3,
x = 1, h = 1 and p = - 2, We XU . 4.8 + „ + x M + » 0.5 - 3.1 1.2 1.2.3 To
obtain the tenth term, use Newton’s backward interpolation formula with xn
= 9, x = 10, k - 1 and p ~ 1. This gives y(l0) = 73.9 + - x 21.1 + — x 4.5 +
— 2-*- x 0.5 - 100. 1 1.2 1,2.3 PROBLEMS 29-3 1. Using Newton's
forward formula,, find the value of/ (1.6), if x : 1 1.4 1.3 2.2 f(x) : 3.49 4.B2
5.96 6.5 (J.N.T.U,, 30061 2. State Newton’s interpolation formula and use it
to calculate the value of exp (1.H5), given the following table : x i 1.7 1.8
1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 /(*) ; 5 474 6050 6686 7.380 8.166 9.025 9,974
{Kottuyam, 2005) 3. If/ (1.15) = T .0723, /( 1.20)= 1 .0064, /( 1.25) =
1.1180 and/(1.30) = 1.1401, find/U^R). 1. Givefl sin 4 = 0.70'. 1. sin 5(T =
0.766ft, sin 55° - 0.8192, sin 60" = 0,8660, find sin 52v. using Newton’s
forward formula. 5. From the following table or half-yearly premium for
policies maturing at different ages, estimate the premium for policies
maturing at age of 46 : Age ' : 45 5fl 65 ■ 80 65 Premium (in rupees) :
114.84 96.16 83.32 74.48 68.48 W.P T.V.. 20W) 6. The area A of a circle itf
diameter d is given for Die following values : d : 80 86 90 95 100 A : 5026
5674 6362 7088 7864 \V.TAL. 20)01 Calculate the area of a circle of
diameter 105. 7. Estimate the value of f{22) and /(42) from 1 he following
available data : x : 20 25 30 35 40 45 fix) : 354 332 8. From the following
table : 291 260 231 204 : 10 20 30 40 50 60 Cos x : 0.9848 0.9397 0.86G0
0.7(560 0.6428 0,5000 (J.N.TJ:.. 20V?) 79 80 0,3420 0.1737 Calculate cos
25* and ns 73“ using Gregory Newton formulae. tiKp.T.t/., zoom
Higher Engineering Mathematics. [NtigarjuHQ, 200} ) i V.P.r.ll,

2008) (Madras. 2006) U.NT.V.. 20l/7i 9. Find the number of men getting
wage? below Rs, 15 from the following data : Wages in Rs. ? 0— 10 10—
20 20—30 30—40 Frequency ; 9 30 35 42 10. Find the polynomial in U-r
pda ting tha dala : x : 0 1 2 f ix) ; 0 5 2 1 1 Construct Newton's forward
interpolation polynomial for the following data : x: 4 6 8 10 y ; 1 3 8 1G
Hence evaluate y for x - 5, 12: Construct the difference table for the
following data : i 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 f ix) * 0-003 0 067 0.148 0.248
0.370 0.518 0.697 Evaluate /? 0,6) 13- Estimate from following table /*
(3.SI to three significant figures using Gregory Newton backward
interpolation formula: X 0 1 2 3 4 fix) : 1 1.5 2.2 3.1 4.6 OJ.P.T.U., 2009)
14. The following table gives the population of a town during the last six
censuses. Estimate the increase in Uie jxipulution during the period from
1976 to 1978 ; Year : 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 Population (in
thousands) : 12 15 20 27 39 52 (VP.T.U.. 2GVC>' 16. In the following
table, the values ofy are consecutive terms qf a series of which 12.5 is the
5th term. Find the first and tenth terms of the series. jf : 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 yi 2.7
6.4 12.5 21.6 34.3 51.2 72.9 16. Given u , - 40, u:i = 45, ug = 54, find u.4
and u4. 17. If«4 - 10, /tj =* 8, u,4 - 10, u4 = 60, find u0 and ti3. 18. Given
y0 = 3,y1 = 1 2, y2 = 81, y3 = 200, - 100, ys = 9, without forming the
difference table, find Af>c.
|i=S>W A‘^V0(= 5?y() Xq + 2h ft (I) Gauss’s forward interpolation

formula. The Newton's forward interpolation formula is /Hp-l) J?(p-l)(p-2)
■v,> = Yo + M.v(1 + A% + A'Vn + ... 1.2 1.2.3 ~.(1)
963 Finite Differences and Interpolation Wo have t.e., i.e,. ^y0 -

Ay_ i + A3y_ i Similarly A3y0 = A^JTj + A4y_, A4y0 = A'v.j + A5y , etc.
Also A2y_ , - AJy_ 2 = A4y_ 2 A3y_ j = A;H'_ 2 + A4 v_ 2 Similarly A4y_
, = A4y, 2 + A6y_ 2 etcSubstituting for A2yn, A3y(r A4yf) ... from (2), (3),
(4) ... in (1 ), we get yfl = yQ + pAv0 + 2l) 1 + A*y-i] + ~ CA‘^V - 1 + .Mt
...13) ...(4) —15) jXp-Vlp-2)(p-3) .. . + - , - (A4y_, + &y_j) + ... 1 .2.3.4 ,, .
P(P-D (p-hl)p(p-l) ., Hence y^, -y0 + pAy0 + — gj — AVj + J - - A V-i
which is called Gauss's forward interpolation formula . Cor. /n fAe centra/
differences notation, this formula will be ip + 1) pip -Dip -2) 4! A*y_ „ + —
[Using (5)| yfl=y0 + pflvw + (p + l)p(jJ-l) (p + 1)p(p-l)(p-2> 8^0 + Oh#. I,
/f emp/oys Ofrf differences just below thie central Una and even difference
on the central line as shown below: „ * i.e.. i.e.m 3Shs™« . A' \_2— A'V
Central line \/\/\./vlf || IgHI A>ri Aj-i Ay,.a Ay,, Oils. 2. This formula is used
to interpolate the values ofy for p il) <. p="" l=""> measured forwardly
from the origin. (2) Gauss’s backward interpolation formula. The Newton’s
forward interpolation formula is „ p(p-i> m9 rip -Dip -2) y„ = -vo + Mv0 +
t 2 A% + - 123 — — A% + ... We have Ay0 - Ay_, - A?yr_j AVo - Ay , +
A^y_, Similarly A^y0 = A2y, + A3y, A^y0 - A'V , + A4y_, etc. Also A31,
— A3y„2 - A*y_2 AVi * A3y_2 + A4y„2 Similarly A4y, = A4y 2 + A5y_2
etc. Substituting for Ay0, A^y0, A^y„, ... from (2), (3), (4) in (1), we get yp
-y0 + P(A>-i + A3y_,) + p{p 2 - (A2y_ , + A3y_ ,) + ~J?1 ^ 3 ~ (A3y_, +
A4y_,) pip -l)(p- 2) {p- 3) -U> -12) -13) -(4) ... (5J -16) 1 .2.3.4
Higher Engineering Mathematics 0> + l)fl (p+i)pifJ-i) =ya+ P4y_,

+ 1.2 A^- 1 + - TT273 - (Ay~ 2 + Ay-*} ( p + l)p(p~l>(p-2 ) , + - ; — q „ -
(Ai * * 4y_2 + A?y_ 2) + -- I Using (5) and (6)] Hentu ( P + l)p yp+y0+
p4v_t + 2! A^'-i + 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 (p + l)p + i)pfp-i) 4! A\V_2 + which is called
Gauss's backward interpolation formula. Cor, hi the central differences
notation, this formula wilt be ( P + Dp r? fp + 1) pip - 1) ^ (P + 2) (p + 1 )
p{p “ 1) M + + — 2\ — 6 *% + ST - &y-vz * - 4] - 5 >o + « Obe* I- This
formula contains odd differences above the central line and even differences
on the central line as shown below : 4jjts-i Ay i &y* /\/ \/ \ 3V ***..,-* . .
Ay_* . Central line ObH* 2. It is need tn interpolate the values of y for a
negative value of p lying between - 1 and 0. Obs. 3, Gauss's forward and
backward formulae are not of much practical use. However, these serve as
mtermcdh Ait - top for obtaining the iiuporloni formulae of the following
sections. <3) Stirling’s formula,* Gauss’s forward interpolation formula is
p(p-l) (p + l)p(p-D (p + 1) pip -l)ip- 2) yp =3'0 +pAy0 + — gf ~ AV_ i + -
31 - ^ y_i + 41 AVa + . . U> Gauss's backward interpolation formula is
Ip+Up (p + l)p(p-l) (p + 2){p + 1) p (p - 1) ^ yp - y0 4 pAy_i + — gi — A^-
» + 3; A y_2 + — ~cr - A >-2 + . <2> Taking the mean of(l} and (2), we
obtain (Av„ + Ay-il pl ,2 pip2- 1) ( AVi + A V2 ) p2(p2-d yP~y<> + p{ - —
■-} + fy A2y_ i + — j\ — * [ - 2 - J + ~ n — A *-2 + . (3) which is called
Stirling^ formula, C-or. In the central differences notation, ( 3 ) takes the
form 2 -tJ* - ^ yP ~y0+p pSv, + fr 5% 4 P !>si * ’ 4 f4! ~ 6VC + p3(p2-i2>
...(4) fur i ( 4y0 + Ay. !» = 1 w + 6y_ = fifly0 \ CAlv. , +■ A^_a) = 1 (&ylf2
+ &y. y2) = m53.v0 etc* Obs, Tins formula involves means of the odd
differences just above and below the central tine and even differences an
tkix line us shown brfow : i3y-i; I • gp->-^ * 4 / a5 ^ A V-3 Ar'y- % Centra]
line (1) Dessel’s formula. ^ Gauss's forward interpolation formula is pip- 1)
Xp=yQ+P*>0+ ol — A^-! +
9^-1770J, *:|:See footnote p. 550*

FINITE DiFFEHENCES ANO fnT6RPOUAT»ON i.e.. We have

A^y0 - A2^. ^ = A3j'_1 AV j = A*y0 - A3y_i Similarly AV.j = AY, - Ar,y 2
etc. Now (1) can be written as -(2) pip - 11 fi a2 ,1*2 \ . &P1 ~ D VP =
+P*y o + 2! 1 2 y~l 2 *“0 3! A *-i 10(0-1)9 ip(n^l),.o » p(p£-l) = y0 + pAy0
+ 2 -2l— A -v-i + 2 2! fA^> - AY,> + — §1 A y-i + I I*P~ - 1H^» A4y 2 + ^
p(pi ^ -2) X (A4y J - Afty 2) + ... [Using (2), (3) etc. | 2 4! ~£ Z 4! J * p
p(p2-l>(p-2) aY2 + A4y_, Hence yp = y0 + pAy(l + '--■ j 4! P (p - 1) A2y_1
+ A“y0 + ( p - 1/2) p (p - 1) ^ + ... 3! (p + 1) pip - Dip- 2) a Ys + A'Yi fJ, "
4] ” ~2 “ + . J which is known as the BesseVs formula. Cop. In the cent ml
differences notation , (4) becomes P(P- 1) (p-l/2)p
’i/2 tjlcOb*. This is a very useful formula for practical purposes.

It involves arid differences below the cent' atlirt< ■ -n/l . . . of ccBfi
differences of and below It is line as slurwn below : JiiAy0 Tv 1 A-.v.t f , >
Ay 2 » 4. < r A°y_* < < ► , a‘Y ^ A,sy s k ^ IH1 - Central line (6) Everett’s
formula. Gauss’s forward interpolation Formula is pip- 1) ,9 (p + l)p{p-l>
(p + 1) pip - l)ip-2) a4 ~yp + PAy0 + LJY\ — AY, + — - fi - - AJy_! + — - -
A4y_2 4! (p + 2)(p + l)p(p-l)(p-2) 51 Asy„+ . (1) We eliminate the odd
difference in { 1) by using the relations Ay0 =y, -y0, A3y_j - A^0 - A“y_r
AYj = A 4y_± - A*y_2 etc. Then {1) becomes , , p
-y0 +p(y, -y0) + — gj — Ay~i + 31 (A">o " A y-i> (p + U P (p -

l)fp - 2) (p + 2)(p + Up(p-lHp-2) + - 71 - AJy_9 + - - - - ^ f A4y t - A4.y„a)
+ • 4! p(p- 1) ip - 2) ip + l)p(p-l) - i 1 “ P>y0 + py, - - Ti - A2y_, + 3 , A2y(1
31
(p+ l)p(p-l)(p-2)(p-3) 51 A*y_2+ 5 ! To change the term.? with
negative sign, putting p = 1 - gy wo obtain Higher Englneefuw M
athematice; (p + 2) (p + 1) p (p - 1) (p - 2) A\-y_j - ... Q(q* - 1*> t. ^ - iw
-2B) p(p2 - Is) ^ ^ = Wo + - 3l - A^-i + “ - 51 - A4V.a + . +î+ ““sj p (pz -
lH) tpH - 22) + - - AVl+29.8 This is known as .Eirerett's fomiu/o. OI>s.
This formula is extertStve/y riitrf rn vo/res only even differ? nets an and
below the central line as shown below : yg .... tfy , AV* Aey.3 Central line
5’i a2)'o iVi AV_a CHOICE OF AN INTERPOLATION FORMULA The
coefficients in the central difference formulae are smaller and converge
faster than those in Newton’s formulae. After a few terms, the coefficients
in the Stirling's formula decrease more rapidly than those of the Bessel’s
formula and the coefficients of Bessel’s formula decrease more rapidly than
those of Newton's formula. As much, whenever possible, central difference
formulae should be used in preference to Newton’s formulae. The right
choice of an interpolation formula however, depends on the position of the
interpolated value in the given data. The following rules will he found
useful : 1. To find a tabulated value near the beginning of the table, use
Newton’s forward formula. 2. To find a value near the end of the table, use
Newton 5 backward formula. 3. To find an interpolated value near the
ventre of the table, use either Stirling's or Bessel 's nr Everett's formula. If
interpolation is required for p lying between -1/4 and 1/4, prefer Stirling’s
formula. If interpolation is desired for p lying between 1/4 and 3/4, use
Bessel’s or Everett’s formula. Example 29. i 8. Find f(22) from the Gauss
forward formula : x : 20 25 30 35 40 45 f(x): 354 332 291 260 231 204
Solution. Taking jc0 = 25, h = 5, we have to find the value of fix) forr - 22r ,
„ x - x,. 22- 25 ne., for p - — r— 2- = - - - =-0.6 h 5 The difference table is
as follows : (J.N.T.U., 200?) X p & &yv A:\ - P 20 -1 354 {=^5 -22 25 0
332 (= y0) -19 -41 20 30 1 291 ( 10 -37 -31 = 8 45 35 2 260 ( = y2) 2 8 -29
0 40 3 231 l=y3> 2 -27 45 4 204 Kv,i
Fmirc Differences and Interpolation 967 Gauss forward formula is pfp - 1)
(p + 1) p (p- 1) yp =y0 + * 2I *y~L * 31 A>-i ♦ 'P + UP'P-Wr-*' + (P + 1 >
'-i +
i3 (p + l)
Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 29,20. Given Q° ; 0 5

W 15 20 25 30 to/ifl: 0 0,0875 0.1763 0.2679 0.3640 0.4663 0.5774 Using
Stirling's formula, estimate the value of ton 16“. {Anna, 2005) G - 15
Solution. Taking the arigm at 0 - 15ct h = 5” and p = — * we have the
following central difference table : /’ -a o.oooo 0.08575 -2 0.0875 0.0013
0.0888 -1 0.17G3 0.0028 0,11916 0.0015 • 0 0.2679 0.0045 0.0002 0.0961
0,00 L 7 -0.0.002 i 0.3640 0.0062 0.01)00 0.1023 0.0017 0.0009 2 0.4663
0.0068 0.0000 0.1111 0.0026 3 0.5774 At 0 = 16e, 16 - 15 rt „ P = — =— =
0.2 Stirling’s formula is ^ = y p Ay,, + Ay0 p'\z pip E - 1) A y_E + A y_, +
2lA y“' 3! J>V ~ 1) 4 ! A4y_2 + M = 0.2679 + (0.2) |^-0916 + QQ96lj +
(0.0045) + ... - 0.2679 + 0.0)877 + 0 00009 + ... = 0.28676 Hence tan 16* =
0.28676. Example 29.21. Employ Stirling's formula to compute y j,,,. from
the following table (yx = 1 + lcgr sin x) : x 9 : 10 11 72 IS 14 lQSyz :
2,7,967 28,060 3l,?SB 35,209 38,368 (V.T.U.. 2004) Solution. Taking the
origin atx0 = 12“, k = 1 and p = x- 12, we have the following central table :
P Ayx A-y, -2 0.23967 0.04093 - 1 0.28060 - 0,00365 f 9J13I2S Of 10058 0
Q.31.786 0.0341.21 -0.00307 = 0.00045 -0,00013 1 0.35209 -0.00002
0.031-79 2 0.38368 At x - 12.2, p = 0.2. (As p lies between - 1/4 and 1/4,
the use of Stirling's formula will be quite suitable.)
Finite Differences and Interpolation Stirling’s formula is 969 p
4y.i+Aj/_o p2 A + A >_j p\p* -1) , 3V'V»* f ■ - 2 - - 31 - ' - 2 - + -4,—
When p = 0.2, wc have „ „„ rt ( 0.03728 + 0.03421 'i f0.2)z y0 g = 0.3 1783
+ 0.2 [ - g - j + (0.2} K0 ,2)2 - 11 f O.t i V ( — 0.00307) 00058 - 0.0004 5\
(0. 2)2 [(0.2)2 - 1] 9 24 (— 0.00013} = 0.31788 + 0,00715 - 0.00006 -
0.000002 + 0.0000002 = 0,32497. Eva tuple 29.22. Apply Bessel’ s formula
to obtain ym , given y20 = 2854, y2s - 3162, y£B - 3544, y32 = 3992. (S. V.
T. U. , 2007 : V. T. IL. 2000 S > Solution. Taking the origin at xa = 24, b —
4, we have p = 4 (x - 24). u 4 The central difference table is p y A y Asy A V
- 1 2854 308 0 3IVA 382 1 3544 448 2 3992 7J -8 66 At* - 25, p - (25 -
24>/4 - 1/4, (Asp lies between 1/4 and 3/4, the use of Bessel’s formula will
yield accurate esult.) Bessel's Formula is », -*♦**, ♦ &J^RijLLL^ + 1p-i^p
^ + ... When p = 0.25, we have yp = 3162 + 0.25 x 382 + 0.25(- 0.75) { 74 +
66^ ( - 0-25) 0.25 ( - 0.75) -(1) 2 ^ 2 = 3162 + 95.5 - 6 - 5625 - 0.0625 -
3250-875 approx. (-8) Example 29-23. Apply Bessel’s form ula to find the
value of f(27. 5) from the tuble : x * 25 26 27 28 29 30 f(x): 4.000 3.846
3.704 3.571 3.448 3.333 (V.P.T.U., 200m Solution. Taking the origin at x0 =
27, 5 = 1, we have p = x - 27 The central difference table is X P y Ay Asy If
A *y 25 -2 4.000 -0.154 26 -l * 3.846 -0.142 0.012 - 0,003 27 0 3,704
-0.133 0.009 -0.001 0.004 28 1 3.571 - 0.123 0-010 - 0.002 - 0.001 29 2
3.448 -0.115 o.nop 30 3 3.333
1-teHEfl Engineering Mathematics At x - 27.5, p - 0.5 (As p lies
between 1/4 and 3/4, the use of Bessel's formula will yield accurate result)
Bessel's formula is y„ - .vo + Mvo + — jj— [ - 2 - J + - at - ■ ip + 1) p{p -
1) (p - 2) I A'\y_2 + A4y_i ' 4! When p - 0.5, we have v = 3.704 -P (0.5) (0.5
- 1) fo.ooo + n.oitn „ lr — 2 — J +0 (0.5 + 1 ) (0.51 (0.5 - 1) (0.5 - 2) ( -
0.001 - 0.004 24 = 3.704 - 0.11875 0.00006 = 3.585 Hence f(27.5) - 3.585.
(Example 29.24. Given the table x : 310 320 330 340 350 360 log x :
2.49136 2.50515 2.51851 2.53148 2.54407 2.55630 find the value of log
337,5 by Everetfs formula. jt ™= 330 Solution. Taking the origin at jc^ =
330 and h - 10, we have p = - — jAJ — The central difference table is p y
W; & S‘ -2 2.40136 0.01379 - I 2.60515 0.01336 - 0,00043 0.00004 0
2JU8S1 0.01297 - 0.00039 0.00001 -0.00003 0.00004 1 2.53118 0,01259 -
0.00038 0.00002 0.00001 2 2,54407 0,01223 - 0.00036 3 2.55630 337 5 —
330 To evaluate log 337.5 Le. For x - 337.5, p - - ' ^ — - 0.75 (Ah p > 0.5
and - 0,75, Everett's formula will be quite suitable) Everett’s formula is q{q
2 - l2) yp = 9,V0 + 3] - A^'_t + q
Finite Differences and Intefifou^tion 971 PROBLEMS 29.4 1.

Using Gauss’?, forward formula, evaluate f (3.75' from the table : x: 2.5 3.0
3 5 4.0 4.5 6,0 y 24.145 22.043 20.225 18.644 17.262 16.047 (Bhopal, 2002
; Madras. 2000) 2. Using Gauss's backward difference formula, EndyCS)
from the following table : 0 5 10 16 20 25 y: 7 11 14 18 24 32 (J.N.T.H,
2(107) 3. Using Gauss’s backward formula, estimate the number of persons
earning wages between Rs. 60 and Ra. 70 from the following data : Wages
p : Relow 40 40-60 60-80 80 -100 100 -120 No. t,f persona : fin thousands}
250 120 1 00 70 50 [Madras. 2000) 4. From the following table : x : 1.00
1.06 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 4*: 2.7183 2.8577 3,0042 3.1582 3,3201
3.4903 3.6093 (U.$T.lf.r20Q6) find c* ”, using Gauss forward formula, 5.
The pressure p of wind corresponding to velocity o is given by the
following data. Estimate p when y 25. e : 10 20 30 40 p; U 2 4.4 7.9 6.
Using Stirling's formula find y^, given _ySf] » 51 2. » 439, y^, - 346, vy^ =
243, where yx represents the number of persons at age x years in a life
table. {Nngarjuna, 2003 S) 7. Employ S easel's formula to find the value of
F six = 1 .06. given that x : 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 F: 2.979 3.144 3.283
3.391 3.463 3,997 4.491 Which other interpolation formula can be uspd
here ? Which is more appropriate ? Give reasons. 8. Calculate the value
of/"! 1.5) Using Ressel'a interpolation formula, frnm the following table : x
; 0 1 2 3 f (x) : 3 6 12 15 [U.P.T U.. 2008) 9. Apply Everett’s formula to
obtain *28, given = 854, u2i - 3162, = 3544, w32 = 3992. iS V.'i'.l t, 2007)
10. Using Everett's formula, evaluate f (30), if/ (20) = 2854, / (28) = 3162. f
11. Given the table l * : 310 320 330 340 350 36ft log x : 2.4914 2.5052
2.5185 2.5316 2,5441 2.5663 Find the value of log 337.5 by Gauss’s,
Stirling's and Weasel's formulae. 29.9 INTERPOLATION WITH
UNEQUAL INTERVALS The various interpolation formulae derived ho far
possess the disadvantages of being applicable only to equally spaced values
of the argument. It is, therefore, desirable to develop interpolation formulae
for unequally spaced values of x. Now we shall study two such formulae :
fi) Lagrange s interpolation formula (ii) Newton s general interpolation
formula with divided differences, 29.10 LAGRANGE'S INTERPOLATION
FORMULA Ify - f (x) takes the value y0, y l , ...,.yn corresponding to x =
x^, Jt*,, ..., xn, then (X - X, ) (X - X2) fa - X„) + ix - (x -x2) ... (x - xn) (x0 -
x, I (x0 - x2l ... (x0 - xn ) '>0 + (x, - Xo ) (xt - x2 1 ... (x, - xn J y 1 + ... + (x
- X01 (x - X1 ) ... fx - X„ _1 )
972 HlfiHEf* EwGMffUUfi Mathewai tcs Proof. Let.v = fix) bo
a function which takes the values (x0,y0), (Xj.yj), ...» (xn,y(;). Since there
are n + 1 pairs of values of x and y, we can represent f lx} by a polynomial
in x of degree n. Let this polynomial be of the form y ~fix)- aQ(x -xf) (x -
x2) ... (x -xn) + «,(x - x„) (x -x2) ... (x -xM) + u2(x-x0) (x-XjMx-Xj) ... (x-
x,,) + ... + u^x-XpKx-x,) ... (x-xn_ ,) ...(2) Putting x = x0, y = y0, in (2), we
get J'o = QoW - x, ) (x„ - x2)...(x0 - x([) a0 = 3,c/tf3C0 “ XgJ.XXQ —
Similarly putting x = Xj.y =y} in (2), we have a1 ^.Vj/Kxj -x0) (x, -x2)...
(Xj -xn)l Proceeding the same way, we find Substituting the values of aQ>
a1 . a„ in (2), we get (1). Ohs. ! ranges interpolation formula (1) for n points
is a polynomial of degree f n - ]) which if> known as Lugrungtfin
polynomial and is very simple to implement on a computer. This formula
rati also be used to split the given function info partial frui tions. For on
dividing both sides of (1 } by (a: - xp) lx - x, ) ... (x - x^}, we get _ fix) _ _
_ _ _ 1 fjc0 “ *0> “ Xj^J-CXq - Xfl) (Xq - Xj) (X0 - X^,JptQ “ xn ) * * ~
xb + _ _ _ *L_ _ _ _ ,^_ + „ 4 _ _ ,_L_ (xt - XC)(X] - x3 )...{xj - x„ ) X - Xj
(x„ - *0 ) (x„ - x( ). Jx„ -X„ ! » x-x„ Example 29.25. Given the. values x : 5
7 11 13 17 fix): 150 392 1492 2366 5202 evaluate. f (9), using (i) Lttgmnge'
’$ formula. {Anna, 2006) Solution, (t) Here x0 = 5, Xj = 7, x2 = 1 1* xa =
13, x4 — 17 and y0 = 150, - 392, y2 - 1452, y3 = 2366, y4 = 5202. Putting
x = 9 and substituting the above values in Lagrange's formula, we get (9 -7)
(9 -11) 19 -13) (9 -17) _ 1JBft , (9 - 5) (9 - 1 1X9 - 13) (9 - 17) 0ft0 1 (5 - 7)
(5 - 11) (5 - 13} (5 - 17) * <7 - 5) (7 - 11) (7 - 13) (7 - 17) (9 — 5) {9 — 7}
(9 — 13) (9-17) 4j(ro (9 - 5>(9 - 7) (9 - 11)(9 - 17) (11 -S) (11 -7) (11 -13)
(11 -171 (13 - 5) (13 — 7) (13 — 11X13 - 17) (9 - 5) (9 - 7) (9 - 11) (9 - 13)
_ 0 0 _ 50 3136 3872 2366 578 _ o.0 (17 - 5) (17 - 7X17 - 11) {17 - 13) 3
15 3 3 5 Exit tuple 29.26. Find the polynomial f(x) by using Lagrange's
formula and hetiCe find f (3) for x ; 0 1 2 5 f(x); 2 3 12 147 (Anna, 2006)
and Solution. Here x0 = 0, x,. x2 - 2, x3 = 5 >'o = 2,.Vj = 3,y2 = 12,ya =
147 Lagrange's formula is *(X] ” Xg ) (x - Xg) (x - X!>...(x - x3) (x - Xq
XX - Xg )...(x - Xfl > (x2 - x0 ) (Xg - Xj )...(x2 - X3 ) (x3 - x0) (x3 - x2)...
(x;i - Xj,) >3 (x-l)(x- 2)(x-5) f (x-0>(x-5> (0 — 1X0 - 2X0 - 5} + (1-0X1
-2X1-5) (x - 0) (x - 1) (x - 5) . . (x - 0) (x - 1) (x - 2) (2-0) (2 -1X2-5) (5-0)
(5-1) (5 -2) (147) +
973 Finite Differences and Interpolation Hence fix) = x3 + x2 —
x + 2 /( 31 = 27 + 9-3 + 2 = 35. Example 29.27. .A curve passes through the
point CO, 18), (1, 10), (3, - 18) and (ti, 90), Find the slope of the curve at x
= 2. (J.N. T. U„ 200.9) Solution. Herex0 = 0, xt = 1, x2 = 3, x3 - 6 and ^ =
18,^ - 10, j2 — - IS.yg - 90 Since the values of a: are unequally spaced, we
use the Lagrange's formula : t.e. ^ _ (x - Xj) (x - x2)(x -Xg) ^ + (x -XqXx: -
Xg)(x — Xg) (x(j - x, ) (x0 - x2 ) (xu - x3 ) (xx - x0) (x, - X;,) (x1 - x3 ) ■I'l
(x- x0)(x -xt)(x-x8) (x -XoHx-XjHx -x2) (Xg Xg) Ij ) ={%)„ = <6x2 -
20x)_ _ — 16Example 29.28. Using Lagrange's formula, express the
function 3x h x + 1 (x — l)(x - 2){x-3) cts a sum of partial fractions.
Solution. Let us evaluate ,y = 3x- + x + 1 for x- 1, x - 2 and x = 3 These
values are x: y Lagrange's formula is Xc « 1 >'o = 5 Xi = 2 .V, = 15 X.d - 3
y2 = 31 y = <5) + (2-11(2 -8) (15> + (3^1}(3 -2J (31> = 2.5(x - 2) (x - 3) -
15 (x — 1) (x - 3) + 15.5 (x - 1) (x - 2) Thus 3x + x + 1 2.5
974 i.e.. - *i > - k> V° + (lj v = 1 (- 5/;1 4 38/ * - 105/ + 252) J.
._, Distance moved s = vdt = ^ jj^ (— 5F1 + 38/2 - 105/ + 252) dt [- ds dt 1
( 5/^ 38f'f 12{ ~4 3 105/' 4 252/ -u320 4 - 840 4 1008 ,)=64.9 Also
acceleration = % = - (-15/* + 76/ 105 4 0) dt 2 Hence acceleration at = 4) =
-L n y : 12 13 14 16 ( U. P. T. V., 2009 ; d.N. T. U„ 2008) 2. Given 654 =
2.6156, fog1& 058 = 2.8182, fog,,, 059 - 2,8189, !og1{J 661 - 2,8202, Find
hy using Lagrange's formula , l he value of 1 oglw 656, (Haxartbagh, 2 009)
,1, The Following are the measurements 7’ made on a curve recorded by
oscilograpli rep resen Ling a change of current / due to a change in the
conditions of an electric current. T : 1.2 2.0 2.5 3.0 / : 1.36 0,58 0,34 0,20
Using Lagrange's formula, find / at 7' = 16. U„ 2009 ) 4. Losing Lagrange's
interpolation, calculate the profit in the year 2000 from llie following data
Year : 1097 1099 2001 2002 Profit in Lakhs of? : 43 65 159 248 (Anna,
2004' fi. Use Lagrange's formula to find the form of f(x), given x ; 0 2 3 6
fix) : 648 704 729 792 (Madras. 2003 S) 6- Ifytl i = - 3,y(3) - 9, y(4 ! - 30,
y(6) = 132, find the Lagrange’s intorimhufon poly noiniul that Lakes the
same values as ,v at the given points. I V/ T. t /., 2006) 7. Given /-(0J = - 18,
1 f = 0, f (3) = 0. /f$) = - 248, /* - 0, fi9) = 13 104, find f (x i (A ’aSurjuim.
2003 > H. Find the missing term in the following table using interpolation
X : 1 2 4 5 6 y: 14 15 5 ... 9 2 f 9. Using Lagrange’s formula, express the
function *_+*_ri? — ns sum of partial fractions. jtd - 2v? -x +2 gElCT
DIVIDED DIFFERENCES Thu Lagrange's formula has the drawback that
if another interpolation value were inserted, then the interpolation
coefficients are required to be recalculated- The labour of recomputing the
interpolation
975 FiNnt Differences and Interpolation , coefficients is saved by

using Newton’s general interpolation formula which employs what are
called "divided differences'. Before deriving this formula, we shall first
define these differences. If (x0,y0), (x]t y(), (x2, yz), ... be given points,
then the first divided difference for the arguments, x0, xs is defined by the
relation lx0, x i I - — — — . Similarly lxp x2) - -- — — and |x2, x3] = —
— — etc. X 2 “*1 The second divided difference for x(), a ,, xy is defined
as [x((, xv x2\ The third divided difference for x0, xp x2, x2 is defined as , ,
[x11x,,x3]-[xp,x1,x2] , Up, Xj, X2, X31 = —i - 3 - u - 1 - i_ atl(J so rtn [Xj
-X2l-[x0,x1 1 x2 - Xp Xo — x(l Obs. f. The divided differences are
symmetrical in their arguments Le. independent of the order of the
arguments For it is easy to write 1*^, *j( = — ^ — H - — - lxp xj [x0, xL,
x2l xo “ xi ~ *0 yp M y*. - X|> (x0 - x2 ) (.Tj - .r0Hxt - x2 > ‘ (x2 - x0 Hxj,
- -Tj ) = Ut, Xv Xpl or tXp Xp, Xjl and so on. Obs. 2. The nth divided
differences of a polynomial of the nth degree are const ant. Let the
arguments be equally spaced so that, x, - 10 = x2 - x, = ... = xF| - x t = h.
Then JC, -JCn [*i . x2 i - [*0, *1 ] _ t i AVi A>'o L x2 - Xp "" 2h j A h J = 2
(ft 1 "t> AZ>’|> and in general. }x(l, xv x2, ... xj = 1 - A" ,V0. ! h * ti ! h If
the tabulated function is u ni h degree polynomial* then A'lv0 will be
canaiant. Hence the nth divided difiVrenros will also be constant. 29.12
NEWTON'S DIVIDED DIFFERENCE FORMULA Let v(}, y , , ... ,yn be
the values of v - fix) corresponding to the arguments x0, xp .... xn. Then
from the definition of divided differences, we have so that Again lx. X0j x -
x0 y = yp + (x - x„) lx, x0l [x,x0,x,)= L^gi-1^’.^.1 X - X, ...UJ which gives
lx, jc0| - lx0, x, f + (x - x, ) + (x — Xj ) lx, x0, xt J Substituting this value of
|x, xf,j in ( 1 f, we gel y = y0 + (A' - V l*fi* X,1 + u - X0) (x - x, ) lx. x(1,
x,] „ „ „ , _ IX.Xo.Xjl-tXQ.Xj.Xjl *0f *21 “ - - — ““ — " — — ...(2) Also
which gives |x, x0, x,,| = lx,,, x,, xj + (x. x.fi |x, xl(, xp x2J Substituting this
value of lx, x^, x1 j in (2), we obtain y - yp + - -tfi ) lx0, XTJ + (x - x()) (x -
X1 ) [x0, xp x2J + (x -x0) (x - xt) (x - x2) |.r, x0, x,, x2)
Higher EhginE6R:p*g Mathematics Proceeding in this manner,
we get y -fix) ~y0 + (x-*0) |jf0,x,] + (*-*0) (x-*,) ]x0,xvx2] + fcc - x0) (x -
Xj) (x - x2) [x0, x,, x2, jc31 +- ... + (x-x0)(x-x,) ... (x ~xn) [ac, x„) ...(3)
which is called Newton’s general interpolation formula with divided
differences. Example 29,30. Given the values x : 5 7 11 IS 17 fix): 150 392
1452 2366 5202, evaf nuts f (9), using Newton's divided difference formula
{V.T.V.. 2010 ; P.T.U., 2005) Solution. The divided difference table is X y
ixf divided difference 2nd divided differences ,3 rd divided differences 5
150 392-150 _A21 7™5 7 392 1452-392 =205 265-121 „„ 11-5 32 - 24 „ ,
13-5 11 1452 2360 - 1452 13-11 = 457 457 - 265 .... ~ \^r ~m 42 - 33 , s 1
17-7 13 2366 5202 -2^66 17-13 = 7,19 709 - 457 _ r2 17-11 17 5202 Taking
x = 9 in the Newton’s divided difference formula, we obtain f (9) - 150 + (9
- 5) x 121 + (9 - 5H9 - 7) x 24 + <9 -5) (9 - 7) (9 - 1 1) x 1 = 150 + 434 +
192 - 16 = 810. Example* 29.31 . Determine f(x) as a polynomial in x for
the following data : x : -4 - 1 0 2 5 fix) ; 1245 33 5 9 1335 {V.T.U., 2007)
Solution. The divided differences table is X fix) 1st di vided 2nd dn ideii
3rd divided Hh divided differences differences differences differences -4
1245 -404 - 1 93 -28 34 - 14 0 5 2 10 13 3 2 9 442 88 5 1335
977 Finite Differences and Interpolation Applying Newton's
divided difference formula fix) = f{x0) + {x -x(]) Uq^J + (Jt — 0> (- 14) +
Or + 4) U + 1) * (x - 2) (3) = 3*4 - Sof3 + - 14x + 5. PROBLEMS 29.6 I
Find Lhe third divided difference with arguments 2, 4, 9, 10 of the function
f(x) = jc3 — 2x. (U.P.T. V.. 2005 > 2. Use Newtoo’s divided difference
method to compute f (5.5) from the following data : x : 0 1 4 5 6 fix) : 1 14
15 6 3 (U.P.TM., 2010 J 3. Using Newton’s divided difference formula,
evaluate /‘(B) and /“( IS) given ; ’ * : 4 5 7 10 1! IS fix) : 48 100 294 90(1
1210 2028 (U.P.T.U., MCA, 2009. V.T.U., 2008) 4_ Obtain the Newton's
divided difference interpolation polynomial and hence find jf(G) : jc : 3 7 9
10 fix) : 168 120 72 63 (U.P.T.U., 2007) 5 Using Newton’s divided
difference interpolation, find the polynomial of the given data : x : - 1 0 1 3
f(x) : 2 1 0 - 1 (Anno, 2007) e For the following table, find/(xl as a
polynomial in x using Newton's divided difference formula: x : 5 6 9 11
.fix) : 12 13 14 16 7, Using the following table, find fix) as a polynomial in
* : - 1 U 3 6 7 fix) : 3 “6 39 822 1611 (U.P.T.U,, 2009) 8 Find the missing
term in the following table using Newton’s divided difference formula 0 12
3 4 y ; 1 3 9 ... 81 29.13 INVERSE INTERPOLATION So far, given a set
of values of x and y, we have been finding the values of y corresponding to
a certain value of x. On the other hand, the process of estimating the value
of x for a value ofy (which is not in the table) is called the inverse
interpolation. Lagrange’s formula is merely a relation between two
variables either of which may be taken as the independent variable.
Therefore, on inter-changing jr and y in the Lagrange's formula, we obtain
x= ly -?iHy- ya >-(y- yn> % | 0 - Ft > - y* L..(y0 - y„ ) 0 (y{ - y0> (y, -
>*).-.<>! - ya ) 1 + " + (y„ -yo>
978 Higher Engineering Mathematics Taking y - 12, the above
formula (1) gives (12 - 6.8 ) (12 - 9.8) (12 - 13,4) (12 - 15,5) (12 - 19.6) (4.2
- 6.8) (4.2 - 9,8) (4.2 - 13.4) (4.2 - 15.5) (4.2 - 19.6) (12 - 4.2) (12 - 9.8) (12
- 13.4) (12 - 15.5) (12 -19.6) + (6.8 - 4.2) (6.8 - 9.8) (6.8 - 13.4) (6.8 - 15.5)
(6.8 - 19.6) * 21 (12 - 4.2) (12 - 6.8) (12 - 13.4) (12 - 15.5) (12 - 19.6) „ 0 g
+ (9.8 -4.2) (9,8 -6.8) (9.8 -13.4) (9.8 -15.5) (9.8 -19.6) * (12 - 4.2) (12 -
6.8) (12 - 9.8) (12 - 15.5) (12 - 19.6) + 03.4 - 4.2) (13.4 - 6.8) (13.4 -
9.8)03.4 - 15.5)03.4 - 19.6) X ' (12 -4.2) 02 -6.8) 02 -9.8) (12 -13,4) (12
-19.6) L + 05.5 -4.2) (15.5 -6.8) (15.5 -9.8) (15.5 -13.4) (15.5 -19.6) * ' 02
-4.2)02 -6.8)02 -9.8)02 -13.4)02 -15.5) _ + (19.6 -4.2) (19.6 -6.8) (19.6
-9.8) (19-6 -13.4) (19.6 -15.5) * 4 = 0.022 - 0.234 + 1.252 + 3.419 - 0.964 +
0.055 = 3.55. KxnmpJf 29.S3. Apply Lagrange's formula inversely to obtain
a root of the equation f (x) = 0, given that f (30) = - 30. f (34) = -13, f (38) =
3, and f(42) = 18. ( V. T. U„ 2009 S) Solution. Here x0 = 30, jfj - 34, x2 -
38, x3 - 42 and y0 - - 30. yt = - 13, y2 = 3 , y3 = IB It is required to find x
corresponding to y =.f(x) = 0. Taking y - 0, the Lagrange's formula gives, *
_ (y-^Hji-^Ky-ya) (> ~y0 Hy - y2) ty - y3 ) . (y0 - yi > (y<> - y* ) (y0 - y3 )
0 (yt -y0)(y - y2My i - y3) x 1 + fy ^yp^y-yt^y ~ya> + (y -n>ty- y^* x (y-2
- yo>(.v2 - yi ) (yz - y3 ) ** 2 ^ ~ yo } - yi ) “>2) 4 13C-3H-18) x w . ax- 3)
(-18) ,u 3003) (-18) , 30Q3X-3) (-17) (-33) (-48) 17 (-16) (-31) 33 (16)
(-15) 48(31)05) = - 0.782 + 6.532 + 33.682 - 2.202 = 37.23 Hence the
desired root of fix) = 0 is 37.23. PROBLEMS 29.7 !. Apply Lagrange's
method to find the value ofx when fix) = 1G from the given data : * : 5 6 9
11 fix) : 12 13 14 16 (Madras, 2000) 2. Obtain the value of f when A — 85
from the following table, using Lagrange’s method : t : 2 5 8 14 A : 94.8
87.9 81.3 68,7 29.14 OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS PROBLEMS
29.6 .SWrrl the carrettt answer tir fid up tke hlarths in the fallowing
pwblnms : i Newton’s backward interpolation formula is . 2. Bessel's
formula is most appropriate when p lies between (a) - 0.25 and 0.25 (ft)
0.25 and 0.75 fc) 0.75 and 1 .00.
Finite DiHf erehcek and In te ftfÔLATtON 979 3, From the divided
difference table for the following data : xi 5 15 22 yi 7 36 160 •1. Interpolation is the
technique of estimating the value of a function for any 5, Bessel's formula for
interpolation is . 6» The 4th divided differences for x„, r,, xv xt = ....... . 7, Stirling's
formula is best suited for p lying between . . . 8, Newton’s divided differences
formula is ....... . 9, Given tx0,y0X Up yj), lxv y2), Lagrange's interpolation formula
is . 11). Iff(0) = 1. fi2) = S./'O) = tO and /’Car}*. 14. then x = 0 . 11. Gauss forward
interpolation formula involves (a} even differences above the central line and odd
differences on the central line (t> ) even differences below the central line and odd
differences on the central line (r) odd differences below the central line and even
differences on the central line id) odd differences above the central line and even
differences on the central line. 12. If y(l> = >1. y(3) = 12, y(4) = 19 and yOt). = 7
find * using Lagrange's formula. 13. Extrapolation is defined as . 1-1. The second
divided difference of fix) - Vx, with arguments, o, b. c, is . 1 5. Gauss-forward
interpolation formula is used to interpolate values of y for to) 0
Numerical Differentiation & Integration I t 1* Numerical
differentiation* 2. Formulae lor derivatives. 3. Maxima and minima of a
tabulated function. 4. Numerical integration. 5, Newton-Cotes quadrature
formula. 6. Trapezoidal rule. 7. Simpson's 1;3rd rule. 8. Simpson's 3/8th
rule. 9. Boole's rule. 10. Weddle's rule. 11. Objective Type of Questions. I I
j 30.1 NUMERICAL DIFFERENTIATION It if: the process of calculating
the value of the derivative of a function at some assigned value of x from
the given set of values To com pute dy/dx , we first replace the latter as
many times as we desire. The choice of the interpolation formula to be
used, will depend on the assigned value of x at which dy/dx , is desired. If
the values of x are equi-spaced and dy/dx t is required near the beginning of
the table, we employ Newton's forward formula* If it is required near the
end of the table, we use Newton's backward formula. For values near the
nuflrile of the table, dy/dx t is calculated by means of Stirling’s or Bessel's
formula. If the values of a are not equi-apaced, we use Newton's divided
difference formula to represent the function. 30.2 FORMULAE FOR
DERIVATIVES Consider the function (v = fix) which is tabulated for the
values xi ( = + ih ), i - 0, 1, 2, ... n. O) Derivatives using forward difference
formula. Newton’s forward interpolation formula !p. 958) is . p(p-l) A., pip
-l)[p -2) , T = + pAy0 + ~n — + T— ^ — — - A'Vo + ™ 21 Differentiating
both sides w.r.t. p, we have 3? dy 2p-l „ 3p2 -6p + 2 Tp = ^0 + -g- Ai*> f 3,
A\, - 2! Since p - — — t therefore = \ h dx n Now dy _ dy dp i dx dp dx h
2jr>-! .u 3/j2-6p + 2 Avo + a + 0, — 2! 3! 4/j3 -lSpa + 22/I-6 . + - u - Ayo +
At x = x0r p = 0. Hence putting p - 0, f fy dx 1 "IK” _ 1 a2'Vo + 1 *S>" ” 7
* S A“>0 " S aS>0 + ' "] ...ID ,..(21 980
NUMFF»f(Wt OrrFeftEMTTATION & fMTEGHATlON Again

differentiating ( 1 ) w.r.t. x, we get dly d2y _ d (dy\dp dx2 dp {dp} dx
Putting p = 0, we obtain Similarly f d2y' _J_| W) „ h* 1 d*y) 1 _ 1 1 ) 1 A3
1 2 Sp-6 i3 12//-36p + 22 4 2! A + ~ 3] A ^ + - - - A + 2 .3 11.. j 5 5 137 g A
*> ~ 4 + 12 A y° ” e A y° + ioo A yt> + A3>o - | + —(31 .f4) Otherwise :
We know that 1 + A =? E = p,J} .% hD - log ( 1 + A) = A - — A 2 + A3 - —
A4 + ... or and and 0= 1 h\_ 2 3 4 J f=4| [a* - A® + — A® +--*1 J AJ 1 12 J
d3= -LrA3_3A4+.,. h2 L 2 J Now applying the above identities toy^, we get
Dy -iA“y" +( 1 [\2 a3 11 Ki 5 6 137 » 1 — tt — — — I A Vn - fi yo + — A
y0 — A ya + - A v0 [dx2 )xr h2 L 12 6 ISO ° J f rf3y'l 1 r „ 3 . ] ' - In which
are the same as (2), (3) and (4) respectively. (2) Derivatives using backward
difference formula. Newton’s backward interpolation formula (p. 9581 is y
= yit + pwVj + ^(P + 1> v*ytt + Pip + Vip + 2) V3^ + 2! Differentiating
both sides w.r.t. p, we get 3! §£,% +2^-1 V2r j 3p tÊllyK + dp *" 2! J,i 3!
>B Since p - — — — , therefore Now dx h dy = dy dp _ 1 rfjc dp djc h Vy„
Sp + l^s., ,3p:i+6p + 2 3 V"y„ + V y„ +• 2! " 31 At Jf = xn,p - 0. Hence
putting p - 0, we get (SI ♦s** 4** ♦h4* +ivV- +?v'y"+-] ...(61 Again
differentiating (61 w.r.t. x, we have d2 dx i2y _ d f dy\ dp 1 ix2 dp { dr ) dx
A2 ?2 . Op + 6 w.3 GpZ + I8p + 11 ,_4 v4y„ + 3! V-V,1+ 12 ‘ V>tt +
Higher Engineering Mathematics Putting p = 0, we obtain ’d2y

(5?) + 151.^7 + -* 180 y* Similarly, d3y dx3 . =4K4^+4 ...(71 -.(8)
Otherwise : We know that 1 - V=.E~1=e~h£f or - hD = log (l-V) = -[v + -
V2+-V3 +-V* +]_ 2 3 4 D = I[v + - V2 + ivt| +- V4 +-■■! h L 2 3 4 J d'2 =
-Lfv + 1 v3 + -v3 + ...1 =X! v2 +v3 4 — v4 h2[ 2 3 J ft2L 12 Similarly, D3
= -^-j^ Applying these identities to y ( we get Va + — V* + 2 And ($„ 4h
4*v 4^* 4** 4’** 4** H (S) =4(vV" 4£v‘* 4V^ 4s **■ + ■) ^■3 [ ^ y 1
=_L[v3v +^v*v +•••] l dx1 j *H A 2 J“+ J *n which are the same as (6), (7)
and (8). (3) Derivatives using central difference formulae. Stirling’s formula
(p, 964) is yfi=y<> + i Ay^+Ay-i) pz i9 p(p2- i2) - + ^7 A2y_j + f**y i 3! +
Ary _2 4! A4 y_* + ... Differentiating both sides w.r.t. />., we get dl = fAy0
+ Ay„j ^ ||2PA*T ,3p2“1 A3y j + A3y 4p3 - 2p dp 2 J I+2I ^ 3! 2 J 4? A4y_2
+ Since p = , /. ^P=I. A da: A Now dy dy dp _ 1 dx dp dx k Ay0 + Ay *2 3p
-1 + pA^y. t H - A3y j + A3y . 2p3 -p a4 12 Ay -2 + At x ~ x^p - 0. Hence
putting p - 0, we get (dy) _1 Afo + Ay - 1 1 A3y, + A3y 2 l A5y 2+A5y 3
UJ* h 2 6 2 + T * * * 30 2 Similarly (§) ^ -••■] ...(9) ...(10) Ohs. We can
similarly use any other interpolation formula for computing the derivatives.
Numerical 0 rFFEn^NTi ation & Integration 933 Example 30,1,
Given that x: 1.0 1.1 y ; 7.989 8.403 find ^ and at (a) x = 2. J dr dx~ (bYx-
1.6. 1.2 8.781 1.3 9. 129 1.4 1.5 9.451 9. 750 1.6 10.031 (V.T.V., 2006;
Madras, 2003 S) (RuhUih, 2006; J.N.T.U., 2004 S) Solution* (a) The
difference Labia is ; X .V A A3 A3 A* A* Ae 1.0 7.989 0.414 1.1 8.403 -
0.036 0.378 0,006 1,2 8.781 - 0.030 -0,002 0.348 0.004 0.001 1,3 9_1 29 -
0.026 - 0.001 0,002 0.322 0.003 0.003 1.4 9.451 -0-023 0,002 0,299 0,005
1,5 9.750 -0,018 0,281 1.6 10,031 and EL-a ($) =F[A,3,"-A'1,0*IiA,'v«-! v
/î 0.1tsc0 = 1.1, Ayw = 0.378. A^y0 = — 0.03 etc. ing these values in (e)
and (ii), we get ] (b) We use the j 0.1 '&) _ 1 l*2;,., ■ ISO " . Xi ) .(ii) M)
XU) Here h =0.1, xH - 1.6, Vy„ = 0.281, V2yn = - 0.018 etc. Putting these
values in (i) and (ii), we get (dV) WL = J- [ 0.281 + - (- 0.018) + - (0.005) +
- (0.002) + - (0.003) + - (0.002) 0,1 |_ 2 3 4 5 6 = — 0.018 + 0.005 + —
(0.002) + - (0.003) + — (0-002) I (0.1)2 L 12 6 180 J = — 0.715. = 2.75
904 Higher Engwetaing Mathematics I’.MHdph; 30,2. following

data gives the velocity of a particle for 20 seconds at an interval of 5
seconds. Find the initial acceleration using the entire data : Time, t (sec) 0 5
10 15 20 Velocity u (ml sec) : 0 3 14 69 228 l Anna, 2004) Solution. The
difference table is : t V Atr A^v Azu A7!' 0 0 a 5 3 11 8 36 10 14 55 44 60
24 15 69 159 104 20 228 An initial ai:cel ^ration f Le. — I at t = 0 is
required, we use Newton's forward formula : l dt) (-a L"sh1.2 1*3 1*4 A%
+ - A3O0 -- A4U0 +-) ($i I (8) + - (36) - <24)1 - - (3 -4 + 12 6) = 1 l. dt J 3
4 J 5 Hence the initial acceleration is 1 m/sec2. Example 30,3. A slider in a
machine moves along a fixed, straight rad. Its distance x cm. along the. rod
is given bp low for various values of the time t seconds. Find the velocity of
the slider U7id its acceleration when f ~ 0.3 seconds. /= 0 0.1 0,2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0 6 x = 30.13 31.62 32.87 33.64 33,95 33.81 33.24 (V.T.tl, 2009) Solution.
The difference table is : t ^ A Az A? A 4 A5 Ac 0 30,13 1.49 0.1 31.62 1.25
-0.24 - 0,24 0.2 32,fi7 0.77 - 0,48 0.02 0.26 -0.27 0.3 33.64 - 0,46 -0,01
0.29 0.31 0.01 0.02 0.4 33.95 -0.14 - 0.45 0.02 0,01 0.5 33.81 — 0.57 - 0.43
0,6 33.24 As the derivatives are required near Lhe middle of the table, we
use Stirling’s formulae 4" ... f — 1 1 ' Ax0 + Ax_ , ' 1-1 r A3*, j + A3jc_ 2 '
1 4 _ A5a:_2 + Asjc_3 1 dt l .~A 2 , 1 6 2 J 30 2 J
985 Numerical Differentiation A Intec ration ML-M&*X_ ! —

A4 x n 4' — AB3C -s '" 12 “ 90 3 ...00 Here h = 0.1, t(1 = 0.3, Aa:0 = 0.31,
Ax_ x = 0.77, A2x_ 1 = — 0.46 etc. Putting these values in (i) and (ii>, we
get fdx' 1 =— 1 [ 0.31 4- 0.77 I| f 0.01 + 0.02 \ _ 1 f 0.02 -0.27") u«. U 0.1
1 L 2 el , 2 1 + 30 ( 2 } f^f I = -^1-0,46- — (-0.01) + — (0.29) U^Jo.3
(0.1)* L 12 90 = - 45.6 = 5.33 Hence the required velocity is 5.33 cm/sfiC
and acceleration is — 45.6 crn/sec2. Kxatnple 30,4. Using Beftfrt‘s
formula, find f (7.5) from the following table : x : 7.47 7,48 7.49 7.50 7.51
7.52 7.53 fix): 0,193 0,195 0.198 0.201 0.203 0.206 0.208 Solution. Taking
:cn = 7.50, h = 0.1, we have p = - — — = — — D b 0.01 The difference
table is i U N T IL. 2006) X P yP A A2 A-1 A* A* A6 7.47 0.193 0.002 7.48
-2 0.195 0.003 0.001 -0.001 7.49 - i 0.198 0.003 0.000 - 0.001 0.000 0 003
7.50 0 0.201 0,002 ^£LGQ1 0,002 [L£M)J3 - 0,007 -0,01 7,51 i 0.203 0.003
0,001 - 0.002 - 0.004 7.62 2 0.206 0.002 - 0.001 7.63 3 0.208 Bessel’s
formula (p. 550) is p{p~ 1) Azy y p ~ pAy u 4" 2! 3T (p + l)pip-lHp-2) [,.-l)
(P + l>PC,-l)(,-2> 4! 2 5! ■ A5j (p + 2) p(p + 1) p(p- l)(p-2){p-3) ? , + - - - -
- - - + ■ x *41 Since p — ... h dx h Differentiating (i) w.r.t. p and putting p
= 0, we get 6! dp 1 dy dy dp 1 dy ' an dx dp dx h dp -M) (&L =s(^l.0=iK'l-‘
+A^>+sASy-' +^-=+a4>->> "i!6A5,-2~2^6!A“y-J*AS•y-^,
986 ( & 1 = — — [0.002 - — {- 0.001 + 0.001) + ~ (0.002)1
U*J7.5 0.01 [ 4 12 + — f- 0.004 + 0.003) - — (- 0.007) — (0.01 0 + 0) | 24
120 240 J [V A6y» = 0] = 0,2 + 0 + 0,01666 - 0.00683 + 0 .00416 = 0.223.
Example 110.5. Find f*(0) ft'otn tfu> following data : x : 3 5 U 27 34 fix) : -
7 3 23 899 17315 35606 Solution. As the values ol'* are not equi-spaced,
we shall use Newton’s divided difference formula. The divided difference
table is X fix) 1st div. diff. 2nd div. diff. 3rd div . diff 4th div \ diff 3 - 13 18
5 23 146 16 0.998 11 899 1025 39.96 1.003 0.0002 27 17315 2613 69.04 34
35606 Fifth difference being zero, Newton’s divided difference formula is
fix} = f{xQ) + ( x -x0) f(x0 - xt) +
987 Numerical DiFFEREhrmTiQN £ Integration Substituting the
values of Av0+ A'^j0 from the difference table, we solve this quadratic for p
f Then the corresponding values of x = x0 + pft at which > is maximum or
minimum. Example 30.6. Find the maximum and minimum value ofy from
the fallowing data . - 2 -} 0 i 2 3 4 $ * 2 - 0.25 0 -0.25 2 15,75 56 (Anna,
2004 ) Solution. The difference table is : X y A?y A5y A*y A5y - 2 2 - 2,25
- 1 -0.25 0,25 2.5 -3 0 0 - 0,25 -0,5 3 6 0 1 -0,25 0,25 2.5 9 6 0 2 2 13.75
11.6 15 6 3 15.75 40.25 26.5 4 56 Taking je0 = 0. we have yQ = 0, Ay0 = -
0.25, A2y0 = 2.5, A3y0 = 9, A\ - 6. Newton’s forward difference formula
for the first derivative gives *■»[** — iT A *> ~aT - 4 - 41 - ' — 4 » — - i
[- 0.25 + (2.5) + 1 (3,1 - 6* + 2) (9) + ~ (4,2 - 18*2 + 22x - 6) (6) M. [_ 4 tj
= I [- 0.25 + 2.5* - 1.25 + 4.5*2 - 9x + 3 + x3- 4.5z2 + 5.5* - 1.5} - x2 - x
For y to be maximum or minimum, —2^. = 0 i.e., jc3 - * = 0 dx * = 0, 1,-1
Now -1 = 3.te - I = - ve for * = 0 dx 2 = + ve for * = 1 = + ve for* = - 1 x[x
— 1) Since y = y„ + + — gi — ' + **■» = 0 Thus y is maximum for x - 0,
and maximum value = y (0 ) = 0. Also y is minimum for * = 1 and
minimum value = y (0) = - 0.25. PROBLEM'S 30.1 ).. Findy' (01 and y"
from the following table : x : 0 1 2 3 4 5 y: 4 ft IB 7 5 2 2. Find the first and
second derivatives of fix } at * = 1.6 if r ,* 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 fix) :
3.375 7.000 13.025 24.000 38.875 59.000 (S.V.TJL20Q7)
908 Higher Enqjneefwg Mathematics ■1 Find the first and second

derivatives of the function tabulated below, at the pointx = 1.1 : x: 10 1.2 l
A L6 1.8 y: 0 0.128 0.544 1.296 2.432 4, Given the lb I lowing table of
values of x and y x . 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 .¥ .'f 1.000 1.026 1.049 1.072
1.095 2.0 4.000 1.25 1.118 iU.P.TJf 2010; Bhopal. 2009) 1.30 1.140 find —
and dZy at (a) x ~ 1.05(6).r = 1.25(e) i = 1.16. dx ^ dx* 6. Fnr the
following: values of * and y, find the first derivative at x - 4. * : 1 2 4 8 10 y
: 0 1 5 21 27 From the following table, find the values of dy/dx and
cfiyldx~ at t = 2.03. 2.04 0.7473 6. x: 1.96 1.98 2.00 2.02 .v 0.7825 0.7739
G.7651 0.7563 7. Find the value of cos 1 .74 from the following tabl e : x ;
1.7 1.74 1.78 1.82 1,86 sin*; 0.9916 0.9857 0.9781 0.9691 0.9684 8. The
distance covered by an athlete for the 50 metre is given in the following
table : Time (sec) ; 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Distance (metre) : 0 2.5 8,6 15.5 24,5 36.6
50 Determine i he speed of tlie athlete at t - 5 sec. correct to two decimals.
10. 1L 12. 13. 14. 16. 1«. iV.T.U., 2008) GfJV.ar.f7., 2009) tAnnn, 2005)
(J.N.TM., 2009) (U.P.T.U., 2009) 9. The following data gives
corresponding values of pressure and specific volume of a superheated
stream. v; 2 4 6 8 10 p: 105 42.7 25,3 16.7 13 Find the rate of change of (t)
pressure with respect to volume when u = 2, (ii) volume with respect to
pressure when p - 105. The table below reveals the velocity *» of a body
during the specific time t, find its acceleration fit f = 1 . 1 ? (: 1.0 M 1.2 1.3
1.4 v r 43.1 47.7 52,1 56.4 60.8 (J N T. U., 2009) The elevntion above u
datum line of 7 points of a road is given below : x: 11 390 609 909 1200
1500 1800 y; 136 149 167 183 291 295 193 Find the gradient of the road at
the middle point. A rod is rotating in a plane. The following table gives the
angle G (radians) through which the rod has turned For various values of
the time ( second. t : 0 0.2 0.4 9.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0 0 0,12 0.49 1.12 2.02 3.20 4
67 Calculate the angular velocity and the angular acceleration of the rod,
when / = 0.6 second. ( V T. E7.p 2004) Find the value affix) at* = 0.4 from
the following table using Bessel's formula * : 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
fx) ; 0.1023 0.1047 0.1071 9.1090 (i.1122 (1.1148 rfy - fix) and yn denotes
/"(*„ + n/i), prove that, if powers of 6 above Afl be neglected. I- *Lj is ['■v‘
" * - 1 ’ ‘ s 04 ~ y- + s ,ya v-3'] [Hint; Differentiate Stirlings formula w.r.t.
x, and put x = 01 Find the value of f (8) from the table given below : x ; 6 7
9 12 fix) : 1.566 t .690 1.908 2,168 Find the f (6) from the following data :
* : 9 2 3 4 7 S fix) : 4 26 58 112 466 922 (U.P.T.U., 2006) f Anna , 2007)
(J.N.TU, 2009; r.P.TJf 2008 \
989 Numerical equation & In teo ration ! 7. Find the maximum
and minimum values , ... yn for* - xfr xlP x2, ... xn, (Fig. 30.1) Let us
divide the interval (c, b) into n sub-intervals of width h so that x0 = a, x, =
x0 + h, x2 = xv + 2A, ... xn = xQ + nh = b. Then / - fixSdx =k f f{x0 + rh)
dr, putting x = xQ + rh , dx - hdr = fix'isS >1) >1 #2 yn O x0 + h jrn + 2h
fig- 30-1 -*r „ r{r - 1) a , r(r -l}(r- 2) ^ >0 + ^ Ay0 + - ■ A y0 + - — - A^v0
2! 3! r fr - 1) (r - 2) (r — 3) ,4 r (r -l) 6! dr x0+nh X [By Newton’s forward
interpolation formula! Integrating term by, we obtain nh fX.y H nh ! f(x)dx
= nh n , n(2n-3) ,a n(n - 2)2 3 * + 2 ^ + 12 A'-V" + 24 4 *> f n* 3ft3 lift55 '
A*y0 ( n5 A [5 2 3 J 4! ( 6 •d35n3 50nz „ + - + 12n. 225ft3 274ft2 J4 , 4 n
x. 1 ‘tf 1 - +■ 17ft - 4 - 60f( e 43 'l 6! + *•* ...(A) This is known as Newton
-Cotes quadrature formula. From this general formula, we deduce the
following important quadrature rules by taking 11 = 1, 2, 3 ... 30.6
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE Putting ft = 1 in (A) § 30,5 and taking the curve
through {xy, yD) and (x,( y,) as a straight line i.e. a polynomial of first order
so that differences of order higher than first become zero, we get
990 Higher Engjoclhwg Mathematics Similarly +h fix) dx = h (Vo
+ - Ay0 j = ~ 'n _ j + yj, n being even. JXn tin -2W i 3 Adding all these
integrals, we have (when n Ls even) j-i-jj, +nii fa [ /■(x) dx = — I(y0 + y„)
+ 4(yj + y3) + ... + yn _ t) + 2(y2 + + ... + y„ _ 2)J This is known as the
Simpson's one^third rule or dimply Simpson's rule and is most commonly
used, Obs. White applying Simpson*# J / 3rd rule, the given interval must
be divided into even number of equal subinter utils, aiuce we find the arta
of two strips at a Lime, 30.8 SIMPSON'S THREE-EIGHTH RULE Putting
n = 3 in (A) above and taking the curve through Or , yj; i- 0, 1, 2, 3 as a
polynomial of third order so that differences above the third order vanish,
we get £ fix ) dx = 3h [ y0 4 - Ay0 4 - A2yQ 4 - A3y0 J = “ty0 + 3>i +
3>2+J'3l Similarly, r-Kti + nh 3A fix) dx = — iy3 4 3y4 + 3ys 4 ys) and so
on. + XQ + rifl O Adding all such expressions from x0 tox0 4 nh, where n
is a multiple of 3, we obtain f Xp + nh 3 fi 1 fix) dx = — f(y0 4 y„) 4 3(y, 4
y2 4 y„ 4 y3 4 ... 4 yn _ ,) 4 2(y3 +yG + ... + yn ,3I J^(i 8 which is known as
Simpson's three-eighth rule. Oli*?. While applying Simpson 's 3 /8th rule,
the number of sub -intervals should be taken as multiple of 3.
Numerical Differentiation & iNTE&RAnoN 991 BOOLE'S

RULE Putting n - 4 in (A) above and neglecting all differences above the
fourth, we obtain tix - 4 A ( y0 + 24ya | A2 j/0 + | A3y0 + ~ A4 ya j
Similarly f V/f i fix) dx = — (7y4 + 32v- + 12y6 + 3 2y7 ± 7 ys) and so on.
J%-f4A 45 Adding all these integral*? from x(} to + nh „ where n is a
multiple of 4, we get P + "* fix) dx = ^ (7y0 + 32 yt + 12ya + 32y3 + 1 4y4
+ 3 2y5 + 12yfi + 32y7 + I4yB + 45 This is known as Boole’s rule. Obs*
While applying Booths rulet the number of sub-intervals should be taken as
a multiple of 4 2 h - — (?V0 + 32yj + I2ys + 32ya + 7ye) 2 k 30.10
WEDDLE'S RULE Putting n = 6 in {A) above and neglecting all
differences above the sixth, we obtain [ u fix) tlx = fyo + 3Ay0 + — AEy0 +
4A3y0 + A4y0 + ~ Aejc0 + ” ■ - A6y0 | J* 1° J0 2 0 0 60 20 ° tt 140 °J 41 3
If we replace A6y0 by — A^>r0, the error made will be negligible. fifl+GA
^ ^ 4 3ft ; f(x)dx = ^-iy0 + &yt +y3 + 6y3 + y4 + 5y5+y0) 1U Similarly rxo
J, „ 6Jr ^ *** = 10 ^ + ^ + ^ + ^ + yi° + 5^11 + y‘2> and S° °n’ Adding all
these integrals from .*0 to x0 + nA, where n is a multiple of 6, we get fjtfl +
rifi , . 3A # „ _ I fix) dx = — iy0 + 5y, + y2 + 6ys + y4 + 5yfi + 2y^ + &y7
+ yH + ...) 10 This is known && Weddle's rule Olw. While applying
Weddle's rule the number of subuitervah should be taken as a multiple of 6.
Weddle's rule is generally more accurate than any of the others. Of the two
Simpson rules, the 1/3 rule is better. 3ft re dx * * * Example 30.7. Evaluate
— —5- by 'using (i) Trapezoidal rule, Jo / + jr~ (i) Simpson’s 1 /.? rule, (it)
Simpson's 3/S rule, iiii) Weddle’s rate and compare the results with its
actual value. {Mumbai. 2&Q5) iJ N T.U,, 2008 J (V.T.U., 2008) Solution.
Divide Lhe interval (0, 6) into six parts each of width A - 1. The values of
fix) = - - x are given 1 + ar below : * fix) =y 0 1 yn 1 0,5 ,v. 2 0.2 Vk 3 0 1
>3 4 G 6 QiliSfcW 0.0385 0.027 ys yfl
Higher Engineering Mathematics (£) By Trapezoidal rule, 1 h io
777* ~ 2 ILv,) + y&) + 2 + 2yJ Jo 1 + X o = - til + 0.027) + 3(0.5 + 0.2 +
0.0588 + 0.0385) + 2(0. 1)1 = 1.3571. O (to) By Weddle’s rule, r6 1 ’ih j, —
r = + By, + ya + 6y3 + y4 5yfi + ye] = 0.31 1 + 5(0-5) + 0.2 + 6(0.1) +
0.0588 + 5(0.0385) + 0.0271 = 1.3736. Also, =1.4 Ju l + is 1 Jo -4056 Oh*
This shows that the value of the integral found by Weddle’s rule is the
nearest to the actual value followed by its value given by Simpson's t/3rd.
Example 30-8- Use the Trapegpidal i«.te to estimate the integral f e** dx
taking 10 intervals, Jo [U.P.T.U., 2008) Solution. Let y — a1 , h = 0.2 and n
= 10. The values of x and y are as follows : * : 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
1.6 L8 2-H .v: 1 yt > 1.0408 1.1735 y b 1 .4333 y* 1.8964 >4 2.1782 y& 4
2206 ya 7.0993 y 7 12.9358 25.5337 >2 M.rmi By Trapezoidal rule, we
have J'l a /i o dx = 2 l(y° +yiBJJ 0.2 = — |(1 + 54.5981) + 2(1.0408 +
1.1735 + 1.4333 + 1.89G4 JUI + 2.178 + 4.2206 + 7.0993 + 12-9358 +
25.5337}| Hence f* e*‘ dx = 17.0621. Jo C" » _ iExample 30.9. Use
Simpson '& 1 1 3rd rule to find I e dx by taking seven t y duitites. (V.T.U ,
SOU ; Bhopal, 2009 ) Solution. Divide the interval (0, 0.6) into six parts
each of width /i — 0.1. The values of y — fix) = e 1 are given below :
Num£kical Different; ati om & Integration 993 X 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.5 0,6 *a 0 0.01 0,04 0.09 0.16 0.25 0.36 y 1 0.9900 0.9608 0.9139 0.8521
0.7788 0.6977 fflk % y 4 *v5 y* By Simpson's l/3rd rule, we have io dx = 3
10,(1 + + 4 y* Vi ^4 % >* f1 4 3 h Jo 2 'V (bc = ~8 l('v° + + 2(-v^ + 3(-vi
+yz + y4 + M = | (0.2) [7.7336 + 2(3.1660) + 3 (13.3247)3 = 4.053 o f\ 4
Hence (sin x - log,, x + ex)dx = 4.053. J<>.2 till*. Applications of
Simpson’s rule. If the various ordinates in 530 5 represent equispaced ctos
^sectional ureas, then Simpson*® rule gives the volume of the solid. As
such, Simpson’s rule is very useful to dvii engineers for cal culu ting the
amount of earth that must be moved to (111 a depression or make a dam.
Similar if the ordinates denote velocities at equal intervals of time, the
Simpson’s rule gives the distance travelled. The following examples
illustrate these applications. Example 30. 1 ) , The velocity 1? [km! min) of
a moped which starts from rests, is given at fixed interval?} of time t (min)
as follows : t : 2 4 6 S 10 12 U m is 20 y -■ 10 is 25 29 32 20 11 5 2 0
Estimate approximately the distance covered, in 20 minutes. ds Solution. If
5 km be the distance covered in t (min), then, — =u dt 20 f=!J (“20 h = J t>
dl - — \X + 4.0 + 2E\ , by Simpson's rule Hence h = 2, e0 = 0, = 10, v2 =
18, t>s = 25 etc. X - y„ + l>10 ~ 0 + 0 = 0
994 Hiuheh Matthew a O = tJj + v.d + vE + v7 + vQ = 10 + 25 +

32 + 1 1 + 2 ~ 80 E - l/2 + u4 + tf6 + ug = 18 + 29 + 20 + 5 = 72 Hence the
required distance — s 20 (0 + 4 * 80 + 2 x 72) f=0 = 309.33 km* Example
30,12, T/ie velocity v of a particle ai distance s from a point on its linear
path is given by the following table ; s ( m } ; 0 2.5 5,0 7.5 100 12.5 15,0
17.5 20.0 v (m /sec) : 16 19 21 22 20 17 13 11 9 Estimate the time taken by
the particle to tracers the distance of 20 metres, using Boole's rule. )
(U.P,TM, 2007) ds or Solution, If f sec be the time taken to traverse a
distance s (in) then — = u dt dt i — = “ = 3' (say), ds v tlien h = 20 p=0 f20
= l yds Here Also h = 2.5 and (i - 8 1 1 1 111 1 1 1 >0” 16*y,~l
9,^‘4^3“22'^"20,^_17,y6î3,>7“ll^B“9 by Booled Rulew, we have s = 2G t
*=0 r20 2 h lu = 45 l7j° + 32-Vl + 12j>2 + :i2}':t + 14-V-* + A2yh + l2'Ve
+ 32yi + l4'v«l 212.5) U1 -) r 32 f — ] + 12 1 — 1 + 32[ 1 LWJ - ) + 32 f —
1 45 III sj UsJ ' 21 J L 2 2) i 21 0) ll7 i l2(n)+32(.n)+14(i)] = ±(12.11776) =
1.35 9 Hence the required time = 1.35 sec. Exuiitpfe 30.13. A solid of
revolution is formed by rotating about the x-axis, the urea between tin x-ax
the lin.ee x = 0 and x ~ t and a curve through the points with the following
co-ordinates x: 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 LOO V ; 1.0000 0.9896 0.9589 0.9089
0.8415 Estimate the volume of the solid formed using Simpson ’s rule.
Solution. Here h = 0.25, y0 = 1 , y t — 0.9896, y,, — 0.9589, etc. Required
volume of the solid generated {Raipur, 200 ~ £ Jrv2 dx = ji ■ | [iyl + y<2) +
Myf + y£ ) + 2y£\ = 0.25 "■ [(I + (0.8415)*] + 41(0.9896)* + (0.9089)2) +
2(0,0589)*J & 0.25x3.1416 (1.7081 + 7.2216 + 1.8391 = 0.2618 (10.7687)
= 2 8] 92.
NilJvigFHCAL DlFfeUENlWKX & IPtTEGRATitJN 995

PROBLEMS 30.2 I Evaluate f npplying iij l +x U) Trapezoidal rule (lii)
Simpson’s ti/Hth rule dx 2* Evaluate f Jo 1 UN. T. U. „ 2009) Hi)
Simpson's V3rd rale using (i) Trapezoidal rule taking A = 1/4 W) Simpson's
l/3rd rule taking h = 1/4 Uii) Simpson's MHh rule inking h = 1/6, (w)
Weddle's rule taking A = l/6« Hence compute an approariniate value of tt in
each ruse. (Munzhai, 2004) UJ.N.T.IL, 2008) OJ F T.Ut 2010 ; V.T, at 2007
> {Bhopal, 2009 ) dx r u dx h Find an approximate value uflag 5 by
calculating to 4 decimal places, by Simpson's 1/3 rule, I - * dividing Jo 4x +
5 the range into 10 equal parts, (Anno,, 2005) 4- Evaluate x sec x dx using
eight interval a by Trapezoidal rule, Jo B- Evaluate using SimpHon sc= - rd
rule 3 tls 10, Use Hm. 11, The f /rw 4.2 1.4361 4.4 1.4816 4.6 1 .6261 4.8
1,5686 5.0 L60EI4 (ft) SSippson's l/8rd rule, r K, 200(51 W) Weddle^ rule r
ipute J e Jo CQIUI 'sin .t dx. '{£) as a function of time : 5 6 7 76 70 60
Using Sin, 12, A curve i x : y ; -*■ Estimate the area uuunded by the tu< .
■he Following table : 3.5 4 2.6 -* 1 rr . = 4, 5.2 1.64^7 . i (U.P.T.U., 2009>
tU.P.T.U., 2006 } (J.VTf/., 2007) (U.P.T.U.. 2009) (V.T.U., 2009) {U.P.T.U.,
2007) {K.-rala, 2002) iV.T.U., 206m (U,P.T.U.,200Ht tJ.N.T ll, 2007)
{Bhopal, 2007)
996 Higher Engineering Mathematics i 3. A river if 80 Ft wide,

The depth d In feet at a distance x ft. from one bank is given by the
following table : * : tl 10 20 30 40 50 GO 70 80 y : 0 4 7 9 12 15 14 8 3
Kind approximately the area of the cross-section. (fioht.ak, 2005) It. A
curve is drawn to pass through the points given by following table : 1 15 2
2.5 3 3.6 4 y: 3 2.4 2.7 2.8 3 2.6 2.1 Using Weddle's rule, estimate the area
bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the linear * 1,,v - 4.(V,T,U„ 2011 $) in.
A body is in the form of a solid of revolution. The diameter D in mis of its
sections at distances x cm. from the one end lire given below. Estimate the
volume of the solid. xi 0 2.5 6.0 7.5 10.0 12.6 13-0 D t 6 5,5 6,0 6.76 6.25
5.5 4.0 10. The velocity v of a particle at distances s from a point on its path
is given by the table : 17. s ft .' 0 ID 20 30 40 f ft/sec ? 47 58 64 65 61
Estimate the time taken to travel 60 ft. by using Simpson's 1/3 rule
Compare the result with Simpson's 3/8 rule. The following table gives the
velocity v of n particle at time f : t (second) : 0 2 4 6 8 u lm/sec) : 4 6 16 34
60 50 52 10 94 60 38 12 130 Find t he distance moved by the particle in 12
seconds uud also the acceleration at ( - 2 sec. W.P.T.U., 2007) (Madras,
2003) (S.V.T.U., 2007 1 16. A rocket is launched from the ground. Its
acceleration is registered during the first 80 seconds and is given in the
table below. Using Simpson's — rd rule, find the velocity of1 the rocket at /
= 8(1 seconds. 3 t sec : 0 10 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 /■(cm/sec*) : 30 31.63
83.34 35.47 37.75 40.33 43.25 46.69 50.67 (Mumbaii 2004) 1 9. A reservoir
discharging water through sluices at a dept h h below the water surface has
a surface area A for various values of ft as given below : h (ft. ) : 10 11 12
13 14 A (sq.ft.) : 950 1D70 1200 158-' If t denotes time in minutes, the rate
of fall of the surface i* cn n by dhkli 18.//! I A. Estimate the time taken for
the water level to fall from 14 to 10 i above the ices. 30.12 OBJECTIVE
TYPE OF QUESTIONS PROBLEMS 30.3 Select the correct answer or fill
up the blanks in the following quest tons fix — — by Bim peon’s rule is Cl
1 + X ia) G,9CJ315 (M 0.63915 fc) 0-69316 Id) 2. Using forward
differences, the formula for /"'fa) = ... & Jn application of Simplon's 1/3
ode, the interval h for duser approximation should he ... t /trHfi given by x :
0 0.5 1 f(x): 1 0.0 0.5, J'l ftx) dx is (j
NUMERICAL OlFf EREN-ftATfON & INTEGRATION 5. If * m

0 0 0.5 0,25 1,5 2.25 2 4 J>2 /(*} t&c by Simpson's 1/3 rd rule is ... 0 6. Si
rope on’s 3/5 th rule states that ... 7. For the data : t : 3 6 9 y(t) : -I 1 2 12 3,
fP i the- value of y(t)dt when computed by Simpsim’s -rd rule is 1$ ' 3 3,
The* value of by Simpson’s J/3rd rule (takings = 1/4) is (a) 15 (6) 10 18 (b)
25 CO 16 1 1 . The expression for j -“j id) m. using backward differences is
... 1 2. Tlie number of strips required in Weddle’s rule is ... 1 3. The number
of strips required in Simpson’s 3/Sth rule is a multiple of (ft) 1 (5) 2 Cc) 3
m 6. J t. lfy0- l.y, - ,y3 = t .>3 = tt: -.V4 - ^»nd A = then using Trapezoidal
rule, f yrtx =17 5 25 4 4 Jo 25 fl dx 15, Using Simpson's i rd rule, f = ...
(taking n = 4). 3 Jo * 1 5 If y0 - 1, y j v 0.5, y„ » 0.2. ,v3 = 0.1, y,, - 0,06, ys
= 0.04 and ys = 0.03, then I yiix by Simpson's ■- th . rule it? « ... Jo 8 IT
lf/(0l = l.fO) = 2.7. fm = lA. fm r, S0d,/K4> - 54.6 and A = 1, then f fix) tlx
by Simpson’s ±«1 rule = ... Jo 3 SimpsorTs [f$rd rule and direct irtegrafiiin
give the same result if J'xji ydx by Simpson's l/3rd rule as well as Simpson's
3/8th rule, the numberof intervals should be % and . respectively, -ML
Whenever Trapesmdal rule .if; applicable, Simps on1?- 1 /3rd rule can also
be applied. r- r r '
Difference Equations | - - - - - - - - ’I I 1. Introduction. 2.
Definition. 3. Formation of difference equations. 4v Linear difference
equations. S. Rules for . ! finding complementary function. 6. Rules tor
finding particular integral. 7. Simultaneous difference equations With I
constant coefficients 8. Application to deflection of a loaded string. 9.
Objective Type of Questions. 31.1 INTRODUCTION Difference calculus
also forms the basis of Difference equations. These equations arise in all
situations in which sequential relation exists at various discrete values of
the independent variable. The need to work with discrete functions arises
because there are physical phenomena which are inherently of a discrete
nature. In control engineering, it often happens that the input is in the form
of discrete pulses of short duration. The radar tracking devices receive such
discrete pulses from the target which is being tracked. As such differences
equations arise in the study of electrical networks, in the theory of
probability p in statistical problems and many other fields. Just as the
subject of Differential equations grew out Differential calculus to become
one of the most powerful instruments in the hands of a practical
mathematician when dealing with continuous processes in nature, so the
subject of Difference equations is forcing its way to the fore for the
treatment of discrete processes. Thus the difference equations may be
thought of as the discrete counterparts of the differential equations. 31.2
DEFINITION (1) A difference equation is u relation between the
differences of an unknown function at one or more general values of the
argument. Thus AV, !)+>■(„) =2 -Cl) and Ayin , „ + „ = 1 ...(2) are
difference equations. An alternative way of writing a difference equation is
as under : Since Ay(n ( ,> = >,„ 4 2) —y(n 1 1)( therefore (1) may be
written as y tn * 2) "J'u + ij +.)w= ^ —(3) Also since, _ j, = + , , — 2ytn) +
yin _ J)P therefore (2) takes the form : y
DfH tfiEWCE Equations 999 t'Hi'. . While finding the order of a
difference equation, it must always be expressed in a form free of As, for
the highest power of A does not give order of the difference equation. (3)
Solution of a difference equation is an expression fory{n) which satisfies
the given difference equation. The general solution of a difference equation
is that in which the number of arbitrary constants is equal to the order of the
difference equation. A particular solution nr particular integral is that
solution which is obtained from the general solution by giving particular
values to the constants. FORMATION OF DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
and The following examples illustrate the way in which difference
equations arise and are formed. Example 31,1, Form the difference equation
corresponding to the family of curves y = ax + bx2 Solution, We have Ay =
aA(x) + 6A(x2) = a (x + 1 - x) + b\(x + l)2 - xA] = a + b(2x + 1) A2y =
261U + l)-xl = 26 To eliminate o and 6, we have from (iii). 6 = t A^y Mm ...
(ii) ...(Hi) and form (ii), a = Ay - 6 (2r + 1> = Ay ~ ^ A2v (2r + 1)
Substituting these values of a and 6 in ft), we get y = Ay - A2y (2x + l}Jx +
^ A2y . or or and (x2 + Jr) A2}' - 2x Ay + 2y = 0 This is the desired
difference equation which may equally well be written in terms of E as (x2
+ x) yx 1 2 - (2x2 + 4xjyA „ , + (x2 + 3x + 2 )yx = 0. Exam pie 31.2. From
yn = A2n + B(- 3F, derive a difference equation by eliminating the
constants. Solution. We have yn ~ A.2n + B(- 3)fl,yn + , “ 2A.2" - 3 B(- 3)"
yti + z = 4A.2" + 9B(- 3)". Eliminating A and B, we get Vn 1 1 y** J 2 “3
JWa 4 9 which i>s thi* desired difference equation. = ° "r + PROBLEMS
31.1 I < Write the difference equal inn A3}^ + A*>q +- Ayx, -h>r =0 in the
subscript notation. |flfT _ £) Assuming — - = y0 + yxz + y^2 + f ytlzw\ _
find the difference equations satisfied by yn 1. HK -2 3, Form a difference
equation by eliminating arbitrary constant from un - n2n * K t Anwn,
2QOH} 1. Find the difference equation saiislied by (i) y =r tilx t b
{Tiru^kimpaUi, 2001) (ii)y = ax1 - bx. 5, Deri vo the difference equations
in each of the following cases : Ci) yfl = A.3« + R5'J (ti) ya = (A + Bx) 2*. f
Madras, 200 J ) 6. Farm the difference equations generated by U)yn - ax +
ft 2* fii)yn =a2" + 6(- 2Y' = off + 63* t
1000 Higher Engineering Mathematics 31.4 LINEAR
DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS (UDef. A linear difference equation is that in
which yn + }t yn + 2, etc. occur to the first degree only and are not
multiplied together. A linear difference equation with constant coefficient is
of the form y* + r + afyn+r-l + atf„+r-2+ W *"(1) where wlf then the
solution of (1) is yn = Cj(a + ip)'1 + e2fa - i|3)ft [Put a - r cos 8 and [J = r
sin 8J - r11 [Cjfcoa n(i + i sin nG) + c2 (cos n8 - i sin n8)J
tool Difference Equations - r* lA, cos n0 + A2 sin /i0| where A ,,
A,, are arbitrary' constants are r = t \f ) , 0 = tan- 1 ((Vot). (3) In general, to
solve the equation yn + f + a^yn + f _ 2 + ... + ctryn = 0 where a’s are
constants : (i) Write the equation in the symbolic form {Er + aJEr~ ! + ... +
a,tyn = 0. (it) Write down the auxiliary equation Le., Er + atEr~ 1 ... + ar =
0 and solve it for E. iiii) Write the solution as follows : Roots of A, E. 1. Xt.
X.,, XH, . (real and distinct roots) 2. Xj. X j, Xg . <2 real and equal roots) 3.
X,. Xj, X,, . <3 real and equal roots) 4. « + if), « - 1|) . ta pair of imaginary
rools) Solution, t.e. C.F CjtXj r + rjtX,,)" + 0^X3 )" + . (Cj + CjflXXjj'1 +
CjfXj)" + . fe, 4 cî * e3nzi (ytF 4 r"(Cj cos 0 + cfisin H0I where r = 4 (V!)
and 0 = tan 1 (pS/ttJ Example 31 .3. Solve the difference equation un + 3 -
2uh +fi — 5un tJ+ 6un - 0, Solution. Given equation in symbolic form is
(E3 - 2E- - bE + 6)«n = fl its auxiliary equation is E3 - 2EA — 5E + 6 = 0
or (E — 1){E + 2)(E - 3) = 0. E=l,-2,3 Thus the complete solution is =
Cj(l)" + c3(- 2F + cg(3r. Example 3 1 A. Solve un + 2 - 2u)t + s + un — 0.
.Solution, Given difference equation in symbolic form is (E2 - 2 E + 1) i*lt
= 0. its auxiliary equation is E2 - 2E + 1 = 0 nr {E - l)2 = 0. E - 1, 1 Thus
the required solution is un = (c, + c2nXl>", i.e., un = Cj 4 c2n. Example
31.5, Solve yn + ; - 2y,. cos o + yrj _ 0. Solution. This is a second order
difference equation in y„_1 which in symbolic form is {E2- 2Ecosa + Dy^
= 0 The auxiliary equation is E2 - 2E cos ct + I = 0 „ 2 cos a + J(4 cos2 a -
4) „ . . E - - - - - cos a ± 1 sin ot 4 Thus the solution is yn _ t = (IF - 1 [c, cos
in - 1 lot 4 e2 sin in - Ikx) or yn = ct cos no. 4 c3 sin na. Example 31.fi. The
integers 0, 1, I 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 22, .... are. said to form a Fibonacci sequence.
Form the Fibonacci difference equation and solve it. Solution. In this
sequence, each number beyond the second, is the sum of its two previous
number. Ifyn be the nth number then yn= y„ ( + y„ _ 2 for n > 2. or ^[ + 2-^
+ l-.v„ = 0(forn>0) or (E2 - E - lj(yn = 0 is the difference equation. Its A.E.
is E2 - E — 1 = 0 which gives E = ^ (1 ± ^5 ). Thus the solution is fi + JS'l
2 fi-Tsf II 2 J + Cr> l 2 J , for n > 0
1002 Higher Enqixes.fi img Mat he ma tit: a When n = l,y = 0
When n = 2, y2 = 0 M u\ fi-VS'l { 2 ! 2 2 > 1 + Vs f i - Vs + Cr. = 0 = 0 -.-
(I) ..XU) Solving (i) and (ii), we get 5- & , 5 + V5 ci- 10 a«dc2- 1Q Hence
the complete solution is 5 — V5 'l + V5 T 5 + VS fl- Vs’'" *„ = 10
PROBLEMS 31.2 Solve ihe following difference equations : 1* + 3 - Grij,
+ | + Sh/^ = 0. 2. J„ + 2 +.vn * i + ^yn ~ 3- A2wPf + 2Awri +
„.3+H3ym.,^Q I Hint. E* s - 16 = 16 [co* (2n + IJn + / sin (2/i + l )k\ ; use
De Moivrt^ Lheoreui,| ri. Show that the difference equation lm t j - (2 +
rp/r} 1 ... + l = 0 has the solution. Tm = si nh (n - m) aJuinh in - I) a, if I =
f0 and In = 0. a being = 2 sinh' 1 ^ (r(/r)l^r 13. A series of values ofyfj
satisfy the relation, yfl + 2 + RVrt + l + by Given that ,v0 = 0, y { = 1,^ - -
2. Shaw thatyfl = sin nn/d. ] I. A plant is such that each of its seeds when
ono year old produce* 8-fold and produces 18-fold when two years old or
more, A seed is planted and as soon as a new seed is produced it is planted.
Taking yn U> be the number of seeds produced at die end of the nlh year,
show1 that yA + s + 18(y t + >v + ... + L >. Hence show thatyrf # 2 - 9yrt t
x - 10yfr = 0 end Find yn. 31.6 RULES FOR FINDING THE
PARTICULAR INTEGRAL Consider the equation y r + + r , + ... + tiryn =
/In) which in symbolic form is (E) = Er + a, Er~ ... + ar Then the particular
integral is given by P.I. = } /In ). plA) Case I. When fin) = an P.I. 1 $iE) an,
put E = a <>(«) If = 0, than for the equation ^ an = na n ~ 1 £tn, provided
i{Ka ) * O = P.L ss E ...U)
Difference Equations 1003 (it) (E - a)2yn = an, P.I. = „ n(n-l) „_9
2, a" 2 nT 1 „ n(n - l)(n - 2) P.I. = - Tan = - r-j - a" (E - a)3 3 ! (E - a) (Hi)
(E-V = a\ and ho on. Example 31 .7. Solve yn + s - l + n(n - l)2n 3. Case II.
When fin ) = sin kn. f J&n — ikn \ where a = e,k and b = e~ J*. Now
proceed as in case I. P.I. = * sin kn- ^ (£) — e 2 i 2; _J_ - 1 feal (£■> 4 >
(£) (2) When fin) — cos kn P.I. = cos kn = ^ jkn 1 2 4>t£) + e - ifen % 1 .0"
+-JL.&" 2 as before Now proceed as in case I. Exam pie 31 .3. Solve yti
+J? - 2 cos a .yn + } + yn = cos
1004 H:aKEF> EteGlNEEFtrNG MATBEMATtCS and e + - iOji
(E - f‘“)(E - e~ia) (E - eia )(E - e 1(1 } [Put E = e'“i [Put E = e m[ IE pLa-
e~m 1 e,ajl+- 1 E-e 1 - ion -e -JH - ICC It* e — e 1 I KIP, 1 iinn i 4i sin a E
~ eia 1 V ,a i qj 1 cq 4 i sin a [n . - * 1 — n e~ “ 1 !1 2 sin a Hence the
complete solution is tot pi — 1 ) - ial.il - 1) e — e % n sin (n, — 1) a 2 sin
tx yR = c, cos an + ca sin txn + Case HI. When fin) = nP. P.I. = n sin (n - 1)
a 2 sin a 1 ■tr = nf> ${E)
(1 + A))- 1 in ascending powers of A by the Binomial theorem as

far as the term in tsP, (2) Expand nP in the factorial form (p. 950} and
operate on it with each term of the expansion. Example 31.10. Solve ylt -
4yn - n2 + n - 1. Solution. Given equation is (E2 - 4)yn = /i2 + rt - 1, The
auxiliary equation, is E2 - 4 = 0, E = ± 2. C.F. =cl(2)'* + ca(-2P. (Madras,
1999* PA. = E2 -4 (n2 + n- 1) (1 + Af - 4 ktn - 1} + 2n. - 1[. A + 2A 1 +
(I*+t)+(!*+t)+-],u,,+*w-11 |{nia + 2|n) - 11 _i|1 + |a + 1a3 3 1 3 9 ...}l[»|2 +
2[nJ- 1} = - | |[/fj2 + 2|n]^l + |(2[nl + 2) + H n2 7 17 Hence the complete
solution is ya - c12fl + ca(— 2)n - — - n , Case IV. When fin) = an F{n),
Fin), being a polynomial of finite degree in n. P-I. = -±- -a“ Fin) = a“ — 1-=
Fia ) ${E) (aE) Now Fin) being a polynomial in n , proceed as in case 111.
E.vo mple 31.1 1. Solve yn + 2- 2yh + , + yH = n2 . 2n. Solution. Given
equation is (E2 - 2E + \)yn - n2 . 2n. Its C.F. = Cj + c2n (Nagpur, 2008)
P.I.=
1005 Difference Equations = 2n(l + 2A)~ 2 /i(ft - 1) + 71 = 2n(l -
4A + 12A2-..,) (ln]s + In]) - 2n |[n]2 + [n| - 4(2(nl + 1) + 12 x 2| - 2" (|rtlz-
7[n] + 20) = 2" ( n 2 - 8 n + 20) Hence the complete solution is + c2n + 2'1
(n2 - 8k + 20). PROBLEMS 31.3 Smlve Lhe fd lowing diflurriK-r
equation* : i>n*2 -5J,(r^,= 4". ,yfl ’ T— ' II >T dr ii 2L >V.*2 s \y9 = yv =
o. 3+ 3 ■yp = 1 4. >'n * a -fy«+i + *. y«= 6, given that jd = 0 ^nd ys = 2, 5.
(FJ 4 E + ’% = $\ 6. y\ + a -4yy + 1+4y. = 3.2* + 5.4V 7 . “n*2 — tfr| " cos
n./d2. (Madras, 2001 S) fi. ^.2 -(2. C08|)yp + 1+^-8iap/2. 9. (F/4)yx = x3-l.
10. -Vn + 3 + >V = s >lZ + Lv0 = .Vj = y2 = 0 11. ■^(i |3 -+ 3+ 3>*-,+ I +
9,Vn = a* + 3«. 12. (4F.3- 4A’+ \)y = 2" + 2r\ (Mnrfnu, 2fl0f) 13y.,*2 + fy*
. I + <5.v„ = n * 2rt14. U* + 3 + eiij(+i + 9i/L = :*2* + : 3* + 7. 15l'n + 3 +
tyn = V2n + 3) 16. «n+a 17. (E3 5 £ + 6)y* = 4* (*2-lr + 5). (Madras, 2003)
iV/ra*2wm {Kot-tayam, 2005 ) [Tirx furtipotli, 2001) (Nagpur, 2009)
[Nagpur, 2V0S) (Nagpur, 2005 i 18. (E-- 2 E + 4^n — ~2': jfi cos + 2 & sin
™ j • 19. A beam of length l, supported at n points carried a uniform loodii'
per unit length. The bending moments M M.j ..... M„ at the supports satisfy
the Clapeyron*9 equation ; Af,.8+4Af,( t + Mr=- | wt* If a team weighing
30 kg is supported at its ends and at two other supports dividing the team
into three equal parts of 1 metre length, show that Lhe bending moment at
each of Lhe two middle supports is 1 kg metre. 31.7 SIMULTANEOUS
DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS The
method used Fur solving simultaneous differential equations with constant
coefficients also applies to simultaneous difference equations with constants
coefficients. The following example illustrates the technique. Example 31.
12. Solve the simultaneous difference equations * ; + '* - 3ux = * 3“x + vx
+ i- Gvx = * subject to the conditions u 1~ 2, = 0. Solution. Given equation
in symbolic form, are (E — 3)ux + vx = x 3ux + {E- 5}^ = 4* .MO
Operating the first equation with E - 5 and subtracting the second from it,
we get |f£ - 5) (E - 3) - 3]uy = (£ - 5)x - 4* or ( E 2 - 8E + 12)ka. = 1 - 4x -
4X . . 4 19 4X Its solution is M„ = r, 2* + c., 6* - — x — — + — * 1 £ 5 25
4 ...(HO Substituting the value of ut from (m) in (i), we get „ ™ _ 2x 34 4*
2>-3e, 6*- T-2S~T ...iiv) Taking Uj = 2, = 0, in (HO and we obtain r,4 74 2c
+ dr- = — 2c - 18r = — zl , -t- ix 2 - > M i ±or2 25 Cj ~ 1.33, ( j = - 0.0167
when
1006 Higher Engineering Mathematics Hence ux = 1 .33.2* -
0.0167.6* - 0.8* - 0.76 + 4* - * ux = 1.33.2* - 0,05.6* - 0,6a: - 1.36 - 4X~K
PROBLEMS 31 .4 Solve Lite following simultaneous difference equations :
1. y, ♦ i~V=2U + = n. 2. ylt t x - yn * 2z,f f t - 0, r,( + , - *B — 2>'n = 2", 3.
un + , + n = 3«b + % vn, + * - n = u(1 + 2^, given «„ = 0, vQ- 3. I. li^ + , +
vx + - !, Ux + (J4 4 ! + u>± = X, H J + l>, + ^,^=21, 31.8 APPLICATION
TO DEFLECTION OF A LOADED STRING Consider a light string of
length / stretched tightly between A and B. Let the forces P{ be acting at its
eqoispaced points xt (i = lf 2, n - 1} and perpendicular toAf? resulting in
small transverse displacements yt at these points (Fig. 31.1K Assuming the
angle 0. made hy the portion between ^ and x( + 1 with the horizontal, to be
small, we have sin = tan = 0p and cos 0A = 1 Fie- it-i If T be the tension of
the string at xir then T cos Bt = T the tension may be taken as uniform.
Taking ^ + t - xi - ft, we have y( + J - y, = ft tan 0, = ft 6, ...( 1) yi — yf _ j =
ft tan 6^ _ t - ft6; _ , ...(2} Also resolving the forces in equilibrium at 1 to
AS, we get T sin 0/j — T sin 0^ _ j + P. = 0 i.e. T (0f - fl( _ 4) + - 0 „.(3)
Eliminating 0, and 0- _ , from (1), (2) and <3), we obtain which is a
difference equation and its solution gives the displacements^. To obtain the
arbitrary constants in the solution, we take y0 -yn - 0 as the boundary
conditions, since the ends A and B of the string are fixed. K sample 31.13, A
light string stretched between two fixed Jiails 120 cm apart, carries U loads
of weight 5gm. each at equal intervals and the resulting tension is 500 gm
weight. Show that the sag at the midpaint is 1.8 cm. Solution . Taking h =
10 cm, P1 - b gm and T = 600 gm wt., the above equation (4) becomes yt +
, — 2y, + y, _ , = — 1/10 4«Its A.E, is { E - l)a = 0 i.e. E = 1, 1. C.F. = Cj +
c2i
Difference Equations and ***— i-rf-Al-i-i-jayt E-l?{ 10 J 10(/i-
V)2 i i(i-u i .2. - = — (l - l ) 10 2 20 Thus the C.S. is y, = Cj + c2 i + — (i -
i2) faU and Since Hence Jo ” yi3 = ot *i = ° li C'1 20 11 . 1 .. yf ; - — i + —
(l - lZ) 20 20 At the mid-point i = 6. we get y6 = 1.8 cm. PROBLEMS 31-5
!„ A light string of length in + 1)/ is stretched between (wn fixed points with
a force P, It is loaded with n equal rn at distance 1. If the system starts
rotating with angular velocity oj. find the displacement y, of the ith moss.
Select the romet answer or fill up the blanks in the following questions : 1,
yn = A2n + B 3" , is the solution of the difference equation .... 2. The
solution of (E - l)3 pn = 0 is . •>. The solution of the difference equation un
+ s - 2u(i ( 2 - 5 un , j + 6uf( = 0 is . 4. The solution efyn t 3 —yv = 2" is
...... , J>. The difference equation y„ + t - 2yr = n busy,, - ... as its solution.
C. The difference equation corresponding to Lhe family of curves y = ax a
+ bx is j The particular integral of the equation IS - 2) y, ~ 1 tv The solution
of 4y(j - y(r ( .. such that y0 = O.y, = 2, is ...... . i>. The equation A2 un t j +
^ un = 0 is of order . J 0. The difference equation satisfied by y = a + b(x is -
1 1 . The order of the difference equation yn — 2yn ^ t + y(j = 0 is . . The
solution ofyn + i - 4y,J+. 3 + 4vn = 0 is . 13. The particular integral of ut +J
- Kir, , 3 + 9», - 3 is . 2-4. The difference equation generated by un = (
Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations 1.
Introduction. 2. Picard’s method. 3. Taylor's series method. 4. Eufer's
method. 5. Modified Euler's method. | . & Runge’s method. 7. Runge-Kutta
method. 8. Predictor-corrector methods. 9. Milne’s method. 10. Adams- . '
Bashforlh method. 11. Simultaneous first order differential equations. 12.
Second order differential equations. I 13. Boundary value problems. 14.
Finite-difference method. 15. Objective Type of Questions. 32.1 The
methods of solution so far presented are applicable to a limited class of
differential equations. Fro* quently differential equations appearing in
physical problems do nut belong to any of these familiar types and one is
obliged to resort to numerical methods. These methods are of even greater
importance when we realise that computing machines are now available
which reduce numerical work considerably. A number of numerical
methods are available for the solution of first order differential equations of
the form : dy ~jT - ft** tfiven yU#) - y0 «*(1) These methods yield
solutions either as a power series in x from which the values of y can be
found by direct substitution, or as a set of values of x and _y. The methods
of Picard and Taylor series belong to the former class of solutions whereas
those of Euler, Runge-Kutta* Milne, Adanis-Bashforth etc. belong to the
latter class. In these later methods, the values ofy are calculated in short
steps for equal intervals of x and are therefore, termed as step- hy- step
methods. Euler and Runge-Kutta methods are used for computing^ over a
limited range of r-values whereas Milne and Adams-Bash forth methods
may be applied for finding y over a wider range of a- values* These later
methods require starting values which are found by Picard's or Taylor series
or Runge-Kutta methods. The initial condition in (I) is specified at the
pointy. Such problems in which all the initial conditions arc given at the
initial point only are called initial value problems. But there are problems
involving second and higher order differential equations in which the
conditions may be given at two or more points. These are known as
boundary value problems. In this chapter, we shall first explain methods Ibr
solving initial value problems and then give a method of solving boundary
value problems. 32.2 PICARD'S METHOD* Consider the first order
equation rtyidx = f{ x, y) .41) * Called after the French mathematician
Emile P: runt I 1856 — lf)4 ! ) who was professor in Paris since 188 I and
is famous for his researches in the theory of functions . 1008
Numerical Solution of Orcnmarv DtFEEREMxrAL Equations
1009 It is required to find that particular solution of (1) which assumes the
value ,v() when x = x0. Integrating! 1 ) between limits, we get f dy= f
flx,y)dx or y =y „ + f fix. y) dx J«i J*n This is an integral equation
equivalent to (11, for it contains the unknown y under I he integral sign. Aa
a first approximation y j to the solution, we puty - v0 in fix, y) and integrate
(2), giving Ji-ô + J dx J I'll For a second approximation we put y — yx in
fix, y) and integrate (2), giving ,V2 = -Vo + f flxtyx)dx. J*n Similarly, a
third approximation is >3 = y{> + f f{ xf ) dx. Continuing this process, a
sequence of functions of x7 ie.y >ls y2J y 3 ...is obtained each giving a
better approximation of the desired solution than the preceding one, Ubn*
Picard's method is of considerable theoretical value, but can be applied only
to a limited r.ln&a of equations in which the successive integrations can be
performed easily. The method can be extended to Finmltaneous equations
and equations of higher order (See § 32 1 1 and 32.1 2)» Example 32 A,
Using Picard's process of successive approximation , obtain a solution upto
the fifth approximation of the equation dy/dx = y + x, such thaty - J to he**
x - 0 Check your answer by finding the exact particular solution. J*x ( y +
x) dx. 0 First approximation. Put y = 1, in>' + x, giving yA = 1 + J (1 + x)
dx = 1 + x + xs/2. Second approximation. Put y = 1 + x + x2/2 in y + x,
giving y„ = l + f (1 + 2x + x2 1 21 dx = 1 + x + xB + x;V6. Jo Third
approximation. Pul y - 1 + x + x2 + x3/6 in y + x, giving Io‘(1 x3 x 4 + 2x +
x* + xJ /6) tfx = 1 + x + x2 + — + ; — . 3 24 Fourth approximation. Put y -
y3 in y + x, giving a \ -V* = 1 + £( 41 X 1 + 2x + x* + — +- — 3 24 t/x = 1
+ x + x2 + - t- - - V Fifth approximation. Puty = y in y + x, giving i: ' 3 s 1 1
+ 2x + xa + — + — + — 3 12 120 3 12 120 2 Xs X4 X X° dx - 1 + x + xi +
— + — + — + — — 3 12 60 720 (b) Given equation I dy — - y = x is a
Leibnitz’s linear in x. dx Its I.F. being e~xf the solution is ye = 1 xe dx + c
= - xe ) dx y c = - xe * - e x + c (Integrate by parts | y = re* - x — 1. Since y
= I, when x = 0, c = 2. Thus the desired particular solution is y = 2e* - x - 1
...Of)
Higher Engineering Mathew aucs Or using the series : xl x3 A^ tr
~ 1 +1 + - 1- — + — + ... 2! 3! 4! we get y — 1 + x + x£ + **3 XXX .Jiii)
in x 3 12 CO 3 BO Comparing (i ) and [Hi), it is dear that (i } approximates
to the exact particular solution (it) upto the term Obs, At x - 1, the fourth
approximation y* = 3,433 and the fifth approximation yG = 3,434 whereas
exact value is 3.44. Example 32.2. Find the value of y for x = 0.1 hy Picard
'a method, given that dx y + x Solution. We havey = 1 + f — — - dx Jo y +
x Ft ret approximation. Put y = 1 in the integrand, giving r* 1 - x l P.T.U ..
2002) y. = 1 + Jo 1 + . r/jr =14dx = 1 + [- x + 2 log (1 + *)g = 1 - a + 2 log
(1 + x ) Second approximation, Puty = 1 -x + 2 log ( 1 + a) in the integrand,
giving , r i-x + v9 = l + 2 Ja 1-a + r 1 - x + 2 log (1 + x) - x dx = 1 + f fi —
h [ 1 + : 2a dx 2 log (1 + x) + x h l 1 + 2 log U + x) which is very difficult
to integrate. Hence we use the first approximation and taking a = 0.1 in (0
we obtain y{G.l) = 1 -U) + 2 log 1.1 = 0,9828. TAYLORS SERIES
METHOD* Consider the first order equation dy/dx - fix, y) Differentiating
( 1 >, we have #y=K+Kdy ie «-»#■+* r dx 1 dx dy dx Differentiating this
successively, we can get y‘", yw etc. Putting x - .vM and y - 0, the values of
Numerical Solution Of OftoiNAfty Differential Equations ion
Putting these values in the Taylor’s series. y(x) =y0 + .ry'(O) + — y*<0) +
^yy'“(0> + — y‘v(0) + we have ^ x ® x * x^ Jf4 y(x) = 1 + jrf— 1) + — (0)
+ — (2) + — (-6)+ ... = 1 -x + — — — + X X X ST (0)+ W®*4I Hence y
(0.1) = 0.90033 and y(0.2) = 0.80227. Example 32,41. Employ Taylor's
method to obtain approximate value of y at x = 0.2 for the differential
equation dyidx - 2y +. lie*. y(0l = 0. Compare the numerical Solution
obtained with the exact Hafnium, (V.T,U., 2009 ; P.TM., 2009) Solution, (u)
We have y' - 2v + 3c1 y'(0) = 2y(0) +■ 3c0 - 3. Differentiating successively
and substituting x - 0,y = 0, we get y" = 2 \y' + 3e\ y"(0) = 2/(0) + 3 = 9 y’"
= 2y" + 3e\ yK'(D> = 2y"«» + 3 = 21 yw _ 2 y'” + 3ex, yÔ) = 2/"(0) + 3 =
45 etc. Putting these valuer in the Taylor’s scries, we have y{x) =y(0) +
xy'iQ) + |y y"(0) + ^--y'"(0) + Jy/MO) + ... „ „ 9 a 21 , 45 4 „ 9 2 7 3 15 = 0
+ 3jc + — x?+ —x3 + — x* + ... = 3x + -x + ~xd + — je4 + ... 2 6 24 2 2 8
Hence y{0.2) = 3(0.2) + 4.5(0.2)a + 3,5(0.2)a + 1. 875(0.4)4 + ... = 0.8110 -
(i) rfv (6) Now -7 - 2v = 3c1 is a Leibnitz’s Linear in x, dx Its I.F. being e-
2*, the solution is ye- 21 — J 3cJ . e~ 23 dx + c = - 3e“ 1 + c or y = - 3^ +
ce'2* Si nee y - 0 when x = 0, c = 3, Thus the exact solution is y - 3fe“T —
ex ) When x = 0.2, y = 3 (e°-« - e0 2) = 0.8112 ...C£0 Com poring + ... = 2
+ (x - 1 Hog 2 + - {x - 1 )2 f 1 + - log 2 ] + - (x - l)3 - - + ^ log 2 - - (log 2f
2 { 2 J b L 2 4 4 ytl.l) = 2 + (0.1) log 2 + ^1 +| log 2' tO.l^ - i + \ Jog 2 - \
(log 2 ¥ 2 4 4 = 2.036
1012 Higher Engweering Mathematics y<1.2) = 2 + {(1.2) log 2
+ — ~ f 1 + ^ log 2) + L A + I log 2 - I (log 2)a] - 2.081, 2^2 J 6 L 2 4 4 J
PROBLEMS 32,1 I - 1 'sing Picard*® method, solve dy/dx -~xy with ,vG =
0, v0 - 1 uptu Uiird approximation. ( Mumbai , 2005 J -- Employ Picard's
method to obtain, correct lu four places of decimal, solution of the
differential equation dy/dx - .t2 + jr for x = 0.4, given Lhal y ~ 0 when x =
0. (J.N.T.U., 2000) 3. Obtain Picard's second approximate solution of the
initial value problem ; y' = ,v2/(y2 + 1 ), y<0) = 0. (Mamihwaclu, 2008) 4.
Find an approximate value oFy when .r = 0.1, if dy/dx x — y8 and y - 1 at r
- 0, using (a) Picard's method 16) Taylor’s series. ( l7. I’. . SOW ; Madras.
2006) "i Solve v' = v + y given y( 1 ) = 0. Find yi L 1 ) and yi 1.2) by
Taylor's method. Com pare Lhe result with i to exact value . (J.N.T. U.,
2008 : Arum, 2005) ti- Evaluate y( 0.1) correct to six places of decimals by
Taylor's scries method ifvbr) satisfies y’ - xy + 1 ,y(0) ■- 1, 7. Solve y' - 3jr
+ .y2,y<0) = l using Taylor’s series method and computer .y(O.l), (Mumbai,
2007 ) H. Using Taylor series method, find yfO 1) correct to 3 -decimal
places given that dy/dx = e*-ys,y( 0) = 1, 32.4 EULER'S METHOD* „ dy
Consider the equation — = f\x, y > dx .(1) given that y(x0) - y0. Its curve of
solution through P(x0t y0) is shown dotted in Fig. 32.1. Now we have to
find the ordinate of any other point Q on this curve. Let us divide LM into n
sub- intervals each of width h at Lv L2, ... so that h is quite small. In the
interval LL3, we approximate the curve by the tangent at P. If the ordinate
through L, meets Lhis tangent in Pj(x0 + A , yt), then yl = LiP1 = LP + RlPi
= ,V0 + PRl tan 0 = ,y(J + h ^ j hf{xQty0) Let P-iQ] be the curve of
solution of 111 through P, and let its tangent at Pj meet lhe ordinate through
L2 in P2( xfJ + 2A,ya). Then ^2 ~ > 1 + h ft* 0 + hi -Vi ) „.(2) Repeating
this process n times, we finally reach an approximation MPlt of MC) given
by + A /*(*„ + -1) Thi h is Euler’s method of finding an approximate:
solution of (D* 1 He* In Euler’s method, we approximate lhe curve of
solution by Lhe tangent in each interval, u\ of short line$. Unless A is small,
the error is bound to he quite significant. This sequence of lines may also
devi. ably from lhe curve of aoltitfovu Hence there is a modification of Lhis
method which is given in the next sociioi.. Example 42.(5. Using Euler’s
method, find an approximate value of y corresponding to x = lf given that
dy/dx - x + y and y = 1 when x - 0. {Mumbai, 2005 ; Rahtak, 2003) pSee
footnote p. 302.
Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations 1013
Solution. We take a - 10 and h = 0J which is sufficiently small. The various
calculations are arranged as follows : X y je + y - dytdx Old y + 0. t (dy tdx
f - new v 0.0 1.00 1.00 1.00 + 0.1(1.00) = 1.10 0.1 1,10 1,20 1.10 +
0.1(1.20)= 1.22 0.2 1.22 1.42 1.22 + 0.1(1.42}= 1.36 0.3 1.36 1.66 1.36 +
0.1(1-66) = 1.53 0.4 1,58 1.93 1.53 + 0.1(1,93) = 1.72 0.5 1.72 2.22 1.72 +
0.1(2.22) = 1.94 0.6 1.94 2.54 1.94 + 0.1(2.54) = 2.19 0.7 2.19 2.89 2.19 +
0.1(2.89) = 2.48 0.6 2.46 3.89 2.48 + 0.1(3.891 = 2.81 0.9 2.81 3.71 2.81 +
0.1(3.71) = 3.18 1.0 3.18 Thus the required approximate value ufy - 3,18.
Ohs. In example 32.1. the true value of y from its exact solution at x = 1 is 3
,44 whereas by Eulcr^ method y - 3.18 and by Picard's method y = 3.434. in
the above solution, had we chosen n = 20, the accuracy would have been
considerably increased but at the expense of double the labour of
computation, Euler's method is no doubt very simple but cannot be
considered as one of the best. _ dv y - x Example 32.7. Gtyen — - J ax y +
x uith initial condition y - J at x — 0 ; fir id y forx = 0.1 by Bu let’s method.
{P.T-Ll, 2001) Solution. We divide the interval (0t 0,1} into five steps t.e.
we take n = S and ft = 0,02. The various calculations are arranged as
follows : X y {y — sf)/fv + a) = dytdx Old y + 0.02 {dytdx:) = neu> y o.oo
1.0000 1,0000 1.0000 + 0,02(1.0000) = 1.0200 0.02 1.0200 0.9615 1 .0200
+ 0.02 (.9615) = ! .0392 0.04 1.0392 0.926 1 .0392 + 0.02 (.926) = 1,0577
0.06 1.0577 0.893 1.0577 + 0.02 (.893) = 1.0756 0.08 1.0756 0.862 1 .0756
+ 0.02 (.862) = 1.0928 0.10 1.0928 Hence the required approximate value
of.y = 1,0928, 32,5 MODIFIED EULER'S METHOD In the Euler's
method, the curve of solution in the interval LLl is approximated by the
tangent at P (Fig. 32.1} such that at P v, we have 3'1=y0 + Af(x0,y0) ,-fl)
Then the slope of the curve of solution through P, {Ln, {dyfdx)Pl — f(xu +
ft, .v j ) | is computed and the tangent at P{ toPtQ{ is drawn meeting the
ordinate through L,2 in P$Cq + 2 h,y2). Now we find a better
approximation y j*11 of y(jfc + h) by taking the slope of the curve as the
mean of the slopes of the tangents at P and P^, i.e. ■Vj,1)=J0+ “ W*0>*®>
+ A*0 + *->!>] -<2) As the slope of the tangent at/3, is not known, we take
yx as found in (1) by Euler’s method and insert it on R.H.S. of {2) to obtain
the first modified value y/11. The equation (1) is therefore, called the
predictor while (2) serves as the corrector of y r
1014 Higher Engineering Mathfmatics Again the corrector is
applied and we find a stilt better value 2 J corresponding to Ly as ,Vit2>-=
y0 + ^ y(,> + f(xo + h> We repeat this step, till two consecutive values ofy
agree. This is then taken as the starting point fOT the next interval LyL.,.
Oncey, is obtained f it desired degree of accuracy, y corresponding to L,2 is
found From the predictor y2 = .Vj + hf **o + A>>i) and a better
approximation y,J * 1 is obtained from the corrector y-J1] = .V, + ^ l/lô +
A,yj> + ftx0 + 2A,y2)l. We repeat this step until y,2 becomes stationary.
Then we proceed to calculate y3 as above and so on. Tli is is the modified
Euler’s met hod which is a predictor-corrector method. Example 32A Using
modified Eider’s method, find an approximate value of y when x = 0.3,
given that dy/dx = .t + v and y - l when x = 0. (Rohtuk, 2005 ; Bhopal, 2002
S ; Delhi, 2002) Solution. Taking h =0,1, the various calculations are
arranged as follows : X 0.0 *+y*y‘ 0 + 1 Mean dope Old y + 0.1 [mean
slope) - new y 1.00+0.1 (1.00) = 1.10 0.1 .1+ 1.1 -d * 3.2) 2 1.00 + 0.1(1.11
=1.11 0.1i 1 + 1.11 ^ fl 4 1.21) 1.00 + 0.1 (1.105) = 1.1105 0.1 .1 + 1.1100 -
lie 1.2105) 2 1.00 + 0.1 (1.1052) =1.1105 0.1 1.2105 *— 0105 + 0.1
(1.2106) = 1.2316 0.2 .2 + 1.2316 - f 1 .2105 + 1 .4316) 2 1.11064 0.1
(1.3211) = 1.2426 0.2 .2 + 1.2426 ^-11.2105 + 1.4426) 2 1. 1105 + 0. 1 <
1.326S) = 1.2432 0.2 .2 + 1.2432 -11.2105+ 1.4432) 2 1. 1105 + 0. U
1.3268) = 1 .2432 0.2 1.4432 — 1.2432 + 0.1(1.4432) =1.3875 0.3 .3 +
1.3876 -(1.4432+ 1.6875) 2 1.2432 + 0.1 (1J5654) = 1.3997 0.3 .3 + 1.3907
- (1.4432 + 1.6907) 2 1.2432 + 0.1 ( 1.5715) = 1.4003 0.3 ,3 + 1.4003 -
(1.4432+ 1.7003) 2 1.2432 + 0.1 (1.57 IS) = 1.4004 0.3 .3 + 1.4004 1
(1.4432+ 1.7004) A J .2432 + 0.1 < 1,5718) = 1.4004 Hence y(0.3) 1.4004
approximately. ui> ... In example 32. 0, the approximate value ofy for a =
0,3 would be 1.53 whereas by modified Euler’s method the corresponding
value is 1.4004 which is nearer Us true value ] .3997. obtained from it:-
exact solution y = 2e*-x 1 b> putting x = 0.3. Example '12.9. Using
modified Euler’s, method, find y(02j and y<0.4} given yr =y + rh y(0) = 0.
U, N. T. if 2009)
Now EPICAL SOLUTION OF ORDINARY DjfHEflSsmAL

EOUATIONS 1015 Solution, We have y* = y + = 0.2468 Since the last two
values ofy arc equal* we take >(0-2) = 0.246fi. Tn calculate yi 0,4). X y
*e*=y Mean slope Old y + ft (Afean slofie. 1 = netuy 0.2 0.2468 * ,r’L’=
1.4682 — 0.2468 + 0.2 (1.4682) = 0.5404 0,4 0.5404 + e6A = 2.0322 -
(1.4682 + 2.0322) = 1.7502 2 0.2468 + 0,2 (1.7502) = 0.5968 0.4 0,5968 +
4 = 2.0887 f (1.4682 + 2.0887) = 1.7784 £r 0.2468 + 0.2 (1.7784) = 0,0025
0.4 0,6025 + r04 = 2.0043 kl.4682 + 2.0943) = 1.78126 0.2468 + 0.2 (1.
781 25) = 0.6030 0.4 0.6030 + r°* = 2,0040 -Q. 4682 + 2,0949) = 1.7815 2
0.2468 + 0,2 (1.7815) = 0-6031 0.4 0.6031 +
1016 Higher Engineering Mathematws X log (x+y) =y Mean

dope Old y + 0.2 [mean slope) = new y 0.4 0.4051 — 2.1416 + 0,2 (0.4051)
= 2.2226 0.6 tog (0,6 + 2.2226) ^ (0,4051 + 0.4506) 2. 1416 + 0.2 (04279)
= 2.2272 0.6 log (0.6 + 2.2272) 1(0.4051 + 0,4514) £ 2.1416 + 0.2
1,0.4282) = 2.2272 0.6 0.4514 — 2.2272 + 0.2 (0.45 M I = 2.3175 0,8 tpg
(0,8 + 2.3175) i (04514 + 0.4938) 2,2272 + 0.2 (0.4726) = 2.3217 0.8 log
(0.8 + 2,3217) 1(0,4514 + 0.4943) £ 2.2272 + 0.2 (0.4727) = 2.3217 0,8
0.4943 — 2.3217 + 0.2 (0.4943) = 2.4206 1.0 l(ijt(l + 2.4206) 1 (0.4&43
+0.5341) 2.321 7 + 0.2 (0.5142) = 2.4245 1.0 logfl + 2.4245) 1 (04943 +
0.5346) 2 2.321 7 + 0,2 (0.5144) = 2.4245 1.0 0.5346 — 24245 + 0.2
(0.5346) = 2.5314 1.2 log (1.2+ 2.5314) 1 (0.5346 + 0.5719} 24245 + 0.2
(0.6532) = 2.5351 1.2 log (1.2 + 2.5351) l (0.5346 + 0.5723) 2. . . 24245 +
0.2 (0.5534) = 2.5351 1.2 0.6723 — 2.5351 + 0.2 (0.57231 = 2.6496 1.4 log
( 1.4 t 2.6496) | (0.5723 +0.6074) 2.5351 + 0.2 (0.5898) = 2.6531 1,4 log
(1.4 + 2.6631) \ (0.6723 + 0.6078) z 2.5351 + 0.2 (0.5900) = 2.6531 Hence
y( 1.21 = 2.5351 and y(1.4) ■ 2.6531 approximately. i . am pie 32.1 1 .
Using Eulers modified method . obtain a solution of the equation dyfdx - x
+ J >fy \ .with initial conditions y = 1 at x - 0. for the range 0
Numerical Solution of Orpin arv Differential Equations 1017 X
*+ \4y\ =/ Mean s/v/x? Old y + .2 (mean slope) - new y 0 A 1.6350 —
1.5263 + 0.2 ( 1.635 1 = 1 .8528 0,6 0.6 + 1 /n 8523) j = L061CI ’ (1.635 +
1:9611 = 1.798 1 .5253 + 0.2 ( 1 .796) = 1 ,8849 0.6 1 0.6 + |V^LS849)1 =
1.9729 if 1.635 + t.9729)^ 1.8040 Jk 1.6253 + 0.2 f 1.804)= 1.8861 0.6 0.6
+ | î.6661) | = 1.9734 1 f 1.035 + 1.9734) = 1.8042 % 1.5253 +■ 0.2 f
1.8042) = 1.8861 Hence j/(0.6) = 1.8861 approximately. PROBLEMS 32.2
1 • Apply Euh-r's mctlmd to solve y' - x & y, y(G) = 0, chousing the .step
length = 0.2, i Carry out 6 steps). iKaUayttm, 2005) 2. Using simple Euler's
method solve for y at x - 0,1 from dytdx -*+_> + xy. yfO' = 1 . taking step
size h = 0,025. Using Euler’s method, find the approximate value ofy when
dytdx -x2* y2 end y( 0} = 1 in five steps (t.e. A = 0.2 j. (•Mumbai, 2006) -t.
Solve y' - .1 — y(0) - 0 by modified Euler's method and obtain y at x - 0.1,
0.2, 0.3. (Anna , 20051 5. Given y' = -y + sin y,y(0) = 1. Compute y(0.2)
and y( 0.4) with ft = 0.2 using Euler's modified method. U.N.T.IL 2007) 0-
Given that dy/tix = xu + y and y(0) = 1. Find an approximate value afyfO.l i
taking ft = 0-05 by modified Euler's method. ' ... (V.T.U., 2010) fify v — a1
7- Given — — — - - - with boundary conditions y = 1 when x = 0, find
approximately y for x — 0.1, by Euler’s modified dx y+x method (5 steps ),
{V.T.U., 2007) P. Given that dytdx = 2+ ijlxy) and v = 1 when.* = 1. Find
approximate value ofy at x - 2 in steps of 0.2, using Euler's modified
method, Wnwa, 2004) RUNGE'S METHOD1*1 Consider the differential
equation, — = =^0 dx Clearly the slope of the curve through P (x0, y0) is
f(Wo)(F ig.32.2). Integrate both sides of < 1 > from (jc0, y^) to (x0 + ft , y0
+ A), we have rMi+* , fJfn + n . , | dy~ fix, y) dx JXn Jid An + 6 ...(2) To
evaluate the integral on the right, we take N as the mid-point of LAI and
find the values of fix, y) (i.e. dytdx) at the points ,vu, jc() + hi 2,x0 + h. For
this purpose, we First determine the values ofy at these points. Let the
ordinate through N cut the curve PQ in S and the tangent PT in S,. The
value of ys is given by the point Sr ys = NS = LP + f/Sj = y0 + PH tan f) *
Called after the German mathematician Carl Runge (1856— 1927) who
was professor at Gottingen.
1018 HfGHER EhJGfteEEKlNG MATHEMATICS - .v„ +
^(dy/dx)p=y{)+ ^ f(xQ, y0 J ...(3) Also yT = MT = LP + RT = y^ + PR tan
H = y0+ y0). Now the value of at jc0 +■ ft is given by the point T where the
line through P drawn with slope at T(*n + ft, yTi meets MQ. v Slope at T ~
tan 8' - f(x0 + ft , yT) - f\ x0 + ft, y0 + hf(x0, y0)l yrQ = MR + RT ~ yQ *
PT tan 0' = y0 + hf[xQ + ft, y0 + hf{xQ, y0)] ...(4) Thus the value of fix, y )
at P = fixQ, .Vo), the value of fix, y) at S = f(x[} + hi 2, yj and the value of
fix. y) at Q = f(xQ + ft ,.y^J where ys and are given by (3) and (4). Hence
from (2). we obtain ft = f fix, y) dx - ^ \fp + 4fs + fQ J [By Simpsons’ rule
(p. 1 106)1 6 1 * = £ 1/(^0. 3'0) + 4fixa + ft/2, ys) + fixa + ft , y^)l which
gives a sufficiently accurate value of ft and also ofy = y0 + ft. The repeated
application of (5) gives the values ofy for equi spaced points. Working rule
to solve U ) by Runge’s method : Calculate successively hl = hfix 0,y0) h.^
ft/ ^ ft, y0 t- ■jjftj ) and Finally compute. ft' = ft/V0 + h,yu + kL) ft3 =
hf(x0 + h,y0+ ft'J ft = i (k , + 4k„ + ft J. 6 1 3 r (Nate that ft i a the weighted
mean of k}, kând ft;,J .(5) Example 32.12, Apply Runge’s method to find
an approximate value ofy when x = 0.2, given that dy > <6 = x + y arid v =
1 when x = 0. Solution. Here we have = 0, y0 = 1, ft = 0.2, /" ( yQ) =. 1 ftt =
hf{x0, y0) = 0.2 (1) = 0.200 k2-hf(x1} +|ft,yo + £ft, ) — 0.2 /(0.1, 1.1) —
0.240 ft' = ft/Uo + ft,yo + ft1) = 0.2/’(0.2, 1.2) =0.280 and Aa = hfix0 + fi,
y0 + A') = 0.3 flQ.l, 1.26) =0.296 ft - £(A, + 4ft2 + ft3) = £<0.200 + 0.960 +
0.296) = 0.2426 Hence the required approximate value ofy is 1.2426. 32.7
RUNGE-KUTTA METHOD* The Taylor's series method of solving
differential equations numerically is restricted by the labour involved in
finding the higher order derivatives. However there is a class of methods
known as Runge-Kutta methods which do not require the calculations of
higher order derivatives. These methods agree with Taylor's series solution
upto the terms in /:r* where r differs from method to method and is called th
border of that method. Euler's method , Modified Eulers method and
Runge’s method are the RungeKutta methods of the first, .second and third
order respectively. * See footnote p, £017, Named after Wilhelm Kutta
(1867 — 1044),
Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations 1019 The
fourth-order RungeKutta method is most commonly used and is often
referred tn as ‘Runge-Kutta method ’ only. Working rule for finding the in c
ref net it k of y corresponding to an increment h of x by Runge-Kutta
method from cfy -f- = fix, y\ yU(1) - y0 is as follows : dx Calculate a access
i vely *, - hf(x0l y0) k2 = hf (x0 +±k, y0 +±kt) k.A = hf{xa + ^) and k4 -
hf(xQ + h , y0 + Ag ) Finally compute k = ^(At + 2A2 + 2k 3 + kA) which
pives the required approximate value y, = +■ k. (Note that k is the weighted
mean of kv, k2, ks and hA ) Obw. One of the advantages of these methods is
that the operation is identical whether the differential equation is linear or
non-linear. Example 32.13. Apply Runge-Kutta fourth order method, to find
an approximate value cfy when x = 0.2 , given that dy/dx = x + y and y = /
when x = 0. ( V. T. U., 2009 ; P. T. £/., 2007 ; .S. V’. T. U. . 2007) Solution.
Here xQ = 0, y0 = 1, ft = 0.2, /(.Vfl.yo) - 1 ky = hf(x0, y0) = 0.2 x 1 =
0.2000 A2 = hf( x0 + |A, y0 + £A: ) = 0.2 x f(QA, 1.1) = 0.2400 A3 = hf(x0
+ ±ht y0 + l Aa) « 0.2 x flO.l, 1.12) = 0.2440 and k4 - hf(x0 +k,y0 + A3) =
0-2 x f(02, 1.244 ) = 0.2888 k~ + 2kz + 2k3 + k4) = i (0.2000 + 0.4800 +
0,4880 + 0.2888) = } x (1.4568) = 0.2468. Hence the required approximate
value of y is 1.2428. dy yJ - x* Example 32.14. Using Rung, -Kit tta
method of fourth order, solve ~7~ - “£ y with yt'O) - l at x = 0.2, fw y + jf
0.4. ( U.P : T.U . 2010 ; J.N. T. £/.. 2009 ; V. T. £ l . 2008) , v3 - jc2
Solution. Wc have fix, y) = • , - T y + x To find y(0.2 ) ; I lere .a‘0 = 0, y0 -
1, h = 0.2 hx -k f{x$, y0) = D.2 / (0, 1) k2 = A/‘f.v0 + h, y0 + Ikt ] = 0.2 f{
0.1, 1.1) A3 - hf ( + 1 A, y(1 + 1 Aa J = 0.2 /'< 0. 1, 1. 09836) = 0.2000 -
0.19672 = 0.1967 = 0.1891 A, = hf(x0 + Apy0 + A3) = 0.2 ^(0.2, 1.1967) A
= - (A, + 2A2 + 2A3 + A4) = — 10.2 + 2(0.19672) + 2(0.1967) + U.1891J
6 ‘ 6 Hence y<0.2) - y0 + A = 1.196. = 0.19599
To find y (0.4) : Here Higher Engineering Mathematics *j = 0.2,
j/j - 1.196, A ‘ 0.2 A, = A fix^yj = 0.1891 Kb It < | - 0.2 /<0.3, 1,2906) =
0,1795 k^hf\ = 0.2/(0.3, 1.285S) = 0.1793 ki = hf{x1 + h,yi + ks) = 0.2
/(0.4, 1.3753) = 0,1688 Hence A = — (A, + 2k ^ + 2A 3 + kj 6 = ~ [0.1891
+ 2(0,1795) + 2(0,1793) + 0,1688] 6 y«U ) = y x + k = 1 . 1 96 + 0, 1792 =
1.3752, = 0,1792 t AiiHfph 32.15. Apply Runge-Kutta method to find an
approximate value ofy for x = 0.2 in steps of 0,1, if dy I dx - x + y£, given
that y = 1, where x - 0. (VLT. U., 2009 ; Os muni a, 2007 ; Madras, 2000)
Solution. Here we take h =0,1 and carry out the calculations in two steps.
Step Lj:#=0jo = 1. A = 0.1 giving Hence A, = A/'(*p, y0) = 0.1 fiO, 1) =
0.1000 K = hf{x0 + \h, y0 + AA, } = 0.1 /(0.05, 1.1) = 0.1152 A3 = hf(x0
+\h,yA = 0'2 A, = h f{xb,y0) = 0.2 — = 0.1462 1 + e , ,J h A, >i [ 2(1 +
0.1K0 + 0.073) + e, + n| *■ • hl [ * *? T J - 0 2 1 . i , 0. if + n ♦ o. » e ™ =
0.1-102
Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations = /«/■( h
k,\ „„ 2(1 + 0.1X0 + 0.07) + e + 2’-h' 4 2 J ~ 1 a + an* + a < o ne11 ,1.11 =
0.1399 = hfte 0 + k,y0 + *. L Use Runge- Kutta method to find y when x =
1-2 in steps of 0. 1 p given that : dy/dx = x2 + y 2 and j(l ) ~ 1.5*
{Mumbai? 200?) r>. Find yi 0. 1 J and >'(0.2) using Rung* -Kutta 4th order
formula* given Lhal y' = - y and yi 0) = I. (J.N-T. lht 2006 ) 0. Using 4th
order Runge-Kutfcu method, solve the following equation, taking each step
of h = 0. 1, given y(0) = 3f dy/dx = (tx/y - xy). Calculate y for* - 0,1 and
0.2. (Anna, 2007} 7 Use fourth order Rungs- Kill La method lo fmd y at * =
0Jt given that — = + 2v, y(0) = 0 and h = 0 J. dx (V.T.a, 2006) H> Find by
Runge-Kutiti method on approximate value of y for x = 0.8, given Lhal y -
0.41 when x = 0-4 and dy/dx = £x+y ). [S.V.T.a. 2007 S) fjy y - — X 0.
Using Runge-KuUii method of order 4, find >(0.2) for Lhe equation — =
— - r jE0> = l. Take A = 0.2. (V/FM2M1S) 10. Given that dy/dj - [y7 - 2>
:)/(yr^ + and y - l at.jr= 0 ; find y for x - 0.1t 0.2. 0.3, 0 4 and 0.0. (Dtdhi,
2002 ) 32.8 PREDICTOR-CORRECTOR METHODS Tf *, _! anci.v( be
two consecutive mesh points, we have xi =ar, _, + A. In the Euler's method
(§ 32.4), we have .V, = _i + hf(x0 + i - 1 htys_ j) ; e = 1, 2, 3, ... ,..( 1)
1022 HiSnen Enginee^nc Mathematics The modified Euler’s
method ($ 32,5), gives y, - .v( . ! + - l/te, _ i. yt _ i> + /&cp y,>l (21 The
value ofy( is first estimated by using (1), then this value is inserted on the
right side of (2), giving a better approximation ofy;. This value ofy- is again
substituted in (2) to find a still better approximation ofy-. This step is
repeated till two consecutive values ofy agree. This technique of refining an
initially crude estimate ofy i by means of a more accurate formula is known
as predictor-corrector method. The equation (1) is therefore called the
predictor while (2) serves as a corrector ofy,. In the methods so far
explained, to solve a differential equation over an interval (ar-.x + j) only
the value of y at the beginning of the interval was required. In the predictor-
corrector methods, four prior values are required for finding the value ofy at
.v( + A predictor formula is used to predict the value ofy at xi + , and then a
corrector formula is applied to improve this value. We now describe two
such methods, namely : Milne’s method and Ad ams- B ashforth method,
MILNE'S METHOD Gi ven dy { dx -fix, y > and y = y0, x = ; to find an
approxima te value ofy for x = x0 + nh by Milne's method, we proceed as
/c. The value y0 - y{x0) being given, we compute >'i = iXC*0 + h), y2 =
.yU'o + 2/i ), y3 = y(xfl + 3 h), bv Picard’s or Taylor's series method. Next
we calculate, f'o = f^xiy y0), = / U0 + h , y 1), f2 = f(xQ + 2/i , yj, f3 - fixK)
+ 3 h , y3) Then to flndy4 = y(x0 + Ah), we substitute Newton’s forward
interpolation formula A*. y> =fo + "¥(, + n(n-l) .2/ . n{n-lKn — 2) & fa + A
% + J-Jd + fix, y) dx r dx = ftrfu] + Tv, J dn t 20 U ^ -Jo + ^ |^4^0 + HdVo
+ /b + + " Neglecting fourth and higher order differences and expressing
A/^, A^ and A 3fQ in terms of the function values, we get 4 h y^pi = .Vo +
+ 2/^) which is called a predictor. o Having found y4, we obtain a first
approximation to fA - f{x0 + 4 kty4). Then a better value ofy4 is found by
Simpson s rule (p. 1106) as yA'‘ =y,£ + [! ifz + AfLi +■ fd which is called a
corrector, d Then an improved value offA is computed and again the
corrector is applied to find a still better value of y4. We repeat this step until
y4 remains unchanged. Oncey4 and fA are obtained to desired degree of
accuracy, y5 - y(.r0 + 5h) is found from the predictor as Ah *5 =y, + .-<2f.l-
f3 + 2fA) and f - f(x0 + 5h,yc) is calculated. Then a better approximation to
the value ofys is obtained from the corrector
Numerical Solution of Ohdinarv Differential Equations 1023 We
repeat this step till y5 becomes stationary and we, then proceed to calculate
y(. as before. This is Milne’s predictor-corrector m ethod. To ensure greater
arc u racy, we must first improve the accuracy of the starting values anti
then sub-divide the intervals. Example 32.17, Apply Milne's method, to find
a solution of the differential equation y* = x - y2 in the range 0 S r S 1 for
the boundary conditions y - 0 at X = 0. { V, T, I L. 2009, Anna, 2005,
Rohtah, 2005 ) Solution. Using Picard’s method, we have y = y(0 ) + [ fix, y
) dx, where fix, y ) = x - yl. Jd To get the first approximation, we put y = 0
in f{x,y), giving .Vi f1 x2 = 0+ | xdx = — Jo 2 To find the second
approximation, we puty = x2/2 in fix, y ), giving y2 Similarly, the third
approximation is -ftA 'l J * ™ x 20 / £ 5 ■> 2" r 1 x X Jo { 2 20 . x2 x 5 x&
X11 ‘ * “ ~2 ~ 20 f 160 ~ 4400 Nnwp let us determine the starting values of
the Milne’s method from (i), by choosing h = 0.2. x0 - 0.0, Xj = 0.2, xz ~
0.4. x3 = 0.6, Using the predictor, x = 0.8, and the corrector. y0 - 0.0000, yj
- 0.020, y2 = 0.0795, ys = 0.1762, 4 h f0 = 0.0000 }\ = 0.1996 fz = 0.3937
fB = 0.5689 yT + W y1?' =0.3049, f4 = 0.7070 y'(’ =>y+ o c/a + 44 + f\ ><
y1eldfi = 0.3046, fA = 0.7072 Again using the corrector, yf 1 = 0.3046,
which is same as in (if) Aii) Now using the predictor* liij V =Vi+ y (254-/3
+ 2/4), x - 1,0, y'/' = 0.4554, = 0.7926 and the corrector t Vs’ = V3+ |(j & +
+ /y. gives yl1 1 = 0.4555, /■- = 0.7925 Again using the corrector, yif =
0.4555, a value which is the same as before. Hence, y( 1> = 0.4555.
Example 32.18. Given y = xfx3 + y2} e~ xt yfO) - 1, find y at x -0.1, 0.2
find 0.2 by Taylors series method and compute y(0.4) by Milne’s method.
{Anna. 2007)
1024 Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. Given y(0) = 1
and h =0,1 We have y'ix ) = x (a:2 + y2) e~ x ; y'{0) = 0 y"(x) = [(x3 + xy2)
(- e~ *.) + 3x2 + yz + x(2y ) y'l e' * = e~x [— x3 - xy2 + 3x2 + y2 + 2xyy'| ;
y"{0) = 1 y"'(x) = - e~ 1 h *3 - xy2 + 3 x2 + y2 + 2 xyy' + 3x2 + y2 + 2xyy‘
-6.r- 2yy' - 2xy'2 - 2xyy'J y'"(0 ) = - 2 Substitute these values in the Taylor's
series, x v2 x3 — y"'(0) + ... y(x)=y(Q) + —ry'<0>+ — y'(0) + — y II z \ o
3 y(0.1) = 1 + (0.1X01+ \ (O.l)2 (It + i(0.1)3(-2) + ... z 6 = 1 + 0.005 -
0.0003 = 1 .0047 i.e., 1 .005 Now taking x = 0.1, y(O.I) = 1.005, ft = 0.1
y'(O.l) = 0.092, y"(0.1) = 0.849, yw( 0,1} = - 1.247 Substituting these
values in the Taylor’s series about x = 0.1, 0.1 (0.1)2 (O.l)2 y(0.2) = y(0.1)
+ — y'(0.1> + -^-y"(0,l> + — /'(fl.l) + (0 l)2 (0 ll3 = 1.005 + (0.1 M0. 092)
+ ———(0.849) + ~r~(- 1.247) + ... 2 3 = 1.018 Now taking x —
Q.2,y(0.2) = 1.018, ft = 0.1 y'(0.2) = 0,176, y "(0.2) = 0.77, .yff/(€.2) =
0.819 Substituting these values in Lhe Tay let’s series '2 (O.l)3 y(0.3)
=y(0.2) + ^|y"(0.2) + ^y-y"(0,2) + g , = 1.018 + 0.0176 + 0.0039 + 0.0001 -
1.04 Thus the starting values of the Milne’s method with ft = 0.1 are
yw'(0.2) + ... x- = 0.0 Xj = 0.1 = 0.2 xa = 0,3 >o=l yj = 1.005 y2 = 1,018 y,,
= 1-04 fQ = /D - 0 4 = 0.092 4 = 0176 f3 = 0.26 Using the predictor, y^ =
yQ + “(24 -f2 + 2 fa) = 1 + [2(0.092)- (0.176) + 2(0.26)] = 1.09 x = 0.4 >4
i»} = 1.09 f =r'{0.4) = 0.362 Using the corrector, y)f =y2 + ~ (f2 + 4f3 + 4
> o 01 Hence y'f = 0.018 + ^ (0.176 + 4(0.26) + 0,362) = 1.071 y(0.4)=
1.071. I’ixiimple 32. 1 9. U»ing Runge-KutUt method of order 4, find y for
x = 0 . 1, 0.2, 0.3 given that dy/dx = xy + v2, y(0) - I. Continue the solution
at x = 0.4 using Milne’s method. {V.T.U., 2008; S.V.T.U., 2007; Madras,
2000) Solution. We have f(x,y) = xy + y2. To find yiO.l} : Here x0 - 0,ya =
1, h = 0.1.
Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations kx = h
f(x0,yQ) = (0.1}/“ (0.1) A2 = A/*fjc0+^fc,3'©+^] = (0.1) /"( 0.05, 1.05) \ 2
2 J ka = A/(*o + 1 h,y(j + j = (0.1) /’(0.05, 1.0577) *4 = hf{xl} + h,yQ +
ft3) = (0.1) /mi, 1.1172) ft - ^ (A| + 2A£ 4 2*3 + ft4) = -(0.1 4 0.231 +
0.2348 + 0.13598) 6 Thus ^(0.1 }=vVj - y^- ► A = 1.1169. To find y(0.2) :
Herexj = 0.1, = 1.1169, /i = 0.1. Thus y(0.2> = >-2 = .V, + * = 1.2773. To
find y(0.3) : Herex2 = 0.2, ;y2 = 1.2773, h = 0.1. kx = hftx2.y2> = (0.1)
A0.2, 1.2773) ( l i k2 = kf \x2 + - hty2 + - *i = (0. 1 ) f(Q .25, 1.3716) v " 2
2 j jfea = hf x2 +- h, y2 +- h A = <0.1 >f <0.26, 1.3885) 2 2 / ft4 = kf{ je2 +
A, y2 + *3) = (0.1) /‘(0.3, 1.5048) ft = ^ (ft j + 2*2 + 2*3 + ft4) Thusy(0.3)
=_yg =_y2 + ft - 1.504. Now the starting values of the Milne’s method are :
.V0 = 1.0000 jL= 1.1169 y2 = 1.2773 y;i = 1.5049 Using the prr.dict.or. -
0.1000 = 0.1155 = 0.1172 -0.13598 = 0.11687 ftj = ft f{xvyt) = (0.1) /1 0.1,
1.1169) = 0.1359 ft^/iZ-lxj +1*! j =(0.1) f(0. 15, 1.1848) = 0.1581 ft3 = hf (
*1 + ^ft, yt + ^ ) = (0.1) f{ 0.15, 1.1959) (, 2 2. J = 0.1609 h 4 = hf
1026 Higher Engineering Mathematics Again using the corrector,
0.1 >‘c) = 1.2773 + — [1.8869 + 4 (2.7132) + 4.1159] 3 = 1.8391 fi =
4.1182 Again using the corrector 0.1 y^r) = 1.2773 + — Jl.8869 * 4
(2.7132) + 4.1182] 3 Hence y (0.4) = 1.8392. - 1.8392 which is same as (£).
PROBLEMS 32.4 1. Given ^=*»+y. rtO) = 2. The value ofy(Q.2> = 2.073.
v<0.4) = 2.452, and >( 0.6) = 3.023 are get by R.K. Method of tlx 4 1 h
order. Kind >(0.8) by Milne’s predicter-corrector method taking h = 0.2.
Wnw, 20041 2. Given 2 dytdx — (1 + x2)y* andy(0) - l, y(D. 1 ) = 1.05,
yf0.2) = 1.1.2, y(0.3) = 1 .21 , evaluate y(0.4) by Milne’s prediclorcorrector
method. {V.TAL, 2011 S ; Madras, 2003 ) 3. Prom the data given below,
find y at x = i.4, using Milne’s predictor-corrector formula : dy _ i y dx ~ 2
,t: 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 y : 2 2.2150 2.4549 2.75 1 4 (V.T.U., 2007) t- Using Milne's
method, find >(4.5) given 5xv' + y- - 2 = 0 given y(4t = l, >(4.1) = 1.0049,
>(4.2) = 1.0097, >(4.3> = 1.0H3,y(4.4) = 1.01S7. ’ tAnm,2007> If ^ s 2e* -
y,>(0) = 2,y{lXU = 2.010, >(0.2) - 2.04 and >(0.3) = 2.09 ; find y(0.4*
using Milne’s predictor -corrector dx method. iV.TJl, 2010 ) 0- Using
Kunge-Kuttfi method, calculate >(0.1), v(0.2), and >00 3) given that. - - ‘-
^x = 1, y(0) = 0. Taking iheae dx l + x 32.10 values as starting values, find
><0.4) by Milne’s method. — ADAM5-BASH FORTH METHOD fiy
Given — ^ - f ixv y) and v0 = y(xn)t we compute dx y. ] “ ^ ^ .v - 2 ~ y&a
~ JL 3 ~ ,V(ô — by Taylor's series of Euler’s method or Rungc-Kutta
method. Next we calculate f _ } - f - h , y _ t ), f _ 2 ~ /" (xQ - 2 hf y „ f_ 3
= f - 3 h Py_3L Then to find ylf we substitute Newton’s backward
interpolation formula f(x. y> =fQ + tt Vfn + — + 1) V2/*0 + + 1)(n + 2)
V3^ + 2 6 Id ijV] +A f(x, y) dx yi=>0+ £*(^ + nV/o+: + a £(/i + "W„ * vVo
+•■■) *■ =y^'‘ (a + ^v/0+^vV„ + |v3/0+-] -U> ■ ■■ dx [Put x = jr™ + nh,
dx — hdn\
1027 Numerical Solution op Ordinary Differential Equations
Neglecting fourth and higher order differences and expressing V/0? V2f0
a11^ V3/[, in terms of function values, we get rf* ~y9+ ~ (554-59/-_) +
37/L2-9^_3) ...(2) uT This is called Ad a m s -Bash forth predictor formula.
Having found y,, we find f \ - /{.rlh + hvy^l. Then to find a better value ofyr
we derive a corrector formula by substituting Newton's backward formula
at fy Le.t n{n + l) ntn 4- 1) In + 2) f(x,y) = fx + nV/i + + VV, + - in (U s >o
+ £ ( f\ + + H) - x 2 (1 + y). Starting values of the Adams -Bash forth
method with h = 0.1, are jc - i.0,y_g - 1.000, /Lg = (1.0)2 (1 + 1.000) =
2.000 = l.I,y_2= 1.233, /Ls — 2,702 ,i - 1.2, y_j = 1.548, /Lj = 3.669 - 1.3,
yQ = 1,979, f0 = 5.035 Using th - (55 fQ - 59 f_ t 4- 37 f_ 2 - 9f_s) U: 73, fr
= 7.004 V. i + f. a> 19 x 5.035 - 5 x 3.669 + 2.702) - 2.575 6. Hencu
1026 Higher Engineering Mathematics cly lixam pic 32.21. If —

= 2e*y, y(0) - 0, fi nd y(4) using Adams predictor-corrector formula by
calculating dx y(l), y(2> and y(3) using Euler's modified formula. UN.T.U.,
2006 } Solution . We have f{x, j) = 2 e*y. To find 0.1 : X 2fy~y Mean
slope* Oldy + h (Mean slope) = new y 0.0 4 — 2 + 0.K4) =2.4 0.1 2e° 1
(2.4 J = 5.305 ~(4 + 5.306) = 4.6524 2 + 0.1 (4.6524) = 2,465 0.1 2r01
(2.465) - 5.449 |<4 + 5.449 1 = 4.7244 2 + 0.1 (4.7244) = 2.472 0.1 2e0 i
(2.4724 ) - 5.465 ~ (4 + 6.465) = 4.7324 2 + 0.1 14,7324) = 2.473 0.1 2 1*
1 (2.473) = 5.467 l (4 + 6.467) = 4.7333 2 + 0.1 (4.7333) = 2.473 0.1 6.467
— 2 + 0.1 (5,467) = 3.0199 0.2 He0* (3.0 190 J = 7.377 | (5.467 + 7.377)=
6.422 2.473 + 0.1 (6.422) = 3. 11 55 0.2 7.611 ^(5.467 + 7,611) = 6.539
2,473 + 0.1 (6.539) = 3.127 0.2 7,639 “ (5.467 + 7.639) = 6.563 2.473 + 0.1
16.553) = 3.129 0.2 7,643 ^15.467 + 7.643) = 6.565 2,473 + 0,1 (6.4551 =
3.129 0.2 7,643 — 3.129 + 0.1 (7,643' =3.893 0.3 2c0 3 (3.893)= 10 51 |
(7.643 + 10.51) - 9.076 3-129 + 0 1 (9.076) = 4.036 0.3 10.897 | (7.643 +
10.897) = 9.266 3.129 + 0.1 (9.2696) = 4.056 0.3 10.949 | (7.643 + 10.9491
= 9.296 3129 + 0.1 (9,296) = 4.058 0.3 10,956 \ (7.643 + 10,956) - 9.299
3.129 + 0.1 (9.299) = 4 0586 To find y( 0. 4) by Adam’s method, Hie
starting values with h : 0, 1 are H II O b y -3 = *■* u= 4 .v = 0. 1 y_2 =
2.473 u= 5.467 .v = 0.2 = 3.129 /-,= 7.643 x = 0.3 yG = 4.059 f- 0 = 10.956
Using the predictor formula y\p' = *,+ ™ (55/0 -69/1^37^-9^) = 4.059 + ^
(55 x 10.957 - 59 x 7.643 + 37 x 5.467 -9 x 4) = 5.383 y j = 5.383 4 ( 5.383)
= 16.06 1 Now x = 0.4
Numerical Solution of OaorNART Differential Equations 1029
Using the corrector formula, yr - y, * ^ wi +i%- 5/_, + u - 4.0886 + (9 x
6.061 + 19 x 10.956 - 6 x 7.643 + 5.467) = 5.392 24 Hence ?(0.4} = 5.392.
Example 32. 22. Solve the initial value problem dyfdx -x- y2, y(Q) = 1 to
find y(0.4) byAdum'tt method. Starting solutions required are to be obtained
using Runge-Kutta method of order 4 using step value A = 0. 1. iP.T.U.,
2003) Solution. We have f (x, y) = x - y2. To find y (0.1) : Here x[t “ 0, y0
— 1, h = 0.1 kl = hf{xotyti) = {OA)f(0, 1) k% = hf ^ + I A, y0 + i k, | - (0.1)
/(0.05, 0.95) = hf 4 ± h,t y0 + I *2 j = (0.1>/(0.05, 0.9574) *3 = h 4 = hf(x0
+ fi,y0 + *3> = (0.1)/ (0.1, 0.9137) k = A. (A, + 2A2 + 2A.j + kj Thus
y(0.1) = yl=y0 + k = 1 —0.0883 To find y(0.2) : Herex, = 0.1,^ * 0.9117, h
= 0.1. fe, = hf{xltyj) = {0.1) f (0.1, 0.9 M 7) = hf[*'i A* 1 'N y, +~ A, =
(0.1) /(0. 15, 0.8751) 2 J = -0.1000 = - 0.08525 - - 0.0867 = -0.07341 = -
0.0883 = 0.9117 = -0.0731 = -0.0616 *3 = hf ^ ht * + 1 j = (0.1) /(0. 15,
0.8809) = - 0.0626 k4 = A/(x1 + A,y, + *3) = (0.1) f{0,2, 0.8491) = - 0.0521
k - ~ (î + 2A2 + 2kA + k4) = - 0.0623 Thus _y(0.2) = y2= y4 + k = 0.8494.
To find y (0.3) : Here x2 0-2, y2 = 0.8494, y = 0.1 kx = hf(x2,y2) = (0.1)
/(0.2, 0.8494) = - 0.0521 k2 = hf (x2 + \ *. + \ h j = (0.1)/ (0.25, 0.8233) = -
0.0428 k3 = hf |xij + i h, y2 +~ *2 j = (0.1) /(0.25, 0.828) = - 0.0436 fc4 =
hf (x2 + A,y2 + A3) = (0.1)/ (0.3, 0.8058) = - 0.0349 A= |(A] + 3y2 + 2*3 +
^) = -0.0438 Thus y(0.3)=y3=y2 + A = 0.8061 Now the starting values of
Adam's method with h = 0.1 are : x = 0.0 y_3 = 1.0000 /_j = 0.0 - ( 1.0)3 = -
1.0000 x = 0.1 y_2 = 0.9117 /,2 = 0.1 — (0.9117)2 = -1.7312 x= 0.2 j_L -
0,8494 /_t = 0.2 - (0.8494 f = -0.5215 x = 0.3 y0 = 0.8061 /„ = 0.3 - (0,806
1)3 = — 0.3498
1030 Higher Engineering Mathematics Using the prvdictar, « *>'
= v„ + — (55^ - 59/lj + 37 f_2 - 9 f_ 3J yr =>'o 24 x - 0.4 0.1 = 0.8001 +
[55 (- 0.3498) - 59 (- 0-5215) + 37 (- 0.7312) - 9 (- 1)1 = 0.7789 f, = -
0.2067 Using the corrector. jT=*y0+“ r Wi + iaft-V-i + î) 24 0.1 Hence
y(b) = 1 and Lite starting values yCO. 1) = 0.90516,y(0. 2) = 0.82127, >
(0.3) = 0.7491S, evaluate v'0.4i using Adams-Bashforth method. (S. V. T.U..
2007) *■ U si nu' Adams- Rashforth method, find yl 4.4) given &*>' + vs
** 2,y(4) - l,y(4, ll = 1.0049, v(4, 2) = 1.0097 and y -1.3 = 10143. Given the
differential equation dy/dx = x^y * x"' and the data : *; 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 >■: 1
1.233 1.548488 1.978921 dx, z, = z0 + J (x, ya,zn)dx y2 ->d+ \f
(x,yltzx)dxtz2 = z0 + J41 (*, y, ,zx)dx y3 - y„ + |a (*, yz, 22 ) dx, z3 = + Jo
(s, y2, z2 ) dx and so on. (iO Taylor 's series method is used as follows : If A
be the step-size, y, = y lxQ + h) and 2, - z (x0 + A). Then Taylor’s algorithm
for ( 1) and (2) gives
Numerical Solution Of Ordinary Differential Equations . , A2 „
A* „ yi=y0 + ky0 + + ^y<> «■+ A V + ^7*0"+ |y + V + —(3) ...(4)
Differentiating (1) and (2) successively, we gety", z'\ etc. Su the values
y^\y0M9y^*» and zQ\ z0"tzQ"\.. are known. Substituting these in (3) and
(4), we obtain yv for the next stepSimilarly, we have the algorithms y2 +
hyx‘ 4- §7 y\" +■ J7 >r + A 2 A3 + iT^"+iT v, + ...{5) ...(6) Since yx andzj
are known* we can calculate „* andz/,*^* , Substituting these in (5) and{6h
we get y2 and z2 . Proceeding further, we can calculate the other values of.y
and z step by step. (iii) Runge-Kutta method is applied as follows : Starting
at U0, v0. and taking the step-sizes for xty> z to be hr kf l respectively, the
Runge-Kutta method gives, — hf Zq) *3 = hf /1 — h& (x^ y^, z0) 4 l . 1 , 1
.) Xf) +-A,yu +-*^,^0 +-/, | [ô A,y0 Ai^ti + 2 /j ) 1 1 1 *o + 2 /'1 ^ + 2 A>
+ g ?2 [xo +| A,y0 +|fea,20 /2 ] ^4 — hf “t h Y Zq + 1%) Hence yt ~ y0 + ^
(*i + ^2 + 2ks + V o am) 1 4 " A(}> (in + h . y0 + Ag, Zq + /a) zi — z<3 + “
2/2 + 2/3 + ?4) To compute y.z and zQ, we simply replace x0, y(>, zn by xJt
y,, zf in the above formulae. Example 32. Using Picard's method find
approximate values of y and z corresponding to x = 0.1, given that y(0) - 2,
z(0) - 1 and dyidx = x + z, dzldx - x - y2. Solution. Here x0 * 0, y0 = 2, z0 =
1, It =^»*)=> and dz dx = Wx, y, z) = x~y2 y - y0 + f f (x, y z) dx and z =
z0 + f $ (x, y z) dx. Jkb Firs/ epproxirnnhons y, = yn + f (x, y0, *0) dx = 2+
f (x + 1) dx = 2 + x + — x2 Jo 2 zx = Z0 + f (x, y0, Zq) dx = X + f (x - 4)
dx = 1 - 4x + ~x2 Jjc^ Jo 2 Second approximations ya = y0 + £ f (x, yl5
zl)dx = 2x £ ^x+l-4x + |x2 ]dt o 3 2 x3 = 2 + x--x+-r 2 6 *2 = *o+ f 4>
(xty1(2i)dx = 1 + dx = 1 - 4* + - x3 2 4 20
1032 Higher Engineering Mathematics ft Third approximations
y.^ = y# + j f (x, y3,z 2 ) dx J*D and so on. When Hence = 2 + x — — x2
— — x3 — i x4 — — x® 2 2 4 20 120 1 6 X z3 =z0 4 J $(x>y2* Z2)djc . .
3 2 ® 3 7 | 31 S.lfi 1 7 = 1 - 4x - x* + - x 4 — x - x + — x - —— x 2 3 12
60 12 252 x c 0.1, yt = 2.105, y2 - 2.0851 7, ys = 2.08447 a, = 0.605, a2 =
0.58387, z3 = 0.58672. y(Q.i) = 2.0845, a(0.1) = 0.5867 correct to four
decimal places. Example 32.24. Solve the differential equations - 1 + xz, ™
= - xy for x = 0.3. dx dx using fourth order Runge-Kutta method. Initial
valties are x = 0, y = 0, s = 1. i.e. t and i.e., Solution, Here fix, y, z) = 1 +
xz, (x, yr z) = — xy x0 = 0, y0 = 0, aQ = 1. I*et us take ft = 0.3. ft, = ft
f(xo,y0,za) = 0.3/10,0, 1) = 0.3(1 + 0) = 0.3 f t = ft - 0.3 (- 0 x 0) =■ 0 *2 =
A f 1 h> -Vo + | *1. *0 + | ] = (0.3) /(0.15, 0.15, 1) = 0.3 (1 4 0. 15) = 0.345
= ft ^ *0 + g ft, >0 4 g ftl > 2(i + g j = 0.3 [- (0.15) (0.15)1 = - 0.00675. k, =
hf{*
Numerical Solution of Ohoinary Differential Equations 1033
32.12 SECOND ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Consider the
second order differentia) equation d^y dx2 x,y, dy * dx By writing dy/dx =
2, it can be reduced to two first order simultaneous differential equations
i*L=Zt dx dz „ , dx These equations can be solved as explained above.
Example 32.25. Using fit mge-Kutto method , solve y"- xy's - y2 for x - 0.2
correct to 4 decimal p faces. Initial conditions arc x = 0, y - 1, y’- 0. [Delhi,
2002 } Solution. Let dy/dx -z = fix, y, z). Then dzldx = xz2 -ya ~ tyxt y, z)
We have x0 = 0, y0 = 1, = 0, h - 0.2. Using k2 ... for fix, y, z) and tv /2, ...
for z), Runge-Kutta formulae become and — hflXfi, y3, Zjj) - 0.2 (0} = 0
ft’2 ~ hflx^ + ^ h, ^ h jj Zq ^ ^j) = 0.2 {- 0.1) = -0.02 k3 — hflxQ 4 ~2 h ,
_Yy + h%, Zq + 2 = 0.2 (-0.0999) = -0.02 ki~hf\xQ + h,yQ + k.jf zD + l3) =
0.2 (-0.1958) = -0.0392 h. = 4 2A2 + 2/f3 4 A4) = -0.0199 Hence at x - 0.2,
y = y0 + k = 1 - 0.0199 = 0.980 1 y = z = z0 + l = 0 - 0.1970 = - 0.1970. lt =
h${xQ,y0t z„) = 0.2(— 1) = - 0.2 /2 - + 2 h, y0 + 2î< ■?o+ a ^ = 0.2(-
0.999) = -0.1998 /3 = + ■^h,yfA + 2^2^ = 0.2(- 0,9791) = -0.1958 lA - +
h,y0 + A3, z0 4 i3) = 0.2(0.9527) = — 0. 1905 |«1+ffls+a3 + 2/4) = -0,1970
Example 32. 2B. Given yT 4 xy* + y - 0, yfO) = /, y W) = 0, obtain y for x -
0(0.1) 0.3 by any method. Further, continue the solution by Milne’s method
to calculate y(0.4). (Anna, 2004; Madras. 2003 S) and Solution. Puttingy' =
z, the given equation reduces to the simultaneous equations z' 4 jcz + y —
0, y’ = z We employ Taylor's series method to find 3'. Differentiating the
given equation n times, we get yn+2+xyn + l + Tiyn+yn = 0 At X = 0, 0 = -
(n 4 l)(y„ )tt y(0) = 1 . gives y2(0) = - 1, y4(0) = 32, yB (0) = - 5 x 3, ... y,
(0) = 0 yields y3(0 ) =ys (0) = ... = 0. Expanding y(x) by Taylor’s series, we
have 2 3 y(x) =y(0) + *y, (0) 4 y2( 0) + ,v3(0) 4 ... ...U) v(v) - 1 — — 41 —
x — yw> 2, 41 5x3 6! 'JT 4 ... and From (ii), we have z(x) -y'( x) = -.14 ~
x5 s= ... = xy ... ...(Hi.) y(0.1) = 1 to.ir + - (01)4-... = 0.995 3 2
Higher Engjnfering Mathematics (0.2 f (0.2)4 y<0.2) = 1 - - ... =
0.9802 , , (0.3)2 (0.3 )* (0.3)6 ,r(0.3) = 1 - — — + — - — + ... = 0.956
From (tit), we have z(0.1 } “ - 0.0995,2(0.2) = - 0.196, 2 (0.3) = - 0.2863.
Also from (i), z'{x) = - (x z + y) /. x'fO.l) = 0.985, z'\. 2) = - 0.941, *'{0.3) =
- 0.87, Applying Milne’s predictor formula, first to z and then toy, we obtain
2(0.4) = z(0) + — (0.1)(2g'(0.1} - «'(0.2) + 2s'(0.3)| 3 = 0 + 04 3 |- 1.79 +
0.941 - 1.74) = - 0.3692 and y(0.4) =y(0) + - (0.1 ) I2y' (0.1) -y'(0.2) + 2/
(0.3)1 = 0 + {QA} I- 0.199 + 0.196 - 0.5736) = 0.9231 >3 / Also 2'(0,4) =
— lx(0.4)z (0.4) +y (0,41) = (0.4(- 0,3692) + 0.9231) = -0.7754. Now
applying Milne’s corrector formula, we get 2(0.4) = 2 (0.2) + ^ \z* (0,2) +
42' (0.3) + a' (0.4)) 3 = -0.196 + (¥)*-* ,941 - 3.48 - 0.7754) = - 0.3692 y
=*) and Hence y(0.4) =y (0.2) + - (y'(0.2) + 4y* (0.3) + y'(0.4)) O = 0.9802
+ 196 - 1.1452 - 0.3692) = 0.9232 y(0.4) = 0.9232 and 2(0.4) = - 0.3692.
PROBLEMS 32.6 I 1, Apply Picard's method to find the third
approximation to the values of y and 2, given that dyidx - 2, dzfdx = Xs (y
+ z), given y = 1, 2 = ~ when x = 0, 2- Solve the following differential
equations using Teylor series method of the 4th order, for x = 0.) and 0,2, dy
, d2 — ~ XX + I*)-— = - xy ; yiO) = 0 and z(0) = 1 . ax dy 3. Find >'(0.1 ),
z(O.l), y (0.2.1 end z(G,2) from the system of equations ji* -x 4- z, 2' = x -
y2 given yfOt = 0, z(0) = 1 using Kunge-Kutta of 4th order. [J.N.T.U., 2099
s t. Using Picard’s method, obtain the second approximation to the sohition
of - jc3 — + so that y< 0) = 1. v’CO) = y . dx 4 ax 2 ti^y dy dy j Use
Picard's method to approximate y when x = 0.1 p given that — “ + 2* — +
y = 0 andy = 0.5, ~ = 0-lT when tlx 1 dx ‘ dx x - o, . Using Hunge-Kutta
method of order four, solve yff - y + jry1. yfOl - L, y#{G) - 0 to find ytU.2)
andy'((J.2). Consider the second Order value problem y* — 2 y' + 2y = e2*
sin ( withytQJ = - 0.4 and /(G) - - 0.6, Using the fourth order Runge-Ktitta
method, firidy(0,2). W/t/io, 2003)
Numerical Solution of Orpfnahy Differential Equations 1035 K
The angular displacement 9 of a simple pendulum ip given by the equation
d2Q g — sin 9 = 0 dt^ t where I = 98 cm rnidg = 980 cm/sec2. If G = 0 and
dtofdl 4.472 at t = 0, use FLungo-Kutts method to find B and dffldt %vhen t
±= 0,2 sec. 32.13 BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS Such a problem
requires the solution of a differentia] equation in a region R subject to the
various conditions on the boundary of Rr Practical applications give rise to
many such problems. We shall discuss two- point linear boundary value
problems of the following types : 4 V 4 + * (. i ) + k(x) — + pU)y - y(x)
with the conditions y(x$) = a, y{xfl) = 6. dx * dx d*y ( it ) -j\ + Wx)y - \i{x)
with the conditions y(xu) - y'(xu) - a and y{xn) =y* (xn) - 6, While there
exist many numerical methods for solving such boundary value problems,
the method of finite-differences is most commonly used. We shall explain
this method in the next section. 32.14 FINITE-DIFFERENCE METHOD In
this method, the derivatives appearing in the differential equation and the
boundary conditions arc replaced by their finite-difference approximations
and the resulting linear system of equations are solved by any standard
procedure. These roots are the values of the required solution at the pivotal
points. The finite-difference approximations to the various derivatives are
derived as under ; IfyOO and its derivatives are single-valued continuous
functions of x then by Taylor’s expansion, we have J. 2 jl2 y{x + h ) =y(x) +
hy' 00 + — y" Or) + — H 1 O ■ y"'0O + .(1) and y{x - A) = y(x) - Ay' Or) +
y"{x) - — ym (x) + .(2) 1 h Equation (1) gives y'OO = — [yOr + h) -y(jc)| -
— y"(x) - ... ft 4 Le, , yr(x) = ^ [ y(x + h) -y(*)] + O(A) which is the
forward difference approximation ofy'{x) with an error of the order A,
Similarly {2) gives y\x) - 7- EyfJt) - vOc — All + O(A) A which is the
backward difference approximation ofy'ix) with an error of the order A.
Subtracting (2) from (1), we obtain y'Cr) = \ybc + hi - y{x - All + 0(A2) Art
which is the central -difference approximation ofy'ix) with an error of the
order A2. Clearly this central difference approximation to y'fjc) is better
than the forward or backward difference approximations and hence should
be preferred. Adding (1) and (2), wc get 1 y*(x) = Vs iy
1036 Higher ENGrNEEWSG Mathematics Hence the working
expressions for the centra! difference approximations to the first four
derivatives ofy{ are as under : 1 y"i ~ O'; , i - 2y( + y, _ j) 1 y i = Cv( + 2 -
2y, + , + 2yt _ t -v, _z) yj" = ~^{yU2- 4 y, ( i + 6y, - 4y( t x + y, „2) ...(3) .-
(4) ...(5) (6) Ubi>i The accuracy of this method depends on the slue of the
sub-interval h and also on the order of approximation. As we reduce? h , the
accuracy improves but the number of equations Ln be solved also tncreascs.
Ex ample 32. 27. Salve the equation y* = x +y with the boundary conditions
y(0) = y(i 1 ( Calicut , 1999 j Solution. We divide the interval (0, 1} into
fnnr sab-intervals so that /; - 1/4 and the pivot points are - 0f xi - 1/4, Xg =
1/2, xs = 3/4 and = 1. The differential equation is approximated as ^-lvul-
2y. + y,_1l = *; +yt or I6y, + 1 - 33yr + 16y( _ , = x;, i - 1, 2, 3. Using y^ =
y4 = 0, wo get the system of equations 16y2-33y1 = ± 4 16y3-33ya + 16yi=
| -33y3 + 16y2=| Their solution gives y j = - 0.03488, y2 = - 0.05632, y3 = -
0.05003. Ohs. The exact solution being y(je‘t - -’r— — - r, the error at each
nodal point is given in the table; sinh 1 X Computed value y(x) Exact value
yfx) Error 0.26 - 0.03488 - 0.03506 0.00017 0.5 - 0.06632 - 0.05659
0,00027 0.76 - 0.05003 - 0.05028 0,00026 Example 32.28. Determine
values of y at the pivotal points of the interval (0, J), if y satisfies the
boundary value problem ytv + 8ly = Six2, ylO) - y(l) = y"(0) -y* ( 1} = 0.
(Take, n, = 3 Solution. Here h = 1/3 and the pivotal points are jc0 = 0» jf1 =
1/3, xf = 2/3, x.f - 1. The corresponding yvalues are y0(= 0),ylty2,y3 (= 0).
Replacing y,w by its central difference approximation, the differential
equation becomes +2 " 4v. - i + 6y, - *y, - 1 + - a) + Sly, = 81 xf or 3', ^ 2 -
4y, + ! + 7yi-4yi_t +y^2= xf,i = 1, 2 At ; = i, ya~4y2 + 7fi_',-Vo +y -t At i -
2, y4 — 4y3 + 7 y2 - 4y, + y0 = 4/9 Using yQ =y3 = 0, we get — 4y., + 7yz
+ y _ j “ 1/9 .-.(£> y4 + 7yj - 4y , = 4/9 ...(it}
Numeric:*! Solution of Oboinahy DiFFfeRmriAt Equations
Regarding the conditions y"0 = _>'"3 - 0, we know that At t = 0, >£ = 9(yt -
2y0 + y _ fl or y- ! = - Jj At i = 3, yz ~ 9Cv+ - 2ya + y2> y*~-y* Using (iff),
the equation {/) becomes - 4 y2 t 6^'j = 1/9 Using (iu), the equation (ii)
reduces to f>y.A — 4y, = 4/9 Solving (tO and (pi), we obtain = 1 1/90 and
y2 = 7/45, Hence y( 1/3) = 0.1222 and y(2/3) = 0.1556. Example 32*29.
The deflection of a beam is governed by the equation ^7 + Sly = tfx) where
c)p(.v > i- ’h> m My the table 1/3 213 lt $ r.) ; 81 162 243, and bt umdary
condition yf 0) = y'( 0) - y"i 1) = y*"(l) — 0. Evaluate th e deflection at the
pivotal poin ts of the beam using three sub-in tervals, Solution. Here h - 1/3
and the pivotal points are xit = 0. JCj = 1/3, £2 = 2/3, x3 = 1. The
corresponding y -values are;y0(= 0),y.,,y2, y3. The given differential
equation is approximated to jj ♦ a - 4>r. + i + 6-V, -4>^1 + .y(_2) + 8 ly, = )
n Ati = 1, v3 - 4v2 + Tvj - 4y0 + y_, = 1 ...U) At i = 2, >4-4ya + 7>g-
4y1+y0 = 2 ...Hi) At i = 3, y5-4>'4 + 7y3-4y2 + y! = 3 ..Mii) We have y0 =
0 ...(iv) Since for i = 0, °Since y'=^ (y( + 1-2y,+y,-i> for i - 3, ° = ^3 = -jp
Cv4 - 2v3 + y3>, i.e. y4 = 2 lv3 -y2 ...(pi) Also y. = 2a3 (yt + 1 - % +i2^-i
-3V-P for i = 3, 0 = y* = 2 A3 {>a ~ 2y* + 2y~ ~yi> .Vfi = 2y4 ~2y + yi ,.,
(pii) Using (iv) and (l0> the equation (i) reduces to y3 - 4y2 + 8vj = 1 ...
(viii) Using (ip) and (of), the equation (it > becomes -y3 + %2“î = 1 l" y0
tv y3 =^3 = 0] ,.,(w) — (p) ...(oi) ...(ijt)
1038 Higher Engineering Mathematics Using ( vi ) and (i/m), the
equation (iii) rudutrcH to 3ys ” 4y2 + 2^3 = 3 - W Solving (viii), {ix) and
tar), we get y, = 8/13, y2 = 22/13, y, = 37/13. Hence yi 1/3) = 0.6154“ .y
(2/3) = 1.6923, y(l ) - 2.8462. PROBLEMS 32.7 f Solve the boundary value
problem for u = 0.!3 : rf2 y —4 + .V + l*0,*C0)=jrtl)-O. ax~ 2. Find an
approximate solution of' the boundary value problem : y' + 8 =. 0 by the
finite difference method, Compute the value of y(0.fjl and compare with the
true value. t>. Solve the boundary value problem y" + xy ' + y = 3^ + 2,
y(Q) = 0, y 1) = 1 , 7. The boundary value problem governing the deflection
of a beam of length 3 metres is given by ^ + 2y = - x2 + - i + -I, y(D) = v'U»
=y(3) = /(3) = 0. dx 9 3 The beam is built-in at the left end (x = 0) and
simply supported at the right end (* *» 3). Determine y at the pivotal points
x - 1 and x = 2h. Solve the boundary value problem, 4t + «l7 = 729i2, y(0)
= y'(0l = y"(l) = .v'l l) = 0, (Use n = 3.) dx 0, Solve the equation yw - y + y
= x 2 subject to the boundary conditions y(0) - yX 0) - 0 and y(l) - 2t yXD =
0. (Take n = 5) 32.15 OBJECTIVE TYPE Of QUESTIONS PROBLEMS
32.8 Select the correct answer or fill up the blanks in the following
questions : Which of the following is a step by step method (ft) Taylor1 s
U>i Adams-Oashforth ic) Picard’s (d) None. 2. The finite difference scheme
for the equation 2y" + y = 5 is . :i. IFy" - x + y#y($j = l and y°Hx) = l + x +
v2/2, then by Picartfs method, the value ofy^Ca:) is . . 1. The iterative
formula of Euler's method for solving ym = fix, y) with y( x0) ~ y0, is - 5.
Taylor's series for solution of first order ordinary' differential equations in
fL Using Runge-KuUu method of order four, the value ofy(O.l) for y =:x -
2yf ytO) = 1 taking h = 0.1 is (a) 0.S13 {b ) 0.825 fc) 0.0625 id) none. T,
Given yv y2% y3i Milne's corrector formula to find y4 for dy/dx = fix* y\ is
. H, The second order Rimge-KuLta I'ormulu is . ih Ad ams-Bash forth
predictor formula to solve y' = ft.xy y) given y0 = yix^ ) is . ! ft. The multi-
step methods available for solving ordinary differential equations are . 11.
Tu predict Adam's method aliens L . values ofy, prior to Lhe desired value,
are required. i Taylor's series solution of y' = - jy, v(0) - 1 uplo x4 is .
Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations dy 13.

Using modified Eulers method, the value ofy(0.I ) for ~ - x -yt y(Q) = J is
*,.... . la) 0,800 £ b) 0_909 k) 0.0809 (d) none. 1 I. Milne’s Predictor
formula is ...... . J 5. Adam's corrector formula is _ \ H, Using Euler’s
method, dyldx = [y - 2rVjp y(0) =; I ; give# y(G,l) = . . d'* V j? dy 17, : 4- v
+ V = 0 is equivalent to a set of two first order differential equations . and ...
tix£ ' ax 18. The formula for the 41h order Runge-KuUa method is ...... « tlh
Taylor's series method will he useful to give some of Milne's method, 20.
The name of two self-eta rting methods to solve y' =flxfy > given y(x0) =>0
art- .... 21. In the derivation of fourth order Runge-Kulta formula, it is
called fourth order because ..♦*„ 22. 1 f y* =- x, yfC) = l then fay Picard’s
method, the va lue of yi U is (a) 0.916 lb) 0.905 (c) 0.981 Id) none. 2:h The
finite difference scheme of the differential equation /' + 2y = 0 is ...... 24. liy
= -yw y(0) = 1, the Eulers method, the value of>'£ 1 1 is (a) (199 (b) 0,999
k) 0,981 id) none. 25* In Euler's method if A is small the method is too
slow, jf h is large, it gives inaccurate value. SO* Runge-Kuttu method is a
self starting method. 27, IVedictor-correctur methods lire self-starting
methods. 1039 (True or FliIsc i (True or False! (True or Falsc i
Numerical Solution of F^rtial Differential Equations p - - - - - - - -
- - — - - - - - - y - I — * ' — ■ *rT - - Jfl I 1. Introduction . 2. Classification
of second order equations. 3, Finite difference approximation to derivatives
4. Elliptic . equations. 5. Solution of Laplace's equation. 6. Solution of
Poisson’s equations. 7. Parabolic equations. 8. Solution I of heat equation.
9. Hyperbolic equations. 10. Solution of wave equation. 11. Objective Type
of Questions. 33.1 INTRODUCTION There are many boundary value
problems which involve partial differential equations. Only a few of 'these
equations can be solved by analytical methods. In most cases, we depend on
the numerical solution of such partial differential equations. Of the various
numerical methods available for solving these equations, the method of
finite differences is most commonly used. In this method, the derivatives
appearing in the equation and the boundary' conditions are replaced by their
finite-difference approximations. Then the given equation is changed to a
difference equation which is solved by iterative procedures. This process is
slow but gives good results of boundary value problems. An added
advantage of this method is that the computation can be done by electronic
computer. Here wc shall apply this method to the solution of important
applied partial differential equations. For a detailed study, the reader should
refer to author’s book 'Numerical Methods in Engineering and Science'.
CLASSIFICATION OF SECOND ORDER EQUATIONS form. The
general linear partial differential equation of the second order in two
independent variables is of the , . 3Bu 3 lu „ ,32« A(x. y ) — + y) — — +
Clx, y) — ^ + F cfcc2 ' ‘ tfacSy ' 3y2 Such a partial differential equation is
said to he (0 elliptic, if B2 — 4 AC < 0, fit) parabolic, if B2 - 4 AC = 0, and
(Hi) hyperbolic, if B2 4 AC > 0. Example 33. 1 . Classify the following
equations ; (in) il + x2) 3 u. _ i .£*+4 t)2U dl, — + 2 — =0 w (l xih ax dy a
c2 - T- + { 5 e 2xe ) + (4+xs) Ji dx* dxdt 1040 + (I-y2)—v = Q* - x < «, - l
1041 Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations
Solution, (£) Comparing this equation with (1) above, we find that A = 1,B
= 4,C = 4 ,\ B* - 4 AC = £4>2 -4 x 1 x 4 = 0 So the equation is parabolic.
(«) Here A = x2, B = 0, C = 1 -y2 B2 - 4AC - 0 - 4x2 (1 -y2) = 4x* (y2 - 1)
For all x between - « and », x2 is positive For all .v between - 1 and 1, >'2 <
1 B2 - 4AC < 0 Hence the equation is elliptic. (wi) Here A = 1 + x2, B = 5 +
2r2, C = 4 + jc2 B 2 - 4AC = (5 + 2x2)a — 4(1+ x2) £4 + x2) = 9 i.e, > 0 So
the equation is hyperbolic. PROBLEMS 33.1 1 . What is the classification
of the equation + 2/\ +- = 0. 2. Determine whether the following equation is
elliptic or hyperbolic ? (at + l)uw- 2 U + 2)1*^. * (x + 3) - 0. 3. Classify the
equations (i)y2 tin- 2xy + x2 uy> + 2u, -3tt =0 (it) x 2 t>2u
r/(jr, y) - u(x - A, y) + Oih)Hkjhepi Engineering Mathematics u{x
+ A, y) - u(x - A, y) and iru _ u{x - h, y) - 2u{x, y) + i/(a~ + A, ,y) dx* ~ A2
2A + Oik2) + Oih2) Writing ii{x, yl = uiik, jk) as simply ut the above
approximations become Ui . I : -U: , u = 4- Oik) * h It, j + O(A) **i + ij-ui-
i.j 2h + 0(A2> and u — XX + OtA'2) Similarly we have the approximations
for the derivatives w.r.t.y : ~ %, j k ui , j ui, v - 1 u> = ui,;+l - I 2A + O(k) +
G( A) + 0(AZ} -U) ...<2) -.13) ...16) ...(7) ...(8) and "fry + QB A2
Replacing the derivatives in any partial differential equation by their
corresponding difference approximations (1) to (8), we obtain the finite-
difference analogues of the given equations . 33.4 ELLIPTIC EQUATIONS
The Laplace’s equation V2u = and the Poisson’s equation d*u d2u F| ■ + •
dx£ dy = 0 dr2 3>2 = fix,y) Boundary catuliliomt prescribed at each point
ofC {shaded) fig. 33.2 are examples of elliptic partial differential equations.
Laplace’s equation arises in steady-state flow and potential problems.
Poisson’s equation arises in fluid mechanics, electricity and magnetism and
torsion problems. The solution of these equations is a function u ix, y)
which is satisfied at every point of a region R subject to certain boundary
conditions specified on the dosed curve C (Fig. 33.2). In general, problems
concerning steady viscous flow, equilibrium stresses in elastic structures
etc., lead to elliptic type of equations. 33.5 SOLUTION OF LAPLACE'S
EQUATION* d2u t)2u ., - iT + - S- = 0 a*a dv2 .,.£1) * See p, 619
Numerical Solution or Partial Differential Equations Consider a

rectangular region E for which u ( x f >r) is known at the boundary Divide
this region into a network of square mesh of side h , as shown in Fig, 33.3
(assuming that an exact sub-di vision of li is possible). Replacing the
derivatives in (1) by their difference approximations, we have 1 . + U/ + 1J
1 + t* Kj-i~2uu + uu+i] = 0 or uu - 4 K - u + », * I, j + ui.j * 1 + uij - |I ...(2)
This shows that the value of u. at any interior mesh point is the average of
its values at four neighbouring points to the left, right, above and below. (2)
is called the standard 5-point formula which is exhibited in Fig. 33.4. '1, F.
K h* bt , 6^ n 6-i 6, U2,4 “8,4 “4.4 WV,3 u4.a %,2 “m u*,i ^6 t4 6, ^li, 1
^2,1 &3A &4A X Fig. 33.3 j + 1 ui i J -> a ur . i,j Ui-Uj- 1 Fig. BB.4
Sometimes a formula similar to (2) is used which is given by u- j - — (af- _
j j + u{ + 1^j+ ut + V j + t , y t) % \ K / / i* / t * I 1 * t / f • / c: "• -j V \ % \ \
\ 3 + i„j: + i 14, i+ U~ l Fig. 33. S ...(3) This shows that the value of u,- is
the average of its values at the four neighbouring diagonal mesh points. (3)
is called the diagonal 5-point formula which is represented in Fig. 33.5.
Although 13) is less accurate than {2), yet it serves as a reasonably good
approximation for obtaining the starting values at the mesh points. Now to
find the initial values of u at the interior mesh points, we first use diagonal
Five point formula (3) and compute n3 3, n,2 n4 4, u4 2 and u,2 2, in this
order. Thus we get, u3 ;i = — (6, 5+ *5, j + g + bx ,1 ; u2 4 = - (b, 6 + ua 3
+ b3 fi + b1 3) 4 4 lii -t = — 5 + b5 3 5 + us a) ; ui 2 ~ — (o3 3 + 65 , + bs j
+ b- a) 1 4 1 ' ' l| * 4 1 1 * * “2<2= 7 4 The values at the remaining interior
points Le. u2i 3, u.£ 4, u4 a and ua 2 are computed by the standard fivepoint
formula (2). Thus, we obtain U2. 3 = 7 3 + 3 + U2. i + U2. A U3. -1 = 7 + «
Oi) i-l,J i+l.j , + U \fl + 1 1 l,j + 1 + U1 ij- 1*
1044 | Higher Engineering Mathematics This formula utilises the
latest iterative value available and scans the mesh points symmetrically
from left to right along successive rows. This process is repeated till the
difference of values in one round and the next becomes negligible. This is
known as Liebmann's iteration process. Example 33.2. Solve the elliptic
equation bh + « = 0 for the square mash of Fig. 33.6 with boundary values
as shown. iRohtak. 2005 ; V.T.U., 2005) Solution. Let u1? u2. ..., u9 be the
values of u at the interior mesh-points. Since the boundary values of u are
symmetrical about AS, Also the values of u being symmetrical about CD,
«a - ulr ue = u4, u9 = uT Thus it is sufficient to find the values uif u2, «4
and w5. Now we find their initial value in the following order : 1000| — - i
— ^ - 1 — - F2 — — \ 1000 l 4 u5 = - 12000 + 2000 + 1000 + 1000) =
1500 (Std. formula) Uj = — (0 + 1500 + 1000 + 2000) = 1125 (Diag.
formula) 4 ti5 = - (1125 + 1125 + 1000 + 1500) = 1 188 (Std. formula) u. =
—<2000 + 1500 + 1126 + 1125) - 1438 (Std. formula) 4 We carry out the
iteration process using the formulae : 2(K>0 1000 u/" + = 4 l1000 + uln) +
500 + i t2ln + 1) = ^ [nl(n + 11 + «,(*> + 1000 + n5(ni] u4(n + “ = j 12000
+ «5tnl + u,»« + » + w1(n,l l/g*" + 1) = L [uin ♦ 1) + UW + uU, + lj + „2(nl|
First iteration : (put n = 0) a,£l> = - (1000 + 1188 + 500 + 1438) 1032 4
ttJi} = 4 (1032 + 1032 + 1000 + 1500) = 1141 u .(1> = t (2000 + 1500 +
1032 + 1032) = 1391 500 1000 51 CKJ 1 C “l u2 A «4 »IS B “a“9 D 500
1000 500 Fig. 33.6 2000 1000 s 4 Second iteration : (put n. = 1) u -a> =
”(1391 + 1391 + 1141 + 1141) = 1266 «<2> = -(1000 + 1141 + 500 + 1391)
= 1008 4 uJ2) = -(1008 + 1008 + 1000 + 1266) = 1069 * 4 u <2’ = -(2000 +
1266 + 1008 + 1008) = 1321 4 «flt2)= -(1321 + 1321 + 1069 + 1069) =
1195
Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations 1045 Third
iteration : um - A (1000 + 1069 + 500 + 1321) = 973 uJ3] = A (973 + 973 +
1000 + 1195) = 1035 1 4 u4<3> = A (2000 + 1195 + 973 + 973) = 1288
«s,3> = \ <1288 + 1288 + 1035 + 1035) = 1162 Fourth iteration : a,'41 = T
(1000 + 1135 + 500 + 1288) = 956 4 U W - A (956 + 956 + 1000 + 1162) =
1019 2 4 u4,4> = ~ (2000 + 1162 + 956 + 956) = 1269 u5<4) = A (1269 +
1269 + 1019 + 1019) = 1144 Fifth iteration : u,'5) = A (1000 + 1019 + 500 +
1269) = 947 <6> - A (947 + 947 + iooo + 1144) = 1010 4 4 u «> = A (2000
+ 1144 + 947 + 947) = 1260 4 a «> = - (1260 + 1260 + 1010 + 1010) =
1135 5 4 Similarly, u1(6> = 942, u2m = 1005, u4m = 1255, u™ = 1130
«1<7> = 940, u ™ = 1003, u4<7! = 1253, u5n) =1128 «/•> = 939, uj6] =
1002, = 1262. ufl = 1127 u™ = 939, uz<6> = 1001, u4m =1251, ua'9t =
1126 Thus there is negligible difference between the values obtained in the
eighth and ninth iterations. Hence a, = 939, u2 - 1001, u4 = 1251 and «6 =
1126. Example 33.3. Given the values of u(x, y) on the boundary of the
square in the Fig. 33.7, evaluate the function u(x, y) satisfying the Laplace
equation Vsu = Oat the pivotal points of this figure. (Bhopal, 2009 ;
Madras, 2003) Solution. To get the initial values of ulf u2, u3, u4, we
assume u4 = 0. Then u. = - (1000 + 0 + 1000 + 2000) = 1000 1 4 u, = A <
1000 +■ 500 + 1000 + 0) = 625 u, = - (2000 + 0 + 1000 + 500) = 875
(Diag. formula) (Std. formula) (Std. formula) u4 = - (875 + 0 + 625 + 0) =
375 4 We carry out the successive iterations, using the formulae + » = A
[2000 + u2'n) + 1000 + u3(n>] u2ln + 11 = - [u/ft + 1} + 500 + 1000 +
u4tn} J (Std. formula)
1046 Higher Engineering Mathematics and u3(n + 1)= - [2000 +
u/"1 + + 11 + 5001 o4= i [I*,,*" + *' + 0 + uz(" + 1> + 0J F/rst iteration :
{pul n - 0) «n(1> = - (2000 + 625 + 1000 + 875) = 1125 4 U™ =-(1125 +
500 + 1000 + 375) = 750 a,‘n = -{2000 + 375 + 1125 + 500) - 1000 J 4
u4il> = -j (1000 + 0 + 750 + 0) = 438 Second iteration : (put n = 1 > « <2>
= -{2000 + 750 + 1000 + 1000) = 1188 1000, 2Q0C 2000 1000 icon 1000
1000 “ 2 500 0 fig. 33.7 500 0 0 u,}2) = - (118S + 500 + 1000 + 438) - 782
* 4 «... 12) _ _ 4 1 (2000 + 438 + 1188 + 500) » 1032 u™ = - (1032 + 0 +
782 + 0) ^ 454 Third deration : (put n = 2} u ,t3) - - (2000 + 782 + 1000 +
1032) = 1204 1 4 u‘Sl - — (1204 + 500 + 1000 + 454) = 789 z 4 u ‘3> = -
(2000 + 454 + 1204 + 500) ^ 1040 h4(3> = - (1040 + 0 + 789 + 0) - 458
Similarly, Hj!4) - 1207, «2t41 ~ 791, » 1041, w4M> = 458 u w = 1208,
o2‘s> - 791.5, u3[6t = 1041.5, uj® = 458.25 Thus there is no significant
difference between the fourth and fifth iteration values. Hence Uj = 1208,
u2 = 792, u3 = 1042 and u4 = 458. Example 33.4. Solve the Laplace
equation ua + «n. = 0 given that (Fig. 33.8). Solution. We first find the
initial values in the following order : 4 u5 = 4 (o + 17 + 21 + 12.1) = 12.5 n.
= -(0 + 12.5 + 0 + 17) = 7.4 1 4 u, = -(12.5 + 18.6 + 17 + 21) = 17.28 3 4 u~
= A {12.5 + 0 + 0 + 12.1) = 6.15 7 4 = I (12.5 + 9 + 21 + 12.1) = 13.65 u„=
-(17 + 12.5 + 7.4+ 17.3)= 13.55 2 4 uA = I (7.4 + 6.2 + 0 + 12.5) = 6.52 4
(Std. formula) (Diag. formula) (Diag. formula) (Diag. formula) (Diag.
formula) (Std. formula) (Std. formula) 11.1 17 19.7 ll , u6 8.7 12.1 12.5 Fig.
33-8 18.6 21,9 21 17 9
NuMEftpCAj. Solution qi-- Partial Diff erential Equations 1047 =
^ '(17.3 + 13.7 + 12.5 t 21) = 16.12 (Std. formula) = — (12.5 + 12.1 + 6.2 +
13.7)= 11.12 (Std. formula) 4 Now we carry out the iteration process using
the Standard formula : = i[(0+111+ °4t> + 4B> >] *4- + 1J = 1 + 15 + 17 +
4n> + 4n> >] 4" + n - 1[<4"*,> + I9.7t4") + 21.9)] 4" + 11 = + + 19 7 + 4'”
+i4Mt)] 4n + s> = “ [(u\n + " + 4" + l> + 4«' + ] 4n + 11 = 1 [fi4n * l) + 4"
+ 1; + + 2d] 4* + 1> = i[0 + (4" +1> + 8.7 + 4ft> )] 4n + 11 = 1 [(4n + 11 +
4" + 1} + i2.i + 4° )] 4fl + 15 = I [(4n + « + 4ft> + 12.8 + 17 >] First
iteration (put n = 0, in the above results) 4° - i (0 + 11.1 + 4o) + 4“l) = ^ (0+
11 1 + 8,52 + 13.55) = 7,79 4” =T (7.79 + 17 + 12.5 + 17.28)= 13.64 4 41*
=T (13-84 + 19.7 + 16.12 + 21.9) = 12.84 4 4“ — -7 (0 + 7.79 + 6.15 +
12.5) = 6.61 4 41! = T (6.61 + 13.64 + 11.12 + 16.12) =11.88 4 41' =T
(11.88 + 17.84 + 13.65 + 21) = 16.09 4 4J) = T (0 + 6,61 + 8.7 + 11.12) =
6.61 4 t!) 1 M =T (6.61 +■ 11,88 + 12.1 + 13.65) = 11.06 4 41' = T <11*06
+ 16.09 + 12.8 + 17) = 12.238 4 Second iteration (put n = 1) fO\ 1 wi = T (0
+ H I + 6.61 + 13.64) = 7,84 4 4*’ = t (7.84 + 17 + 11.88 + 17.84) = 16.64 4
421 = 7 (13.64 + 19.7 + 16.09 + 21.9) = 17-83 4 43> = 1 (0 + 7.84 + 6.61 +
11.88) = 6.58 4
1048 Higher Engineering Mathematics ui21 = - (6.58 + 13.64 +
11.06 + 16.09) = 11.84 4 421 = - (11.84 + 17.83 + 14.24 + 21) = 16.23 4 4g)
= - (0 + 6.58 + 8.7 + 11.06) = 6.58 4 *4"1 =-7 (6.58 + 11.84 + 12.1 + 14.24)
= 11.19 4 421 = ~ (11. 19 + 16.23 + 12.8 + 17) = 14.30 4 Third iteration
(put n = 2) “i3> =v (0 + 11.1 + 6.58 + 13.64)= 7.83 4 UZ3> =T (7,63 + 17 +
11.84 + 17.83) = 13.637 4 =i (13.63 + 19.7 + 16.23 + 21.9) = 17.86 4 uf =t
(0 + 7.83 + 6.58 + 11.84) = 6.56 4 «B 1 = T (6.56 + 13.63 + 11.19 + 16.23)
= 11.90 4 *431 = 7 < 11.90 + 17.86 + 14.30 + 21) = 16.27 4 431 =- (0 +
6.56 + 8.7 + 11.19) = 6.61 4 u£' -T (6.61 + 11.90 + 12.1 + 14.30) = 11.23 4
43> =t (11-23 + 16.27 + 12.8 + 17) = 14.32 4 Similarly, «J4) = 7.82, =
13.65, = 17.88, = 6.58, uf > = 11.94, = 14.34 53.6 SOLUTION OF
POISSON S EQUATION* 1) - 100 and h = 1/3. (A/ioo. 2005) Solution.
Here h - 1/3 uti , u, , (Fig. 33.9) * 1 A 1 J * Bee p. 882.
Numerical Solution of Partial Differentjal Equations The standard
5- point formula for the given equation is - w U + \j ♦ ! + “u - I - 4 U‘d = h2
f{ih> jk) = For <1 = 1 J = 2), (i) gives 0 + us + «3 + 100 - 4 = — 2 Le., —
4u, + u2 + a3 = — 102 For O' = 2 ,/ = 2), (t) gives u1 + 100 + u4 + 100 - 4
u,2 = - 4 re. ut — 4u2 + u4 = — 204 For U3 (i = Uj = 1), (i) gives 0 + m4 +
0 4- iij - 4r;3 = - 1 i.e.. ul - 4u3 + ut = - 1 For U4 (i to It 1), gives u3 + 100 +
u2 - 4ii4 = - 2 n2 + u3 - 4i£4 = - 102 Subtracting (ti) from ( if ), - 4 Wj + 4
u4 = 0 Le. u, = u4 Then (Hi) becomes 2 t/t - 4ii2 = — 204 and (ie) becomes
2u} - 4na = - 1 Now (4) x f.(7) + (in) gives - 14^ + 4ti3 = - 612 (i/ii) + ( viii
) gives - I2ul — - 613 Thus = 613/12 = 51.0833 = u4. ...(»> ..MU) ...(ie) ...
(ti) Uvi) ...(oil) ...(viii) Y a m a 100 u — 100 “i “a «a “4 100 too 100 0 u » 0
0 Fig. 33.9 0 X From (vi). From (oil). u2 = - (uj +■ 102) = 76.5477 2 if .‘I
^=2i“1 + zJ=26-7916E sample 33.6, Solve the partial differential equation
V3u — - 10(x? +.v“ + 10) over the square with sides x = o - y, x-3 = y with
u - O on the boundary and mesh length = 1. (Anna, 2007; P.T.U., 2007 ;
Delhi , 2002) Solution. Here A = 1 (Fig. 33. 10). The standard 5-point
formula for the given equation is ui - 1, j + “f + ij + «i. j + i + H j- 1 ~ 4f^ J
= lOfi2 +j2+ 10) ,„(t) For u}(i = 1, j = 2), (i) gives 0 + Hg + 0 + u3 - 4ut = -
10(1 + 4 + 10) i.e.. 11 1 = i(u2 + a3 + 150) ...(«) = 2,j = 2), (i) gives u2 =
i(u1 + u4 + 180) 4 ...(Hi) = 1 ,j =1), we have u3 = — + n4 + 120) 4 ...(iv) =
2, j = 1), we have u4 = A (u2 + u3 + 150) 4 1 ( ) < ) ( > “1 0 “a «4 0 1 0 < )
< D X Fig. 33. ID Equations (ti) and (u) show that. m4 = u L. Thus the
above equations reduce to Uj = — (u2 + u3+ 150) 4 u2 = — (u, + 90) “3=2
+ 60) Now let us solve these equations by Gause-Seidal iteration method.
First iteration : Starting from the approximations u2 = 0, u3 - 0, we obtain
Ul = 37. G. Then u „(1) = i (37.5 + 90 ) - 64 ; u„w = - (37.5 + 60) = 49 1
2 2 3 2 ...(vi) ...(oii) ...(viii) u - 100
1050 Highert Engineering Mathematics Si-'t ond iteration ; ii, 2)=

- (64 + 49 + 150) = 66 ; u <21 = I (66 + 90) = 78 ; u ™ = - (66 + 60) = 63 1
4 2 2 Third iteration : h,(3> = \ (78 + 63 + 150) - 73 ; uJ3) = - (73 + 90) =
82 ; uJ2) - — <73 + 60) = 67 4 2 2 Fourth iteration ; jf'4l = - (82 + 67+ 150)
= 75; £*' 41 = i(75 + 90) = 82.5 ; u = 1(75 + 90) = 82.5 ; u3(5t = - (75 + 60)
= 67.5 4 2 2 Since these values are the same as those of fourth iteration, we
have «1 ■ 75, 1 12 = 82.5, u, j - 67.5 and ui = 75. PROBLEMS 33.2 1 Solve
the equation iirt + «w = 0 for the following square mesh with boundary
values as shown in Pig, 33, 1 T Iterate until the maximum difference
between the successive values at any point is less than 0.001. (Delhi, 2002)
-■ Solve V2u = 0 under the conditions (A = 1, k = 1), ufO.y) - 0, u(4.,v) *
12 + y for 0 £v £ 4 ; utx, 0) = 3x, u<> . 4) = jp for 0 < x < 4, Wusat, 2008)
3- Solve the elliptic equation hb 4- u ri, = 0 for the square mesh with
boundary value* as shown in Fig. 33.12. Iterate until the maximum dilTe
rente between successive values nt any point is less than 0.005. 4 5 Fig.
33.11 0 0 0 Fig. 33.12 ■■ ■ Using central -difference approxi motion solve
V2u — 0 at the nodal points of the square grid of Fig. 33.13 using the
boundary values indicated. (V, T. U, , 2000) 60 60 60 60 40 50 10 20 Fig.
33.13 50 40 30 iV Solve Kn + - 0 for the square mesh with boundary values
as shown in Fig. 33.14. Iterate till the mesh values are correct to two
decimal places.
Nomelfmcal Solution qi Partial Dotelrlntial Eouateo^s 1051 6-

Solve the Laplaces equation u + u - 0 in the domain nf Fig. 33.15, xx y&. i
4 9 m “7 r tf, “a 14 12 10 0.6 2 4.5 Fig. 33*15 7. Solve the equation ¥ *u =
Stf^y2 for the square wash of Fig, 33.16 with ah t, y) = f> on the boundary
and mesh length - 1. "2004 S) Note. Solution of elliptic equations by
7ftrf«jtafiur? ir given in author's book "Numerical Methods m E ngt n£$n
ng a ml Scien re PARABOLIC EQUATIONS The one- dimensional heat
conduction equation dti _ 2 dr2 is a well-known example of parabolic
partial differential equations. The solution of this equation is a temperature
function £/Ur, /) which is defined for values of x from 0 to i and for values
of time t from ft to «. The solution is not defined in a closed domain but
advances in an open-ended region from initial values, satisfying the
prescribed boundary conditions, (Fig, 33 .17), In general, the study of
pressure waves in a fluid, propagation of heat and unsteady state problems
lead to parabolic type of equations. 33.8 SOLUTION OF HEAT
EQUATION tec Boundary^ conditions prescribed along this line ° 11 * t =
G SoL Advances Open-ended domain R t nitial conditions prescribed along
this line Fig. 33. 17 Boundary conditions prescribed along this line du _ 2
d2U di~c *7 where c2 ~ k/sp is the diffusivity of the substance (ctn2/sec.)
Consider a rectangular mesh in the x-t plane with spacing h along x
direction and k along time t direction. Denoting a mesh point (x, t) = (ih,jk)
as simply i,j, we have and _aj.i- i-t ~ Ui,j dt k d‘2u = -Zm.j etc2 hz
Substituting these in (1), we obtain u . — u = !,J + t i.J kr 3 ft2 K-l J-2u,.j
ui+lJ [By (5) §33.31 IBy (4) $ 33.31
1052 or ui } t , = a«, _ u + (1 - 2a> u, y + ctu, + u where a =
kc2!h2 is the mesh ratio parameter. This formula enables us to determine
the value of « at the (i, j + l)th mesh point in terms of the known function
values at the points jc; _ v x{ and xi + , at the instant t}. It is a relation
between the function values at the two time levels j + 1 and j and is
therefore, called a 2- level formula. In schematic form (2) is shown in Fig,
33.18 which is called the Schmidt explicit formula which is valid only for 0
< a < — . 2 Higher Engineering Mathematics t { UJ+l) (J+ 1) th level k r h i
jth level L — — a-tj) ( ij ) 1 (f + i ,j) jr Fig. 33, IS Ohs* In particular when
ct = - . (2) reduces to 2 “W*iU3) which shows that the value of u at jcf at
time tj + r is the mean of the u- values at xt _ l and xt + l at time t This
relation, known as Bendre Schmidt recurrence relation, gives the values of
ti at the internal mesh points with ine hi Ip of boundary conditions. Note*
The other formuiae (i.e. Crank-Nicolson formula and Du Fort-Franked
formula) are given in author's book 'Numerical Methods in Engineering and
Science *. Example 33.7. Solve = . U„ in 0
1053 Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations Since

ct = 1/2, we use Bend re- Schmidt relation “U*l= \ = sin it = 0 The value of
u at the mesh points can be obtained by using the recurrence relation
1054 HiGHER EttGiNEEttll^G M AT HEM AT ICS Putting./ = 0
in (i), we have ui.i= 2 Taking i = 1, 2, ..., 7 successively, we get ui. i ~ 2
*i/q' 0 + ua, = — f0 + 6) = 3 “2, ] = - = - <3-5 + 7 5) = 5 5 2 2 1 I u3. i ” 2
û2, o + u4.o ^ “ g (6 + S) - 7 ^4 i = 7 .6t j = 7i j = 5,5, j = 3. These are the
entries in the second row* Putting./ - 1 in (£}, the entries of the third row
are given by UL 2~ ~ ^ Jt 1 + Ui + l, j) Similarly putting,/ = 2, 3, 4
successively in (i), the entries of the fourth, fifth and sixth rows are
obtained. Hence the values of ut j are as given in the above table. Example
33.10. Solve the equation du _ d2u dt thr^ subjec t to the conditions u(x, 0)
— sin tuc, 0 £x < 1 ; u(0, t } = u(l, t) = 0. Carry out. computations for two
levels, (V.T.U., 2005 ) taking h = 1/3, k = 1/36, Solution. Here rs = 1, h =
1/3, k = 1/3G so that R = ka2/h2 = 1/4. Also Uj 0 = sin jc/3 =
1055 Numgh-cu. Solution of Partial Differ? ntiaj. Equations 3.
Given 3 V Ax2 $ * = 0 ; /*( f). n - f( 5, f) = 0, /u, 0) = x- (25 - x3) - find the
values of/* for* = ih(t - 0,1, .... f>) and 1
Higher Engineering Mathematics Replacing the derivatives in (I)
by their above approximations, we obtain ,2*2 cdk h9. («i-w-2uU+ttW*i) or
uU + 1 = 2( 1 " ^c2) J + 0&2 i, j + 4. u“ “w- 1> where a = k/h . Now
replacing Lhc derivative in (2) by its central difference approximation, we
get u. ,j_* \ “ ki,j-i _ du ~~ dt 2k = gix ) [See (71 p. 1042| or **y 4i = i + 2A
£ . = h->. 1, For Ct = lie, the solution of (41 is stable and coincides with the
solution of (1). For a < 1A,-, the solution is stable but inaccurate. For a >
lie. the solution is unstable. Obs. 2. The formula (4) converges far ail Le.
fork “i. j + . ij+ u-j + x _,) - uLJ_ j where a = k/h .„{/) Taking h = 1 and
choosing k so that the coefficient of u( vanishes, we have lti«2 - 1, Le.t k =
h!4, = 1/4. " ® reduces to u^+l - ui -ij + ui * \.j~ uij- 1 •»=*2(5“*> u{ 0-
i2(5-i) = 4, 12, 18, 16 for i = 1, 2, 3, 4 at t = 0. or These are the entries of
the first row. Finally the initial condition uf (x, 0) - 0, becomes — = 0,
wheny - 0, giving u{ , = «•_, Putting] = 0 in Hi), « . t ^ _ t 0 + «, + j 0 - «■ _
, = - 1. 0 + "■ + 1 . 0 “ «/, 1 us'ng U»> 1 *” "‘i + 1, Q1 Taking 1 = 1, 2, 3, 4
successively, we obtain 1 «i,l= £
Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations 1057 “2. 1 =
\ = | H + 18) = 11 “3. 1 = | K.O + ««,0> - “ t12 + 16> = 14 U4, 1 *= | (“3.0
+ “sV = | <18 + °> = 9 These are the entries of the second row. Putting] = 1
in (£0, we get Taking i - 1, 2, 3, 4 successively, we obtain Mi. 2 = Ko. 1 +
u2t i_ui,o = ® + 11—4 = 7 w2. 2 = **i, 1 + u3. 1 — **2, 0 = 6 + 14 - 12 =
8 U3.2 “ *2. ] + “4. 1 - U3.f> = 11 + 9 - 18 = 2 U4(2 = «31l + “51) -“4,0=
14 + 16““2 Those are the entries of the third row. Similarly putting,/ - 2, 3,4
successively in Ui), the entries of the fourth, fifth and sixth rows are
obtained. Hence the values of ur are as shown in the table below' ; J i 0 1 2
3 4 5 0 0 4 12 *8 16 0 1 0 G 11 14 ■8 0 2 0 7 2 -2 0 3 0 2 -2 -8 -7 0 4 0 -9 -
14 - U -6 0 5 0 - 16 ~ IS - 12 — 4 0 Example 33. J The transverse
displacement u of a point tit a distance x from one etui find at any time t ofo
vibrating string satisfies the equation = 4if1u.Bx2, with boundary
conditions u = O at x = 0,t>0 and u = 0 at x = 4, t > 0 and initiul conditions
u = x 1.4 - x) and Si ifdt. - 0 at t - 0, 0 < x < 4. Solve this equation
numerically for one half period of vibration, taking h = 1 and k = 112,
Solution. Here, h/k - 2 - c. the difference equation for the given equation is
u , , = U , ■ + U ■ 1 ■ — li . !.J*1 I * 1./ I + l,J KJ— I which gives a
convergent solution (since k < k). Now since u (0, t) - u (4, () = Q, uQ j = 0
and j - 0 for all values of j. i.e,, the entries in the first and last columns are
zero. Since u(j 0) = x {4 — r), «, 0 = / (4 - i) = 3. 4, 3 for i = 1, 2, 3 at t = 0.
These are the entries of the first row , Also ut (x, 0) = 0 becomes Ui, j + I 2k
- 0 when j = 0, giving ut Putting j = 0 in (i). u . t = 0 + ui + 1.0“ \ _ 1 = ^ u 0
+ ai *i,a~ Hi, 1* usine f“J 1 , ...(it) {Hi )
1058 Higher Engineering Mathematics Taking i = 1, 2T 3
successively, we obtain ui. i “ g ^“plo + ^t.o^ ■“ ^ * u2. t ~ ^ î.o + u3.o^ _
^ U3, i ” ^ ^2t o + U4, ^ ^ These are the entries of the 3tu/ roitf, Puffmtf J =
J in (t>, ^ + !. 1 - (*it „ Taking i = 1, 2, 3, successively, we get u ) , 2 “ uo, i
] — î,o — 0 + 3 — 3 — 0 U2. 2 = U l. 1 + “.1. ] — U2, {)=^ + 2— 4 = 0
U3.2 = U2, 1 + 1 - “3,c - 3+ 0- 3 = 0 These are the entries of the 3rd row
and so on. Now the equation of the vibrating string of length / is ut( - c2 u^.
.*, Its period of vibration = — = " - - - 4 sec. c 2 This shows that we have to
compute uu t) upto t = 2. t.e., similarly we obtain the values of ur 2 (4th
row) and u> 3 (5th row). Hence the values of u, - are as shown in the table
below : (v 1 = 4 and r. -2] t J 0 i 2 3 4 0 0 3 4 3 0 1 0 2 3 2 0 2 Q 0 0 0 0 3 0
-2 — 3 -2 0 4 0 -3 -4 -3 0 d2u tl2u Example 33.13. Find the solution of the
initial boundary value problem ; — = — - , 0< x < 1 ; subject to dt"
0; by using in the (a ) the explicit scheme. (fc) the implicit scheme . (Anna ,
2007 ) Solution, (u) Explicit scheme Take k = 0.2, k = — = 0.2 [v c = 1] c ,\
We use the formula, ui - + j = u { _ j j + u(- + 1 J ■ - u(. j _ 1 ...(* 1 Since
n(0, t ) = 0, u{ 1, f) = 0, «0 } = 0, u, j = 0 for all values of j i.e., the entries
in the first and last columns are zero. Since n(x, 0) - sin roe, u( 0 = sin roe
Uj 0 = 0, u2 0 = sin (0.27t) = 0.5878, u3 0 - sin (0.4rc) - 0,9511, u4 0 = sin
(0,6rc) - 0.5878. These are the entries of the first row. Since u,{*, 0) = 0 we
have ^ (ut J + J - u ■ ■ _ j = 0, when j - 0 i.e., u( , - ui _ j ...(it) Putting,/ = 0
in (t), Uu i = u, - 1. o + ut * i. o “ ui, - i Using (it) î = | (u t . 1( o + + ^ 0>
Taking i = 1, 2, 3, 4 successively, we obtain the entries of the second row.
Putting j = 1 in (i), uir 2 = W| _ lt 1 + uL + h 0 Now taking i = 1, 2, 3, 4
successively, we get the entries of the third row.
Numerical Solution of Partial, D^ferentim Equations 1059
Similarly taking/ ■ 2 ,j = 3,/ - 4 successively, we obtain the entries of the
fourth, fifth and sixth rows respectively. i 0 i 2 3 4 5 0 0 0,5878 0.951 1
0.9511 0.5878 0 1 0 0.4756 0.7696 0.9511 0.7695 0 i 0 0.1817 0.4766
0.5878 0.3633 0 3 HI 0 0.0001 -0.1122 -0.181G 0 4 0 -0.1816 - 0.5878
-0,7694 0.4755 0 5 0 - 0.5878 -0.9511 -0.9611 - 0.5876 0 - ui, , - i Since ui
0 = sin jot ■'* ud( o) = 0,7071, = 0.5, || — 0,7071 There are the entries of
the first row. Since ut (jc, 0) = 0, we have — (y, , + 1 — J, , . |) = 0, where/ -
0 ^,1=^-1 Put j — 0 and using iiii), (ii) reduces to uj, + i = _ 3 o + 2 (u, _ j 0
+ 2Uj + , 0) Now taking i = 1, u, , = — 3 0 + 2 (n0 0 + u2 0) = 0.1213 i - 2,
u2 ,i-3u20 + 2 (ut 0 + u3 0) = 0.1716 £ = 3, «a , = - 3 (] + 2 (ttj, 0 + u4 q) =
0. 1 213 These are the entries of the second row, Putting/ = 1, (it) reduces to
Now taking i = 1, Uj g = — 6 ttj j + 4 (u0>1 + u2 j) = 0.414 £ = 2, u2 2 = -
6 u3 n + 4 (ul , + u3 , ) - 0.0592 i = 3, u3 2 - - 6 u3 , + 4 {«2 j + u4 ,) = 0.4
14 These are the entries of the third row. Putting/ = 2, (ii) reduces to fij 3 =
— 6«, z + 4 _ | 2 + ui + j 2) - tli i Nuw taking £ - 1, tij a = — 6 u5 2 + 4 (uQ
2 + «2 2) — **j.. i = 0.1097 t ~ 2, u2 3 = - 6 2 + 4 (Bj 2 + o) ~u2, i - 0.1476
i ~ 3, tig 3 = — 6 u3( 2 + 4 («2r 2 4" U4, 2^ — k4. 2 - 0.1097 These are the
entries of the third row. Hence the value of u; - are as tabulated below : t J 0
1 2 3 4 0 0 0.7071 0,6 0,7071 0 1 0 -0.1213 -0.1716 -0.1213 0 2 0 0.0414
0.0592 0.0414 ii) Mi) .Mii)
1060 Higher Engineering Mathematics PROBLEMS 33.4 1 .

Solve the boundary value problem uu = ua with the conditions u(0,i) = u(1,
fiÔ, wCx, O') = -*l and u,ix, 0) = 0, fa tilting h = k = 0.1 for 0 < t < 0A,
Compare your solution with Ihe exact solution air - 0,5 and t = 0,3. W.T.V.,
2000) The transverse? din placement u of a painful a distance x from one
end and at any Lime* of a vibrating string satisfies the equation dû/di^ -
25 iPu/ihc2, with the boundary conditions u CO, C — u (fi, /) = 0 and the
initial conditions tt lx* 0) = i ^ x ^°r " X ' " 1 and u Axm 0) — Q. Solve this
equation numerically For one half period of vibration, |5l5-x) for l taking ft
= i, k = 0.2. Solve y(f = yAJ upLu t - U.5 with a spacing of 0.1 subject to
y[Qf t) = 0f yUf / a = 0, yt txw 0} =• 0, and y (x, 0) = m + x n - jc), (Anna .
2004} 1, The function u satisfies the equation Bûfdt2 - 3û/£h:2 and the
conditions : ii(.t, 0) = \ sin nxt iqtir, 0) - 0 fur 0 The boundary conditions of
one-tfijnenBiojial wave equation are ...... ThecxpJidi formiilu for one-dim
en si on a \ v.avc equation with I - Wa2 = 0 and "k = k/h is . . The general
form of Poisson's equation in partial derivations is . Wii satisfies Laplace
equation and u 1 0(1 on the boundary' of a square, the value of u at an
interior grid point b . The Laplescg equation u x + u = 0 in difference
quotients i& . + uyt = 0 is hyperboUc in the region „._T. by Bendre-
Schmidt method with h - l, the value of ft is _ 16. 17, IS, 19. 20. 2L The
equation yu m* To solve ^ 1 B2u r)t 2 dx2
4 Linear Programming r - - - - - ‘ - - — - - - - - - “ - — - - - - - 1 I
1 . Introduction. 2. Formulation of the problem. 3. Graphical method. 4.
Some exceptional cases. 5. General linear I programming problem. 6.
Canonical and standard forms of LPP. 7. Simplex method. 8. Working
procedure of the I I simplex method . 9. Artificial variable techniques — M-
method. Two phase method. 1 0. Exceptional cases- I 1 Degeneracy. 11.
Duality concept. 12. Duality principle. 13. Dual simplex method. 14.
Transportation problem. | j 15. Working procedure for transportation
problems. 16. Degeneracy in transportation problems. 17. Assignment ) j
problem. 18. Working procedure to solve assignment problems. 19.
Objective Type of Questions. I _ i _ _ 1 34.1 Linear programming deaU
with the optimization (maximization or minimization) of linear functions
subject to linear constraints. This technique has found its applications to
important areas of product mix, blending problems and diet problems. Oil
refineries, chemical industries, steel industries and food processing industry
are also using linear programming with considerable success. In this
chapter, our purpose is to present the principles of linear programming and
the techniques of its application in a manner that will suit the engineering
students. Beginning with the graphical method which provides a great deal
of insight into the basic concepts* the simplex method of solving linear
programming problems is developed. Then the reader Ls introduced to the
Duality concept. Finally a special class of linear programming problems
namely ; Transportation and Assignment problems, is taken up. For a
detailed study, the student should refer to author's book 4 Numerical
Methods in Engineering and Science;1. 34.2 FORMULATION OF THE
PROBLEM To begin with, a problem is to be presen ted in a linear
programming form which requires defining the variables involved,
establishing relationships between them and formulating the objective
function and the constraints. We illustrate this through a few examples.
Ivâmpk - i. t A manufacturer produces two types of models M2 and M2,
Each M, model requires 4 hours of grinding and 2 hours of polishing ;
whereas each Ms model requires 2 hours of grinding and 5 hours of
polishing. The manufacturer has 2 grinders and 3 polishers. Each grinder
works for 40 hours a week and each polisher works for GO hours a week.
Profit on an Af, model is f 3 and on an Ms model is 7 4. Whatever is
produced in a week is sold in the market How should the manufacturer
allocate his production capacity to the two types of models so that he may
make the maximum profit in a week. Solution. Let x, be the number of Aft
models and x2, the number of M2 models produced per week Then the
weekly profit (in 7) is Z = JLcj + 4x£ ...(£) 1061
1062 Higher Engineering Mathematics To produce these number
of models, the total number of grinding hours needed per week = 4^ + 2*,,
and the total number of polishing hours required per week = 2Xj + 5xa
Since the number of grinding hours available is not more than SO and the
number of polishing hours is not more than 180, therefore, 4rl + 2x.2 < 80
...(£0 2xl + 5-V2 $ ISO ..- 0 and x2 £ 0 ..-(to) Hence this allocation problem
is, to find i*,, x2 which maximize Z = Sbcj + 4x2 subject to 4ij + 2x2 < 80,
2jc, + 5x2 < 180, xv x2 £ 0. Ohs. The variables that enter into the problem
are railed decision variables. Th>< expression (i > shouting the relationship
between the manufacturer 's goal and the decision variables, is called the
objective function. The inequalities Ui ), (in > and (io) are called the
constraints The objective function and the constraints being all linear, it is a
linear programming problem (L.P.P). This is an example of a real situation
from industry. Kxampie 34.2. A firm making castings uses dectrir furnace to
melt iron with the following specifications : Minimum Maximum Carbon
3.20% 3.40% Silicon 2.25 % 2.35% Specifications anti costs of various raw
materials used for this purpose are given below : Material Carbon % Silicon
% Cost (?) Steel scrap 0.4 0.15 850! tonne Cast iron scrap 3-80 2.40 300 /
tonne Rejne.lt fi-nm foundry 3.50 2.30 500! tonne If the total charge of iron
metal required is 4 tonnes, find the weight in kg of each raw material that
must be used in the optimal mix at minimum cost. (J.N.T.U., 1999 S)
Solution . Let *1T *2, *3 be the amounts {in kg) of these raw materials.
The objective is to minimize the cost i.e.. minimize Z = 850 *i + 900 500
1000 1 1000 1 1000 3 For iron melt to have a minimum of 3.2% carhun.
0.4*t + 3.8xg + 3.5xs > 3.2 x 4,000 ...{«) For iron melt to have a maximum
of 3.4% carbon, OAXj + 3.8x2 + 3.5x3 < 3.4 x 4,000 ...(£») For iron melt to
have a minimum of 2.25% silicon, 0.15*! + 2.41*2 + 2-36*3 ^ 2.25 x 4,000
,..(iv) For iron meit to have a maximum of 2.35% silicon, 0.16*j + 2.41*2 +
2-3&t3 5 2 35 * 4,000 ...(tt) Also, since the materials added up must be
equal to the full charge weight of 4 tonnes. *! + x2 + x3 = 4,000 -..(it)
Finally since the amounts of raw material cannot be negative > 0, *2 - 0, - 0
...(oti) Thus the linear programming problem is to find *,, x2„ which
minimize Z = 0,85*j + 0.9*a + G.5*3 subject to 0,4*! + 3.8x2 + 3-6*3 -
12,800 0.4*! + 3.8*2 + 3-6*g - 13,600
Linear Programmer 1063 0. ISotj + 2.41x2 + 2,35x3 > 9,000

O.lSxj + 2.4 Ix2 + 2.35x3 < 9,400 Xj + x2 + x3 - 4,000 Xj, x2, xa > 0.
PROBLEMS 34.1 i A firm manufactures two items, If. purchases castings
which are then machined, bored and polished. Castings for itimti A and B
cost ? 3 and ? 4 each and are sold at ? G and ? 7 each respectively, Running
costa of these machines are ? 20, ? 14 and ? 17.50 per hour respectively.
Formulate the problem so that the product mix maximizes the pmfit?
Capacities of the machines are Part A Part B Machining capacity 25 per hr.
40 per hr. Baring capacity 28 per hr. 3G per hr. Polishing rapacity 35 per hr,
25 per hr. 2. A firm manufactures 3 products A, B and C- The profits are ?
3r ? 2 ;md ? 4 ru&fgtatively. The firm has two machines and A#a and below
is the required processing time in minutes for each machine nn each
product. 3. Machine Mn A 4 2 Product B 3 2 C 5 4 Machines M( and M2
have 2000 and 2500 machine -mi notes respectively. The firm must
manufacture 100 AX 200 Bs and GO Cfs but not more then 150 AX Set up
na L.P.P. l;o maximize profit (Kurttkshetraf 2009 S) Three products are
processed through three different operations. The time (in minutes] required
per unit of each product, the daily capacity of the operations (in minutes per
day I and the profit per unit sold for each product (in rupees) are as
Follows: Operation Time per unit Opera lion capac i. ty Product I Product II
Product 111 i 3 4 3 42 2 5 0 3 46 3 3 6 2 41 Profit f?) 3 2 1 The zero lime
indicates that the product does not require the given operation. The problem
is to determine Lhe optimum daily production for three products that
maximize the profit. Formulate this production planning problem as a linear
programming problem assuming that all units produced are sold. 1 An
aeroplane can carry' a maximum of 200 passengers . A profit of? 406 is
made on each fins L class ticket and a profit of ? 300 is made on each
economy class ticket. The airline reserves at least 20 seats fnr first class.
However, at least 4 times as many passengers prefer to travel by economy
class than by the first class. Haw many tickets of each class must be sold in
order to maximize profit for the airline? Formulate the problem aw an LP*
model. (Bohtak, 2006) f' A firm manufactures headache pills in tw?o sizes A
and B. Size A contains 2 grains of aspriii, 5 grains of bicarbonate and I
grain of codeine. Size B contain a 1 grain of asprin, 8 grains of bicarbonate
and 6 grains of codeine. It is found by users that it requires at least 12 grains
of aspirin, 74 grains of bicarbonate and 24 grains of codeine for providing
immediate effect. It is required to determine the least number of pills a
patient should take to get immediate relief. Formulate the problem as a
standard L.P.P. Consider the following problem faced by a production
planner in a soft -drink plant. He has two battling machines A and B. A is
designed for fi-ounre bottles and B for IS^nunce bottles. However, each be
can used on both types with some loss of efficiency. The followi ng data is
ava i lable: Mach ine S-auFtre battles 1 B ounce bottles A lOG/minute
40/roinute B etFminute 75/minute The machines can be run 8 hour per dayt
5 days per week. Profit on a 8-ounce bottle is 15 paise and on a 16-ounce
bottle is 25 paise. Weekly production of the drink cannot exceed 300,006
ounces and the market can absorb 25,000
1064 High eh Engineering Mathematics R-nunce bottles and
7,000 16-cumce bottles per week. The planner wishes to maximise hie
profit subject., of course, to all the production and marketing restrictions.
Formulate this as a L.P.P. • A dairy Iced company may purchase and mix
one or more of three types of grains containing difierenf, amounts of
nutritional elements. The data is given in the table below. The production
manager sped lies that any feed mix forhis live stock must meet at least
minimum nutritional requirements and seeks the least, costly among all
three mixes. Item Out? unit weight of Minimum requirement Grain 1 Gram
2 Grain 3 A 2 3 7 1.250 Nutritional B 1 1 0 250 ingredients C 5 3 a 900 D 6
25 l 232 .5 Cost per weight of 41 35 96 Formulate the problem as a L.P.
model. A firm produces tin alloy with the following specifications: fi)
specific gravity < 0.97; Ui> chromium contents 15%: (fii) mailing
temperature £ 494,!C The alloy requires three raw materials A, B and C
whose properties are as follows: Property Properties of raw material Sp.
gravity Chromium Melting pt. A 0.94 10% 47Q°C B 1.00 15% fi00“C* c
1,05 17% 62Q“C Find the values of A, Bt C to be used to make 1 tonne of
alloy of desired properties, keeping the raw material costs at the minimum
when they are ? 105/tonne for A, ? 245/tonne for 73 and? 165/tonne for C.
Formulate an L.P model for the problem. 34.3 GRAPHICAL METHOD
Linear programming problems involving only two variables can be
effectively solved by a graphical technique which provides a pictorial
representation of the solution and one gets insight into the basic concepts
used in solving large L.P.P. Working procedure to solve a linear
programming problem graphically: Step 1. Formulate the given problem as
a linear programming problem. Step 2. Plot the given constraints as
equalities on - x2 coordinate plane and determine the convex region*
formed by them. Step 3. Determine the vertices of the convex region and
find the value of the objective function at each vertex. The vertex which
gives the optimal (maximum or minimum) value of the objective function
gives the desired optimal solution to the problem. Otherwise . Draw the
dotted line through the origin representing the objective function with Z =
0. As Z is increased from zero, this line moves to the right remaining
parallel to itself. We go on sliding this line (parallel to itself)) till it is
farthest away from the origin and passes through only one vertex of the
convex region. This is the vertex where the maximum value of Z is attained.
*A region or a set of points is said to be convex if the fine joining any two
of its points lies completely in the region (or the set). Figs. 34.1 and 34.2
represent convex regions while Figs. 34.3 and 34,4 do not form convex sets.
Fig. 34.1 Fig. 34,2 Fig. 34 3 Fig. 34.4
Linear Programming 1065 When it is required to minimize Z,
value ol'Z is increased till the dotted line passes through the nearest vertex
of the convex region, Example 34,3. Solve the L.P.P. of Ex, 34, 1
graphically. iV.T. U,, 2003) Solution. The problem is: Maximize Z - 3Xj +
4x, ...(i) subject to 4x1+2xg£80 2x, + 5xa £ 180 ...(&) xv i2£0 ...(to)
Consider x1 — x2 coordinate system as shown in Fig. 34.5, The non -
negativity restrictions (iv) imply that the values ofxr x,, lie in the first
quadrant only. We plot the lines 4Xj + 2xz = 80 and 2xj + fix2 - 180, Then
any point on or below 4x, + 2xa - 80 satisfies (ii) and any point on or below
2xx + 5x2 = 180 satisfies («£). This shows that the desired point (jCj, x2)
must be somewhere in the shaded convex region OABC. This region is
called the solution space or region of feasible solutions for the given
problem, its vertices are 0(0, 0), A(20, 0) £( 2.5, 35) and C(0, 36). The
values of the objective function (i) at these points are Z(O) = 0. Z(A ) = 60,
Z(B ) = 147.5, Z(C) - 144. Thus the maximum value ofZ is 147.5 and it
occurs at B. Hence the optimal solution to the problem is x, = 2.5, x2 = 35
and Zmax - 147.5. Otherwise. Our aim is to find the point (or points) in the
solution space which maximizes the profit function Z. To do this, we
observe that on making Z = 0, (i) becomes Sx1 + 4x2 - 0 which is
represented by the dotted line LM through O. As the value of Z is increased,
the line LM starts moving parallel to itself towards the right- Larger the
value of Z, more will be the company’s profit. In this way, we go on sliding
LM till it is farthest away from the origin and passes through one of the
corners of the convex region. This is the point where the maximum value
ofZ is attained. Just possible, such a line may be one of the edges of the
solution space. In that case every point on that edge gives the same
maximum value of Z. Here ZmaK is attained at £(2.5, 35). Hence the
optical solution isxt = 2.5, x2 35 and Zmm = 147.5. li xaruple 34 I . Find
the maximum value ofZ - 2x + 3y subject to the constraints: x +y 530. y £,?,
(? £y > 12, x-yZ0t and 0£x<2Q, (Rohtak, 2008) Solution. Any point (x, y)
satisfying the conditions x > 0, y > 0 lies in the first quadrant only. Also
since x +y £ 30, y 2 3,y < 12, x >y and x < 20, the desired point (x, y) lies
within the convex region ABCDE (shown shaded in Fig. 34.6). Its vertices
are A(3, 3), £(20, 3). C(20, 10), D(lfi, 12), and £(12, 12). The values of Z at
these five vertices are Z(A) - 15, Z(£) = 49, ZiC ) = 70, ZID) = 72, and Z(E
) = 60. Since the maximum value of Z is 72 which occurs at the vertex D,
the solution to the L.P.P. is x - 18, y = 12 and maximum Z = 72. F(g. 34.6
Example 34.5. A company manufactures two types of doth, using three
different colours of wool. One yard length of type a cloth requires 4 oz of
red wool, 5 oz of green wool and 3 oz of yellow wool. One yard length of
type B cloth requires 5 oz of red wool, 2 oz of green wool and 8 oz of
yellow wool. The wool available for manufacturer is WOO oz of red wool,
WOO oz of green wool and 1200 oz of yellow wool. The manufacturer can
make a profit oft 5 on one yard of type A cloth and Z 3 on one yard of type
B cloth. Find the best combination of the quantities of type A and type J3
doth which gives him maximum profit by solving the L.P.P. graphically ,
1066 Higher Engineering Mathfwaucs Sol til if m. Let the
manufacturer decide to produce xy yards of type A cloth and x2 yards of
type B doth. Then the total income in rupees, from these units of cloth is
given by Z - 5x, + 3arz ...(f) To produce these units of two types of cloth, he
requires red wool = 4*j + 5*2 oz, green wool = 5*, + 2x2 oz, and yellow
wool — 3*j + 8*2 oz, Since the manufacturer does not have more than
1000 oz of red wool, 1000 oz of green wool and 1200 oz of yellow wool,
therefore 4*j + 5*2 - 1000 .Mi) 5*t + 2*o - 1000 ...(t«) 3*, + 8*2 < 1200 ...
(in) Also *t 2 0, *2 2 0. ...(e) Thus the given problem is to maximize Z
subject to the constraints {«) to (c). (V.T.U., 2004) Any point satisfying the
condition 40/3 „..{ii>) Also *t, x2 2 0 ,..(u) Thus the L.P.P. is to minimize
(i) subject to constraints (if) to (i>). (V.T.U., 2000 S) The solution space
satisfying the constraints (it) to (u) is shown shaded in Fig, 34.8, As seen
from the direction of the arrows, the solution space is unbounded. The
constraint (iv) is dominated by the constraints (id and (Hi) and hence does
not affect the solution space. Such a constraint as (in) is called the
redundant constraint.
Linear Programming 1067 The vertices of the convex region ABC
are A(22, 0), B(12, 4) and C(0+ 40). Values of the objective function (i) at
these vertices are Z(A } = 132,000, Z(B) = 88,000, Z(C) = 160,000. Thus
the minimum value of Z is ? 88,000 and it occurs al B „ Hence the solution
to the problem is xl~ 12 days, x2 = 4 days, Ztt in = ? 88,000. Otherwise.
Making Z - 0, (i) becomes 3x% + 2x2 = 0 which is represented by the
dotted line LM through O. As Z is increased, the line LM moves parallel to
itself, to the right. Since we are interested in finding the minimum value of
Zf value of Z is increased till LM passes through the vertex nearest to the
origin of the shaded region, i.e , B(12, 4). Thus the operating cost will be
minimum for = 12 days, x2 - 4 days and £min - 6000 * 12 + 4000 x 4 = ?
88,000, Obij, The dotted line parallel to the line LM is called the iso-cost
lim 1 since it represents all ppSeible eomhinatioris of xlt x2 which produce
the same total cost. 34.4 SOME EXCEPTIONAL CASES 13,3 Fig, 34.8
The constraints generally, give region of feasible solution which may be
hounded or unbounded. In problems involving two variables and having a
finite solution* we observed that the optimal solution existed at a vertex of
the feasible region. In fact, this is true for all L.P . problems for which
solutions exist. Thus it may be stated that if there exists an optimal solution
of an it will he at one of the vertices of the solution space. In each of the
above exmples, the optimal solution was unique. But it is not always so. In
fact, L.P.P. may have (/) a unique optimal solution* or Hi) an infinite
number of optimal solutions, or (Hi) an unbounded solution, or (iv) no
solution , We now give below a few examples to illustrate the exceptional
cases (iri to { ivL Kxamplt* 34.7* A firm uses milling machines, grinding
machines and lathes to produce two motor parts. The machining times
required for each part t the machining times available on different machines
and the profit on each motor part are given below; Type of mackitie
Machining time reqd, for the motor futrt (mis) 1 - . Max. time available per
week (minutes) t 11 Mtlfing machines 10 4 2.000 Grinding machines 3 2
900 Lathes 6 12 3.000 Profit f unit 100 40 Determine the number of parts I
and II to be manufactured per week to maximize the profit. Solution, Let xv
x2 be the number of parts 1 and II manufactured per week. Then abjective
being to maximize the profit, we have maximize Z — 100^ + 40x*
Constraints being on the time available on each machine, we obtain for
milling machines, Hh^ + 4x2 < 2,000 for grinding machines, 3bt1 + 2x2 <
900
1068 Higher Engineering Mathematics for lathes, 6a:, + I2xa ^
3,000 ...(in) Also „.(u) Thus the problem is to determine jr, , x2 which
maximize {0 subject to the constraints (hi) to (u). The solution space
satisfying (it), (til), iiv ) and meeting the non-negativity restrictions (u) is
shown shaded in Fig. 34.9. Note that (Hi) is a redundant constraint as it
does not affect the solution space. The vertices of the convex region OABC
are 0(0, 0), A<200, 0), ,8(125, 187.S), C(0, 250). Values of the objective
function (i) at these vertices are Z(0) = 0, Z(A) - 20,000. Z(B) = 20,000 and
Z(C) = 10.000, Thus the maximum value of Z occurs at two vertices A and
B. Any point on the line joining A and B will also give the same maximum
value of Z Le,t there are infinite number of feasible solutions which yield
the same maximum value of Z. *2 Fig. 34.9 Thus there is no unique optimal
solution to the problem and any point on the line AB can be taken to give
the profit of 7 20,000. Mh«. An L.P.P having more than one optimal
solution, is said to have alternative or multiple optimal solutions. It implies
that, the resources can be combined in more than one way to maximize the
profit.. Example 34,8. Using graphical method, solve the following L. P. P. :
Maximize Z = 2x, + 3x% subject to x, - xz % 2 + r2 > 4 x t, x2 £ 0.
(Kurukshetra, 2005 ; V.T. U., 2003 S) ...di) .-.(in) ... (if> Si • I u to mi
Consider - x2 coordinate system. Any point (jc,, x2) satisfying the
restrictions (ie) lies in the first quadrant only. The solution space satisfying
the constraints (ii) and (Hi) is the convex region shown shaded in Fig.
34.10. Fig. 34.10 Fig. 34.11 Here the solution space is unbounded. The
vertices of the feasible region (in the finite plane) are A(3, 1) and 8(0, 4),
Values of the objective function (i) at these vertices are Z(A) = 9 and Z{B)
■ 12. But there are points in this convex region for which Z will have much
higher values. For instance, the point (5, 5) lies in the shaded region and the
value of Z thereat is 25. In fact, the maximum value of Z occurs at infinity.
Thus the problem has an unbounded solution.
bMEftfl Programming 1069 Example 3 Solve graphically the

fallowing LRR: Maximize Z = -lx, + &r£ subject to X,-*s£-l, ...(ii ) - xt + xs
S 0 ...(iu) and xt, x2 >. 0 ,.Aiv) Si >1 u i jtMwConsider x} - x2 coordinate
system. Any point {xv x2) satisfying (iv) lies in the first quadrant only. The
two solution spaces, one satisfying (it') and the other satisfying (Hi) are
shown shaded in Fig. 34.11, There being no point (xvx2) common to both
the shaded regions, the problem cannot be solved. Hence the sulutitm dues
not exist since the constraints are inconsistent. u ; The above problem had
no solution because the constraints were incompatible There may be cases
in which the constraints arc compatible but Lite problem may still have no
feasible solution. PROBLEMS 34.2 Using graphical method, solve the
following LJ1. problems; 1- Max. Z = 3xa + 5x2 subject Ln X| + 2x7 < 200,
x, + x2 < 150, < 60, xJ9 x, > 0 (Rajasthan, 2003) 2. Max. Z = 5x1 + 7x2
subject to ij 4, 5Xj + Bx 2 £ 24,10x1 + 7jc2 £ 35, and x(, x2 > 0. 3* Min. Z
- 2thr, + 3GxL, subject In xY ± 2x2 < 40, 3xa + x2 £ 30, 4xt + 3x2 > 60, xv
x2 > 0. (Kumkskrtr tjw 2009 S; Mumbai, 2004 ; V.T.U.. 2004) 4 Max, z =
3ar + subject in Xj + 2x2 S 2000* xs + x% ^ 1500, x,2 < 000 andxj £ 0, x2
> 0. tftohtnk, 2004 * A firm manufactures two products A and B on which
the profits earned per unit are ? 3 and % 4 respectively, Each product is
processed on two machines 1 and M2 Product A requires one minute of
processing time on M[ and 2 minutes on while B requires one minute on M
l and one minute on Af.>. Machine is available for nut more than 7 hours
and 30 minutes while M2 is available for 10 hours during any working day.
Find the number of units of products A and B to be manufactured to get
maximum profit G Two spare parts X and V fire to be produced In a batch.
Each one has to go through two processes A and B. The time required in
hours per unit and total time available are given below: X V Total hours
available Process A 3 4 24 Process B 9 4 36 Profits per unit of X and Y are
? 6 and ? 6 respectively. Find how many number of spare parts of X and Y
are to tie produced in this batch to maximize the profit. (Each batch is
complete in all respects and one cannot produce fractional units and stop
the hatch), 7 A manufacturer has two products 1 and U both of w hich are
made in steps by machines A and Zh The process times per hundred for the
two products on l he two machines are: Product Mfc,A M/c. B I 4 hrs. 5 hrs,
II 5 hrs. 2 hrs. Set-up times are negligible. For the coming period machine A
has 100 hrs, and B has HO hrs. The contribution for product I ie ? 10 per
100 units and for product II is 7 5 per 100 unit*. The manufacturer is in a
market which can absorb both prnducls as much as he can produce for the
im mediate period ahead. Determine graphically, how much of products 1
and II, he should produce to maximize his contribution. H* A production
manager wants to determine the quantity to be produced per month of
products A and B manufactured by his firm. The da La on resources
required and availability of resources are given below: Resources
Requirements Available per month Product A Product B Raw material r kg.
) 60 120 12,000 Machine hrs/piece a 5 600 Assembly man hrs. 3 4 500 Sale
price/piece ! _ . _ _ _ 5 ? 30 1 _ 1 ?40
1070 Higher Engineering Mathematics Formulate the problem as
a standard LP.F. Find product mix that would give maximum profit by
graphical technique. B. A pineapple firm produces two products: canned
pineapple and canned juice The specific amounts of mak+ritih labour and
equipment required to produce each product and the availability of each of
these resources are shown in the table given below: Canned Juice Pineapple
Available Resource# Labour (man hrs) 3 2.0 12.0 Equipment (m fc hrs ) 1
2.3 6.9 Material {tmitl 1 1.4 4.9 Assuming one unii each of canned juice
and canned pineapple has profit margins of ? 2 and ? 1 respectively.
Formulate this as L.P, problem and solve it graphically. Solve the following
L.P. problems graphically: I th Maximize Z ^ 6tr + 4y subject to 2x + y £ L
Sx + 4y > 1 .6 and ,v, y £ 0; t Bombay, 2001} I I Minimize Z = 8*j + llx2
subject to 6Qxl + 30*a 240, a0xt + flQx, > 300, 30* A + 1 > 540, and xlw x
% > 0. 12. G.J, Breweries Ltd, have two bottling plants one located at *£j'
and other at W\ Each plant produces three drinks: whiskey, beer and brandy.
The number of bottles produced per day art? as follows; Drink Plant at G
Plant at J Whiskey 1500 1500 Beer 3000 1000 Brandy 2000 5000 A market
survey indicates that during the month of July, there will be a demand of
20*000 bottler of whiskey* 40,000 bottles of beer and 44,000 bottles of
brandy . The operating cost per day for plants at G and J are 7 600 and f
400, For how many days each plant be run in July so as to minimize the
production cost, while Mill meeting the market demand. Solve graphically.
34,5 GENERAL LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEM Any L.P.R
problem involving more than two variables may be expressed as follows:
Find the values of the variables xx, x.A, .... xn which maximize (or
minimize! the objective Function Z = Cxxx + C**2 + ... + c„*„ .Ji) subject
to the constraints aux1 + Ci2x2 + .,, + o1(Jxn0. Def. 1 . A pci1 of values r(J
x^, .... which satisfies the constraints of the L.P.P. is called its solution. DeF.
2. Any solution to a L.P.P. which satisfies the non negativity restrictions of
the problem is vailed its feasible solution. Def- 3, Any feasible solution
which maximizes (or minimizes) the objective function of the L.P.P. is
called its optimal solution. Some of the constraints in (ii) may be equalities,
some others may be inequalities of ( type and remaining ones inequalities of
{>) type. The inequality constraints are changed to equalities by adding (or
subtracting) non-negative variables to (from) the left hand .side of such
constraints. Def, 4, If the constraints of a general L.P.P. be J ~b' (i — 1M 2P
.p, k) then the non-negative variables st which satisfy
LlJMtAFI PHOGflftMMlfMG n V aijxj + s, - ft = I, 2, ... A), are
called slack variables. j "» Def, 5. If the constraints of a general L.P.P. be H
y atJx, > 6, , (i ~k,k + l, ...) tAen fAe non-negative variables S; which,
satisfy j= i H y - s, = bt , (i = kt k + 2, ...), are culled surplus variables. j'i
1071 34.6 CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORMS OF L.P.P. After the
formulation of L.P.P., the next step is to obtain its solution. But before any
method is used to find its solution, the problem must be presented in a
suitable form. As such, we explain its following two forms: (1) Canonical
form. The general L.P.P, can always be expressed in the following form:
Maximize Z - CjX, + c^c2 + „. + cnxn subject to the constraints + ur2x2 +
... + < £>.; i = 1, 2, ... m Jc1( x2, ... x„ > 0, by making some elementary
transformations. This form of the L.P.P. is called its canonical form and has
the following characteristics: (1) Objective function is of maximization
type, («) All constraints are of (11, 4xt + 3x3 < 2, Xj, x2 > 0 . Solution. As
x3 is unrestricted, let x_ = x ' - x" where x3', xff > 0. Now the given
constraints can be expressed as 6Xj - 4x2 < 5, 3xj + 2x2 + Sx, — 5xa > 11
1072 HiGHEft Engineering WlATwamncs 4xl + 3jfa" - 3*a" < 2
3Cj, JCjj', Jf3"> 0. Introducing the slack/surplus variables, the problem in
standard form becomes: Maximize Z - 3*, + 5arH + 7xj - Ix^ subject to 6x1
- 4x2 + s1 - 5, Sjc, + 2x2 + 5jc3' — 5r3"“S2 = 11* 4xj + 3x3' — 3xa" + s3
~ 2, *2i *3 > Xg i S], Sj & 0, Exam pit- 34. 1 1, Express the following
problem in the standard form: Minimize Z - 3xj + 4x^ subject, to 2xt - x2 -
3x. , = - 4, 3x3 + 5x» + x4 = 10, x t - 4x2 = 12, xt, x^ x4 £ 0. Solution. Here
x3, xi are the slack/surplus variables and xJT x2 are the decision variables.
As x2 is unrestricted, let x2 — xj — x2" where xj, x.f > 0, The problem in
standard form is Maximize Z' (= - Z) =- 3jCj - 4xj + 4xf subject to -2x, + xj
- x2 + 3x3 = 4 3^ + 5x/-5x/ + x4= 10 xy — 4x2' - 4xa" = 12 *ji*2 ’*2 ’ *}>
* 4 — 34.7 SIMPLEX METHOD (1) While solving an L.P.P. graphically,
the region of feasible solutions was found to be convex, bounded by
vertices and edges joining them. The optimal solution occurred at some
vertex. If the optimal solution was not unique, the optimal points were on
an edge. These observations also hold true for the general L.P.P. Essentially
the problem is that of finding the particular vertex of the convex region
which corresponds to the optimal solution. The most commonly used
method for locating the optimal vertex is the simplex method. This method
consists in moving step by step from one vertex to the adjacent one. Of all
the adjacent vertices, the one giving better value of the objective function
over that of the preceding vertex, is chosen. This method of jumping from
one vertex to the otheT is then repeated. Since the number of vertices is
finite, the simplex method leads to an optimal vertex in a finite number of
steps. (2) In simplex method, an infinite number of solutions is reduced to a
finite number of promising solutions by using the following facts: (i) When
there are m constraints and {m + n) variables (m being < n), the starting
solution is found by setting n variables equal to zero and then solving the
remaining m equations, provided the solution exists and is unique. The n
zero variables are known as non -basic variables while the remaining m
variables are called basic variables and they form a basic solution. (i/J In an
L.P.P., the variables must always be non-negative. Some of the basic
solutions may contain negative variables. Such solutions are called basic
infeasible solutions and should not be considered. To achieve this, we start
with a basic solution which is non-negative. The next basic solution must
always be non -negative. This is ensured by feasibility condition. Such a
solution is known as basic feasible solution. If all the variables in the basic
feasible solution are positive, then it is called non -degenerate solution and.
if some of the variables are zero, it is called, degenerate solution. (Hi) A
new basic feasible solution may be obtained from the previous one by
equating one of the basic variables to zero and replacing it by a new non-
basic variable. The eliminated variable is called the outgoing variable while
the new variable is known as the incoming variable. The incoming variable
must improve the value of the objective function which is ensured by the
optimality condition. This process is repeated till no further improvement is
possible. The resulting solution is called the optimal basic feasible solution
or simply optimal solution.
Lineaf Programming 1073 (3) The simplex method is, therefore,
based on the following two conditions: I, Feasibility condition. It ensures
that if the starting solution is basic feasible, the subsequent will also be
basic feasible. II. Optimality condition . It ensures that only improved
solutions will be obtained. (4) Now, we shall elaborate the above terms in
relation to the general linear programming problem in standard form, Le.,
Maximize Z = c1x1+c^cz-¥ ... + cnxn ...d) subject to n V’ a,jXj + st =bt ,i =
1, 2, ... m ...(2) /-i and x. > 0, si > QJ = 1, 2, ... n ..,(3) (i) Solution. xv x2, ...
xn is a solution of the general L.P.P. if it satisfies the constraints (2). (ii)
Feasible solution, xv x2, ... xn is a feasible solution of the general L.P.P. if it
satisfies both the constraints (2) and the non -negativity restrictions (3}. The
set S of all feasible solutions is called the feasible region. A linear
programme is said to be infeasible when the set S is empty. { iii ) Sasic
solution is the solution of the m basic variables when each of the n nun-
basic variables is equated to zero. (to) Basic feasible solution is that basic
solution which also satisfies the no n- negativity restrictions (3). (u)
Optimal solution is that basic feasible solution which also optimizes the
objective function (1) while satisfying the conditions (2) and (3). (of) Non-
degen era te basic feasible solution is that basic feasible solution which
contains exactly m non-zero basic variables. If any of the basic variables
becomes zero, it is called a degenerate basic feasible solution. Example 34.
1 2. Find all the busk- solutions of the following system of equations
identifying in each case the basic and nan-bumc variables: 2xt + xs + 4x3 =
11 , 3xt + x2 + Sx.j = 14. {Mumbai, 2004 ; V.T.U., 2003 S) Investigate
whether the basic solutions are degenerate basic solutions or not. Hence
find the basic-feasible solution of the system. Solution. Since there are m +
n - 3 variables and there are m - 2 constraints in this problem, a basic
solution can be obtained by setting any one variable equal to zero and then
solving the resulting equations. Also the total number of basic solutions = m
* n Cm = 3C2 = 3. The characteristics of the various basic solutions are as
given below: iVo. of basic sol: Basic variables Nonbosic variables Vutuesof
basic vurmblea 7s the sol. feasible ? (Are all .t } > 0 ?) is the soL degenerate
? 1. 2r1 + ^ = II •¥ - L4 Yea So 2. xi x.j + = 1 1 x2 + 5xs - 14 ' ' ” 1 No Yes
3. Xl'X3 2xt + 4^ = 11 livl + = 14 xa = 1/2, x3 = 5/2 Yes No The basic
feasible solutions are: (i } x, = 3, x2 = 5, x3 - 0; (ii) jc, = 1/2, x2 = 0, je3 =
5/2 which are also non-degenerate basic solutions. Example 34.13. Find an
optimal solution tv the following L.P.P. by computing all basic solutions
and then finding one that maximizes the objective function: 2xj + 3x2 - x3
+ 4x4 = S. - 2xs + fit, - 7x4 - - 3, x}. xs, xv x4 > 0 , Max. Z ~ 2xj + 3xs +
4x.f + 7xr
Higher Enginfetwg Mathematics Solution. Since there are four

variables and two constraints, a basic solution can be obtained by setting
any two variables equal to zero and then solving the resulting equations
Also the total number of basic solutions - Xn 2 Yes 8 No 2. *!•*» 3f2,X4 =
0 7. x j + 6.tg = - 3 Xj = - 14/13. x3 = - 67/13 Nc 3. Xi’X4 jr!>x8 = 0 m\ 2xj
+ 4a:4 = 6 X, - 7x4 = — 3 Jtj = 22 /El. x4 =* 7/9 Yea 10,3 m 4. %v H X|)X4
=0 3xa — x3 = 8 — 2x.j + 6xs = - 3 xs = 45/16, *3 = 7/16 Yes 10.2 No &,
Xjj, X| xvx3-0 ,v 3xs + 4x4 =■ 8 — -7x4 = — 3 xa = 132/39, *4 - -7/13 No
6. Xqt Xj.Xj = £> -x3 + 4.r4 =S 6xj — 7xt - - 3 *a= 44/17. *4= 45/17 Yes
28.9 Yes ice the lie feasible solution is 0, jt3 = 44/17, x4 - 45/1 7 and the
maximum value of Z = 28.9. PROBLEMS 34.3 1, Reduce Lhe following
problem to the standard form: Determine £ 0, xa £ 0, xa £ 0 m as to
Maximize Z = Sxj 4- 5a:2 + &r3 suhfect to the constraints 2x5 - 5x2 < 6t
3xl 4 2x2 + x3 > 5, 3x1 + 4x^< 3. 2, F5x press the following L.P.R in the
standard form Maximize Z = 3x, + 2x% *> Bx^ subject to — 5*^ + 2x*j £
5, 2xv + 3x^ + 4x3 £ lw 2* x + oa:3 < 3, x ,p x2, x$ £ 0. 3, Convert the
following L.I’.P. to standard form: Maximize Z = 3xs - 2x2 + 4x$ subject to
x% + 2x^ + x3 £ 8. 2* t - x2 + x3 > 2, 4xt - 2x,, - 3*a = -Bnxv x2 > 0. 1.
Obtain all the basic solutions to the following system of linear equations: *1
+ 2jc4 + 3f3 ^ 4, + x2 + 5*3 = 5. Show that the following system of linear
equations has two degenerate feasible basic solutions and the nondegenerate
basic solution is not feasible: St, + x2 -x3 = 2, 3tj + 2xa + je:j = 3.
(Ktirtikshstrtt, 2007 S) {Kurukshetm, 2009) (Kumkahetra, 2007 S) fi.
Linear pRQCaftAMwiNQ 1075 6. Find all the basic solutions to
the following problem: Maximize Z - + 3*2 + 3*a, subject to jc1! + 2*s +
3x3 » 4, + 3xa + 5*3 =7 and jej > 0, x3 £ 0, *3 £ 0. Which of the basic
solutions are (a) non-degenerate basic feasible, w) optimal basic feasible ?
(Kurushetra, 2009 S; Mumbai, 2003 ) 34,8 WORKING PROCEDURE OF
THE SIMPLEX METHOD Assuming the existence of an initial basic
feasible solution, an optimal solution to any L.P.P. by simplex method is
found as follows: Step 1. (i) Check whether the objective function is to be
maximized or minimized. If Z = clxl + c2*2 + CSr3 + - + is to be
minimized, then convert it into a problem of maximization, by writing
Minimize Z - Maximize (— Z) (ii) Check whether all b's are positive. If any
of the bjs is negative, multiply both sides of that constraint by —1 so as to
make its right hand side positive. Step 2. Express the problem in the
standard form. Convert all inequalities of constraints into equations by
introducing slack/surplus variables in the constraints giving equations of the
form a j j a ^ ^13^3 ^ ... 't- s ^ I- Os r, “t Dig t ... = 6^. Step 3. Find an initial
basic feasible solution. If there are m equations involving n unknowns, then
assign zero values to any {n- m) of the variables for finding a solution.
Starting with a basic solution for which Xjij= 1 , 2, .... I n — m) are each
zero, find all s.. If all S( are > 0, the basic solution is feasible and non -
degene rate. If one or more of the sL values are zero, then the solution is
degenerate. The above information is conveniently expressed in the
following simplex table: Cl C2 Cg ... 0 0 Q... CB Basis X2 ... s, S2 s3 ... 6 0
*i aIJ a\% a13 ... 1 0 0 ... 6j 0 S2 °21 °22 u23 ... 0 1 0 ... b% 0 S3 a31 a32
— 0 0 1 ... 6g Body matrix Unit matrix [The variables st, s2, s3 etc. are
called basic variables and variables x1( x2, xa etc. are called non-basic
variables. Basis refers to the basic variables s,, s2, s3 ... c row denotes the
coefficients of the variables in the objective function, while cB~ column
denotes the coefficients of the basic variables only in the objective function,
b-column denotes the values of the basic variables while remaining
variables will always be zero. The coefficients of x's (decision variables) in
the constraint equations constitute the body matrix while coefficients of
slack variables constitute the unit matrix). Step 4. Apply optimality test.
Compute Cj - Cj - Z} ; where Z^ = X ega^ 1C -row is called net evaluation
rout and indicates the per unit increase in the objective function if the van
able iieading the column is brought into the solution.] If all Cj are negative,
then the initial basic feasible solution is optimal. If even one C( is positive,
then the current feasible solution is not optimal (i,e>, can he improved) and
proceed to the next step. Step 5 . (i) Identify the incoming and outgoing
variables. If there are more than one positive Cj, then the incoming variable
is the one that heads the column containing maximum CV, The column
containing it is known as the key column which is shown marked with an
1076 HlOHEH El^GIOiEEHINQ MATHEMATICS arrow at the
bottom. If more than one variable has the same maximum Cj, any of these
variables may be selected arbitrarily as the incoming variable. Now divide
the elements under 6 -column by the corresponding elements of key column
and choose the row containing the minimum positive ratio 0, Then replace
the corresponding basic variable (by making its value zero). It is termed as
the outgoing variable. The corresponding row is called the key row which is
shown marked with an arrow on its right end. The element at the
intersection of the key row and key column is called the key element which
is shown bracketted. If all these ratios are £ 12, x,, x£ 5 0, (V.T.U.. 2003 S)
Solution. Consists of the following steps : Step 1. Check whether the
objective function is to be maximized and all b’s are positive. The problem
being of maximization type and all 6’s being > 0, this step is not necessary.
Step 2, Express the problem in the standard form. By introducing the slack
variables sr, s2, sa, the problem in standard form becomes Max. Z - Sjc, +
3jc2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + Os., subject to x1 + x2 + + Cte3 - 2 ..Xi) + 0f>j + s2 +
0s.3 = 10 ...(«) 3xx + 8x2 + 0s1 + 0 sf> + - 12 ...(Hi) xv &lt s2t ^3 — 0*
Step 3, Find an initial basic feasible solution. There are three equations
involving five unknowns and for obtaining a solution, we assign zero values
to any two of the variables. We start with a basic solution for which we set
xl = 0 and x2 - 0. (This basic solution corresponds to the origin in the
graphical method). Substituting a j = = 0 in (t), (it) and (Hi), we get the
basic solution a, = 2, s2 = 10, 3.^ = 12 Since all s2, are positive, the basic
solution is also feasible and non-degenerate. The basic feasible solution is
jCj - *2 = 0 (non-basic) and s} = 2, s2 = 10, = 12 (basic) Initial basic
feasible solution is given by the following table : CJ 5 3 0 0 0 Basis xi *2
*1 *2 b 0 0 a) 1 1 0 0 2 2/1 ir0 5 2 0 1 0 10 10/5 0 ss 3 8 0 0 1 12 12/3
Zj*ZcB UiJ 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cj = Cj-Zj 5 3 0 0 0 T
Linear Programming 1077 [For a, -column {j = 1), Z; = IcB an =
0(1) + 0(5) + 0(3) = 0 and for x2-column (/ = 2), Z ■ =IcB ai2 = 0(1) + 0(2)
+ 0(8) — 0 Similarly " Zfb) - 0(2) + 0(10) + 0(12) = 0,] Step 4. Apply
optimality test. As Cj is positive under some columns, the initial basic
feasible solution is not optimal (i.e. can be improved) and we proceed to the
next step. Step 5. (i) Identify the incoming and outgoing variables. The
above table shows that xx is the incoming variable as its incremental
contribution C (= 5) is maximum and the column in which it appears is the
key column (shown marked by an arrow at the bottom). Dividing the
elements under ft-column by the corresponding elements of key-column,
we find minimum positive ratio 6 is 2 in two rows. We, therefore, arbitrarily
choose the row containing Sj as the hey row (shown marked by an arrow on
its right end). The element at the intersection of key row and the key
column i.e (1), is the key element. s, is therefore, the outgoing basic
variable which will now become non-basic. Having decided that a, is to
enter the solution, we have tried to find as to what maximum value could
have without violating the constraints. So removing the new basis will
contain a,, s2 and s3 as the basic variables. (ii> Iterate towards the optimal
solution. To transform the initial set of equations with a basic feasible
solution into an equivalent set of equations with a different basic feasible
solution, we make the key element unity. Here the key element being unity,
we retain the key row as it is. Then to make all other elements in key
column zero, we subtract proper multiples of key row from the other rows.
Here we subtract 5 times the elements of key row from the second row and
3 times the elements of key row From the third row. These become the
second and the third rows of the next table. We also change the
corresponding value under cH column from 0 to 5, while replacings, by a,
under the basis. Thus the second basic feasible solution is given by the
following table : cj r> 3 0 0 0 ch Basis *2 S2 b 0 5 *1 i 1 l 0 0 2 0 s2 0 — 3
-5 1 0 0 0 s3 0 5 - 3 0 I 6 ZJ = ^CU av 5 5 6 0 0 10 c -€ -Z 0 - 2 -5 0 0 J J J
As Cj is either zero or negative under all columns, the above table gives the
optimal basic feasible solution. This optimal solution is aa = 2, x2 = 0 and
maximum Z = 10. Example 34, 15. A firm produces three products which
are processed on three muchines. The relevant data is given below : The
profit per unit for products A, B, and C is ^ i, ^ 3 and ? £> respectively.
Determine the daily number of units to be manufactured for each product.
Assume that all the units produced are consumed in the market Solution.
Let the firm decide to produce xL, x2. x3 units of products A, B, C,
respectively. Then the L.P. model for this problem is : Max. Z = 4xt + 3jc2
+ 6x3 subject t.o 2xj + 3a2 + 2x3 < 440, 4a1 + 3xg < 470, 2a, + 5a2 < 430,
At, x2, x3 > 0. (V.T. U., 2004 > Step 2. Check whether the objective
function is to be maximized and all h’s are non-negative. The problem
being of maximization type and ft's being > 0, this step is not necessary'.
1078 Higher Engineering Mathematics Step 2. Express the
problem in the standard form . By introducing the slack variables slj, sa, the
problem in standard Ibrm becomes : Max. Z - 4xy + 3x2 + 6x3 + Os, + 0s2
+ Os:t subject to 2Xy + 3a'2 + 2x3 + + 0s2 + 0s3 = 440 4Xy + Qa\, + 3x3 +
Ds., + s2 + 0s3 = 470 2xj + 5x2 + Ox., + 0st + 0s2 + «3 = 430 x\>x2* x3>
sp s2’ ®3 - 0* Step 3. Find an initial baste feasible solution. The basic (non
-degene rate) feasible solution is xi = x2 - x3 - 0 (non-basic) Sj - 440, s2 -
470, s3 - 430 (basic) /. Initial basic feasible solution is given by the
following table : Cj 4 3 6 0 0 0 (D Busts xl *2 *3 *1 ^2 S2 6 0 0 si 2 3 2 l 0
0 440 440/2 0 *2 4 0 (3) 0 1 0 470 470/3
LlWE^ Fl*GGRAlUMir4G 1079 Now sine* each CJ < 0,
therefore it gives the optimal solution x, - 0, a2 = 380/9, x3 - 470/3 and
Zmnv = 3200/3 i.e.t 1066.67 rupees. Example 34.16, Solve the following
L.P.P. by simplex method : Minimize Z = x1 - 3x,t + 3xv subject to 3x} - x2
+ 2x? < 7, 2x2 + 4i, 2 - 12, - 4x2 + 3x., + fir, <10, x2, x2, ,xa 2 0, (Mum bai
, 2004 ; V' T. V. , 2003) Sol u t in ii. Consists of the following steps : Step 1.
Check whether objective function is to be maximized and alt b’s are non
negative. As the problem is that of minimizing the objective function,
converting it to the maximization type, we have Max. '£ — - x, + &r2 —
3x3. As the right hand side of the second constraint is negative, we write it
as - Ztj -4*2 < 12 Step 2. Express the problem in the standard form. By
introducing the slack variables s,, s2, sa, the problem in the standard form
becomes Max. Z' - — x, + 3xa — 3ixa + 0k, + 0s2 + 0s3 subject to 3x, —x^
+ 2xa + «, + 0s2 + 0s3 - 7 - 2x, — 4.r2 + 0xa + 0s, + s2 + Osg = 12 - 4xx +
3x2 + &x3 + 0s, + 0s2 + s3 = 10 X,, J-’j, Bg, 2 0. Step 3 . Find initial basic
feasible solution. The basic (non-degenerate) feasible solution is x, = x2 =
x3 = 0 (non-basic) ; s, = 7, s2 = 12, s3 = 10 (basic) Initial basic feasible
solution is given by the table below : cj - 1 3 — 3 0 0 0 cti Basis xi x2 *3 5,
S2 sa 6 « 0 si 3 -1 2 l 0 0 7 7/
1080 HtQHEfl ENCtlN6£!W,G MATHEMATICS Step 6. As Cj Is
positive under first column, the solution is not optimal and we proceed
further x ( is the Incoming variable, s, is the outgoing variable and (5/3) is
the key element. Drop Sj and introduce xt with its associated value - 1
under cB column. Convert the key element to unity and make all other
elements of the key column zero. Then the third basic feasible solution is
given by the table below : ^ -1 3 -3 0 0 0 CB Basis *i *2 fil Ei s3 b - 1 xi t 0
14/5 3/5 0 1/5 31/5 0 S,2 0 0 156/5 22/5 l 14/5 354/5 3 xs 0 1 32/5 4/5 D 3/5
58/5 -1 3 82/5 9/5 0 8/5 143/5 c , 0 0 - 97/5 -9/5 0 -8/5 Now since each Cj<
0, therefore it gives the optimal solution xx - 31/5, x 0, 4 Solution. Consists
of the following steps : Step 1. Check whether objective function is to be
maximized and all b's ure non-negative. This step is not necessary. Step 2.
Express the problem in the standard form. Here is a slack variable. By
introducing other slack variables sl and s2 the problem in standard form
becomes Max. Z - 107*! + x2 + 2x3 + 0x4 + Osj + 0sa subject to 14 1 7 —
x, + — Xa - 2jc, + x, + Os, + 0«9 - — 3 3 J 1 3 16x, + — x, l 2 2 6xa + 0x4
+ s1 + 0s2 - 5 3Xj - + 0x4 + OSj + s,, = 0 Xj,r2Tx3, x4,Sl.s2S0. Step 3.
Find initial basic feasible solution. The basic feasible solution is x, = = x3 =
0 (non-basic) ; *4 = 7/3, 5, s„ = 0 (basic) Initial basic feasible solution is
given in the table below : CJ 107 1 2 0 0 0 Basis *3 *4 S1 S2 b 0 14 1 7 7
,14 0 XA -2 I 0 0 — -/ — T 3 3 3 3 0 si 16 1 2 -6 0 1 0 5 5/16 0 S2 13) -1 0
0 1 0 0/3*0 0 0 0 0 0 0 II t JN , 107 I 2 0 0 0 t ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
Linear Pfkxjfwmmins 1081 Step 4. Apply optimality test. As Cj is

positive under some columns, the initial basic feasible solution is not
optimal and we proceed further. Step 5. (i) Identify the incoming and
outgoing variables. The above table shows that jj is the incoming variable.
s2 is the outgoing variable and (3) is the key element. (ii) Iterate towards
the optimal solution. Drop s2 and introduce xt witb its associated value 107
under cB column. Convert key element to unity and make all other elements
of the key column zeros. Then the second basic feasible solution is given by
the following table ; cj 1Q7 1 2 0 0 0 CB Basis xt JC2 x3 x* sl s2 b 0 0 *4 0
17/9 -4/9 1 0 14/9 7/3 — 21/4 0 *1 0 35/6 -2/3 0 1 - 16/3 6 -16/2 107 1 —
1/3 - 1/3 0 0 1/3 0 0 Z> 107 - 107/a - 107/3 0 0 107/3 0 110/3 113/3 0 0 -
107/3 T As C ts positive under some columns, the solution is not opt imal.
Here 113/3 being the largest positive value ofCp X, is the incoming
variable. But all the values of 0 being < 0,x3 will not enter the basis. This
indicates that the solution to the problem is unbounded. Remember that (i)
the incoming variable is the non basic variable corresponding to the largest
positive value ofC and (it ) (he outgoing vuriable is the basic -variuble
corresponding to the least positive rutio 0, obtained by dividing the
bcolumn elements by the corresponding key-column elements. J
PROBLEMS 34.4 \mng simple* method, solve the following L.P.P. ll-B) : L
Maximize Z = x\ + subject lo xx + 2x2 < 10, 0 0, 5. Maximize Z 3x1 + 2x.i
+ &rat subject to x% + 2x2 + x% < 430, 3x1 + 2xg < 460* xx + 4x% < 420,
xv x2% xg > 0 , {Mumbai; 2Q04A 6. Minimize Z = 3xt + + 4x3 subject to
2xx + 3x2 < St + 5x% 5 10, 3x j + 2x£ + £ 15, xv x^f 1 0, (Mumbai* 2004
S) 7* Minimise Z = x, - 3x£ + 2 subject to 3x1 - jcs.+ 2x3 ’S 7, - 2Xj + 4x2
< 12, - 4,tt + 3x? + 8.ta < 10, xu £ 0, iMttdms. 2006) S. Maximize Z = 4xy
+ 3X. + 4xs + subjet S to xl + Sbc2 + 2jc3 + 4x4 < 80, + 2xg + x4 £ 60, +
3x2 + x3 + < 80, xp x2, jc4 > 0. 9. A firm produces products A and B and
sells them aL a profit of ? 2 and 7 3 each respectively. Each product is
processed cm machines O and /7. Product A requires 1 minule on Gand 2
minutes on H whereas product B requires 1 minute on each of the
machines. Machine G is not available for mare than 6 hrs. 40 min/day
whereas the time constraint for machine H is 16 hns. Solve this problem via
simplex method for maxiiTmiriff the profit. 10* A company makes two
types of products. Each product of the first type requires t wice as much
labour time as the second iyp$r If all products are of second type company
can produce a total or 500 units* a day. The market limits daily sales of the
first and the second type to 150 and 250 units respectively. Assuming that
the profits per
1002 Higher Engineering M ^hematics unit are f 8 for type I and

7 5 for type If determine the number of unite of each type to be produced to
maximize profit? 1 1* The owner of a dairy is trying to determine the
correct blend of two t ypes of feed. Both contain various percentages of
four essential ingredients. With She following data determine the least cost
blend ? Ingredient %per kg of feed Min requirement in kg. Feed 1 Feed 2 1
411 20 4 2 If) 30 2 3 20 40 3 4 30 10 6 Cost (7/kg,) 5 3 S - A manufacturing
firm has discontinued production of a certain unprofitable product line. This
created considerable excess production capacity. Management is
considering to devote their excess capacity to one or more nf three product
1, 2, and 3. The available capacity on machined and the number of
machine- hours required for each unit of the respective product, is given
below : Machine Type Available Time fhrsfweeki Productivity (hrshmit}
Product 1 Product 2 Product 3 Milling machine 250 8 2 3 Laths 150 4a J.
Grinder 50 2 1 The unit profit would be 7 20* ? 6 and ? 8 respectively for
products I* 2 and 3. Find how much of each product tue firm should
produce in order to maximize profit. 13. The following table gives the
various vitamin contents of three types of fond and daily requirements of
vitae i^ alcngwilh cost per unit. Find the combination of food for minimum
cost. Vitamin (mg) Food F Food G Food H Minimum daily requirement
(mg) A 1 1 10 i C LOO 10 10 50 D 10 100 10 10 Cnsl/imit (?) 10 15 5 1-1.
A former U&s 1*000 acres of land im which he can grow corn* wheat or
soyabeans. Each acre of com co*La 7 100 for pretparation, requires 7 man-
days of work and yields a profit of? 30 An acre of wheat costs ? 120 to
prepare* requires 10 man-days of work and yields a profit oik 40. An acre
of soya beans costs £70 to prepare, requires ft mandays of work and yields a
profit of? 20 If the farmer has 7 1 00,000 for preparation and can count on
3,000 mnn-days of work, how many acres should be allocated to each crop
to maximize profits ? 34.9 ARTIFICIAL VARIABLE TECHNIQUES So far
we have seen that the introduction of slack/surplus variables provided the
initial basic feasible solution. But there are many problems wherein at least
one of the constraints is of (5) or (=} type and slack variables fail to give
such a solution. There are two similar methods for solving such problems
which we explain below : (1) M-method or Method of Penalties. This
method is due to A Char ties and consists of the following steps : Step 1.
Express the problem in standard form. Step 2. Add non-negative variables
to the left hand side of all those constraints which are of(>)or{=) type. Such
new variables are called artificial variables and the purpose of introducing
these is just to obtain an initial basic feasible solution. But their addition
causes violation of the corresponding constraints. As such, wc would
Lin Em Programming 1083 like to get rid of tho.se variables and
would not allow them to appear in the final solution. For this purpose, we
assign a very large penalty (- M\ to these artificial variables in the objective
function. Step 3, Solve the modified L.P P. by simplex method. At any
iteration of simplex method, one of the following three eases may arise : (*)
There remains no artificial variable in the basis and Ihc optimality condition
is satisfied. Then the solution is an optimal basic feasible solution to the
problem, (ii) There is at least one artificial variable in the basis at zero level
(with zero value in 6-column) and the optimality condition is satisfied. Then
the solution is a degenerate optimal basic feasible solution. (iii) There is at
least one artificial variable in the basis at non-zero level (with positive
value in 6-column) and the optimality condition is satisfied. Then the
problem has no feasible solution. The final solution is not optimal, since the
objective function contains an unknown quantity M. Such a solution
satisfies the constraints but does not optimize the objective function and is
therefore, called pseudo optimal solution. Step 4. Continue the simplex
method until either an optimal basic feasible solution is obtained or an
unbounded solution is indicated. Oha. The artificial variables are only e
computational device for getting a starting solution. Once an artificial
variable leave* the basis, it has served its purpose and we forget about it ie .
the column for this variable is omitted from the next simplex table.
Example 34,18. Use C home's penalty method to Minimize Z = 2x} + x.2
subject to 3x1 + jc£ = 3. 4x} + 3xs > 6, x} + 2xs £ 3, xJt x2 5 0. (Anna, M.
Tech , 2 006 ; V. T. U., 2 000 S) Solution. Consists of the follow ing steps :
Step 1 . Express the problem in standard form. The second and third
inequalities are converted into equations by introducing the surplus and
slack variables Sp s.^ respectively. Also the first and second constraints
being of (=) and (>) type, we introduce two artificial variables A A,.
Converting the minimization problem to the maximization form, the L.P.P.
can be rewritten as Max. Z' - - 2Xj — x2 + Osj + 0$2 - MA) - MA2 subject
to 3Xj + x„ + Ds1 + G.«?2 + A1 + 0Aa - 3 4.i: j + 3x2 — st + 0s2 + 0A | +
A2 = 6 jfj + 2ra + + s2 + OAj + 0Aa = 3 jfpJCj.Sp s2„ Alf A2 > 0 Step 2. 06
fa in an initial basic feasible solution. Surplus variable Sj is not a basic
variable since its value is - 6. As negative quantities are not feasible, st must
be prevented from appearing in the initial solution. This is done by takings,
- 0. By setting the other noubasic variables xv,x2 each = 0, we obtain the
initial basic feasible solution as xi ~x2 ~ °> *i = 0 5 Aj = 3, A2 = 6, s2 = 3
Thus the initial simplex table is c. -2 - I 0 0 -M -M CB Basis *1 *2 si s2 A i
*2 b 6 -M (3) 1 0 0 1 0 3 3/3«-M A2 4 3 - 1 0 0 1 6 m 0 *2 1 2 0 I 0 0 3 3/1
Zj = ^cSttii -7 M -4 M M 0 - M -M -DM C = c~Z 1M -2 AM- 1 -i M 0 0 0 t
Since C. is positive under x, and x2 columns, this is not an optimal solution.
Step 3. Iterate towards optimal solution. Introduce j:r and drop A , from
basis.
1084 Higher Engineering Mathematics /. The new simplex table
is - 2 - 1 0 0 -M J' ^ Cff Basis xi x2 A, 6 e -2 x , 1 1/3 0 0 0 1 3 - M A,2 0
(5/3) -1 0 I 2 &5*r0 s2 0 5/3 0 1 0 2 6/5 -2 2 5Af 3 3 M 0 -M -2-2 M C, 0 t
5/lf _ — + 3 3 -M 0 0 T Since C is positive under x2 column, this is not an
optimal solution. Introduce x2 and drop A2, Then the revised simplex table
is CJ -2 — I 0 0 cfS Basis xi *2 *1 b -2 H 1 0 1/5 0 3/5 - 1 x2 0 I -3/5 0 6/5
0 % 0 0 1 1 0 h -2 - 1 1/5 0 - 12/5 c> D 0 - 1/5 0 Since none of C- is
positive, this an optimal solution. Thus, an optima) basic feasible solution to
the problem is jf1 = 3/5, = 6/5, Max. Z' - - 12/5. Hence the optimal value of
the objective function is Min. Z = - Max. Z' = - (- 12/5) = 12/5 Example
34.19. Maximize Z = ‘lx t + 2.v£ subject to the constraints : 2xs + <2, 3x 3
+ 4xs 2 12, xt, x2 >0. Solution. Consists of the following stops : Step 1.
Express the problem in standard form. The inequalities are converted into
equations by introducing the slack and surplus variables s,, s2 respectively.
Also the second constraint being of (>) type, we introduce the artificial
variable A. Thus the L.P.P. can be rewritten as Max. Z = 3jc, + 2x2 + Osj +
0s2 — MA subject to 2x, + x.2 + Sj + 0s2 + 0A = 2, 3*j +■ 4jc2 + Osj - s2
+ A = 12, xv x2, slf A > 0 Step 2. Find an initial basic feasible solution.
Surplus variable s2 is not a basic variable since its value is — 12. Since a
negative quantity is not feasible, s2 must be prevented from appearing in
the initial solution. This is done by letting = 0. By taking the other non-
basic variables Xj and x2 each = 0, we obtain the initial basic feasible
solution as = x2 = s2 = 0, Sj = 2, A = 12 .*. The initial simplex table is ci 3
2 0 0 -M CB Basie *2 S2 A b e 0 s, 2 (1) 1 0 0 2 2 4 — -M A 3 A 0 - 1 1 12
3 Zj= 2, Cy
Linear PRDSRAMMrNG Since Cj is positive under some
columns, this is not an optimal solution. Step 3. Iterate towards optimal
solution. Introduce x2 and drop sv The new simplex table is 1035 $ 3 2 0 0
cs Basis *1 *2 si s2 A b 2 *s 2 l 1 0 0 2 A -5 0 -4 - 1 1 4 ZJ 4 + 5Af 2 2 +
4Af M -M 4-4 M ©i - (1 + SJlf) 0 -C2 + 4Af) -M 0 Here each Cj is negative
and an artificial variable appears in the basis at non-zero level. Thus there
exists a pseudo optimal solution to the problem. (2) Two-phase method.
This is another method to deal with the artificial variables wherein the
L.P.P. is solved in two phases. Phase I, Step 1. Express the given problem in
the standard form by introducing slack, surplus and artificial variables. Step
2. Formulate an artificial objective function by assigning (- 1) cost to each
of the artificial variables A( and zero cost to all other variables. Step 3,
Maximize Z* subject to the constraints of the original problem using the
simplex method. Then three cases arise : (n) Max. Z* <0 and at least one
artificial variable appears in the optimal basis at a positive level In this case,
the original problem dosn’t possess any feasible solution and the procedure
comes to an end. (6) Max. Z* - 0 and no artificial variable appears in the
optimal basis. In this case, a basic feasible solution is obtained and we
proceed to phase II for finding the optimal basic feasible solution to the
original problem. (c) Max. Z* - 0 and at least one artificial variable appears
in the optimal basis at zero level. Here a feasible solution to the auxiliary
L.P.P. is also a feasible solution to the original problem with all artificial
variables set - 0. To obtain a basic feasible solution, we prolong phase I for
pushing all the artificial variables out of the basis (without proceeding on to
phase II). Phase II. The basic feasible solution found at the end of phase 1 is
used as the starting solution for the original problem in this phase i.e.t the
final simplex table of phase 1 is taken as the initial simplex table of phase II
and the artificial objective function is replaced by the original objective
function. Then we find the optimal solution. Example 34.20, Use two-
phase method to Minimize Z - 7 ,5x t - 3xs subject to the constraints 3x} -
x. - > 3, x} - x2 + x7 >2, xItx2,x3>.0. Phase L Step 1. Express the problem
in standard form. Solution. Introducing surplus variables s,, s,, and artificial
variables j4,, A.„ the phase I problem in standard form becomes Max. Z* ~
Ox, + Ox, + Ox, + Os, + Os., -Al-A2 subject to 3x, - - x, — s, + 0s2 + A , +
QA2 = 3 x, — jc2 + x3 + Os j - s2 + Q/\ , + A2 = £ A2 >0. Step 2. Find an
initial basic feasible solution. Setting x, = x2 = x3 = s, = s2 = 0, we have A,
= 3, A2 = 2 and Z* = — 5
1086 Higher Engineering Mathematics a Initial simplex table is cj

0 0 0 0 0 ~1 - 1 Basis *2 *3 Si s2 A2 b 0 - 1 Ai 13) -1 -1 - 1 0 1 0 3 It— - L
A, 1 -l 1 0 - 1 0 1 2 2 Zf = -4 2 0 1 l - 1 - 1 -6 CJ=c.-Z/ 4 -2 G -I -1 0 0 T As
C is positive under x, column, this solution is not optimal. Step 3. Iterate
towards an optimal solution. Making key element (3) unity and replacing A]
by x1P we have the new simplex table : c, 0 0 n 0 0 -1 -1 CB Basis *1 x2 *a
*z Al A2 6 3 1 1 1 1 0 1 “ 3 " 3 ~ 3 0 3 0 1 -3 2 f'4'1 1 1 3 - i An 0 “ -1 “ “ 1
1 j 4 — ” 3 UJ 3 3 4 2 4 L 1 z* 0 — __ — 1 - 1 - 1 J 3 3 ~ 8 3 2 4 1 1 c 0 ^ -
— — 0 J 3 3 3 " 1 "3 T Since C- is positive under and columns, this
solution is not optimal. Making key element (4/3) unity and replacing A,f
by we obtain the revised sim plex table : CJ 0 0 0 0 0 - 1 -i ^B Basis *2 *2
Ax A? t 0 *l 1 - 1/2 0 - 1/4 - 1/4 1/4 1/4 5/4 0 *2 0 - 1/2 I 1/4 -3/4 - 1/4 3/4
3/4 Zj* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CJ 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 Since all Cf < 0, this table gives
the optimal solution. Also Z'm!U£ = 0 and no artificial variable appears in
the basis. Thus an optimal basic feasible solution to the auxiliary problem
and therefore to the original problem, has been attained. Phase If.
Considering the actual costs associated with the original variables, the
objective function is Max. Z' = - 15/2xj + 3x2 + 0x3 + Osj + 0s2 - 0A, -
0A2 subject to 3x j - x2 — x3 — s, + 0s2 + At + 0A2 = 3, x, - x, + X,, + Os.
- s,} + OA. + A„ ~ 2, x2, x2,x3, Sl,s2,A1,A2>0 The optimal initial feasible
solution thus obtained, will be an optimal basic feasible solution to the
original L.P.P. Using final table of phase I, the initial simplex table of phase
II is as follows : cii C>. Basis -15/2 3 *2 - 15/2 xi 1 - 1/2 0 *3 0 - 1/2 ZJ C,
- 15/2 0 15/4 -3/4 0 0 0 *3 S2 h 0 -1/4 - 1/4 5/4 1 1/4 - 3/4 3/4 0 15/8 15/8
-75/8 0 - 15/8 - 15/8 Since all < 0, this solution is optimal. Hence an
optimal basic feasible solution to the given problem is Xj = 5/4, x2 = 0, x3
= 3/4 and min. Z = 75/8.
Linear Programming 1087 34.10 EXCEPTIONAL CASES (1) Tie
for the incoming variable. When more than one variable has the same
largest positive value in C- row (in maximization problem), a tie for the
choice of incoming variable occurs. As there is no method to break Inis tie,
we choose any one of the prospective incoming variables arbitrarily. Such
an arbitrary choice does not in any way affect the optimal solution. (2) Tie
for the outgoing variable. When more Chan one variable has the same least
positive ratio under then 0-column, a tie for the choice of outgoing variable
occurs. If the equal values of said ratio are > 1, choose any one of the
prospective leaving variables arbitrarily. Such an arbitrary choice doesn't
affect the optimal solution. Ef the equal values of ratios are zero, the
simplex method fails and we make use of the following degeneracy
technique. (3) Degeneracy, We know that a basic feasible solution is said to
be degenerate if any of the basic variables vanishes. This phenomenon of
getting a degenerate basic feasible solution is called degeneracy which may
arise (i) at the initial state, when atleast one basic variable is zero in the
initial basic feasible solution or (it) at any subsequent stage, when the least
positive ratios under 0-column are equal for two or more rows. In this case,
an arbitrary choice of one of these basic variables may result in one or more
basic variables becoming zero in the next iteration. At times, the same
sequence of simplex iterations is repeated endlessly without improving the
solution. These are termed as cycling type of problem s. Cycling occurs
very rarely. In fact, cycling has seldom occurred In practical problems. To
avoid cycling, we apply the following perturbation procedure : O. Solution.
Consists of the following steps ; Step 1. Express the problem in the.
standard form. Introducing the slack variables s,, s^, sy the problem in the
standard form is Max. Z — 5x j + 3x., + Os , + 0s2 + 0s3 x, +■ x2 + S| +
0s2 + 0.
1088 Higher Engineering Mathematics As Cj is positive under x2

columns, this solution is not optimal. Step 3. Iterate towards optimal
solution, xx is the incoming variable. But the first two rows have the same
ratio under 0-column. Therefore we apply perturbation method. First
column of the unit matrix has 1 and 0 in the tied rows. Dividing these by the
corresponding elements of the key columns, we get 1/1 and 0/5, $2-row
gives the smaller ratio and therefore s„ is the first outgoing variable and (5)
is the key element. Thus the new simplex table is cj 5 3 0 0 0 CB Basis xi
*2 *1 s2 S3 b 0 0 si 0 (3/6) 1 - 1/5 0 0 0 5 xl 1 2/5 0 1/6 0 2 6<0 h 0 34/6 0
-3/5 1 6 15/17 z, 5 2 0 1 0 10 C, 0 1 0 -1 0 T As Cj is positive under x2
column, this solution is not optimal. Making key element (3/6) unity and
replacing Sj by jr2, we obtain the revised simplex table : CJ 5 3 0 0 0 cii
Basis X2 S1 s3 b 3 *2 0 l 5/3 -1/3 0 0 5 1 0 - 2/3 1/3 0 2 0 sa 0 0 -34/3 5/3 I
6 5 3 5/3 2/3 0 10 C5 0 0 -5/3 -2/3 0 As Cl < 0 under all columns, this table
gives the optimal solution. Hence an optimal basic feasible solution is xx =
2, ^ = 0 and £lllflK = 10. PROBLEMS 34.5 ^(jIvc the following L.F,
problems using ^/-method : [ . Maximize Z = 3* \ + 2*2 + 3x3 subject to :
2xi + x2 + x:3 < 2, Sx1 + 4*3 + 2x 3 > 8, xv x.^ xa > 0, 2* Maximize ^ =
2*1 + x2 4 subject to : x1 + x2 + 2*.t < 5, 2xx + 3x2 + 4*3 s 1 2, *3 ^ 0. 3.
Maximize Z = S*2, subject to : xx -*2 > 0, 2xx + < - 6, xv x2 unrestricted.
4p Maximize Z = 5i l - 2jc2 4 ZxA subject i® :2x{ + 2x2 - Jt3 > 2 , 3x1 -
4x2 £ 3, x2 4 3a3 < 6, xlr *2l x 3 > O. 5- Maximize Z ~ Xj + 2xfJ + — x4
subject to ; jt5 + 2*2 + 3*a = 15, 2x1 + x2 4 = 20f x i 4 4 x3 4 = 10, xv x2l
x ^ *4 £ 0. Use two phase method to solve the following L.F. problem h ; ti.
Minimize Z = xt 4 .v2 subject to : 2a j + *2 k 4, 4 ?jt£ > 7, ^1’ ^ ^ 7*
Maximize £ = 5*, 4 Sx2 subject to : 2xx + j2 < 1* + 4*2 & 6. 0. (Mirniftm,
2/5041 hlfo/fras, 200, 5) t Rajasthan, 2005) (Kottayum, 2005)
Uneah Programming 1089 H. Maximize Z = 5x, - 4*2 + 3jc3, 9.
Maximize Z - 5v : - 4xIJt +subject to : 2xy + 2*2 - xs > 2, subject to : 2.x t
+ xz - 6xa = 20, 3bt, - 4*2 < 3, *„ + < 5, tiij + + I0i3 < 76, jtj, xv Jtjj £ 0.
(Mumbai, 20091 Hxt - $x2 + 5 50, Solve the following degenerate L.P.
problems , 10. Maximize Z — 9xt + 3x,, 11. * v % *3 Maximize 2 - 2x%
+■ + lQ;t3 subject to : 4.r, + x.2 < 8, 2*! + *2 < 4, subject U* i Jt”| + 2arn -
0t x2 + x.j = 1> jfj, x2 > 0. jTj, x^zQ. 34.11 (1) DUALITY CONCEPT One
of the most interesting concepts in linear programming is the duality theory.
Every linear programming problem has associated with it, another linear
programming problem involving the same data and closely related optimal
solutions. Such two problems are said to be duals of each other. While one
of these is called the primal, the other the dual. The importance of the
duality concept is due to two main reasons. Firstly, if the primal contains a
large number of constraints and a smaller number of variables, the labour of
computation can be considerably reduced by converting it into the dual
problem and then solving it. Secondly, the interpretation of the dual
variables from the cost or economic point of view proves extremely useful
in making future decisions in the activities being programmed. (2)
Formulation of dual problem. Consider the following L.P.P. ; Maximize Z =
c |X , + c^x2 + ... + cn xlt, subject to the constraints “nî + + *** +■ a\,pcn
+ a22*2 + - + a2„xn ^ bi' amlX\ + Q’m&'i + ”* + ainnXH “ bm To
construct the dual problem, we adopt the following guidelines : (i) The
maximization problem in the primal becomes the minimization problem in
the dual and e ice versa . (U) (£) type of constraints in the primal become
O) type of constraints in the dual and vice versa, tin) The coefficients c1(
r2, cn in the objective function of the primal become b,, b2, .... bnt in the
objective function of the dual. fie) The constants blt b 2, in the constraints
of the primal become Cj, c2, ..,,cn in the constraints of the dual. (a) If the
primal has n variables and m constraints, the dual will have m variables and
n constraints i.e. the transpose of the body matrix of the primal problem
gives the body matrix of the dual. (vi) The variables in both the primal and
dual are non -negative. Then the dual problem will be Minimize W = 6,^ +
h + ... + brr^ym subject to the constraints + a,ny., + ... + un;1ym > c.,, aiayi
+ a23V2 + *-+aftl3Vmô2( aiiÎ+Ct2^2 + -+a^m^Cn.V], y2, —>ym — o.
Example 114,22, Write the dual of the following L.P.P. : Minimize Z ~ 3xs -
2xa + 4Xj, subject to 3Xj + 5x., + -lx.. £ 7, 6xf + x^. + 3x;i > 4, 7xt - 2xs -
x;i <10, x1 - 2xs + 5xs £ 3, 4xt + 7x2 - 2x. > 2, xlt x^ > 0,
1090 Higher Engineering Maihematics Solution, Singt the
problem is of minimization, all constraints should bn ol > type. We multiply
the third constraint throughout by - 1 so that — 7xx + 2x2 + jr3 ;> - 10,
Lety1P y3t y4 and y_ be the dual variables associated with the above five
constraints. Then the dual problem is given by Maximize W — 7yx + 4y2 -
10y3 + 3vi( + 2 subject to 3 y , + dy.4 - 7v, + y, + 4 y5 <3, 5y, +y2 + 2y:i -
2y t + 7vfi < - 2, 4vt + 3y2 + y3 + 5y4 - 2y5 £ 4, y „ y2. y3,y4, yB 2 0. (3)
Formulation of dual problem when the primal has equality constraints.
Consider the problem Maximize Z - e^, + c^c2 Subject to Q11x1 + ai2X'j =
bv a21Vl + “22*2 - *2* xvx2- °The equality constraint can be written as
UjjX, + «l2x2 £ A, and UjjXj + a.12x2 > or + al2*2 - *1 an£* “ auxt
~al2x2^~bV Then the above problem can be restated as Maximize Z - c1xl
+ rgX2 subject hi rijjij + GtjjXg < 6r - - a^x2 < - 6jr ®at*» + Q22xa - *2?
*f xa Now we form the dual using y ^y,", y2 as the dual variables. Then the
dual problem is Minimize IV" - fc,(yj' —y^") + 6^, subject to «nlv/ -y") +
«21y2 > c,, til2(y,' -y~) + at>ljy2 > i'Tyfy",y.4 > 0. The term (y,' —y*)
appears in both the objective function and all the constraints of the dual.
This will always happen whenever there is an equality constraint in the
primal. Then the new variable yy - _y 1 " (=y|) becomes unrestricted in sign
being the difference of two non-negative variables and the above dual
problem takes the form. Minimize W = hp', + b^,4, subject to altVi + «21y2
2 ai^'i + - r2* >'i unrestricted in sign, y2 > 0. In general, if the primal
problem is Maximize Z - c |jc, + + ... + cnx„, subject to o,,^ + a)2x2 + -** +
ainx„ ~ 6, t£21'*'l + ®!?t2 + + *i2nXi t ~ ^2 “ml*! + am3?2 + - + a»,A =
b,n ^ 0. then the dual problem is Minimize W = 6tyj + f>av., + ... + btfym
subject to ally1 + aiy y2 + ... + amlym > c,t «,aVt + o2!iys + ... +
flmlym>c2. yry2, ...,ywt all unrestricted in sign Thus the dual variables
corresponding tu equality constraints are unrestricted in sign. Conversely
when the primal variables arc unrestricted in sign, corresponding dual
constraints arc equalities. Example 34.23. Construct the dual of the L.P.P. :
Maximize Z - 4xt + 9x., +- 2xv subject to 2x f + 3xs + 2x9 < 7, Sx, - 2x2 +
4x;. - 5, xt, xT x, £ ft Solution. Lety, and y2 by the dual variables associated
with the first and second constraints. Then the dual problem is Minimize W
“ 7y, + 5y?. subject to 2y, + 3y2 < 4, 3yt — 2y2 s 9, 2y j + 4y2 £ 2,yj 5 0,y2
is unrestricted in sign.
Linear Pôgo aiming 1091 PROBLEMS 34.6 Write the duahs of
the foil awing problems (1 - 4) ; L Maximize Z - i Oa , + 1jhr£ + I ftra
subjec t. in 6r, i Ijx’2 + 3*3 < 2G, + 5x^ < 7, xv x2, > 0 * 2. Mirunuzt* Z -
jLx ( -t 4.t2 + 3Lr!jF subject tu *'ixj + 4x2 + *:1 > 1 J , - 2xx - 8xs + s — 7*
- 2x2 - itr;f < - 1 3x^ + 2xn + 2x$ > 5, jer, .v^ > 0. 3. Maximize Z = i LGr^
+ 7x$ subject to xy — x2 + A;i 3- - 3X) + 2*s £ 1 , 2*; 4 = 4, xv ^ 0, 4. M
Inf mim.2 - 3* j — 3x2 + subject ty %J - 3*2 + xs ^fe, 4x1 - £ 9, - Si:, 4
4x2 + = 8, xv x > 0 and x^ id unrestricted. [Mumbai, 2004) 5* Obtain the
dual problem of the ful lowing L.P.P. Muxiniizi? /lx) - 2x% 4 5x:, + i>x:i
subjell to 5,vt + tra\, “ < 3, - 4 + 4xfl 5 -1 , x3 - dx2 + 8x , £ 1, - liTj - 3*2 +
7x* < 6, Xp X2t > 0. Also verify Lliat the dual of the dual problem is the
primal problem. 34.12 (1) DUALITY PRINCIPLE if the primal and the
duett problems have feasible solutions thru bath have opt i trial solution?
and the optimal value of the primul objective function is equal to the
optimal value of the dual objective function i.e. , Max. Z = Min. W This is
the fundamental theorem of duality. It suggests that an optimal solution to
the primal problem tan directly he obtained from that of the dual problem
and viceuersa. (2} Working rules for obtaining an optimal solution to the
primal (dual) problem from that of the dual (primal) : Suppose we have
already found an optimal solution to the dual (primal) problem by simplex
method. Rule I. If the primal variable corresponds to a slack starting
variable in the dual problem, then its optimal value is directly given by the
coefficient of the slack variable with changed sign, in the C} row of the
optimal dual simplex table and vice-versa . Rule FI. If the primal variable
corresponds to an artificial variable in the dual problem, then its optimal
value is directly given by the coefficient of the artificial variable, with
changed sign, in the C; row of the optimal dual simplex table, after deleting
the constant M and vice-versa. On the other hand, if the primal has an
unbounded solution, then the dual problem will not have a feasible solution
and vice-versa . Now we shall workout two examples to demonstrate the
primal dual relationships. Example 34.24. Construct the dual of the
follouinp problem and solve both the primul and the dual : Maximize Z =
2x} + r.2, subject to + 2.v;{ < 2 Xj tijS 4, xt < .% X j, X, > 0 . < Rnhtuh.
2005) Solution. Using the primal problem. Since only two variables are
involved, it is convenient to solve the problem graphically. In the a r jc,,-
plane, the five constraints show that the point (jft, .Vj) lies within the
shaded region OARCD of Fig. 34.12. Values of the objective function Z =
2xx + x2 at these corners are Z( 0) = 0, Z(A) = 6. Z(B) = 7. Z(C) - 6 and
ZUJ) - L. Hence the optimal solution is jCj = 3, x„ = 1 and max. iZ) = 7.
Solution. Using the dual problem. The dual problem of the given primal is :
Fig. 34.12
1092 Higher Engineering Mathematics Mini raize W - 2yx + Ay.2
+ 3,y;i subject to - y, + y2 + ,Va ^ 2, 2.Vj + .y2 > 1 , yv y2 > 0. Step 1,
Express the problem in the standard form. Introducing the slack and the
artificial variables, the dual problem in the standard Form is Max. W" - —
2y, — Ay 2 - 3y3 + Os, + 0s2 — MA1 — MA t subject to - y, + y,2 + y;i - s,
+ 0ss + A , + QA^, = 2, 2y t + y2 + 0y3 + Osj - s2 + QA, + A2 = 1 Step 2.
Find an initial basic feasible solution. Setting the nott-basic Variables y t,y2,
y3, s,, s2, each equal to zero, we get the initial basic feasible solution = y3 =
Si = sa = 0 (non-basic); A i _ = 1. (basic) Initial simplex table is CJ — 2 -4 -
a 0 0 - Af - Af cB Basis at >r2 ■Vs si jfH A, a2 b 0 - M A, -1 1 1 - 1 0 1 0 2
m -M A, 2 (i) 0 0 - 1 0 1 J in*- M - m -Af Af M -M -Af -3Af M -2 2M — 4
r A/ - 3 -M -M 0 0 As C is positive under some columns, the initial solution
is not optimal. Step 3. Iterate towards an optimal solution. ft) Introduce v2
and drop Aa. Then the new simplex table is c; -2 — 4 -3 0 0 - Af -Af
BasisAT s2 ^1 ^2 b 0 -M A, -3 0 w -1 1 I - 1 1 1/l4— -4 y2 2 1 0 0 - ] 0 1 1
1/U 3 M - 8 -4 -Af Af 4 - Af - Af Af — 4 - Af-4 8 - 3Af 0 Af-3 T -Af Af - 4
0 4 - 2Af As C is positive under some columns, this solution is not optimal.
(ii) Now introduce^ and drop Ay Then the revised simplex table is - 2 -4 —
3 0 0 -Af - Af Cft Basis ■?2 >3 si Sr, Aa b -3 y3 -3 0 I -1 1 1 -1 1 -4 y2 2 I 0
0 -1 0 1 1 Z, 1 — 4 -3 3 1 -3 - 1 -7 CJ -3 0 0 - 3 3 - Af l - Af As ail Cj < 0,
the optimal solution is attained. Thus an optimal solution to the dual
problem is yi = 0, - l,y3 = 1, Min. ^ = -Max. (W‘) = 7. To derive the optimal
basic feasible solution to the primal problem, we note that the primal
variables X,, x.-, correspond to the artificial starting dual variables A,, A,,
respectively. In the final simplex table of the dual problem, Cj
corresponding to At, and A.-, are 3 and 1 respectively after ignoring M.
Thus by rule II, we get opt x, - 3 and opt. x2 - 1.
1093 Linear Programming Hence an optimal basic feasible

solution to the given primal is xt = 3, xz = 1 ; max. Z = 7. Obs, The validity
of the duality theorem is therefore, cheeked since max. Z = min. IV = 7
from both the methods. Example 34.25. Using duality solve the following
problem : Minimise Z - 0. 7x2 + 0.5x2 subject to Xj > 4, x3 > 6, Xj + 2xL,
> 20. 2xl + x3 2 IS. xv x2> 0. ( V. T. V., 2004) Solution. The dual of the
given prnhlem is Max. W = 4.Vj + 6y2 + 20y3 + I8y4, subject to y1 + y3 +
2 y4< 0.7 ,y2 + 2y3 + y4 < 0.5(ylry2ty3>y4 £ 0. Step 1. Express the
problem in the standard form . Introducing slack variables, the dual problem
in the standard form becomes Max. W = 4y, + 6 y2 + 20y3 + 18y4 + 0st +
0s2, subject to yL + 0y2 + ya + 2y4 + $, + 0s2 - 0.7, QVi +y2 + ^'a +3'4 +
0si +sz = O.S(yj,yjj,y3,y4 £ 0. Step 2, Find an initial husic feasible solution.
Setting non-baaic variables y1,y2,y3,y1 each equal to zero, the basic
solution is yj =y2 =y3 = y4 = 0 (non-baaic) ; s, = 0.7, s2 = 0.5 (basic) Since
the basic variables Sj. s2 > 0, the initial basic solution is feasible and rum-
degenerate. Initial simplex table is 4 6 20 18 0 0 Cft Rusts y% ?z ^3 y* si
S2 b 0 0 i 0 1 2 1 0 0.7 0.7/1 0 sz D J (2) i 0 1 0.5 0.5/2eh 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c; 4
6 20 IS 0 0 T As C, is positive in some columns, the initial basic solution is
not optimal. Step 3. Iterate towards an optimal solution. ii) Introduce y3 and
drop s2. Then the new simplex table is 4 6 20 18 0 0 Basis sl *2 6 0 0 3^ 1 -
1/2 0 (3/2) 1 - 1/2 9/20 3/10*y3 0 1/2 1 ] 2 0 1/2 1/4 1/2 0 10 20 10 0 10 5 4
-4 0 8 0 - 10 T As Cj, is positive under some of the columns, this solution is
not optimal, (ri) Introduce y4 and drop Sj. Then the revised simplex table is
4 6 20 18 0 0 Basis •Vi >3 y* si 42 b 18 2/8 - 1/3 0 i 2/3 - 1/3 3/10 20 y-s -
1/3 2/3 1 n - 1/3 m 1/10 Zj 16/3 22/3 20 18 16/3 2 2/3 74/10 cj -4/3 -4/3 0 0
- 16/13 -22/3
1094 MhGHEH ENGIIMEEHhNG ITS An til I Cj < 0, thiN tuble
pivt+s th«? optimal solution. Thus the optimal basic feasible solution is.y{
= 0,.y2 = 0, vg = 20, .y,, - 18, max. W = 7.4 Step 4 , Derive optimal solution
to the primal. Wo note that the primal variables correspond to the slack
starting dual variables st respectively. In the final simplex talkie of the dual
problem, C- values corresponding to Sj and s2 are - 16/3 and - 22/3
respectively. Thus, by rule 1, we conclude that opt. Xj = 16/3 and opt. x2 =
22/3, Hence an optimal basic feasible solution to the given primal is jrt -
16/3, x2 = 22/3; min. Z - 7.4, Ob*. To check the validity of l.he duality
theorem, the student is advised to solve the given L P.P. directly hy simplex
method and see that min. Z = max. W - 7,4. PROBLEMS 34.7 thing duality
solve the following problems (1 - 4 i ; 1* Minimize Z « 2x} + 9x3 + Subject
to -t- ixt 4 2x5 > 5, 3x, 4- >1 snd rtT x2 > 0 U/JV.T 1 . m2(jQt i 2-
Maximize Z '= 2x] + x2r subject to xy + 2x£ < U)T xt + S 6, \\L - x2 U 2, ,r,
- 2.x. J * lrxir x 5-0, (Atulhro M. Terh i 3- Maximize Z = 4 2x2, subject lo
■*l + xt a 1. *i * < 7. *, + 2** £ 10, x2 < 3. *t> x„ 2 0. 4. Maximize Z = &t,
+ 2x± + 5je? subject to Jtj + 2ya + ,v3 s 430, tfxt + 2,va s 460, + 4.v2 < 420,
x2, x3 > 0 34,13 (1) DUAL SIMPLEX METHOD In 5 34, 9t wc have seen
that a set of basic variables giving a feasible solution can be found by
introducing artificial variables and using M-methnd or Two phase method.
Using the primal-dual relationships For a problem, we have another method
(known as Dual simplex method) for finding an initial feasible solution.
Whereas the regular simplex method starts with a basic feasible I but nun-
optimal) solution and works towards optimality, the dual simplex method
starts with a basic unfeasible (but optimal) solution and works towards
feasibility. The dual simplex method is quite similar to the regular simplex
method, the only difference lies in the criterion used for selecting the
incoming and outgoing variables. In the dual simplex method, we first
determine the outgoing variable and then the incoming variable w hile in
the case of regular simplex method reverse is done, (2s Working procedure
for dual simplex method : Step 1. (i) Convert the problem to maximization
form, if it is not so. (ii) Convert (>) type constraints* if any to ( 0, then
optimal basic feasible solution has been attained, (6 ) If all C < 0 and at
least one b( < 0, then go to step 4. (r) If any S 0, the method fails. Step 4 *
Mark the outgoing variable. Select the row that contains the most negative
ft-, This will be the key row and the corresponding basic variable is the
outgoing variable. Step 5. Test the natur e of hey row elements : ia) tf at!
these elements are > 0, the problem does not have a feasible solution. (ft) If
at least one element < 0* find the ratios of the corresponding elements of
C^row to these elements. Choose the smallest of these ratios . The
corresponding column is the key column and the associated variable is the
incoming variable.
109S Linear Programming Step 6. Iterate towards optimal
feasible solution. Make the key element unity. Perform row operations us in
the regular simplex method and repeat iterations until either an optimal
feasible solution is attained or there is an indication of non-existence of a
feasible solution. Example 34.26. Using dual simplex method : maximise -
3x t - 2xs, subject to .Xj + x.2> 1, X) + x„ < 7, Xj + 2xs £ 10 1 x.2 > d, .yt >
0 , xg 2 0. ( Munihtiit 2004} Solution. Consists of the following steps : Step
1 , O’) Convert the first and third constraints into ( O S4 H) 0 0 0 1 2 I - 2
*- 1 -2 0 0 1 Q - to Cj = Cj-Zj T 0 0 0 - 1 0
T096 Higher Engineering Mathematics Since all C values are < 0

and ft4 = - 2, this solution is optima! but infeasible. We therefore proceed
further. f/i) Mark the outgoing variable. Since h4 is negative, the fourth row
is the key row and -s4 is the outgoing variable. (Hi) Calculate ratios of
elements in Cj-row to the corresponding negative elements of the key row.
This ratios is 2/ ^ =4 (neglecting other ratios corresponding to + ve or 0
elements nf key row). i j-column is the key column and y - — J is the key
element, iiu) Drop and introduce x} with its associated value - 3 under the
cB column. Convert the key element to unity and make all other elements
of the key column zero. Then the third solution is given by the table below :
-3 - 2 0 0 0 0 CR Basis ■vi xz si aa S3 *« h 0 si 0 0 1 0 ~ 1 B 0 s2 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 -2 x. 0 1 D 0 0 i 3 -3 xt 1 0 0 0 - 10 -2 4 Z, -3 -2 0 0 3 4 -18 C: 0 0 0 0
— 3 - 4 J Since all values are < 0 and all 6*s are > 0, therefore this solution
ia optimal and feasible. Thus the optimal solution is xt = 4t x.2 - 3 and
Zmvx = - 18, Example 34.27, Using dual simplex method* solve the
fallowing problem : Minimize Z = 2x2 + 2xs + 4x3 subject to 2x j + 3x2 +
5x^ 2; 2, 3xf + + 7x3 < 3r x1 + 4x2 + &x3 < 5, x}> > 0_ ( Kurukshctra „
2009 ; Kerala, 2005) Solution, Consists of the fol lowing steps : Step L (i)
Convert the given problem to maximization form by writing Maximize Z'
— — 2x: — 2x2 - 4x^ (H ) Convert the first constraint i?ito {
Linear Programming 1097 Step 3. Tent nature of C . Since all Cf
values arc < 0 antt />, = - 2, the initial solution is optimal but infeasible.
Step 4. Mark the outgoing variable. Since hx < 0, the first row is the key
row and is the outgoing variable. Step 5. Calculate the ratio of elements of
C -row to the corresponding negative elements of the key row. These ratios
are - 2/- 2 = 1, — 21- 3 = 0,67, - 4/- 5 = 0.8. Since 0,67 is the smallest ratio,
column is the key column and f- 3} is the key element. Step 6. Iterate,
toward?; optimal feasible solution. Drop s, and introduce x2 with its
associated value - 2 under cB column Then the revised dual simplex table is
0 -2 -2 — 4 0 0 0 '’ft Basis x2 *a S2 b -2 x2 2/3 1 5/3 - 1/3 0 0 2/3 0 S2 7/3
0 16/3 1/3 1 0 7/3 0 - CI/3 0 -2/3 4/3 0 1 7/3 -4/3 -2 - 10/3 2/3 D 0 -4/3 -2/3
0 -2/3 - 2/3 0 0 Since all < 0 and all b?s are > 0, this solution is optimal and
feasible. Thus the optimal solution is xt = 0,xs = 2/3, jra = 0 and max. Z' = -
4/3 i.e., min. Z - 4/3. 34.14 (1) TRANSPORTATION PROBLEM This is a
special class of linear programming problems in which the objective is to
transport a single commodity from various origins to different destinations
at a minimum cost. (2) Formulation of a transportation problem. There are
m plant locations (origins) and n distribution centres (destinations). The
production rapacity of the ith plant is at and the number of units required at
the jth destination is hf- The transportation cost of one unit from the ith
plant to the jth destination is c . Our objective is to determine the number of
units to be transported from the ith plant to jth destination so that the total
transportation cost is minimum. Let xtj be the number of units shipped from
ith plant to jth destination, then the general transportation problem is : m it
Minimize Z - c^xtJ i=i j=i
1098 Higher Engineering Mathematics subject to the constraints
x(1 1- x(2 + ... + Jff(r = af, for /‘th origin (i = 1, 2, ... m > jCjj + x2j + ... +
xmj ~ bjT for ,/t h destination (j - 1,2, ... n) xoDef, 1* The two sets of
constraint will be consistent if m n l>=x hj r=i j- i which is the condition for
a transportation problem to have a feasible solution. Problems satisfying
this condition are called balanced transportation problems . 2, A feasible
solution to a transportation problem is said to be a basic feasible solution if
it contains at the most Ts are called rim requirements. The feasibility of a
solution can he verified by summing the values of x}j along the rows and
down the columns. Ohs* l. The special features of a transportation problem
are that til the coefficients of alt xt. in the constraints are unity, and fill the
total supply Iat = LntaJ demand Obs, 2. The objective function and the
constraints being all linear, the problem can be solved be simplex method.
Hut the number of variables being large, there will be too many
calculations. However, the coefficients oT all xif in the constrain U being
unity, wo ran look for some technique which would be simpler than the
simplex method. 34,15 WORKING PROCEDURE FOR
TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS Step J. Construct transportation table.
Express the supply from the origins ut, demand at destinations 6and the unit
shipping cost c;j in the form of a matrix, know as transportation table. If the
supply and demand are eq ual, the problem is balanced. Step 2. Find the
initial basic feasible solution. We find an initial allocation which satisfies
the demand at each project site without violating the capacities of the plants
(origins) and also meeting the non -negativity
Linear Programming 1099 restrictions. There are several methods
for initial allocations^, North-West corner rule, Row minima method. Least
cost method, Vogel's approximation method, The Vogel's approximation
method (VAM) takes into account not only the feast cost r hut also the costs
that just exceed the least cost c-j and therefore yields a better initial solution
than obtained from other methods. As such we shall confine ourselves to
VAM only which consists of the following steps : it) Display the difference
between the least and the next to least costs in each row, by enclosing them
in brackets to the right of the row. Similarly display the differences for each
column within brackets below that column. (ii) Identify the row nr column
with the largest difference among all the rows and columns and allocate as
much as possible under the rim requirements, to thp lowest cost cell in that
row or column. In case of n tie allocate to the cell associated with the lower
cost. If the greatest difference corresponds to ith row and c-j is the lowest
cost in the ith row\ allocate as much as possible £*e*, min (afr bj) in the
(irj%h cell and cross off the ith row or the./th column. {Hi) Recalculate the
row and column differences for the reduced table ant! go to the previous
step. (w) Repeat the procedure till all the rim requirements are satisfied.
Note the solution in the upper left corner small squares of the baste cells*
Step 3. Apply optimality check In the above solution, the number tif
allocations must be in + n - 1\ otherwise the basic solution degenerates.
Now to test for optimality1 we apply the modified distribution ( MQDIi
method and examine each unoccupied cell to determine whether making an
allocation in it reduces the total transportation cost and then repeat this
procedure until lowest possible transportation cost is obtained. This method
consists of the following steps i (i) Note the numbers ut along the left, and u
along the top of the cost matrix such that their sums equal to the original
costs of occupied cells Le. , solve the equations \ut + ir ■= rrj| starting
initially with some Uj = 0. (ii) Compute the net evaluations wif = u- + e - ctj
fur all the empty cells and enter them in upper right hand corners of the
corresponding cells. Uii\ Examine the sign of each wt/. If all wtj < 0, then
the current basic feasible solution is optimal. If even one wtj > 0, this
solution is not optimal and we proceed further. Stef) 4. Iterate towards
optimal solution (i) Choose the unoccupied cell with the largest and mark f)
in it. (ii) Draw a closed path consisting of horizontal and vertical lines
beginning and ending at B-cell and having its other comers at the allocated
cells. (iii) Add and subtract G alternately to and from the transition cells of
the loop subject to rim requirements. Assign a maximum value to 9 so that
one basic variable becomes zero and the other basic variables remain non-
negative. Now the basic cell whose allocation has been reduced to zero
leaves the basis. Step 5. Return to step 3 and repeat the process until an
optimal basic feasible solution ts obtained. Example 34*28. Solve the
following transportation pnaifaem : Ik'ntiimtion A Ii C D i 21 16 25 13 11
Source // 17 IS 14 23 13 AeciXnbility III 33 27 IS 41 W Requirement 6 10
12 15 ■13 Solution, Consists of the following steps : Step 1, Transportation
table. Here the total availability and the total requirement being the same
i.e. 43, the problem is balanced.
1100 Higher Engineering Mathematics Step 2. Find the. initial
basic feasible solution. Following VAM, the differences between the
smallest and next to the smallest, costs in each row and ouch column are
computed and displayed within brackets against live respective rows and
columns (Table 1). The largest of these differences is ( 10) which is
associated with the fourth col until. Table 2 11(3) 13(3) 19(9) 6 10 12 A +
(lft) (9) (4) (18) Since (= 13) is the minimum cost, wc allocate = min (11,
15) = 11. This exhausts the availability of first row and therefore we cross
it. 17 18 14 3 23 32 27 IS 41 13(3) 1919) Table 1 21 J6 25 nr 13 17 18 14
23 32 27 ; 18 41 6 10 12 15 (4) (2) (4) (10) Table 3 Table 4 JU 17 18 14
9(3) JJ 18 14 32 27 18 19(9) 27 18 6 in 12 10 12 (15) (9) (4) (9) (4) 3(4)
19(9) Table 5 7 27 12 18 19 7 12 + The row and column differences are
now computed for reduced table 2 and displayed within brackets. The
largest of these is (18) which is against the fourth column. Since cH (= 23)
is the minimum cost, we allocate x14 = min (13, 4) = 4. This exhausts the
availability of fourth column which we cross off. Proceeding in this way,
the subsequent reduced transportation tables and differences for the
remaining rows and columns are shown in Tables 3, 4 and 5. Finally the
initial basic feasible solution is as shown in Table 6. Table 6 21 16 25 11 13
6 17 3 18 14 3T 23 32 jT 27 18 41 Table 7 i}$ i 17 18 9 23 10 (-) (-) (-) nr
21 16 25 13 0 ZT A r (-) aT 17 18 14 23 9 (-1 JT nr (-) 32 27 18 41 Step 3.
Apply optimality chock As the number of allocations = m + n — 1 (i.e.,8),
we can apply MODI method. ((') We have u2 + Oj = 17, u2 + o2 = 18, u 3 +
= 27 u3 + = 18, u , + - 13, u2 + v4 = 23 Let u2 - 0, then o., = 17, v2 = 18, u3
- 9, u3 = 9, o4 = 23, a, = - 10. (if) Net evaluations wif = (w. + Vj) - ci} for
all empty cells are wn - — 14, Uf1£ = - 8, u>l3 = - 26, u)23 = - 5, u>3| = -
6, w34 = - 9. (iff) Since all the net evaluations are negative, the current
solution is optimal. Hence the optimal allocation is given by Xl4 ~ 1 1 > -
*:21 ~ -'■22 — ^24 = -**32 _ 7 an
Linear Programming 1101 Example 34-29* -4 company has three
cement fact mien located in cities 1, 2, 3 which supply cement to four
projects located in towns lc2, 3, 4 . Each plant can supply 6. 1, 10 truck
loads of cement daily respectively and the daily cement rptfuiifments of the
projects are respectively 7. 5, 3. 2 truck loads. The transportation costs per
truck la 0. Now the basic cel 1 whose allocation has been reduced to zero
leaves the basis. This gives the second basic feasible solution (Table 5).
1102 Higher Engineering Mathematics .■. Total transportation
cost of this revised solution. -?(1m2 + 6k3 + 1k6 + 6x6 + 2m 15 + 2x9)
times 100 = ? 10,100. (5) Optimality check , As the number of allocations in
table 5 ■= m + n - l (r.e. , 6), we can apply MODI method. We compute the
net evaluations which are shown in Table 6. Since the cell (1, 3) has a
positive value, the second basic feasible solution is not optimal. Second
iteration : (a) Next basic feasible solution. In the second basic feasible
solution introduce the cell (1, 3) taking 0 = 1 and drop the cell (1,1) giving
Table 7, Thus we obtain the third basic feasible solution (Table 8), Table 8 2
5 3 1 li 7 i 0 i 1 6 1 7 6 8 i 15 2 9 Table 9 i 3 ii 5 i-i 5 1 (-) 0 2 3 11 7 (-> (->
i (-> -5 1 0 6 1 7 (-) I 2 4 5 8 15 y (6) Optimality Check, As the number of
allocations in Table 8 = m + n - 1 ii.e. , 6), we can apply MODI method. We
compute the net evaluations which are shown in Table 9. Since all the net
evaluations are < 0, this basic feasible solution is optimal. Thus the optimal
transportation policy is as shown in Table 9 and the optimal transportation
cost = ? 15 x 3 + 1 x 11 + 1 x 6 + 7 x 5 + I x 15 + 2 x 91 times 100 = ?
10,000. 34.16 DEGENERACY IN TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS
When the number of basic cells in a non-transportation table, is less than ‘m
+ a - f the basic solution degenerates. To remove the degeneracy, we assign
a small positive value f to as many zero-valued variables as may be
necessary to complete ‘in + n - 1T basic variables. The cells containing e
are then treated like other basic cells and the problem is solved in the usual
way. The ts are kept till the optimum solution is attained. Then we let each c
0.
Linear Programming 1103 Example 34,30. Sold' the following
transportation prtiblcm Tn 9 12 9 6 9 10 5 From 7 3 7 7 5 5 8 6 5 9 11 3 11
2 6 S 11 2 2 10 9 4 4 8 2 4 2 22 Solution, Consists of the following stops ;
Step /. Transporution table. The total supply and total demand being equal,
the transportation problem is balanced. Step 2. Find the initial basic feasible
solution. Using VAM, the initial basic feasible solution is as shown in Table
1. Step 3. Apply optimality check. Since the number of basic cells is 8
which is less than m + n - 1 - 9, the basic solution degenerates, 1 n order to
complete the basis and thereby remove degeneracy, we require only one
more positive basic variable. We select the variable x23 and allocate a small
positive quantity e to the cell (2, 3), 5 6 + f. = 6 2 9 Wo now compute the
net evaluations wtj - ( u . + v}) - c^ which are exhibited in Table 2, Since all
the net evaluations ore < 0, the current solutions is optimal. Hence the
optimal allocation is jr13 = 5, x^2 = 4, jc3G = 2, x3l = 1( x.j3 = 1, *4] = 3,
x4i = 2 and ,r45 = 4. The minimum (optimal) transportation cost = 5x9 + 4
x3+ex7+2x5+lx6+lx9+3x6+2x2+4x2 = 112 + 7r = ? 112 as e -» 0. Table 1 9
12 5 9 6 9 10 7 . 4 1 3 £ 7 7 5 2 5 1 6 5 1 9 11 3 11 3 6 8 n 2 2 4 2 10 4 4
6+e=6 2 4 2 + Table 2
1104 Higher Engineering Mathematics PROBLEMS 34.9 I.

Obtain an initial basic feasible solution to the following transportation
problem ‘ To + From D E ff G 11 13 IT 14 250 16 18 14 10 300 21 24 13 i§
400 200 225 275 260 2_ Solve the ibl lowing transportation problem : >sj
Suppliers Consumers \ A B C Available i 6 8 4 14 a 4 9 ft 12 in 1 2 6 5
Itequired 6 10 15 31 3* Consider four bases of operation b Bi and three
targets f!\ The tons of bombs per aircraft from any base that can be
delivered td any target are given in the following table : \T, 1 2 3 8 6 r» I 2 e
6 6 3 10 8 4 4 8 6 4 The daily sortie capability of each of the four bases is
150 sorties per day The daily requirement in sorties cw&t mu I; target js
2U0, Find the allocation of sorties tom each base to each target which
maximizes the iota! tonnage over aJJ the three targets. 4, A company has
factories which supply warehouses at Wr Wa and W a. Weekly factory
capacities, weekly warehouse requirements and unit shipping costs (in
rupees), are as follows : F attunes Warehouses Supply wy *3 16 20 12 200 ?
■> 14 6 18 160 r* 26 24 16 90 Demand 180 120 150 450 Determine the
optimal distribution for this company to minimum shipping com is. 5. A
company is spending f 1,000 on transportation of its units from plants to
four distribution centres. The supply and demand of units, with unit cost of
transportation are given below : Plant $ Distribution ventres Avmlahdiiies
*>> lh t>4 19 30 r.o 12 7 70 30 40 60 10 r* 40 10 60 20 18 Requlfvmen fs 5
6 7 15 What can be the maximum saving by optimal scheduling.
Line** Programming 1105 t£, A departmental store wishes to

stock the following quantities of a popular product in three types of
containers : Container typ& : ■ I 2 3 Quantity : 17D 2!X> ISO Tenders lire
submitted by four dealers who undertake to supply not more than the
quantities shown below : Dealer ; 1 2 3 4 Qmmij& ;■ 150 160 110 130 The
store estimates that profit per unit will vary with the dealer as shown below
: Dealers — * Container type 1 l 2 3 4 i 8 5 6 3 2 6 11 5 10 3 3 8 7 0 Find
the maximum profit of the store 7, Obtain an optimum basic feasible
solution to the firi Lowing transportation problem t To 7 3 4 From 2 i 3 <5 3
4 6 4 i Demand 5 + Available H A company has three plants at locations Ar
B and C which supply to warehouses located as D, Et Ft G and H . Monthly
plant capacities are 800, 500 and 900 units respectively. Monthly
warehouse requirement# are 400* 400, 500t 400 and 800 units respectively.
Unit trunsportatiun costs in rupees are given below : To D E F G H A 3 8 (i
6 3 From B 4 7 7 6 6 C S 4 6 6 3 Determine an optimum distribution for the
company in order to minimize the total transportation cosl 34,17 <1>
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM An assignment problem is a special type of
transportation problem in which the objective is to assign a number of
origins to an equal number of destinations at a minimum cost (or maximum
profit), (2) Formulation of an assignment problem. There ore n new
machines Ml (i = 1, 2, ... n) which are to he installed in a machine shop.
There are n vacant spaces Sj (j - 1, 2, ... n) available, The cost of installing
the machine Mi at space Sj is ctj rupees. Let us formulate the problem of
assigning machines to spaces so ns to minimize the overall cost . Let xfj be
the assignment of machine Af to space S} i.e., let xzj be a variable such that
[ 1, if ith machine is installed at jth space Xb j 0, otherwise Since one
machine can only be installed at each space, we have jt-, + af-2 + ... + = 1,
for machine Af( {i = 1, 2 . n ) XH + x% + " +xnj~ X’ for sPace sj U = 1. 2,
... n) Also the total installation cost is ^ ^ i-i >- 1 C I
1106 Higher Engineer ng Mathematics TTius /Ae uss^g/imeN/
proWc/?i < an he stated as follows : Determine xvj > 0 ( j = lt 2, M, n) so m
to n n minimize Z = ^ ^ ^ ^ i=i /-i subject to the constraints ^ “ lTj = iB 2, ...
n and ^ = 1, i - 1, 2, ... n. i=l ;»I This problem is explicitly represented by
the following n x n cost, matrix : Machines Spaces Si s2 s* — S„ "l cu C12
c13 Ma C21 p22 r23 ... Cm2ti m3 r31 C32 C33 C$n Mn <>1 C«2 CnS ^nn
Ohs. This alignment problem constitutes n ! possible ways of mbUtlliag n
machines at n spacer. If wt enumoran id] c hem n ! alternatives and evaluate
the cost of each one of Lhem and select the one with the minimum cost, the
problem would be solved Hut Lhta method would be veiy slow and lime
ccifisummg, even for small value of it and hence il. Ib not at ail suitable.
However* n much more efficient method of solving such problems is
available. This is the Hungarian method for solution u I' assignment
problems which we describe below. 34.18 WORKING PROCEDURE TO
SOLVE AN ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM Step 1. Reduce the matrix.
Subtract the smallest element of each row (of the given cost matrix) from
all elements of that row. See if each row contains at least one zero. If not,
subtract the smallest element of each column (not containing zero) from all
the elements of that column. This gives the reduced matrix. Step 2. Assign
ike zeros («) Examine rows (of the reduced matrix) successively until a
row* with exactly one unmarked zero is found. Make an assignment to this
single zero by encircling it. Cross all other zeros in the column of this
encircled zero, as these will not be considered for any future assignment.
Continue in this way until all the rows have been examined. (b) Now
examine columns successively until a column with exactly one unmarked
zero is found. Encircle this zero and make an assignment there. Then cross
any other zero in its row. Continue in this way until all the columns have
been examined. In case, some rows or columns contain mur than one
unmarked zeros, encircle any unmarked zero arbitrarily and cross all other
zeros in its row or column, Proceed in this way, till no zero is left
unmarked. Step 3. Apply optimality check. Repeat step 2 (a) and (b ! until
one of the following occurs : (i) If no row or mi column is without
assignment (encircled zero), then the current assignment is optimal. (ii ) If
there is some row and/or column without an assignment, then the current
assignment is not optimal and we go to next step. Step 4. Find minimum
number of lines crossing all zeros. (a) Tick t’O the rows which do not have
assignments. ib) Tick W) the columns (not already marked) which have
zeros in the ticked row. (e) Tick ('O the rows (not already marked) which
have assignments in ticked columns. Repeat (6) and (c) until no more
marking is required. id) Draw lines through all unticked rows and ticked
columns. If the number of these lines is equal to the order of the matrix then
it is an optimal solution otherwise not.
Linear Programming 1107 Step 5. Iterate towards optimal
solution. Select the smallest element and subtract it from all uncovered
elements. Add this smallest element to every element lying at the
intersection of two lines. The resulting matrix is the second basic feasible
solution. Step 6. Go to step 2 and repeat the procedure until the optimal
solution is attained. Example 34*31 .Four jobs are to be done on four
different machines. The cost (in rupees ) of producing ith job on the jth
machine is given below : Machines Hx M,, M, Ji 15 n 13 15 Jz 17 12 12 13
Jobs •h 14 15 10 14 *4 16 13 11 17 Assign the jobs to different machines so
as to minimize the total cost . Solution. Consists of the following steps :
Step 1. Reduce the matrix . Subtract the smallest element 11 of row 1 from
all its elements. Similarly subtract 12, 10 and 11 from rows 2, 3 and 4
respectively. The resulting matrix is as shown in Table 1 Columns 1 and 4
do not have any zero element. Subtract the smallest element 4 of Col. 1
from all its elements and element 1 from all elements of Col. 4. The reduced
matrix is as given in Table 1. Table 1 Table 2 m2 m3 Mi Ms Ma K 4 0 2 4 Ji
0 ® 2 3 5 0 0 i 1 X X ® 4 5 0 4 ® 5 X 3 6 2 0 6 ■V 1 2 ® 5 Step 2. Assign
the zeros. Row 4 has a single unmarked zero in Col. 3. Encircle it and cross
all other zeros in Col. 3. Row 3 has a single unmarked zero in Col. 1.
Encircle it and cross the other zero in col. 1. Row 1 has a single unmarked
zero in Col. 2. Encircle it and cross the other zero in Col. 2. Finally row 2
has a single unmarked zero in Col. 4. Encircle it (Table 2). Step 3. Apply
optimality check. Since we have one encircled zero in each row and in each
column, this gives the optimal solution. The optimal assignment policy is
Job 1 to machine 2, Job 2 to machine 4, Job 3 to machine 1, Job 4 to
machine 3, and the minimum assignment cost = ? (11 + 13+14 + 11) = ? 49.
Example 34.32. A marketing manager has 5 salesmen and 5 sales districts.
Considering the capabilities of the salesmen and the nature nf districts, the
marketing manager estimates that sales per month tin hundred rupees ) for
each salesman, in each district would be as follows : Sab * districts A B C D
E 1 32 38 40 28 40 2 40 24 28 21 36 Salesman 3 41 27 33 30 37 4 22 33 41
30 30 S 29 33 40 35 39 Find the assignment of salesmen to districts that
will result in maximum sales. (Madras, 2000)
1108 Higher EsGirirTEsiNG MumEPMricS Solution. Consists of
the following steps : Step I, Reduce the matrix. Convert the given
maximization problem into a minimization problem, by making all the
profits negative, since max, Z = min. { Z). Then subtract the smallest
element of each row from the elements oft hat row. Now subtract the
smallest element of each col. (not containing zero) from the elements of that
column. This gives the reduced matrix (Table 1). Table 1 Table 2 1 - 12 t —
o - 0 “ - 7 — ■ ■“ 0 “ 1 - 1 1 0 10 e 10 0 1 0 1 8 4 2 r ■ 0 i t - 23 “ 1 — — 0
— : — 0 — i - 5 — - 15 — i — 5 — ... q .... — 0 — i ... i .. i j - 8 — * -" —
IK — — 7 — 1 14 12 14 4 12 8 6 4 -19 — 1 — — H — - 5 — - - 11— 5
*H -— JBC— ... j .. Step 2 „ Assign the zeros. Rows 2 and 3 have each a
single unmarked zero in Col. 1. Encircle these. Columns 2 and 5 have each
a single unmarked zero in row 1 , Encircle these and cross the zero in row
1. Columns 3 and 4 have each unmarked zeros. Encircle the zeros in each of
the rows 4 and 5 as shown in Table 1 and cross other zeros. Step 3. Apply
optimality check. As col. 4 is without assignment, this solution is not
optimal. Therefore we go to next step. Step 4. Find minimum n u mber of
lines crossing all zeros. Draw the least number of horizontal and vertical
(dotted! lines which cover alt the zeros. Since there are four dotted lines
which are less than the order of the coat matrix (= 5), we got to step 5. Step
5. Iterate, towards optimal solution. Select the smallest element in the Table
1, not covered by the dotted lines. Such an element is 4 which lies at two
different positions. Selecting the elements that lies at position (3, 5)
arbitrarily, subtract it from all the uncovered elements of the cost matrix
(Table 1) and add the same to the elements lying at the intersection of two
dotted lines. Now draw more minimum number of dotted lines so as to
cover the new zero. Here we draw such a line in Col. 5 (Table 2). Table 3 A
B C D E i © X 2 © X 3 X ® 4 © X 5 X Now, since the number of dotted
lines is equal to the order for the cost matrix, the optimal solution is
attained. Finally, to determine this optimal assignment, we consider only the
zero elements (Table 3) : (t) Examine successively the rows with exactly
one zero. There is no such row. (u) Examine successively the columns with
exactly one zero. Col, 2 has one zero, encircle it and cross all zeros of row
1. (£ii) Encircle arbitrarily the zero in position (2, 1) and cross all zeros in
row 2 and Col. 1. Then encircle the unmarked zero in row 3. Now encircle
arbitrarily the zero in position (4, 3) and cross all zeros in row 4 and Col. 3.
Finally encircle the remaining unmarked zero in row 5, Now each row and
each column has one encircled zero, therefore the optimal assignment
policy is : Salesman 1 to district B , 2 to A, 3 to E, 4 to C and 5 to D. Hence
the maximum sales - ? (33 + 40 + 37 + 41 + 35) x 100 ■ ? 19,100.
Linear Programming 1109 PROBLEMS 34.10 1. A firm plans to

begin production of t hree new products on its three plants, The unit cost of
producing i at plant j is as Riven below. Find the assignment that minimizes
the total unit coaL Plant Product 1 2 3 1 10 3 12 2 13 3 14 3 fi 4 2 2. Solve
the following assignment problem : 1 2 3 i >1 10 12 19 n fl 5 10 7 8 C 12
14 13 n D 8 15 it 9 1 A machine tonl company decides to make four sub-
assemblies through four contractors. Each contractor is in receive only one
sub-aesambly. The cost of each sub-assembly is determined by the bids
submitted by each contractor and is shown in table below (in hundreds of
rupees). Assign different assemblies to contractors so iis to minimize the
hohfitl cost. Contractor A B C ft I II Sub-ns.wm bly III IV h Four professors
are each capable of teaching any one of the four different courses. Class
prepaid uun^ time in hour* for different topics varied from pro fif^Sor to
professor mnd is given in the table below. Each professor assigned only one
course. Find the assignment policy schedule so as to minimize the total
course preparation time for all courses. IB 13 14 17 It 12 1G 13 IS 12 10 n
15 17 14 16 Prof L.P. Queuing Theory Dynamic Programming Regression
analysis A 2 10 i> 7 B IS 4 14 6 C 13 14 16 11 D 3 If. 13 b 5. Consider the
problem of assigning four working labour units to four jobs. The
assignment costs in thousands of rupees are given by the following matrix.
Lftbtittr unit Job i I II /// IV 42 35 28 21 l2 30 25 20 16 h 30 26 20 15 ^4 24
20 16 12 Find the optimal assignment b. A company hits six jobs io be
processed by six mechanics. The fo II owing, in hie gives rhe rei urn in
rupees when t he rth job iss assigned to the/ih mechanic. How should the
jobs be assigned in the mechanic# so as in maximize the over nil return ?
1110 Higher Engineering Mathematics Mechanic 1” + ’ *j Job i i

// m IV V VI 1 9 22 66 11 19 27 2 43 7S 72 r>o 63 48 3 41 28 91 .37 45 33
4 74 42 27 49 39 32 5 36 11 57 22 25 18 6 i:i 66 m 31 17 23 34.19
OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS PROBLEMS 34.11 Fill up the
blanks fn the fhliuunng questions 1. InfeaafMily in a linear programming
problem means 2. The significance of the iZ - Cj) row in the simplex
solution procedure is that _ 3, The duality principle states tliat . 4, The
differenr i between the transportation problem and ihe assignment problem
is 6* The special tea t urts of n transporter (Oft problem are ...... 6, The
canonical form of an L.P.P, is «iich that 7, The dual problem of the L JM\ ;
Max, 2 - $xt + 9% ,. + 2x^r subject to 2xt + 3x2 + 2j:3 ^ 7, 3^ - 2^ + 4.i;a =
5, x[t x.ir xn £ tf, i« .,.*** fL The optimality and feasibility condi Li o*i£
related with Dun] simplex method are 9* Feasible and basic solutions
related with a transportation problem are 10, A transport* Li on problem i s
Supply 15 20 Detimnd 10 5 12 8 Its linear programming problem is . 11*
The basic feasible sfilutkms of HxL + x$ + 4x^ - it, tix% +■ \2 + Ss^ = hi
are .... 12. A slack variable is defined as . -* - 1 " / 1 13. The advantage of'
dual simplex method is +..,,. 14. If the total availability is equal to the total
requirements, the transportation problem is called ..... 16, An artificial
variable t hat . 16. Two conditions on which the simplex method is based
are . 17* A feasible satiation which inmimUes the Era deportation cost i*
called an — solution. IB. The dual problem of : Maximize fxxj 4 f jx ^
subject to + 2x2 = 6, - jrt + > 3, jr1 unrestricted and jtK > 0T is ...... 19, For
a balanced transportation problem with 3 rows and 3 columns, the number
of bask variables will be . 20, Using graphical method, Max. Z = bxi + 3x2
subject to &xt + 2x2 5 10, Sxt + J>x2 £ 15. jcj, jra£ 0, is . 21, Tn a L.P
problem, unbounded solution is lhaL . 22, Degeneracy in a ti’anKporUtifiri
problem ia resolved by 23, A ba sic solution is s?tfid to be non-degcueraty
in L F.P. when 24- The dual of the problem Max. Z s= 2 x^ + subject tes .Tj
+ Zr;. < 2 , i| + rr.> < 4f £ B, xif x2 ^ £1 is ...... 26, The two nfBthcdte used
to find the initial solution of n transportation problem are . 26- Constminu
involving 'equal to sign1 do not. require use of . or variabiee. 2 3 11 4 6 6 8
7
ebuzzpro.blogspot.com Calculus of Variations i — - — - - — —
— — — - - — - ■ — — ■ — ~ ~\ I 1, Introduction. 2. Functionals. 3.
Euler's equation. 4. Solutions of Euler s equation. S. Geodesics, j ■ 6.
Isopen metric problems. 7. Several dependent variables. 8. Functionals
involving higher order derivatives , * 9. Approximate solution of boundary
value problems — Rayleigh-Rit2 method. 10. Weighted residual method —
I Galerkin’s method. 11. Hamilton's principle. 12. Lagrange's equations, ]
35.1 INTRODUCTION The calculus of variations is a powerful technique
for the solution of problems in dynamics of rigid bodies, optimization of
orbits and vibration problems. The subject primarily concerns with finding
maximum or minimum value of a definite integral involving a certain
function. It is something beyond finding stationary values of a given
function. Only an elementary exposition of Llie subject is given here with
the sole aim of introducing the student to a topic whose importance is fast
growing in science and engineering. Before proceeding further, the student
should revise § 5.12 concerning maxima and minima of functions of several
variables. FUNCTIONALS Consider the problem of finding a curve
through two points bt^y,) and ) whose length is a minimum (Fig. 35. 1). It is
same as determining the curve y = y(je) for which yU-,) - y,, .yU2) = y,2
such that j " -Jd + > dx is a minimum. In general terms, w>e wish to find
the curve y - y(x) where ,y(xt) —y j and y(xij) = yi! such that for a given
function f{x,y, y'\, f¥" fix, y. y'> dx is a stationery value or an extremum. ...(
1 > Jri An in teg rnl such as t J J. which assumes a definite value for
functions of the type y = yU) is called a functional. fn differential calculus,
we deal with the problems of maxima and minima of functions. The
calculus of variations is however, concerned with maximizing or
minimizing functionals. EULER'S EQUATION A necessary condition for l
= \x fix, y, y ) dx to be an extremum is that 11 1 1
1112 Higher Engineer! no Mai hematics df d ( 3y dx v This is

called Euler’s equation. Proof. Let y - yix) be the curve joining points
A(xlty|), B(x2.yfi which makes / an extremum. Let y = yU) + eri(jcl be a
neighbouring curve joining these points so that at A, t](xl) = 0 and at B,
ritxa) = 0. The value of I along (1) is f = j£2 ft*, y(*) + er|(x), y'(x) + £r('(x)l
dx This being a function of e, is a maximum or minimum for e = 0, when —
= 0 at t : = 0 dr Differentiating / under the integral sign by Leibnitz’s rule
(p. 139), we have d£ = t**(Wjb + d/L
Calculus of Variations 1113 a (df) a (3M , a (df) „ a3/- , a2/- gfir "
Ac l® + t^y j y + IV j > “cbtfy V ^ Substituting this in (Z), we get .0 which
is an extended form of f/). Obs. 2. The above problem can easily be
extended to the integral - P /
1114 Higher Engineering Mathematics f y" f t/jc Integrating both
sides, — dy = 3 1 — + log c J y J X L e. , logy' = 3 log x + log c or y' = cx3
Hence y - cx4!A + c nr y = CjX4 + c2 This is the required extremal.
Example 35.2. Prove that the shortest distance between two points in a
plane is a straight fine. iV.t.U., 2003 S ; Bhopal . 2003 ) Solution. Let
Afxj.^j) and B(x2, ys) be the given points and s the arc length of a curve
connecting them (Fig. 35.2). Then BDf;,, y?) s = £r' ds - ij(l + y'2 ) dx Now
s will be minimum if it satisfies Euler's equation tf-jLfJf'Lo dy dr \oy , Here
f = Jil + y'1) which is independent of y i.e. , dfi/dy - 0 d_ dx {^'/,1+y!>}=0
°r £ = 0. L^/d +/3>J Fig. 35.2 On integration, we have y*/rj (1 + y'2) =
constant^' = constant, m say. Integrating, we gety — mx +c, which is a
straight tine, the constants m and c are determined from t he fact that the
straight line passes through A and B. Example 35.3, Find the curve passing
through the points lx r y ) and (x,j, yj which when rotated about t he x-u x is
g i ves a mi n i mu m $ u rfhee a rea. i V. T. ( /, , 2009 1 Solution. In Fig.
35.3, the surface area - P"2jiy ds J Xr = 2k | ‘ y*J( 1 4- y*~ i dx. This has to
be minimum. Since / = y ,/(! + y2 ) is independent of x, therefore, Euler's
equation reduces to f~y'~ ~ constant, c : say [By § 35.4 ( 1 )] oy W — {y\/(i +Tv7:ri] =< l.e.. or yV»+yai-y||(i+yHr,/a.2y| yhj{l + y1) =c or y
dy s/fy3 - c2 ) dx c Separating the variables and integrating, we have f ** =
or ™h-i (YLfii? J ,(v2-r2) J C UJ € t.e.. v = c cosh which is a catenary +
The constants a and c are determined from the points bcv yt) and tx2, y2).
Ohs, This problem is also important in connection with soap films which a
re known w have shapes with minimum surface areas.
Calculus of Variations 1115 Example 35.4. Find the path an which
a particle in the absence of friction, will slide from one point to another in
the shortest time under the action of gravity. Solution. Let the particle start
sliding on the curve OP 1 from O with zero velocity (Fig. 35.4). At time t,
let the particle be P{x, y) such that arc OP = s. By the principle of work and
energy, we have K.E. atF- K.E. at O - Work done in moving the particle
from O to P. \2 -0- mgy (V.T.U., 2004) 1 ( — m 2 { ds di Fig. 3S.4 or ds/dt
= fogy) Thus the time taken by the particle to move from O to P} is t= f
1115 Higher Engineering Mathematics Integrating (£), y’ = 3xa +
C ...(Hi and y = x3 + Cx + C' Using the boundary conditions, when x - 0, y
- 0 ( iii ) gives C' = 0, When x = 1, y - 1, (tit) again gives C = 0. Hence (iii)
reduces to y = x3 which is the only curve on which extremum can be
attained. ...(iii) fit/ 2 -3 ■? . + Kiamplr 35.5. On which curve the functional
(y'~ - y + 2\ x$)dy with y(0) = 0 and v(n/2) - 0, be pxiremtzcd? W.T.V.,
2006) and Solution. Let f=yr2 —y2 + 2 ary so that = 0 - 2v + 2x 3)x = x D
+\ Thus y - Cj cos x + c2 sin x + x ...(f) Using boundary conditions : when x
= 0ty - 0, fr ) gives c, = 0 ; when x = n/2, y - 0, (£) gives 0 = c2 + it/2, Le.,
c2 = - n/2. Hence (t) reduces Lo y = x — — sin x, which is the only curve
on which the given functional can be 2 extremized. Example 35-7. Solve
the variational problem 6 £ (x2 (yf + 2y(x + y)\ dx = 0, given yU) = y(2) =
0. (V.T.V., 200 6) or and Solution, Lot f - x2 (y')s + 2rv + 2v2 so that — =
2x + 4v, — = 2.rV oy Euler’s equation — — — — dy dx{dy‘ i)0 becomes
2x + 4v — — (2x2v') =0 or 2x + 4y - (2x2y" + 4xy') = 0 dx xay" + 2xy' - 2y
- x. This is Cauchy’s homogeneous linear (§ 13.9) Putting x = el, it reduces
to (D* + D -2) y = e( Its solution is Since y(l) = 0, we have c, + c2 = 0 y -
c.e1 + c9 e~-2t+ —te* or y = c, x + -% + ^ x log x J \ i g J 3 1 2 v(2) =■ 0
gives 0 = 2 e. + — c2 + — log 2 4 d 8 Solving these equations, we get c, = -
c2 = - log 2. 21 Putting the values of c3 and c2 in (i), we get .Mi y ~ — 18
log 2 (x-2 - x ) + 7x logx} 21 which is the required solution.
Calculus of Variations 1117 GEODESICS A geodesic on u
surface is a, curve along which the distance between any two points of the
surface is a minimum. To find the geodesics on a surface is a variational
problem involving the conditional extremum. This problem was first
studied by Jacob Bernoulli in 1698 and its general method of solution was
given by Euler. Example 35.8. Show that the geodesics on a plane are
straight lines. ( V.TU.tM>9 ) Solution. Lety = y (x ) be a curve joining the
points A (je],y1) and B (x2, y2) in the xy-plane. Then the length of a curve
joining A and B is given by s = f — dx — [ J[1 + (dyidxf] dx i.e., s - [ 1 J(1
+ y"2) dx J a dx J*, J*, The geodesic on the xy- plane is the curve y = y(x}
for which s is minimum. We have fix, y, y') - + yJj } which depends on yr
only. Hence the Euler's equation. £-*.(£■] M, yields ^ dx W) dx 2 y 2>/0 +
y,a) > = 0 I77>- yfyY .0 2,/fi+y2) i.e. y" (1 + y*2) — y V = 0 Le. , ^ = 0
dx£ Integrating twice, we get y = c^ + c2 which is a straight line. Hence the
geodesics on a plane are straight lines. Example 35.!). Find the geodesies on
a right circular cylinder of radius a. Solution. In cylindrical coordinates (p,
iji.z) we have x = r cos 0fy = r sin $,2=2. /. The element of arc on a right
circular cylinder of radius a, is given by ds2 = (dx)* + idyf* + (dz)2 = (d p
)* + Cpc/ejj)^ + dz2 - a 2 d§2 + dz2 or ds = \j\a2 +~ (dz 1 d)2 } . dty or s =
f*3 ^(a2 + z'2) di fi Now the geodesic for the given cylinder is the curve for
which s is minimum. Hcrc/= yfui* + z1) , which a function of ), we have x -
r sin 0 cos 4>, y = r sin 8 sin , 2 = r cos 0. The arc element on a sphere of
radius a, is given by ds 2 = dr2 + (r d6)2 + (r sin 0 cfy)2 - a 2 d& + (a sin
0)2 2 ds = a J\1 + sin“ 0 (dtyldB}2 \ d&, or s = a J J ^j[l + sin2 0 . (iji')2! dQ
(p. 359) ...(i) fv r = utdr- 0
1118 Higher ENemEEBiwr, Mathematics Now the geodesic on

the sphere r - a is the curve for which s is minimum- Here f = a ^(1 + sin2 0
. '2) which is a function of 0 and 0' while + r l2 +>'" +2yex) dx. * ( V2 + y'2
- 2 y sin jc> tfx, y(D) = y fn/2> = 0. o 6. f C/s - y2 + 4 y cos x) dx; yfOJ =
0, y (») = 0. Jo “f- dx. 7- - ^ dx ; y 1 1) = 0. y{ 2) = 3. ^ y J| y s. f2 dx ;/(!) =
0^(2) = t. Jl X £ tv" - iy rl dx under the conditions vtO) = Qiy(vJ2^ * 2. r.
V,T ll 2010) Q 10. A heavy cable Kangs freely under gravity between two
fixed points. Show that the shape of the cable is a catenary. 11. A particle is
moving with a force perpendicular to and proportional to its distance from
the line of zero velocity. Show thiil the path of quickest descent
(brachistochrone) is a circle. 12. Find the geodesics on a right circular cone
of semi 'Vertical angle a. [Madurai, M,B,§ 2000 S)
Calculus of Vacations 1119 ISOPERI METRIC PROBLEMS in
certain problems, it is necessary to make a given integral. / - f(x,y,y')dx «.
{1) maximum or minimum while keeping another integral J= P g{x>y,y)d%
.-*(2) J;ri constant. Such problems involve one or more constraint
conditions, just as J - a constant. A typical example of this type is that of
finding a closed curve of a given perimeter and maximum area. This being
one of the earliest problems to engage attention, we often refer to problems
of this type as isoperimetric problems. Such problems are generally solved
by the method of Lagrange multipliers. To extremize ( 1 ), we multiply (2)
by X and add to ! 1) where X is the Lagrange multiplier. Then the necessary
condition for the integral H J*i dx to be an extremum is 3« d_ [ a/p = dy 0
where H ~f + "kg, The values of the two constants of integration and the
parameter X are determined from the three conditions namely : the two
boundary conditions and the integral J having given constant value.
Example 35.1 1. Find the plane curve af fixed perimeter and maximum
area. Solution. Let / be the fixed perimeter of a plane curve between the
points with abscissae x, and x.2 (Fig. 35.5). Then / = f " \f(l + y'2) dx Also
the area between the curve and the x-axis is (V.T.U., 2000 S) -C .V dx .Mi)
We have to maximize (it) subject to constraint ( i ). Fig, 35. S Taking f=y
and g - y[( I + y'2 ) , we write H — f +^g ~y + X ^(1 + y'2 ) Now H must
satisfy the Euler’s equation j = 0 aw _ ±\ r dH ' - 0 i_A w dx 1&J dx Ju +
y'2) Integrating w.r.t *, we have x - XyV ^(1 + y'2 ) = 0 Solving fory'. we
get y‘ ~ x — a ebuzzpro.blogspot.com J[X2 -(x-a)2l Integrating again, y -
^j[X" — (x - ct)2 ] + b i.e. (x — a)2 + (y - 6)s - X2 which is a circle.
Example 35.12. Prove that the sphere is the solid figure of revolution
which., far a given surface, area, has maximum volume, (V.T.LT., 2006 ;
Madras, 2000 S) Solution. Consider the arc OPA of the curve which rotates
about the x-axis as shown in Fig. 35.6. Then surface area S = f 2ny ds = f
2tiy s[( 1 + y'2) dx Jx-0 Jo and volume of the solid so formed V - f ray3 dx.
Jo
Higher Engineering Mathematics Here we have to maximize V
subject to fixed S. Taking f= Ky2 and g = 2 Tty -J(l + y'2 ) , we write H — f
+ 'kg - ny2 +■ 2Tt?,y -J(l + y'2) . Now // has to satisfy Euler’s equation. But
it does not contain x explicitly. H -y'— 7 = constant, c : say dy f.e., or Tty2
+ 2n Xy J(l + y2) - y' . 2nX.y V Vd + y'3) = C ny2 + 2nXy = r v/aTyî Since
the curve passes through O and A for which y = 0, (i I gives c = 0. y +
2W^(l + y'2) = 0 > (_ cM _ - y2) Solving for y\ Fig. 35. C '(“£)’ y
Separating the variables and integrating, we get f dx = f ... J ^.= + k or x~k-
4X2 - y2) 1 J ^(4Xa - yT> ' When x — 0, y = 0 k - 2X fti) becomes (x —
2A)2 +y2 = (2J02 which is a circle with centre (2?i, 0) and radius 2X.
Hcnce the figure formed by the revolution of given arc is a sphere. ..(ii)
PROBLEMS 35.2 L Find a function v far) for which I" far + \1'2) dx is
station arvp given that F y" dx =2 ,y(Q)= 0, y Cl} - 0, Jo Jo (Madras, 2000
S) 2. Find the extremals of the l so peri .metric pioDlera v [y (x).I = \ y2dx
given that f _y dx - t\ a constant Jjtfl 3. Show that the curve c of given
length l which minimizes the curved surface area of the solid generated by
the revolution of c about the x-axis is a catenary. (V.T. V . 2000 S) 4. Find
the extremal of the functional / = f [{vf \2 dx under the conditions yfQ) - 0
fy firl = 1 and subject to the Jo Jnt ydx = 1, 0 5. Prove that the extremal of
the ieoperimetrie problem v (y ix)\ = J y'2 t dx^yi I ) = 3+ y (4) - 24, subject
to the condition j y dx = 36 is a parabola. [Madras M.E,t 2000) 35.7
SEVERAL DEPENDENT VARIABLES We now extend the variational
problem of § 35.3 to a problem with several va riables as functions of a
single independent variable i.e.,A necessary condition for •f f f y\f yg i Vn i
yt » y^j ,Vn \dx j*. ...£1)
Calculus of Variations to be an extremum is that ' d farl a rdxUJ *
,l“ . B m Lety,, y2, ...ty„ satisfy the boundary conditions y-fxj) = yiVyi{x2)
= yi2 Consider arbitrary functions T| q2(x), .... which are all zero on the
boundary i.e, , Tljfx^ = 0 = Tl^Xg) Replacing ylty2, ... byyj + e^j.yg +
£2ti2, ... in (1), we got /(e) = f (x, yj + e^, y2 + e2q2, yi + y'z + Ej>t dx ...(3)
This is a function of the parameters eli e2, ... and reduces to (I) for e1 = £2
= ... = 0. To find the stationary value of (1), we find the stationary value of
/(e) for e, = e2 = ... = 0. /(e) will have a stationary value when
B5>=o,«W=o.... Se j *)e u Writing f = f (x, yvy2 . yt\ y2\ ...) and i.e,, F =
f(x>y-L + Eiî. yz * ^2* yi + CiV. >2' + -)■ (3) becomes /{e> = J J F dx.
Xj, x2 being constants independent of eJt differentiating under the integral
sign, we get 3e mt) i?Ej e) r*t dF , c*(dF dF A = 0, when e1 - = ... - 0 gives
r **(bf df ,) n Integrating by parts the second term, we get F* df „ df n p d
fv] 1 3— + J*t qyi ifi 1 " J*, dx *1 m J t|1 (x) dx = 0 r Jii 3yi dx WJ
TijfxJdx = 0 ('-* rijtxj) = 0 = Tij(x2)] Since this equation must hold good for
all values of rÔt), we get Similarly = 0 when e. = e2 = ... — 0, will give
1122 Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. Euler’s
equations are — — f — | - 0 dx dt\ etc / ae_.irjq.o tty dt (.ay'J Here/ - 2xy +
x"2 + y'2, ^ = 2y, = 2x\ dx dx (i) becomes 2y - (2x') = 0 i.e., dt Hi) becomes
2x — — I2y') = 0 Le+ dt 2 y - 2 ^ = 0 or ' dx Idy'J dx2 Let yU-) be the
function which makes (1) stationary and satisfies the boundary conditions
JfU,) =ylf y
Calculus Of Variations 1123 .Vj, x2 being constants independent
ofe, differentiating under the integral sign, we gel dl{ EJ dt dljt\ tie rJi dF
r*i ( dF 3 F , dF A . ■J, **■!, = 0 when t - 0 gives f J f — q + — Tjf + -^tT |
t/jc = 0 Li {dy dy' dy" ) Integrating by parts once the second term and twice
the third term, we get ;1 r4-|^l-ndr + df , i V T1 dx + Jxi dy df 3v n ±(*L), ■
Jî dx [dy'; *3 ;).n *1 p J i2 ( dx2 v df ) j n Mndi-° or r* V d (df 1 + * 1 fjrV
i±, £y dx WJ dx2 1 W) tjOc) dx = 0 [By (2)1 Since this equation must hold
good for all values of T|U'), we get d_ dy dx lyj In general, a necessary
condition for the functional I = f (a, y, y', y', ... yn 1 ) dx to he stationary
will be J*. 'df^ i+4i fil. { * ) 1 rZr2 l?y'J dxn U‘"'J £ d_ dy dx which is
called the Euler-Poisson equation and its solutions are called extremals. f ^ f
if Example 35,14, Show that the curve which extrem izcs the functional I -
(yM- - y + x ) dx under Jf? the conditions y (0) - 0, y' 10) - l,y (n/4) =y'
(ti/4) - ll 42 is y = sin x. Solution. The Euler-Poisson equation is dy dxi
[dy"] Here f= (y")2 - y2 +■ A2, - 2y, £ = 0T ^ = 2y" dy dy 3y {Madras M.E.
, 2000 S ) d_3 dx* (i) becomes - 2y + (2y") = 0 or yiv-y = 0 or (Dl-l)y = 0
Its solution is y(.v) = cx e1 + c.2 e~* + ca cos x + Cj sin * /, y'(-A) = cê* -
eê- r- c3 sin x + c4 cos x Applying the given boundary conditions to (it)
and (m), we get 0 = y(0) = Cj + e2 + c3, 1 = y' (0) = c, - e3 + c1 — != -
y(n/4) - c.e^4 + c«e~ + -t=c<. c="" z="" y="" e="" n="" solving="" the=""
equation="" we="" get="" ci="c2" e3="" c4="1." hence="" required=""
curve="" is="" sin="" x="" .="" ...=""/>
1124 Higher Engineering Mathematics PROBLEMS 3S.3 ] .
Show that ihe functional £ ■ + |* — ') H | J j dt, such that jelOl - 1, y CO J
= 1 ;*(!)= l.G.y f L) = 1 is stationary for x = 1 + = t 2. Find the extremals of
the functional w (y, a) » f i2yz - 2y* + y® - .t*2 > dx {V.TM., M.E., 2006 )
Jj* 3. Find a tVinctinn >(.vj such that f y" dx =; 1 which makes f v'2 dx a
minimum if y(0> = 0 = vlrc), v"(0) = 0 = Jo Jo i. Find the extremals of the
functional f (y*2 -y2 + A:2) dx that satisfies the conditions yl.O) - 1, y'.(O)
= 0, Jo yfn/2) = 0, /(n/2) = - I {Madras, M E. 2000 S) 5- Find the extremals
of the functional J" (Xy 4- ipy'2 J dx which satisfies the boundary’
conditions y{- a) = 0, y't- a ) - 0.y(a[ = 0, y'\a) = 0. 6, Kind the extremals of
the 161 1 owing functionals : (i) n(yfcc)l f U6ya - y'2 + x2) tfcr (Nagpur,
1997) (ii) t'LvUll = f (2ay + >"2,i dx, J* b J*o APPROXIMATE
SOLUTION OF BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS - Rayleigh Ritz
Method 35.9 In § 35.3, we have seen that the solution of Euler’s differential
equation alocgwith boundary conditions amounts to extremising a certain
definite integral. This fact provides a technique of solving a boundary value
problem approximately by assuming a trial solution satisfying the given
boundary conditions and then extremising the integral whose integrand is
found from the given differential equation. To solve a boundary value
problem of Rayleigh -Ritz method, we try to write the given differential
equation as the Euler's equation of some variational problem. Then we
reduce this variational problem to a minimizing problem assuming an
approximate solution in the form y(x) = y0 be) + £c- (*) ...{!) where the
trial functions (jc) satisfy the boundary conditions and lx) = 0 on the
boundary C of its region R. Jth f(y, y', x) dx ...{2J O such that y (a ) = A and
y {b ) = B. Substituting (1) in (2) by replacing y in y in /, giving / as a
function of the unknowns cr Then c’s become parameters which are so
determined as to extremist 7. This requires S-* t- 1,2, ... Solving these
equations, we get the values of ci( which when substituted in (1) give the
desired solution. Kxtunpl e 35. 1 5. Solve the bounda ry value problem y"
—y + X ~ 0 {0 < x < 1 ), y (0) -y il) = 0 by Rayleigh Ritz method. Solution.
Given differential equation isy"— y + x - 0 J1! Fix. y , y) dx o where F (x,
y. /) = 2xy ~y2- y'2, the Euler’s equation ^ — — f 1^1 = 0 gives (i). dy
dx\&y ) .(«) since
Calculus of Variations Assume that the trial function is y (x) = cQ
+ CjX + OjX2 To satisfy y(0) — 0, y{l ) = 0, we require c0 - 0, c2 - - cx. /.
(zm) becomes ylx) = cxx(l — x) Substituting y and y' ini, we have I = £ [2
xy-f~ (?? 1 dx = £ [2c, U2 - x3) - c*x(x) dx = 0, J R
HlGMEft ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Hence the exact
solution is y = x e - e e - e The approximate and the exact solutions for
some values of x are given below for comparison : X Approx. Sol. Exact
Sol. 0-25 0.043 0.035 0.50 0.057 0.057 0.75 0.043 0.05 Obs, To obtain a
trial solution containing two unknown parameters, we derive a Lagrangian
polynomial which passes through the points : x : 0 1/3 2/3 1 0 0 More the
undetermined parameters, the more accurate is the solution, but it involves
more labour to find their values. Example 35.17Jfijrf the approximate
deflection of a simply supported beam under a uniformly distrib uted load
w Fig, 35.7, using Galerki.nTs method. beam is Solution. The differential
equation governing the deflection y(je) of the d*y El dx w - 0,0 <. x="" l=""
ft="" the="" boundary="" conditions="" to="" be="" satisfied="" are=""
y="" is="" zero="" at="" ends="" ...fit="" f="" dx="" dx7="" moment=""
...="" we="" assume="" trial="" solution="" c="" sin="" which=""
satisfies="" and="" titt="" substituting="" in="" i="" obtain="" residual=""
r="EIc}" eic2="" fl="" xx="" w="" h="" thus="" .="" ottc="" jo=""
computing="" these="" integrals="" get="" eicl="" wn="0." wl=""
solving="" ci="c" k5e="" el="" hence="" deflection="" of="" beam=""
given="" by="" t="" a="" problems="" solve="" value="" problem="" :=""
s="">,y (0) =y(l) = 0 by (
Calculus or Variations 1127 [Hint. Substituting y ix). y* * (#K in
the given equation replacing y, y" by y . y", we gel the residuitl ft - - 2c l +
c2 (2 - fix) + ail - x) (c, + r jV) + x .1 Thus f R . x (1 -*)(0.5), taking the
trial solution : y - 1 — 1.8* + c,x (1 - x) + c^x2 (1 - x). 7- Using Gtderkin's
method, obtain an approximate solution of the boundary value problem : d
dx + y = x.>( G) = 0,yU) = l* in the form y ix) = x + x ( 1 - x) (c # + c^x).
ft. Of all the parabolas which pass through (0, 0) and (1, l)t determine the
one, which when rotated aboul Lhe x-iucig, general a soKp of revolution
with least possible volume between x - D and x - 1 I Hint. Take the parabola
as y x + cr (1 - x). I 9- Using Rayleigh-Ritz method, find the potent ml at
any point due to a charged sphere of radius at [Hint, Potential at a distance r
from the centre of the sphere is $ = 0O (rAi)*, where 0 is the value of tj) for
r - a and h < 0 ao that $ 0 as r — > «, Electrostatic field due lu charged
sphere being eon servtit. ive, electrostatic intensity & - V^. Also paten Li al
energy for Unit volume = --E2 oir Total potential energy of the field in the
entire region R exterior cn the given sphere is V = b jdj r * * *• & j/j |tf f
(i)3 dx d v dz = ~k [ nr (jr) a*****. Electmatatic field will be in Stable Oqui
librium if V is minimum* Le^dV/dp = 0 and tPV/ dpJ > 0, Tht& gives k =
— I. Hence $ = % a//\ | 35.11 HAMILTON'S PRINCIPLE* An important
concept of mathematical physics is Hamilton’s principle which states that
the time integral of the difference between the kinetic and potential energies
of a dynamical system is stationary Consider a particle of mass m moving
from a fixed origin O under the effect of a force F (Fig. 35.8), At any time t
, let its position vector be R. Then by Newton’s second law, = F ...<1> dr
Fig. 35,8 * Named after the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton
(1805-1865) who is known for hi a contributions to dynamics.
Higher Engine efsjkg M*i"he»,i*tics Let the natural path OHA of
the particle be changed to another path OCA, end points remaining the
same. Let this variation in path, often called virtual, displacement, be SR.
Then the work done during this displacement is SW = F , SR - , SR Also the
kinetic energy of the particle is dC [By (1)] 2 l dt ) dR d (KR, ST = m ^5- .
5 at ST + 5W - m — . A(SR)+ . SR = m ~ f~ . SrI f2 at V dt J Thus — . , dt
dt Integrating both sides w.r.t. t from t0 to fp we get dr | (5T + 6W) dt = m
du dt ,5R = 0 .(2) [v SR = 0 at f0 and (J If the force field is conservative,
there exists a potential V such that W = - V. Then (2} takes the form J (5T -
5\0 dt = 0 or 5 | (T - V) dt = 0 i.e., J (T - V) dt ...{3} is stationary. This
proves the Hamilton's principle for a particle. Its derivation can be extended
to a system of particles by summation and to a rigid body by integration.
Hence the principle is true for any dynamical system. Obs. I t can be easily
shown that the integral (3) is a minimum along the natural path as compared
U> ihutaloaK any other path joining O to A. Dcf. The energy difference T ~
V = L \s called the kinetic potential err the Lagrangian function. 35,12
LAGRANGE'S EQUATION In a dynamical system, the position of a body
can be specified by the quantities qlt q2, ... qn which are called the
generalised coordinates. The potential energy V, being a function of position
only depends on these generalised coord i nates qt. The kinetic energy T,
however, depends upon qt and the velocities dqjdt (Le,, qt) i = 1,2, ... n.
Therefore, Lagrangian function L = T — Vis also a function of
1123 Calculus of Variations /. Lagrangian L = T ~ V = |rai 2 +
mgs c — ^ fcr2. Thus the Lagrange’s equation dL_± f = 0 cfcr dt[. etc J
becomes d2x (mg -kx)- —(mx)~0 or m—^-=mg~kx dt‘ which is the
required equation of motion . Example 35. 1 9. Apply Lagrange's equations,
to show that the equations of motion of the double pendulum of Fig. 35.10
are given by ( mt + m2) l} 0j + m3 12 6, + (m., + mz ) gQ, = 0 and lj e} + l5
Gs + gBs * 0 for small angles GiF Qs. ( Punjab , M.E., 1997) Ui) Solution.
At any time i, let the masses mv m2 be at and P2(jc2, y2) (Fig. 35.10) so
that J£x = l] sin 0, . y1 = lr cos 9, 1 x2 = sin 0, + lt sin 02, y2 - cos 0t + l2
cos 02 J Then total kinetic energy is T = + y*) + + y22) - IfjT^ + m2) Zj29j
+ + mjj/j/gO j02 cos (0j - fi2) [Using (i)J Also total potential energy is V =
(1 - cos Oj) + + 12 - i, cos 0j - 12 cos 02) Lagrangian L - T - V = + m^ )
i,202 + ■|'#n2^02 + cos (91 - 0£) - (mt + m2)gl j(l - cos GjJ - (1 - cos 02) ...
(it) Thus the Lagrange’s equation corresponding to 0j, is dL d f dL ae, dt !
rlBj = 0, becomes or m a ■ f iTj - * - ni.J.^2 BjSg sin (01 - 0£) - (#7ij +
m2)g/, sin 0} - ^ [(ntj 4- 0j + m.^lliQ2 cos (01 + 02)] = 0 (m( + m2) l ^ Bj
4- m2 i2§2 cos (0, - 9,,) + sin (0, — 02) + (mj 4- m2)g sin 0 , = 0 ...(iit)
Similarly from (it), Lagrange’s equation corresponding to 02, i.e., dL d t)6rj
dt (abecomes or s*n ~ m2gl2 sin 02 — \m 2q 02 4- m.2/ji2flj cos (0A - 02)f
- 0 h + ®i CQS ^0i “ - 1\ Bj sin (01 - 02) eg sin 0S = 0 Now 0j and being
small, retaining first order terms only, (Hi) and (iu) reduce to (mx + +
m2l2B2 +(ml + m^gQÔ and /i 0, + i20a + g02 = 0.
1130 HlQHEFl PROBLEMS 35.5 1. In a single pendulum* a

mass m is suspended by a light rod of length / and the system vibrates in a
plane. Using Lagrange^ equation, show that 0 + (g/I) sin 8 = 0. Show that if
8 is small, the period, of oscillation is 2n^J{f /g) . 2. Two masses mi and m2
are connected by an inextensible string which parses over a fixed pulley.
Using Lagrange's equations, show that the acceleration of either masts is
numerically - {m , -m^gfltr i, 3. A perfectly flexible rope of uniform density
per tin ii. length is suspended with its end points fixed. Show ihnl it
assumes the shape of a catenary, i A bead of mass m from rest sl ides
without friction under gravity along a wire indinod at an angle ra Lo the
vertical and rote Ling with constant angular velocity co. Show that in times
t, the bead has slided Lhrough a distance g cos a l j . . - , — ^ ^ — cosh iwi
sm a - 1 ), m &in a ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
^vp Integral Equations 1. Introduction 2. Definition. 3.
Conversion of a linear differential equation to an integral equation and vice
versa. 4. Conversion of boundary value problems lo integral equations
using Green's function. 5, Solution of an integral equation. 6. Integral
equations of the convolution type. 7. Abel's integral equation. 8. Integra-
differential equations. 9. integral equations with separable kernels. 10.
Solution of Fredholm equations with separable kernels, 11. Solution of
Fredholm and Volterra equations by the method of successive
approximations, 36.1 INTRODUCTION Integral equations play an
effective role in the study of boundary value problems, isuch equations also
occur in many fields of mechanics and mathematical physics. Integral
equations may be obtained directly from physical problems e.g.t radiation
transfer problem and neutron diffusion problem etc. They also arise as
representation formulae for the solutions of differential equations. A
differential equation can be replaced by an integral equation with the help
of initial and boundary conditions. Integral equations were first encountered
in the theory of Fourier integrals. In 1826+ another integral equation was
obtained by Abel, Actual development of the theory of integral equations
began with the works of the Italian mathematician V. Volterra (1896) and
the Swedish mathematician I. Fredholm (1900) 36.2 An integral equation is
an equation in which an unknown function appears under the integral sign.
We shall take up integral equations in which only linear functions of the
unknown function are involved. The general type of ti near integral
equation is of the form yix) = Fix) + l [ ‘tK(x>t)y(t)dt Ja where /'Tx) and
K(x, D art? known functions while y(ar) is to be determined. The function
K{x, t) is called the Kernel of the integral equation. If a and b are constants,
the equation is known as Fredholm integral equation. If a is a constant
while b is a variable, it is called a Volterra integral equation.
CONVERSION OF A LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION TO AN
INTEGRAL EQUATION AND VICE VERSA To make this transformation,
the use of the following formula is necessary : f f 1 fix) dxdx= ft* - t) fit) dt
...(/> J a Jrc Jn 36 3 In general, f f ... f f{x) dxn = - — — [ {x - tT 1 fit) dt
Jet Jfi in - I)! ...cm 1131
1132 Proof, Let 4 = fte-tf1'1 /(f) dt Higher Engineering
Mathematics ..XI) where n is a positive integer and a is a constant.
Differentiating both sides w.r.L x, using Leibnitz's rule (p. 139) t.e.. dx Jfj
ox Again differentiating (2) w,r/L x dsI dx * dx!' Proceeding in this way*
we get rfrt— = (n - 1 ) (n - 2) ... 1 . 1 Ax) = in - 1) 1 /. (*) Now taking n = 1
in (1), we get /j= V f(t)dt = [* fix^dxi Jci Putting x = a in (!)* we obtain Jjt
(a) = 0 for all n Taking n = 2 in (2), we get = IJx) dx - f Ii(x2)dx2 J/i = f f
~f(x1)dx1dx2 Putting ra = 3 in (2), we have = 11 Ax) dx I3 = 2 f'/jiUJdr = 2
f f * f ' f{xi)dxi dx2 dx3 Jft Jo Jffr Proceeding in this way, we get fn =
{«-!)! f f " \ 1 F ix^) dxi dx^ ... dxn r r pf(x1)dx1dx2...dxn=—!— \\x-tr~'f{t)
Jtt J a ia {ft -1)1 Jij If x.j,t x3, ... xn be the same as we get the formula (II)
above. dt ..(2) ...(3) [v I2(a) = 01 i Using (3)| .,.(4) tv /3(o) = 01 | Using (4)J
Example 36,1. Convert the differential equation y"(xj - 3y‘(x) + 2y(xJ - 5
sin x. y(0) - 1, y'(0) = - 2 into an integral equa tion. Solution. Integrating
both sides of the given differential equation, we gel [/(*} - y'{0)] - 3[ytr) —
y (0)] + 2 f y(t.) dt = 5(1 - cos x ) Jo Since y'(0) = - 2 and y(0) = 1, it
becomes y'(je) + 2 — 3y(ar) + 3 + 2 f y(t) dt = 5-5 cos x Jfl
Integral Equations i.e., y'Or) — Zyix) + 2 f y{t)dt = - 5 cos jr Jo

Integrating again as before, we have l yix) -y(0)j " 3 |o yW) dt + 2 £ £ y(t)
dt - - 5 sin x or yix) — 1 — 3 f y(t) dt + 2 f (x - t) yit ) dt = - 5 sin x Jo Jo or
yix) + f [2ix — t) - 3J y(£) dt - 1 — 5 sin x Jo which is the desired integral
equation. Example 36.2* Show that the integral eq notion y(x)= f (x + t)
y(t) dt + 1 jo is equivalent to the differential equation y"(xl - 2x y‘(x) -
Sy(x) = 0, y (0) * 7, y'(0) = 0. Solution. Differentiating (i) by Leibnitz’s rule
(p. 139), we have ^ + t)y ( t)dt + (x + x) y(x)-^-ix) - (x + 0) y(0) 4~ t0> dx
Jo dx ax dx - f v(f) dt + 2ary(jc) = f yfac) dx + 2xv (jc) Jo Jo Differentiating
again w.r.t. x, we get defusing (I) abovel ...<0 [Kerala, M. Tech., 2005)
..XU) or dx2 d2y dx s dx Putting x = 0 in (i), we obtain = y(x) + 2\xy'(x) +
1 .y{x)] = 2xy' U) + 3_v,3. Show that the integral equation y(x) = CtO - x)
y(tj dt + ~ jc£ . Jo 2 ..Xi) is equivalent to the differential equation dJ y \ +xy
-1 find the conditions y(0) = yW) = 0. dx L * * f " ‘ i | Solution.
Differentiating (i) w.r.t, x by Leibnitz’s rule (p. 139), we have dx~ Jo a* [t ^
- di + 1* (* — *)>(*)]( ,x • 1 + x-l tit -x)y(()]f . 0 = f*f(- l)y(t)d/ + Jf = x - f
ty{t)dt Jo Jn Differentiating ( ii ) w.r,t. jc, we get ■ = 1 ” { lo ^ !' yU)] dt ~
U yU)]t =° ° + [ty a)Jf — ’ 1 } = 1 ’ ^ tz> ..Xu) try dx 2
1134 Higher Engineer jng Mathematici or d2y -- t + xy = 1 which

is the differential equation correspcmriing to Cz)_ dx Also >(0) = 0 and
y'(0) = 0, Example 36*4* Find the integral equation corresponding to the
boundary* value problem y"fx) + Xy (x) = 0r y(Q) =y(D - D. St slut ion*
Integrating both sides of the given differential equation w.r.t. x over {0, x)r
we get y'ix) -/(0) + X f\vU) dx = 0 Jo y'ix ) = v - X f yix) dxw taking y'(0) =
c Jo Again integrating (i) w.r.t. x in (0P x ), we obtain y(x) -y{0) = cx - X J J
y(*) dx y(x) = t* - X JV - t) y (t) dt or ...(0 ...(«) [Using (I) of § 36.3 and
noting thaty(O) = 0] Putting x = 1 in (ii), we get yn} = c-\{\l-t)y(t\dt l: y x
where K(x, f) — Hence yjx) = X f Kix, t ) y(t) eft Jo which is a Fredholm
integral equation writh a symmetric kernel K(xt t ). PROBLEMS 36.1
Transform each of the following boundary value problems into
corresponding integral equation* ; 1 . y" + xy' +■ y = 0, given that y«» = 1 ,
y'{0) * (K (Madras, M. E„ 2000) 2. y“ - sin xy‘ + ey = x, given that, y - 1,
— = — 1 when x = 0. dx 3. y1* + xy’= 1, given that y(0l =y'(0) =* 0.
{Madras, 2000 Si -l. y" + ( 1 - x > y' 4- r 1 y = x3 - 5x, given that y = - 3, —
= 4 when x = 0. dx 5. ffty — £ + y = cos * given that y = 0, v' = I, v* = 2 at
x = 0. dx3 (Kerala, M. Tech, 2005}
ENrEGflAL Equations 1135 y tf 2 y 1 6, —4 + • — ff ™ t= sin x
given flinty = 1, / = - 1, yr = — afcx - 0* cue fit 2 ii Ay . „ d^y c/v 7 — - 4
— =- + 6 — ^ - 4 -j- + y = 4 cos 2x given that dar fib:* tit y = - 1,^*4, r" =
0 , _y*" == 2 when x = 0. Convert each of the fallowing integral etfuatitaig
into differt'titiftl equations alongwith initial cohrlilionp B* y(x) - f tx + y (I
> rfl - 1. 9. >i*) " f ix - t) 3r(l) rif + 3 sin x. *0 Jq 1 0. jyU) + 3 r (i - O2 > it
> dt = x2 - ax + 4 . 11. y(*) + [" { jr - tf +4(x-t)-3\ yti ) dt = e~*. J0 Jo ■ f/ 1
2, uy' ix) = fix) ; y (t)) = y{l) = 0, show that y(x) = K(xt *> fit) dt , Jo where
flf(xr t) = - (x - /) when f < x x y Cr-0 when £ > x 36.4 CONVERSION OF
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS TO INTEGRAL EQUATIONS USING
GREEN'S FUNCTION Consider the linear homogeneous differential
equation £(y) + tyx) = 0 where £{y) ■lil'i) + y = py" + p'y' + qy together
with the homogeneous boundary conditions of the form dy qyt|J^=0 -.<11 ...
(21 ...(3) Now let us find a function G (x, t) which for a given number t. Is
given by G,(x) when x < t and by G.Jx) when x > t and which has the
following properties : I. G, and G2 satisfy the equation L{G) = 0 in their
defined intervals le., L(G,) = 0 whenx < t ; L (G2) = 0 when jc > t . 11. G,
and G2 satisfy the boundary conditions at the end points x = a and x-b
respectively. III. G (x, t ) is continuous at x = t i.e. , G,(f ) = G3(f). IV. The
derivative of G is continuous at every point within the range of x except at x
= t i.e., GJit) - G'(t) = - 1 Ipit) Def. G{x, t> as defined above is called the
Green’s function. If G(x, t) exists, then the solution of the given problem
can be transformed to the integral equation ,v(x) = f G (x, f ) Q it) dt Jtl Let
y - .y ].f3c> and y - y2(x) be the non-trivial solutions of the equations Liy)
= 0 which satisfy the homogeneous conditions at x = a and x-b respectively.
The above conditions / and II arc satisfied if we write G = CYy , ( x ), when
x < t I C2y2 U"}, when x > t Imposing the condition 111 on (5), we get
C2y2(fl- 0^0 = 0 Imposing the condition IV on (5), we have C2y2’{i)-Ciyf
it) = - 1 Jpit) ...(5) -..(6) -.(7)
Higher Engineering Matwemmics = >j t ...(9) Conversely it can
be shown that the integral equation. y(*) = f G(x,t)tyit)dt Ja where G( x, t )
is as defined by (9), satisfies the differential equation L(y ) + (|Kx) = 0
together with the prescribed boundary conditions. Example 36.5, Transform
the differential equation yr + y = x,y (0) — 2, y* (I) = 0 to a Fredholm
integral equation, finding the corresponding Green’s function, (Madras M
E., 2000 S) Solution. Given equation is L(y) 4- (x) = 0 with the conditions
,y(0) = 0, y'U ) — 0, where L(y) =y" and (|>Cx) = y - x The associated
equation Liy ) = 0 is y "(y) - 0 Its solution is y - C^x + C2 Now y/x) is a
particular solution of (ii) satisfying the condition yfO) = 0. ,% Taking C,, - 0
and C, = 1, we get yl(x) = x y2(x) is another solution of (ii ) satisfying the
condition y'(l) = 0. From (iii), y'(l) = C, = 0. Then y{x) - C2 Taking C2 = 1,
a particular solution isy2(x> = 1. C The constant C is found fromyjtxJyg'lx)
-y2(x)yl'(x) = ^ . Since L (y) = py" + p'y' + qy = y* (given), p » 1. Thus C =
y jfx) y/(x) — yz(x) y/ (*> = *. 0 - 1.1 = - 1. •\ Green’s function is given by
G(x, t) .M) ...(iii) -..(it?) C -yiWyat*) c Hence the equation (i) is equivalent
to the integral equation , x < t , _ , r*. xt 7 x > i ...(u) V(x)= Ccix.Omdt^
\lGt,x,t)Ay-t)dt Jo Jo = £ Gix, t) y(t) dt - | £ X . t dt + J t . t dt j * The
conditions thatVjtx) andy^x} satisfy the equat ion L(y) = 6 are (pyfV + gy1
= 0 (pyf)' + Gy 2 = 0 -«(►£> Ki) x ys - (ii) X yj gives y3(py - \\ipy\ft = 0
tp(y iya' -y2y i'll' = o or yvyf = ap or
INTEGRAL EQUATIONS 1137 rl „ ... t2 X fa 1 - I G(x, t) ytf) dt
- J Jn X + & 0 o 2. - f1G(*fi)y(Orft-- t sin pv sin pfr - 1} p sin p sin pi sin
p(i - 1) p sin p xt PROBLEMS 36.2 L Transform the problem fFy/dx* +scy
= 1 ; y( 0) = 0 =yi 1 ) to an integral equation, 11 nfling f.he corresponding
Green's function. 2. Transform I he problem y* + y = x ; y CO) = lty (1) =■
0 to an integral equation using Green’s function. Construct an integral
equation corresponding to the boundary value problem d2u dx 2 + .«* a =x
l tt (0) »G, u (1) = l. 1. Find the Green’s function for the boundary value
problem (Fyidx2 — y = 0 with y(0) = y( i) = (). ■T Transform the boundaiy
value problem 4J- +■ x + (<2 i="" u="0" to="" an="" integral=""
equation.="" dx="" ihint.="" ujor="" x="" and="" c="" solution="" of=""
equation="" r=""> The solution of the integral equation yix) = Fix) + X I
K{x,t) y(t) dt is a function y(x) which when substituted in the equation
reduces it to an identity w.r.L x. (vxample 36,1. Show that y(x) = 2 - x is a
solution of the integral equation ex~l y U) dt - el + x - 1. Solution. Since
y(t) = 2 -t
1138 Higher Engineering Mathematics = 2e*| - e~f |* -e* || |* - JJl
, = 2e* - cos x f e* (cos t + sin #) dt - sin x f f (sin t - cos t ) dt Jo Jo - sin x
+ xe* — cos x| e‘ sin t j + sin x | el ens 1 1 = sin x + xe* — e* cos x sin x +
es sin x cos x - sin x - xe* Thusy(x) = xe* is a solution of the integral
equation (t ). INTEGRAL EQUATIONS OF THE CONVOLUTION TYPE
y(x) = Fix) + K(x - t) y(() dt Jo is an integral equation of convolution type
and can be written as y(x) = Fix) + K(x) * y(x) It is a apodal integral
equation of importance in applications. I See p. 748!
Integral Equations 1139 Taking Laplace transform of both sides,
assuming that L F (jc) = f[s) and L\K U)j = k(s) both exist, and using
convolution theorem y (s) = f(s) + &(s) . y{$) or y (s) = 1 - k(s) Now taking
the inverse transform of both sides, we get the required solution. Example
36.19, Solve the integral equation .V (x) = 3ir + J yft) sin (x - 0 tit. Solution.
Given integral equation can bo written as y(*) t= 3x2 + y(x) * sin (x - t)
Taking Laplace transform of both sides and using the convolution theorem
(p. 748), we get ,2 6 s s4 + 1 or y = 6 (s' V X* \ Tt+hr**+#4 On inversion,
we get y - 6 which is the required solution of (i). Obs. The above solution
can also be verified by direct substitution in the given integral equation. or
IkKOmple 36. 1 1. Solve y(x) = x + 2 J cos (x - t) y(t ) dt. Solution. The
given equation can be written as (y(x) - x + 2 cos ( x ) * yix) Taking
Laplace transform of both sides and using convolution theorem, we get y(s)
= -^ + 2 8 s2+ 1 y(s) or y 12s s2 + l -JZ y = sE +1 _ 2 J_ _ 2 &2{$ -if s ss s
- 1 (s - l)2 On inversion, we obtain y = 2 +x — 2e* + 2ace* Hence y = x + 2
+ 2(jc - 1) e* is the desired solution. Example 36.12. Solve the integral
equation f y(t) y (x - t) dt. = 4 sin 9x. Jo Solution. The given integral
equation can be written as y(x ) * y(x) = 4 sin 9x Taking Laplace transform
of both sides and using the convolution theorem, we get 36 _ . 6 (yuir = s2
+ S3 or y = ± On inversion and noting that L~] +e2) Js2 + 81 - Ja (ox), we
gel y = ± 6 L n/te’+sV *” " Thus y = (9r) and y — - 6 t/fl (9_r) are both
solutions of (t). ■ = ± 6 J(l (9x) —(£>
1140 36.7 ABEL'S INTEGRAL EQUATION Higher Engineerjwg
Mathematics ebuzzpro.blogspot.com The integral equation f — — — dx -
Gfr) » (x~t)a such that G(x) is given and a is a constant £0 < a < 1), is
known as Abel’s integral equation. This is an important integral equation of
the convolution type. An application of this equation is in finding the shape
of a smooth wire lying in a vertical plane such that a head placed anywhere
on the wire slides to the lowest point in the same time. This is the well
known tautochrone problem and the shape of the wire is a cycloid. Example
£16.111. Solve the Abel’s integral equation f — pi== dt, = 1 + 2x - x2. Jo
Jix-t) Solution. The given equation can be written as y(x) * sr 1/2 = 1 + 2a:
- x* Taking the Laplace transform of both sides and using convolution
theorem, we get y .L(xrm) = L(l + 2x-x?) or _r(l/2) •V^ 122 - 1(1„1„1’’| or
y ni/2)Um+ s3/3 V'*J Jl On inversion, and noting that Lr1 .. . , = — - — ,
we have s I (n + 1) 1 x1/2 1/2 3/2 + 2 . - 2 r{i) r(i) ■ r(i) r(|) = !(>»« + 4*1'*
-lx* tzK 3 Hence y = 3 n>fx (3 + 1 2x — Sx3) is the desired solution. 36.8
INTEGRO-DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS An integral equation in which
various derivatives of the unknown function y(x) are also present, is called
an intcgrO’differential equation. An example of such an equation is y '(x) =
y(x) - cos x + f sin {x-t) y (t) dt Jo The solution of integro- differential
equation subject to given initial conditions can also be found by Laplace
transforms as illustrated below ; dy rx Example 36. 1 4. Solve — - + 3y + 2
y dx - xt given y(G) = 1. dx Jo Solution. Given equation can be written as
y'tx} + 3y(x) + 2 f y dx = x Jo Taking Laplace transform of both sides, we
get L]y'U)| + 3 Hytx)] + 2L < | y £x) dx l = L{x) {/: or [s y (s) - y (Oh + 3 y
(s) + 2 - y (s) = lUsing § 21.6] sy + 3v + 2 - y = 1 + \ s s£ tv y(0) = l]
Integral Equations or y = 1 + s* 1 + s* s(s2 + 3s + 2) s{s + 1} (s +

2) 2s s + 1 2(s + 2) On inversion, we obtain y = — LT 1 —1 - 2 IT 1 f — j +
^ L 1 f — i— ‘ 2 UJ U + U 2 l, s + 2 J 1 5 Hence y = - 2c "x + — e~2x is
the required solution. 2 2 Example 3(!.l o. Solve — = 3 [ cos 2 (x - t) y(t) dt
+ 2 given y(0) = 1. dX Jo Solution. Given equation can be written as y'(x) =
3 cos 2x *y(x) + 2 Taking Laplace transform of both sides, we get LKy'fr) I
=s 3L (cos 2r) . y(s) + s -i \ /r,\ 3sy (s) 2 - to + 2)(s« +4) gy (s)-y(O) - / + -
or y = - - a -g s2 + 4 = A + A_3^-6- 1 s* (s^ + 1) [■-■ y<0)=u K S* S* + 1
S2 + 1 On inversion, we obtain y = 4 + 8x - 3 cos x - 6 sin x which is the
required solution. Obs. The given i n tegro-diftere n t i al equation can be
converted into the (allowing integral equation by integrating it from 0 to x
ttnd using y{0) - t. y(x> = 2x + 1 + 3 f (* ( i cos 2(.r - f>y(t I dt. Jo
PROBLEMS 36.3 1 . Show thaiytv) =■ 1 - x is a solution of the integral
equation f c-1 ' * ytf) dt = x. Jo Show ihniy(.v) = 1 is a solution of the
Fredholm integral equation ySxi* f J afjfi - 1 ) y U)dt =e*~ ,t. Jo 1 3. Show-
thatyta) = —4= is a solution of the integral equation [ — ’ — Kslx Jo Jtx -
1) dt = 1 . 4. Show thatytx) = e* (2.r - 2/3) is a solution of the Fredholm
integral equation v(.v) + f e*- f >(/> dt - ‘tad . *0 Solve each of the
fojjuwing integral equations: 5 y(x) - x + ~ f (x - t f y(t) di > 6, y{x) = x 2 +
f yit J sin (i - ndf. 7, f yin yix - t) dt = 2y(x) + x - 2. 8. f yif) y[x - / 1 dt - 9
sirs 4j. Jo " Jo 1 9- Find a solution of the integral equation ytx) - - sin 2x +
yit] yix - 1) dt , 2 Jo Solve the following integral equations : dy dx 1 0. 2^-
+■ 4y + 5 r yU ) dt = r v (0) - 0. Jo 11. — + 2y + f yit) dt = sin x, y (0) m |. (
M ttmbtti. 2006) dx Jo
1142 Higher Engineering Mathematics r* t* 12. y'fctj = x+ yfr (1
cos t dt, y(01 = l. Jo 13. y’ix) = yit) cos ix - t) dt, y (0> = I. Jo id. r ,'vU>
dt=jx15. f — ^~JT3r dt = xix +- 1 >, Jo Ix-tY™ Jo Jix - t ) INTEGRAL
EQUATIONS WITH SEPARABLE KERNELS A kernel Kix, t) of
Fredholm integral equation is said to be .separable (or degenerate) if it can
be expressed as the sum of a finite number of terms, each of which is the
product of a function of x alone and a function oft alone i.e., if it is of the
form Kix, t) = X f„ {*) g„it ) n = I Also since cos (jc + t) = cos x cos / - sin
x sin t, cos ( x + t) is a separable kernel. 36,10 SOLUTION OF
FREDHOLM EQUATIONS WITH SEPARABLE KERNELS Consider the
integral equation jy(x) = A f Kix, t ) . yit) dt + Fix) *u where Kix, t) = 1st) .
+ f2(x) . g2it) + ... + fm ix) , gmit) ...(2) Substituting (2) in ( 1), we get ybc)
= \ f J£ rn_ ^fn(x)gait) n = 1 y(f } dt + Fix) = JL X fn(*> | j%n(0 yit) dt j +
Fix) ...(3) J'fci #„(*) y(t) dt ■ Cn (say), is a constant and will be different
for different values of n. Then (3) a Lakes the form y(x> = + Fix) ..,(4) This
is a solution of (1) in which m constants C,f Cg, ..., Cm are to be
determinedNow multiplying both sides of (4) by gk (re) and integrating
from a to b, we obtain f y(x) etc = A. f V Cn fnix) gk(x) dx + f Fix) gk(x)dx
Ja Jti ” J(i n = 1 gk(x) fn (z) dx =■ akn and I g^x) Fix) dx = the above
equation becomes a Ja m = ^ ^ ^n^kn + P* fl = t = ^Cia*l + C2^2 + - +
Cm™kJ + h Taking k - l, 2y *..* m, wo get the following m equations
which determine Cv C2t ... Cm : (1 — Xocj ! ) C\ - Xotj2 C2 — — \
&imCm = pi — i Ct + ( 1 — ) C2 - .„ - X a%m = P2 ,J5) “ hCtmiCi — ^2 “
*-■ + J ~ P/j Equations (5) will give a unique solution if the determinant A
of the coefficients of CJt C£l ... Cm is not zero.
1 143 INTEGRA!, EOUATIO!H£ Now the following eases arise :
/. When F(x) = fl, (1 ) is £airi to he a homogeneous integral equation and all
fTs are zero, ( i ) If A * 0 , the only solution of (4) is the trivial solution Cl ~
C2 = - Cm - 0, Then y(x) = 0 is the trivial solution of(l), (« ) If A ~ 0t at
least one of the C#s can be assigned any value and the remaining C's can be
found accordingly. Then (4 ) gives infinitely many solutions. The values of
X for which A = G are known as the eigen values. Any non-trivial solution
of the homogeneous integral equation for a certain value of A. is called the
corresponding eigen function. The solutions corresponding to eigen values
of X can be expressed as arbitrary multiples of eigen functions, rh II. When
Fix) * 0. Let us assume that I gm I*) Fix) dx = 0 so that (iffJ - 0 hi m (i ) A
7! 0, the only solution of ( i ) is the trivial solution C, = C2 = ... - C = 0.
Then y — FXx) is the desired solution of (I). (i£) If A - 0, at least. one of
the C's can he given any value and the remaining C’s can be found. Then
(4) gives infinitely many solutions. ///. When at least one of the P’s * 0 (i) If
A ± 0, then equations (5) give a unique solution of the constants C. Hence
there is a unique solution of (1). Hi) If A = 0, then equations (51 will bo
inconsistent. Either there is no solution or infinitely many solutions of (i)
exist. Example 36.16. Find the eigen values and eigen functions of the
following homogeneous integral eqtiti lions with degenerate kernels :
(i)y(x) = X f V2xt - 4x2 } ytt) dt {it ) v(xj - —7^ — f ex + t yft) dt. J a * e£
- 1 Solution, (t ) Given equation may be written as y(x) = X 1 2x £ ty(t) dt -
4x2 £ y(t} dt j or y(x} ={2hc)Cl-{ 4Xt2) Ca where C. = [ ty{t) dt, C2 = f
yU) dt * Jo Jo Substituting y(x) in C,, C2 we get C, = £ t((2?J ) Cj - (4Xf*
)C2\dt C2 = £ U2X/J C, - (4X/2 ) C2 1 dt or C, |l - 2X £ t2di | + C2 jdX £f3
A j =0 or t dt\ + C* 1 + 4X f1**8} =0 C, ( 1 - y ] + XC2 = 0 ; - + C2 (1 +
4X/3) = 0 = 0 or (X + 3 J2 - 0 The determinant of eigen values will be 1-
2X/3 X -X 1 + 4X/3 The eigen values are X, = - 3. X,, = - 3 For X, = Xj, = -
3, the equations (it) reduce to 3C, - 3CZ = 0 ; 3C, - 3C2 = 0 fa, C, = C2
From (1 1 y(x) = - 6C,
1144 Hksher Engineering Mathew aTiCS Hence the eigen
function corresponding to A.1 =7^ = — 3, is yix) -x — 2x2 (it) Given
integral equation may be written as e1 ri c * y(*> = f eV ytrlrff = C, e - 1
Jt> e - 1 where C = f ef y(()rf( JO Substituting the value ofy(/l from (/) in C,
we get or C= fV = |Vd* Jo {e2-l) e2 — 1 Jo - 2“ - f e* d* Pl - 1 Jo - 0 i.e. C
=■ 0 Hence from (£),y(x) = 0 which shows that the given integral equation
has only trivial solution. Thus it does not contain any eigen values or eigen
functions. Example 3fi. I 7. Solve the integral equation ytx) = cos x + X f
sin (. x - t) v(t) dt. Jo Solution, Writing the given equation in the following
form : y(x) = cos x + X, jsinx J cos t y(f) dt - cos x £ sin t y it) df j or y(x} -
cos x + (X sin x) C, - (X, cosx) C2 where Ct = cos t ■ y(f) dt , C2 = J sin t •
y(t) dt Substituting y(x) in Cl and C,,, we get Ct = [ cos t (cos t + (X sin £1
Cx - (X cos t) C2 ) dt C2 = f sifl 1 fcos t + ^ gin f) Cj_ - (X cos ?) C2 1 dt
Jo or \ 1 - X f cos t sin t dt \ + C. 1 1 X f cos2 t dt | = = T cos2 t dt 1 A* J l
Jo ) Jo C| j- X J sin2 t dt J +C2 j 1 + X J sin t cos t dt j = sin t cos t dt By
evaluating each of the integrals in (it ), we get Cj + — C2 Xjt = i n ; - ^ Cx
Xtc + C2 = 0 2 2 2 The determinant of the equations (tit) is given by 1 4 Xit
-iXtr 1 = 1 + - X27I2 * 0 4 Thus the equations {Hi) have a unique solution
2n Xn2 ...(*) ,.(i) .(iii)
Integral Equations Substituting these values of Ct and C.z in (t )f

we obtain the required solution X or y(jc) = cos x + y(x) = 4 + JlV (2n sin x
- Aji2 cos jc) 4 + X2ir (2 cos x + rcX sin x). PROBLEMS 36.4 Determine
Oie eigen values and eigen functions for ihu following homogeneous
integral equations with degenerate kernels ; L yix) ^k fL(3i-3) t . y(t) dt Jo
.1- yte) = X sirr x ■ y (t) &, Jo Cn 6. v(jc) = X | sin jf cob / . y (£) dt. Jo
ftolve- the following integral equations 7. y(x J = jc + X J U f) 3 (£)d£* 9 ,
ytrj - x + X f (1 + sin x sin /) y(f) dt, Jo Jur/ 2 sin x cos f y(i) rfi! 6 а. >(()/
=0. (Madma M.E.. 2000 S) б. >(rj = X [ ^sin {x + t) . yit) dt. (A jadms
M.E., 2000) Jo H. 3?&) = x + X fV + x + t) Jo r*m „ 10. yfx) = (2x - !t) + 4
Bin* x yU> dt. Jo 12. y(x) = .v + A f {a cos £ + £z sin x r cob x sin f) y(f)
dfr . J- re fJ qiy Obtain the solution ofy(x) = 1 + X I xt yU) dt in the form
y{x) — 1 + — ' (X ^ Jo 2(3 — X) 3). What happens when X = 3 ? 1 i. For
the integral equation yix) = Fix) + X j'tt - 3xf ) ytf) dt, + X [* K(x, t ) yw it)
dt ...(2) Replacing y under the integral sign in (1.1 hy y{ l\ we get the next
approximation yiZiix) = Fix) + X f Kix, t ) y'11 (/) dt ...(3)
HIGHER ENGINEERING MATOEMATteS Proceeding in this

manner, we get the gene riil formula for successive approximations as y«,
(jfj =fXx) + \ fV(x, t ) /-» (t) dt Jer We now, obtain the condition for the
convergency of the sequence yn 1 (a:). Replacing* by t and f by a dummy
variable (2) becomes . (5) y< 1 » Kit, > ym (ft ) dt} Jfl Then (3) takes the
Form y 21 (x) = Fix) + X \*K(x, t) | Fm + xj; Kit, h > ym {x) - I K (x, t )
4Kf) dt , the equations (1), (2) and (5) become Jft y(x) = Fix) + XK* y(x)
y°Hx) = Fix) + \K* yw x In general .v1"1 (x) = Fix) + XA* F(x) + X*F*‘
Fix) + X3 A'"3 Fix) + + Xft K*n y0) U) As n — ► », we get yix)^ Lt yn(x)
= F(x) + U |XF* F(x) + X3 FT2 Fix) + ... «| ...(6) rt — * « n ■h i Now Fix)
and K(xt t) being continuous for all values of x and t in (a, 6), Fix) < M and
| K ( xf t) \ (x) = Ft*}. Obs. 2. Vo I terra integral equations can also be
solved by following exactly similar procedure as atwve (See Example
36.19). Example 36.18. Solve, by using the mettwd of successive
approximations, the integral equation
Integral Equations 1147 or Solution. Taking the initial

approximation y*' m ( x ) - 1 and substituting it in the R.H.S, of (i\ we get
y(x)= 1 + ^ - I A = l + 3Lr Jo Substituting yil} Oe) in the R-H.S- of(i). wc
have -i3 2 y®(x) = 1 + X £xf j 1 + X |] rf( = 1 + Xx £[ f + dt T j I f2 X t3 =
1 + Xr - 1 — • — | 2 2 3 Substituting y 21 (x) in the R.H.S. of (0, we get
y*>(jc> = i + x Xx X2jc = 1 + — + 2 6 frff 1 + — + — )dt = 1 + Xx t2 — +
Jo ^ 2 6 J 2 l2 03* , Xx X*X X3X = 1 + — + - +■ — 2 6 18 , Xx ( _ X X2 \
= 1 + — 1 + - + -5-+-2 { 3 32 j Hence the solution of (i) is , , , X*l\ X fxf
rxf ] ^>-1 + T[1+3+[aJ [aj +"j As the number of terms tends to infinity, the
exact solution ift \2 /i \3 \ - 11 * po - 1 + y(x) = 1 + Xx 2 l-X/3 3Xx
[Summing up the G.P, which converges for X/3 < 1[ only ifX < 3. 2(3 - X)
Example 36.19* Using the method of successive approximations, solve the
Volt err it integral equation y(x) = 1 + x + (x t) y(t) dt.. Solution. Taking the
initial approximation yft) (x) = 1 + x. and substituting it in the R.H.S. of (i),
we get ym (xl = 1 + x + f (x — t){l + t)dt Jo ( |V x“’| , x2 l zj l* 3J 2 = 1 +
X + X Substituting y 11 (x) in the R.H.S. of(0, we obtain y2> (x} = 1 + x +
[ JC j _ . fx2 x3 4 _ |_ x 1 xs ' 2 6 24 J ,2 l T 3 8 + 30 j x3 _ _L x< - _ 4x5 6
24 120 Proceeding in this manner, we get
1148 Higher Engineer! ns Mathematics As n —> the exact

solution of (i) is >(*) = Lt 2 R * X X X X 1 4 — + — 4 — + ■ ■ ■ + — 1?
2! 3! nl /t > j K 3 1 X x x = 1 + - + - + - +...«>= €*. I! 2! 31 PROBLEMS
36.5 Apply the method of successive approximations, to solve the following
Fredholm integral equations : <1 to 3> 1. yt*l = I - X f -r/ yU ) dt. 5L yU) =
sin x + X f cdft (jr + /) y(f) dr Jo Jo 3. ytx) = 1 a f1 (1 - 3xt > y{t) dt. Jo
lining Lhe iterative method, solve the following VolUrra integral equations :
(4 to fl> 4. v(jr.i - 1 + f y{t)dt. (Madras M.E., 2000 S) 5, y(je) = 1 + s - f
yU) (it, Jo Jo 6. vt*) = x + f 1/ - x) yUl dr Jo 7. yOcj =211+ Jf^l - J* ay 8*
Choosing the initial approximation ymUJ = U_ for the solution of the
integral equation V2 V*2 — * show thaty2*lx) = 1 — Jo 2 2 40 9. Starting
with the initial approximate on yfHx ) = lt for the solution of the integral
equation yM = £ t(t - 4 y(t) dt 4 ~ , shew that y 2tx) = '-^- e initial
approximation v yM [ (x + fiyiijdl, JO t lx4 71 x® Show Ihnt y31(x) = 1 +
— — 4 - — - + 2 3 2-1 0 (Madms Jiff;,. 2000) ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
Discrete Mathematics | J, Set Theory : 1 . Sets. 2. Set operations.
3. Laws of set theory. 4. Principte of inclusion, Duality. I 1 II. Algebra of
Logic : S. Introduction; Propositions & statements; Compound statements.
6. Logical operations. | j 7. Statements generated by a set; Tautology;
Contradiction. 8. Equivalence. 9. Duality law; Tautology implications, j |
10. Arguments 11. Predicates. 12. Quantifiers. 13, Normal forms. 14,
Inference theory. i f III. Boolean Algebra : 15, Introduction; Boolean
function. 16. Duality. 17. Boolean identifies. 18, Minimal Boolean I |
function. 19, Disjunctive normal form, 20. Conjunctive normal form. 21,
Switching circuits; Simplification of circuits. | I IV. Fuzzy Sets : 22. Fuzzy
logic, Fuzzy set, 23. Fuzzy set operations. 24. Truth values. 25, Algebraic
operations; I I Properties of fuzzy sets. 26. Generation of rules for fuzzy
problems. 27. Classification of fuzzy propositions. I I 28. Applications of
fuzzy seta. I i _ _ 1 I. SET THEORY 37.1 (1) The concept anrl the language
of sets play a very important role in expressing mathematical ideas
concisely arid precisely. It was Cantor* who first introduced and developed
the notion of sets in mathematical investigations. It is, therefore, essential
for a student of engineering to grasp the basic ideas of Set Theory. Def. A
collection of objects defined by some property, is railed a set. The objects
belonging to a set are called its elements or members. Examples of a set are
(i) the set of posi tive integers less than 25, («) set of pages in a bonk, and
(in) set of women students in a college. A set is denoted by a single capital
letter e.g. A, B, S, X, Y and the elements of a set are generally denoted by
small letters a, b, e, x, y, z. When e is an element of a set S, we write re S
and read as ‘e belongs to S'. When e is not an element of S, we write e e S.
rf.S‘ l>e a set of odd integers, 3, 7, 1 1 e S but 4, 6 £ S. (2) Representation
of a set (i) Tabular form of a set. In this, the elements are enclosed in curly
brackets after separating them by commas, e.g., the set of positive even
integers less than 9 is written as S = {2, 4, 6, 8} and the set of prime
numbers between 4 and 14 is T = {5, 7, 11, 13 f. (ii ) Symbolic form of a
set. In this, the set is written as \xlP(x 1} where x is a typical element of the
set and P(x) is the property satisfied by this element. In symbolic form, the
above two sets are S - | xix = a positive even number < 9| T = [xix = a prime
number between 4 and 14|. ! The great German mathematician George
Cantor (1845-19X8), the creator of Set theory. 1149
1150 Higher Engineering Mathematics (31 Empty set or null set.
A set which has no elements is called an empty set or the null set and is
denoted by the symbol i|l (4) Finite and infinite sets. A set is said to be finite
if it has a finite number of elements. Otherwise a set is said to be infinite.
The number of distinct elements in a finite set A is called its cardinality and
is denoted by \A |. For instance , Lho set of days in a year is finite, the set of
points in a line is an infinite set. (5) Subset, If every element of a set A is
also an. element of set B, then >1 is called a subset of B and this
relationship is denoted by A c B or B A ; which is read as 'A is contained in
B\ Another definition : If A and B are two sets such that x e A => x e B,
then A is called a subset of B, The notation => stands for the word
‘implies*. For instance, the set V of vowels is a subset of the set A of the
English alphabet and we write Vi zA. (6) Power set. For a set A, collection
of all subsets of A is called the power set of A and is denoted by P(A). If A
= fl, 2, 3] thenP(A) consists of2ai.e, 8 elements , f 11, [2], 13], [1, 2], [2, 31,
[3, 1] and FI, 2, 3]. In general, if A has n elements, then F(A) has 2n
elements. (7) Equality of sets. Two sets A and B are said to be equal if the
elements of both are the same i.e., if each element of A is also an elemenL
of B and vice versa, and we write A - B, In other words, if A and B are two
sets such that A czB and B A - B. Here stands for 'implies and is implied by
’ or 'if and only if’. For instance, 12, 3, 51 = (3, 2, 5. 31 = 12, 5, 3, 21, since
the change in the order of elements or the repetition of an element is
immaterial and all these contain the same elements 2, 3, 5. (8) Proper and
improper subsets. When the set B contains all the elements of A and some
others, A is said to be a proper subset afU and is denoted by A c B. i.e., if A
cz B and A * B then A £ B. If A c B and every element of B is also an
element of A i.e., BcA, then A is said to be an improper subset of B i.e., A =
B. For instance, the set of positive odd integers and the set. nf positive even
integers are both proper subsets of the set of natural numbers. (9) Universal
set is that which has all the sets under investigation as its subsets . It is
generally denoted by (U\ Far instance the set of all letters of English
alphabet is a universal set of the sets of the form la, t, e. u\, |b, x. u. ml etc.
Example 37. 1 . If A, B, C are sets such that AcB and B c C, then show that
A £ C. Solution. Let x be any element of A. Since AcB i.e., all the elements
of A belong to B, so ieA => refi ...(i) Again as B c C i.e. , all elements of B
belong to C, so j; e B => x e C .„(») It follows from (i } and Hi) that ieA =>
x e C i.e., A c C. Example 37.2. Which of the following sets are equal ? S, =
fl, 2. 2, 3/, S = /x : s? - 2x +1 = 0} S3 = (3, 2, 1} and S4 = fx : Xs - fir3 + 1
lx - 6 - OK Solution. Here S, = fl, 2, 2t 3) = (1, 2, 3) S2 =\x Ax- l)2 = 0} =
HI, S3 = |1, 2, 31 S4- lx : te- !)(jc- 2Kjg- 3> = 01 - il, 2,31 From these we
find that Slf S3, S4 are equal.
Discrete Mathematics 1151 37.2 SET OPERATIONS (1) Union
of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which belong to A or to B or to
both. It is denoted by A u B read as 'A union B’ and is represented by the
shaded portion in Fig. 87.1. Symbolically A u B - tr/jr e Aorr e B\. Fig. 37.1
F(g. 37.7 (2) Intersection of two sets A and B is the set of elements which
are common to both A and B. It is denoted by A rt B road as ‘A intersection
B1 and is represented by the shaded portion in Fig. 37.2. Symbolically A
r\B = lx/* e A and x e R) Such diagrams us Figs. 37.1 and 37.2 which
exhibit the various relations between the sets are known as Venn diagrams.
(3) Disjoint sets. If the sets A and B have no common elements, they are
called disjoint sets. Their intersection is an empty set. For instance, if. A be
a set of boys in a college and B the set of girls in the same college, then A
and B are disjoint sets i.e. A r>B = $. (4> Complement of a set. IfB t= A,
the set of elements of A which are not in B is called the complement of B in
A and is denoted by Br in A. It is also known as the difference A - B of sets
A and B. Thus Br in A = {xfx e A and x e B] which is shown shaded in Fig.
37.3 . If U be a universal set, then the set ‘U - A’ rs called the complement
of A and is denoted by Ar, which is shown shaded in Fig. 37.3 (»), For
instance, if U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... } and A = (1, 3, 5, 7, then Ar = 12. 4, G, 8
...J. (5) Cartesian product of two sets A and B denoted by Ax B is defined to
be set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a e A and b e B i.e.t A x B = ((a, b) :
a e A and b e 23) For instance if A = |1, 2), B - fl, 2. 31, then A = 1(1, 1), (1.
2), (1, 3). (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3)1, B xA- 1(1, 1), <1, 2), (2, 1), 12, 2), (3. I J,
(3, 2)} A x B * B x A. Example 37.3. If A = 12, 5, 6'. 71, B = 10, 2, 5. 7, 8],
C = {1,2.3, 3, Gj, show that A u (B u C) = (A u B) n (A w Cl Solution. Here
R n C - (2, 51 Au(BnC) = (2, 5, 6, 71 AuB = {0,2, 5, 6, 7, 81, A uC= 11, 2,
3, 5, 6,71 (A vj B ) n (A uC) = |2, 5, 6, 71 ...(«) Again
1152 Higheh Engineering Mathematics Hence from ii) and (ii),

we get A«j(BnC) = WuJ!)nWuC). Example 37.4. With the help of Venn
diagram, show that A n (B \j C) = (A r> B) u( Ar> C). (0 fig. 17 A Solution.
First we draw vertical lines in the whole areas of B and C so as to represent
BuC, IFig. 37.4 (01. Now draw horizontal lines in the whole area A. Thus
the double hatched area in IFig. 37.4 (ii)j represents area common to A and
iJuCi.P.,ArifBu C), Again we draw horizontal lines in the area common to A
and B so as to represents n B IFig. 37.4 (iii)]. Nowr draw vertical lines in
the area common to A and 0, so as to represent A n C, Then the whole
hatched area in [Fig, 37.4 (iu)3 represents (A n B) w (A n C). Hence we
observe that the double hatched area in Fig. 37.4 (ii) is equal to the total
hatched area in Fig, 37.4 (iu). Example 37.5. Prowe that ( i)A - (B nCj = /A-
B) u (A - CJ. (ii) A x (B n C) = (Ax B) r\ (A x C). Solution, (i) Letx be an
arbitrary element of the set A — (B n C), then (Tiruputi, 200!) x e A — (B n
C) => x e A and x f. {B n C) x e A and (x g B or x e C) (x e A and x t B) or
(x e A and x e C) xe(A-B) or jc e (A — O => x e (A — B} (A — O. A - (B n
C) c (A - B) w (A - C) Again if x be an arbitrary element of the set (A — B)
u (A - C), then % e (A — B) u (A - C) -=> x c (A — B) or x e (A - C) w- (x
e A and x e B) or (r e A and x g C) => x e A and (x £ B or x e C) => x e A
and x £ B n C => x e A - (B r> C) (A -B)u(A-C)cA-(BnC) From (i) and (ii),
we get A — (B rt C) = (A - B) yj (A - C). (ii) (x, y) e A x (B n C) => x e A
andy e (£ n C) => (x e A and y e B) and (x e A and y e C) => (x, y) e (A * Bl
and (x,y) e(AkC) (ij)e(A>iB)n(A*C) Hence A x (B n C) = (A x B) n (A x
C). [v x e(A“B)=>r eA and x d B| ...(ii)
Of&CRtrE Mat helmet res 1153 37.3 LAWS OF SET THEORY
1. Commutative Law Awfi=BuA;Anf? = BnA. 2. Associative Law Au(BuC)
= {Aufi)uC An|B^C)=(AnB)nC 3. Distributive Ijzw An(B\jC)~lAr\B)^(An
C ) A u \B n. C) = (A u B) r\ (A u C) 4. Complement Law Au^f= f/;j4nA' =
§. 5. /cfenfify Luuj Aui|i=A = i|)uA Ant/=A = £/Â. 6. Ah sorption Law
AKJiAnB)-A\ArAAr\B] = A 7. Z)e Morgan's Law Wulf =Al‘nBl -,(AnBT =
A'' u Bf' 8- Involution Law {Arr~A. 37.4 PRINCIPLE OF INCLUSION (1)
If A and B be sets with cardinalities j A \ and \ B j , then j Au£ | = | A | + | B\
- | AuB | Proof The number of common dements in A and B is | A n B | .
Each of t hese elements is counted twice in | A | + | £ | T once m j A | and
once in | B \ . This should be adjusted by subtracting the term | A n B | from
|A| + |£|. Hence |Av£| = |A| + |£| - [An£|. Ob«. Using the distributive law, we
c»n ex tend the above result for three sets A, B, C so that } Ax> C | - | A | + |
B | + | C j - | A nB \ - {BnC | | CnA | + | A nSnC | tV.T.U., 2002) For | A uB u
C | = | (A u B) u C ] ■ |Au£f + |C|-| (AuB)nC | = | A | + ] B | - 1 A nB | ■+ | C
| ■ | (A o Ou(BnC) | = | A l + | £ | + | C J - J A nB ! -,f|A oC | + j Bo€. | - |
AnBnC |J whence follows the result. (2) Duality. IfS be any identity
involving sets and operations (e.g. complement, intersection n and union o
etc.) and a new set S* is obtained by replacing n by u, u by nf
1154 Higher EhgineerinG Mathematics Exiunplc 37.7. How
many integers between 1 and 468 are divisible by 3 but not by 5. Solution.
Number of integers between 1 and 468 which are divisible by 3 = 468 468 3
]■ 156 Number of integers between 1 and 468 which are divisible by 3 and
5 3x5 = 31 Hence the number of integers between 1 and 468 divisible by 3
but not by 5 = 156 - 31 = 125. Example 37.8. How many integers are
between 1 arid 200 which ore divisible by any one of the integers 2, 3 and 5
? Solution. Let Ap A,z, A3 denote the set of integers between 1 and 200
which are divisible by 2, 3, 5 respectively. IA,I = - 1WV UJ - [^] = S6, WJ
= - 40 [An rr AJ 200 3x5 - 13, (Aj n A3 n A3] = 200 2x3x5 = 6 Hence
\AlvA2 uA3) = J A1 | + | A2 | + | A3 | - | A1 n At \ - I A, n A_ I - I A., n A. |
+ [A. n A„ oAJ = 100 + 66 + 40 — 33 — 13 ~ 20 + 6 = 146. PROBLEMS
37.1 1 . Show that the following sets are equal : A = 1 2, II, B = U, 2, 1, 2,
1, 21, C = be :*a - 3x + % = 0J. 2. Which of the following statements are
true ? Give reason to support your answer. (0 fol c la, it, c) A - C. 4. If A =
{a, b, r, d. c], B = ja, c, e,g) and C = [b, c, f,g }, prove that ii){A B) nC -
(Ar^C) \j (B rr C) (») (AriB)u(AnC) = AniBuC). 5. If A = A u B then prove
that B = A n B. 6. Prove that 7. With the help of the Venn-diagram, prove
that (tj (A u JEj^ = A0 n B f and (A n By = A* u ff. ( Andhra , 2004 < (ii) A
VJ (B n C} = (A n (A u C ), (V.T.U., 2001 S ) ft. If B tz A, prove that (i) J3
uCc Au C (ii)BoCcAn C* 9. (0 If A uB = Anfl, show that A - B. [ii)
UA^jB=A u C and A n B - A r\C, show that B = C, 1 0. If) Prove that (i) A-
8=A-AnB. [V. T. U„ 2001 ; Madras, 2006 ) [ii) A~iB vjC)= [A - B) n (A-C),
1 1. Show that for any two sets A and B (i)A-B = Anff (») A £ B <=> S' 3
Ac (urj A l1 B =(An A)u(An B). 12. ff A, B, C be sets such that A c B, B n.
C=
DisqRETG Mathematics 1155 14* Prove that A x(B u C) - (A m
fl). '-KA x C)+ (AndTArn^ 2007) 15, If S is any set and Pis) is its power set
and A and B belong to Pisk prove that B n C4 - B> = ♦. 16. If A and J? are
finite set£ then prove that A u 6 and A r B are finite sets and n(A L/U) t? n.
(A) + n(EQ - n{A n B). (AnrfArt^ 2004) 17, In survey conducted on 200
people, it was found that 140 are smokers while 80 are alcoholic and 40 are
both smokers and alcoholics. Find how many are neither smokers not
alcoholics. 1 8. How many integers between 1 and 789 are divisible by 5
but not by 7. 19, How many integers are between 1 and 250 while are
divisible by any of the integers 3, 5T and 7. 20. Out of a das? of 153
students, 54 have taken History, 63 have taken Geography* 62 have taken
Economic?, and 43 have taken Geography and History* 45 have taken
History and Economics. 46 have taken Geography and Economics and 37
have taken all the three subjects. How many of the students have not taken
any of these three jmbjeets ? Use a Venn diagram. II. ALGEBRA OF
LOGIC 37.5 INTRODUCTION (1) Logic is concerned with all types of
reasoning such as valid statements, mathematical proofs, valid conclusions
etc. Logical reasoning is used to prove theorems, to verify the correctness
of computer programs and to draw conclusions from experiments. Later on,
we shall observe that the algebra of sets and logic is analogous to the
algebra of switching circuits which is similar to ‘Boolean Algebra'. (2)
Propositions and Statements. A proposition is a declarative sentence which
is either true (1) or false (0). Some authors use T and F respectively for 1
and 0. The truth or falsity of a proposition is defined as its truth, value. All
the declarative sentences to which it is possible to assign one and only one
of the two possible truth values are called statements. Example ’.{13,
Which, of the following are statements : {a) Agra is in India ib}3 +4 = 5(c)
Where do you Hue t (d 1 JDo you speak Hindi t Solution, (a) and (fe) are
statements that happen (a) is true and (6) is false. (c) and (d) are questions
so they are not statements. (3) Compound statements. The statement which
is composed of sub-statements and logical connectives is called a
compound statement, eg., ‘It is raining and it is cold' is a compound
statement as it is comprised of two sub-statements 'It Is raining* and 'it is
cold’. (4) Truth table. The truth value of a compound statement is
completely determined by the truth value of its substatements. A convenient
way to represent a compound statement is by means of the truth table
wherein the values of a compound statement are specified for all possible
choices of the values of the suf> statements. We shall use the numbers 0
and 1 to denote the false and true statements. Also we use letters p, q, r, ...
to represent a proposition or logical variable. 37.6 LOGICAL OPERATORS
(1) Conjunction. If p and q are two statements then their conjunction p and
q written as p a q, is defined by the truth table 1. Table l p
1156 HlGHffl EhlGmetRlWG MaTHSMATPCS For example, the
conjunction ofp : it is raining and q : I am void isp a q : It is mining and I
am cold. (2) Disoon junction. If p and q are two statements, then their
disconjunction p or q written as p v q is defined by the tru th table 2 . For
example, the disjunction of p and q for p : it is raining today ; q : 3 is an odd
integer is p v q : it is raining today or 3 is an odd integer. (3) Negation. If p
is a given statement and its negative ‘not p’, written as - p (or Np or ] p ) is
defined by the following truth table : p 0 1 1 Q For example, the negation of
the following statement l is -p:2 + 3 q and abbreviated as ‘p if q' is called a
biconditional statement . The truth table for biconditional statement is table
5. Example 37.11. Construct the truth tables for (a)pn-q (6)fpv(/Jv-p (e) (p
q) a (q -* p ) (d) (p -> q) v - (p - q). Solution, (a) The truth table is P 7 -<7 P
A - 9 1 1 0 0 i 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 ib) The truth table is p q P Vi? rrp (p v q)
v - p 1 l 1 0 1 I 0 1 ft 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 ft 0 1 1
Discrete Mathematics (c) The truth table is 1157 id) The truth
table in this rase is P <1 P p ->~q ip -* - ?) 1110 0 1 I o o i i o 0 110 1 0 o o
a l o i p-HJV'lp-l’lj) 1 0 1 1 37.7 STATEMENTS GENERATED BY A SET
tl > If S he a set of statements, then any valid combination of statements in
S with conjunction, disconju notion or negation is a statement 'generated by
S. A statement generated by a sol S need not include each element of S in its
expression* For example, if p, q* r are statements in S then (a) (p a ) a r (b)
a r (cl fp a q) v f- q a r) arc statements generated by S. Their truth tables are
: p <7 r P A <7 t/j a <7 ) a r (ft) -q - q at Co) 1 1 l 1 1 0 0 1< l 1 0 1 0 0 0 ] 1
0100111011000001a0a01000i00000000100l1i000
0 0 1 0 0 (2) Tautology is an expression involving logical variables which is
true for alt cases in its truth table. It is also called a logical truth . (3)
Contradiction is an expression involving logical variables which is false for
all cases in its truth table. Obviously, the negation of a contradiction is a
tautology. In other words, a statement formula which is a tautology is
identically truc? while a formula which is a contradiction is identically
False, Ohw. The conjunction of two tautologies is abi> a tautology.
Example 37.12* Show that (a) p v - p is a tautology (b) p -> q (- p v q),
Solution, (a) The truth table is p -p JP V - P L 0 1 0 1 1 Hence p v - p is a
tautology.
1153 Higher Engineering Mathematics (6) The truth table is p <7

P-><7 -p -P (p —* q) t-* { - p v g) 1 1 1 u 1 l 1 ' 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 i 1 1 0 0 1 i
1 1 Hence (p -+ y) (- p vg) is true. 37.8 EQUIVALENCE (1) If p and q be
statements generated by the set of statements S, then p and q tautology
which is denoted by p o g. If p -> q is a tautology, then we say that p
implies q and write it as p => q. are egutuafertf t/p <7 is a Ob*. All
tautologies are equivalent to each other and all coni rad ictiong are
equivalent to each other. (2) Equivalent formulae. Some basic equivalent
formulae are given below which can be proved by using truth tables :
Lpvpop fApOp Idempotent laws 2. p v q o q a p p a g o g Ap Commutative
laws 3. (p v q) v r o p v (g v r) (p A g) a r p A (g a r) Associative laws 4. p v
(g a r) o (p v q) a {p v r) p a (g v r ) co (p a q ) v (p a r) Distributive laws
S.pv-pol pA-poO Negation law 6.p vOop p A 1 Op Identity laws 7,p viol p
A 0 o 0 Null laws 8. p v (p a g) o p p Aipvglop Absorption taws 9. - (p v q)
cc ~ p a - q ‘(pv?)o-pv-9 De Morgan’s laws 10. p =>p v q gop vq
Disjunctive addition 11. p a q => q p Ag og 12. (p v q) a - p o q (p vg) a - g
=>p 13, ip g) a (g -»■ r) => ip -> f) Chain rule 14. p-*go-pvg Conditional
equivalence 15. p «-+ q o (p -*> g) a (g p) Biconditional equivalence
Example 37.13. SAo«! f/iat (o) p -» (q -> rj o p -> g v r) <=> (p a gj -> r (b)
t- p a q a rjf/ v (q a rj v (p a r) «■ r Solution, (a I By conditional equivalence
g r o - q vr Replacing q -> r by - g v r, we get p->(-?vr) which is equivalent
to - p v ( ■ - q v r) by the same rule. Thus *pv(-(jvr) (-pv-q)vr [By {3)1 o ~
(p A g) V r [By (9)1 <=> (pAg)->r [By (14)J (b) [- p a {— q a r)] v (q a r) v
(p a r) o [- p a g a r)| v (g v p) a r IBy (4)1 o [-p a ~g at) v(g vp) at [By (3)]
o |- (p v g) a r] v (g v p) a r [By (9)1 c=> [~ {p v g) v (p v g)] a r IBy (4)] o
1 a r [By (5)1 <=> r [By (6)1
Discrete; Mathematics 1159 DUALITY LAW (1) Two formulae.
A and A * are said to be duals of each other if er'Mer one can be obtained
from the other by replacing a by v and v by a. If the formula A contains
special variables 1 or 0, then its dual A*" is obtained by replacing 1 by 0
and 0 by 1. e.g., (i) Dual of B is a tautology which is read as “A implies Bn.
The implications listed below have important applications which can be
proved by truth tables : 1. p a q => p p^>p\/q 2 . ~p=^p-*q q => p -» q 3 . ~
(p g) p - ip -> q) => - q 4. p cAp -> q) => q ~ p a (p v q) => q 6. (p — ► q)
a {q — *• r) p -> r 37.10 ARGUMENTS (1) An argument is an assertion
that a given set of propositions pv p2, ..., pn (called premises) yields
another proposition q (called conclusion) . The argument is symbolically
written as “pv p2, .... pn 1- q”. An argument p ..-.pn v- q is true provided q
is time whenever all the premises pv p2, pn are true. An argument which is
true is said to be 'valid argument*. Otherwise it is called 2. fallacy. Example
37.14. Show that (n) the argument p q and q both are true in case 3 only
while the conclusion p is false. Hence the given argument is a fallacy. (2)
Theorem. The argument pv p2, .... pn 1- q is valid if and only if the
proposition (p j a a a .... a pj — ► g is a tautology. The proportions pv p2,
pn are simultaneously true if and only if the proposition pY a p2 a ..., a pn is
true i.e., if the proposition ip1 c.p2 a a pj -> q is a tautology.
1160 Higher Engineering Mathhmaucs Ohs. The validity of an

argument depends upon the particular form of the argument, not on the truth
values of the statement appearing in the argument. Example 37.15. Test the
validity of the following argument : S{ : If 5 is less than 3, then 6 is not n
prime number S3 : 5 is not less than 6 Ss : 5 is a prime number. Solution.
Let ‘5 is less than 3’ be p and '5 is a prime number’ be q . Then the given
argument is of the form P P h- <7Since in the last line of the truth table, the
premises p q and - q are true but the conclusion q is false, therefore the
argument is fallacy. P 1 1 0 0 v l o i 0 ■q P^>-q ~P 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 I 1 1
PROBLEMS 37,2 3. 4, 10. Jfp = Sam is a teacher, q = John is an honest
buy, then translate the following into logical sentences t (ill - ip a q), (6) p v
- q, (c) - p q a ri (- r = (c) p v q {Madras, 1997 > Verify that, the following
are tautologies ; (o) \q -» f p a<7>] (b) ipr. q =$ r) *r> r) Show that Q v
17 and r : n is a divisor of IS, what are l he truth sets of (t)g, («)/»

a v . (til) r, (is) q -* r. Show that (a) - Q, P ■> Q =? - P. ib)iP >/DaIQ-v/?) ^
iPvQ)~>R, Construct the truth table for (t) {- p — v q) a tg yt p). (ii) IIP v “
q) v r s (p v r) ■=> (c) - ip v q) = - p a - q, 13. Define conjunction,
conditional, biconditional and negation, with examples. p). {Anna, 2005)
(Anna, 2004 S ; Madras , 2003 .SI 8. 8, (Madras, 1999 5 i Madras, 2003)
(Madras, 2001 ) (Bharthian, MSc. 2001 1 ( Andhra , 20041 iq vr)”
1161 Discrete Mathemaocs 14. Show that (i) p /sq logically
implies p - does not logically Imply p -> q. (U.P.T U ., 2001) 1 5. Write the
duals of (jt> v g) a r and (p a q) v L ID. Show that s v r is tautologically
implied by (p v q\ a (q * r> a Uj ~+ s). (Andhra. 20fri ; Bharatkian, 2001 )
17. Let Hn) be *8" -3" is a multiple of 5’ Prove that Fin.) is a tautology on
n. IS. Prove that P -> ] Q, R > Q, R I™ 1 P is a valid argument, (Madras,
2002) 1 9. Prove t hat p -* {q v r) i=> (p a 1 g) -» r. (Anna, 2005 ) 2D.
Show that R v S follows logically from the premises C v D, C v D -■> —U,
II -> A a - B, A a - B R v S, 37.11 PREDICATES Statements involving
variables such as *x > T and -jc - y + T are neither true nor false so long as
the values of the variable xf y are not specified. We now, discuss the ways
that propositions can be evolved from such statements. The statement *x >
T has two parts : First part— ‘the variable x * is the subject of the statement
; Second part -'is greater than T is the predicate which refers to the property
that the subject of statement can have. If P{x) denotes 1 he statement *x > T
then P is the predicate and x is the variable. The statement P(x) is also
known as the value of the propositional function P at x. The predicates are
denoted by capital letters and the objects by the variables (denoted by small
letters in brackets). Thus predicates are simple statements which turn out to
be propositions involving variables whose values are not well specified. In
other words, predicate is a variable statement which becomes specific when
particular values arc assigned to the variables , There are statements which
involves more than one variable consider the statement Hjt - y + T which is
denoted by Q(xry) where Q is the predicate and xfy are the variables. When
values are assigned to the variables x^y\ the statement Q(x4 y) has the truth
value. Similarly R(xtyt z) denotes the statement of the type ix+y = z\ When
values are assigned tox, y . zt this statement has a truth value. For example,
consider the statements li) Ram is fair ; (ii) Sham is fair * Here in ii) and
Ui) Sis fair' is the predicate while Ram and Sham are t he objects* If we
denote the predicate by F and the objects by r and s, then the above
statements can be symbolically expressed as Universal quantification.
Many statements assert that a property is true for all values of a variable in
a certain domain. This domain is termed as the universe of discourse and
such a statement is expressed using universal quantification. Thus the
universal qua ntification of P(x) is the proposition 'P(x) is true far all values
ofx in the universe of discourse'. The universal quantification of P(x) is
denoted by V xP(x). The symbol V is called the universal quantifier . Ohs,
When it is possible to list all the elements in the universe of discourse say
x.,, .... xn, then the universal quantification V x l’(x) is some as the
conjunction P(x , i a /Jiv2) a .... H-i; > for this conjunction is true if and
only ii'PUi). Ptxj}, Pixn) are all true. Example 37.16* What is the truth
value of the quantification V x P(x) where i a) P(x) is the statement ‘x < 5’
and universe of discourse is the set of real numbers. (b) P(x) is the
statement *x- < 18' and the universe of discourse consists of positive
integers not exceeding 5 ? Solution, (a) For instance, P(6) is false ;
therefore I\x) is not true for all real numbers x. Thus V jfffj) is false.
1162 H usher Engineering Mathematics (6) The statement V
xPix) is same as the conjunction HI) a P(2) a PI 3 ) a P{4) a P(5) Here the
universe of discourse is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and Pi 5 ) is the statement l52< 18'
which is false. Hence V xF{x ) is also false. <3) Existential quantification.
Many statements assert that there is an element with a certain property. To
express such statements we use existential quantification. In such cases, we
form a proposition which is true if and only if P(x) is true for at least one
value of x in the universe of discourse. Thus the existential quantification of
P(x) is the proposition * these exists an element x in the universe of
discourse such that P(x) is true'. The notation IxP(x) is used for the
existential quantification wherein 3 is called the existential quantifier. OIjs.
When it is possible to list all the elements in the universe say .... then the
existential quantification Ptx) is same as the disjunction P0rt > v Pteg) v ....
Pi xn>. Example 37. 17- What is the truth value of the quantification 3
xP(x) where (а) Pix) is the statement 'x >5" and universe of discourse is the
set. of real numbers. (б) P(x) is the statement. > IS’ and the universe of
discourse consists of positive integers not exceeding 5 ? Solution, (a) Since
'x > 5’ is true, say : for x = 6, 8 etc. 3xP(x) is true. (6) The statement 3xP(x)
is same as the disjunction P(l) v P(2) v P( 3) v P(4) v P<5) The universe of
discourse is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and P(5) is the statement 5a > 18, which is true.
Hence 3xP(x) is also true. Example 37.18. Find the truth value of each of
the fallowing statements ; (a) 3x,x2-J (6) Vx, J x | = x (c) 3xt x + 4 - x.
Solution, to) If x0 - 1, then x02 = 1, therefore the given statement is true,
(b) If x0 = — 3, then j x0 j * x0, therefore the given statement is false. (c)
As there is no solution lox + 4 = x, the given statement is false. Example
37. J 9. Given P - /2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, state the truth values of each, of the
following statements : (а) (V x a P) ( x + 3 < 10) (b)(Vx*Pj(x4-2Z7) (c) (3x
eP)(x + 3 = W) (d) fir e P) (x + 2 < 7). Solution, (a) True, for each number
in P satisfies x + 3 < 10. (б) False, for ifx0 = 6, then x0 + 2 is not < 7. (c)
False, for no number in P is a solution to x + 3 = 10. id) True, for if xQ - 2
then x0 + 2 < 7 is a solution. Example 37.20. Negate each of the following
statements : (a) Vx, x2 = x, (6) V x. x + 4 > x (c) Vx, f x J = x. Solution, (a)
- V x, x2 = x = V x - ( x 2 = x) s V x, x2 # x. ib) - V x,x + 4>xs3X'-(x +
4>x) = -»x,X + 4
DISCRETE MAJHEKtMiCS 1163 Example 37.22, Symbolise the
expression All tke world lores a lover.' {Madras, 2001) Solution. Let pix) :
x is a person ; L(x} : x is a lover. and Q (x, y) : x loves v Then the required
expression is < V xj (p{x) -► (y) (ply) a L(y)l -> Q(x, y). Summary, (i) V
Q(x) means that the predicate Q(x) is true for all values in the universe of x.
fir) 3Q(x) means that the predicate Qtx) is satisfied if there is at least one
value in the universe of x. 37.13 NORMAL FORMS (1) For the given
variables pp p2, ..., pn. we may form a statement S (pp p2, .... pj. The truth
table for S will contain 2" rows for all possible truth values of the n
variables. The expression S may have the truth value 1 in all cases or may
have the truth value 0 in all cases or have t.he truth value 1 for at least one
combination of truth values assigned to the n variables. {Here S is said to
be satisfiable). The problem of finding in a finite number of steps whether a
given expression is a tautology or a contradiction or at least satisfiable is
known as a decision problem. As the formation of a truth table is quite
cumbersome, we go for an alternate approach called normal form . In this
approach, we use the word ‘sum1 2 3 4 in place of disjunction and ‘product’
in place of conjunction. A sum of the variables and their negations is called
an elementary sum. Similarly a product of the variables and their negation
is called an elementary product. (2) Disjunctive normal form of a given
formula is the formula which is equivalent to the given formula and which
contains the sum of the elementary products. The disjunctive normal form
of a given form is not unique. In fact, several disjunctive normal forms can
be obtained for a given formula by applying the distributive laws in
different ways. A given formula is however, identically false if every
elemenlary product appearing in its disjunctive normal form is identically
false. Example 37.23. Obtain the disjunctive normal forms of (i) p a (p -> q)
Hi) - ip v q)*+(p A q). Solution, (i) p a (p q) «p a {- p v q) <=> fp a - p) v {p
a q). which is the desired disjunctive normal form. (ii) - (p v q) «-► (p a q)
<=> - ip v q) a (p a q) v ip v q) a - (p a q) [v E++F ■» {E a F) v (- E a - F)
«■ (~p a - q Ap a q) v [{p A (— pA-Âp A Ij) V l(p v 9) a - p] v ({p v q) a ~
<7! <=> ('P A ' g Ap A f) V (p A 'pi V (7 A ' pi V (p A ' q) V ((J A ' q] which
is the desired disjunctive normal form. (3) Coiyunctive normal form of a
given formula is that formula which is equivalent to the given for muta and
contains the product of elementary sums. Example 37.24. Find a
conjunctive normal form of - (p v q) e* (p a q). Solution. - ip v q) ip a q) »
1- ip v q) -+ !p a g)| a [p a q -+ - ip v )| o Kp v q) v ip a 17}] v [~ ip a q) v -
(p v ly )J [By conditional equivalence) o ip v q vp) a ip v q v 5) a l(- p v - q)
v (- p a - g)l o pvqvp/\ipvqvq)/\(-pv-qv~p)r,(-pv-‘qv-’q) which is the
required conjunctive normal form. (4) Principal disjunctive normal form.
Consider a formula for the propositions p and q using conjunction asp
A^pA-g.-pAt?, ~ p a - q , These terms are called minterms or Boolean
conjunction of p and q. An equivalent formula far a given formula,
consisting of disjunctions of minterms only is called the principal
disjunctive normal form ipdnf) or sum of products canonical form.
1164 Higher Engineering Mathematics Procedure to obtain the

principle disjunctive normal form : (i) Replace the conditions and
biconditions by their equivalent formulae containing a, v, - only, (ii) Using
De Morgans laws, apply negations to the variables. (iii> Apply the
distribution laws. (iiO Introduce the missing factors to obtain minterms in
the disjunctions, (ii> Delete identical minterms appearing in the
disjunctions. Example 37,26. Obtain the pdnf for (0 pvq (ii) ~(p A $.) (»*)
'pvq i.e.Tp ->r/. Solution, (j tlpvij Ip a iq v - g)l v \q a (p v -p)l 0 (p a q) v (p
A Ij) V (17 A p) V (ip A — 0 (p A <7) V (p A — (]) V iq A - p) (ri> - (p A
(7) l'PV'(f) « I- p a (- q v qOl v [- q a (p v - p)| <=> f" p a *- q) v (— p a <7)
v (- <7 a p) V (- <7 a - p) (-pA-q)v(p A 17) V (- 17 A p) (iii) -pvq - p a fqr v
- 17) V U7 A ip v ~ p)J <=> (- p a q) v i'- p A - q) V (q A p) v (q A -p) {- p A
q) v (- p a ~ q) v (q a p). (5) Principal conjunctive normal form. Consider a
formula for the propositions p and q using di scon i unction as p v q, -p v
q,p v ~ q, — p v ~ q. These terms are called max terms. An equivalent
formula for a given formula , consisting of conjunctions of the max terms
only is called the principal conjunctive normal form (pcnfi or product of
sum canonical form. Procedure for obtaining pcnf for a given formula is
similar to the one for pdnf as all assertions made for pdnf can be made for
pcnf using duality principle. Example 37.26. Obtain the principal
disjunctive and conjunctive normal forms of p — » f(p — » q) a - (- (/ v -
pi/. (Bharathiar, 2001 ) Solution, (i) p -> l(p — » (?) a - (~ i/ v ~p)l <=> - p
a [(- p v q) a {q a p)| [Using DeMorgan’s law and equivalence p -» q - p v
q.) <=> - p v I - p a Icy a p)) v \q a (q a p)] «■ - p v {q a p) [- p a (q v - q)] v
(q a p) (- p a q) v (-p a - q) v (17 Ap) This is the desired pdnf. (ii) p -» l(p ->
q) a - (- q v - p)l «■ - p v [(- p v q) a (17 a p)| |- p v (- p v q)l a |~p v (q a p)j
<=> (- p v q) a (-p v q) a (- p vp) <=> - p v 17 This is the desired pen/".
Example 37.27. Obtain the principal conjunctive normal form for (Q -»• P)
/ (-Pa (JJ, CAiufftra, 2004} Solution. (Q — > P) a (- P a Q) o Q vP) a (-
PaQ) » i-Q vP) a t-Pv(Q a- Q)aQ v{Pa -P)| <=> (-QvP)a(“Pv$}a('Pv Q) a
(Q v P) a (Q v ~ P) (~QvP)a('PvQ)a(~Pv'Q)a{Qv P).
Discrete Mathematics 1165 37.14 INFERENCE THEORY
Inferring the conclusions from certain premises is known as the inference
theory. When conclusion is reached from a set of premises by using the
accepted rules of reasoning, then this process is called a deduction or a
formal proof. A proof of a theorem is a valid argument. The criteria for
finding 'whether an argument is valid’ are called rules which are expressed
in terms of premises and conclusions or in terms of statement formulae. The
proofs are of two types : Direct or Indirect. (i) If in a proof the truth of the
premises directly shows the truth of the conclusions, then it is called a
direct proof. iii) An indirect proof proceeds l>y assuming that p is true and
also C is false, and then deduce a contradiction using p and - C, along with
other premises. The only difference between assumptions in a direct proof
or an indirect proof is the negated conclusion. Rules for deriving direct and
indirect proofs : (/) the proof should have fini te steps only ; (it) each step
must lie either a premise or a proposition which is implied from previous
steps using valid equivalence or implication ; (iii) the last step for a direct
proof must be conclusion while for an indirect proof it must be a
contradiction. Example 37.28, State whether the conclusion C follows
logically from the premises R and S (a) R : P -* Q, S:p , C:q Solution. Let
us first form the following truth table : P 9 -P -q P -><7 - (p a g) pe±q 1 1 0
0 1 0 i 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 I l In) Here only the first row of
premises R and S contains 1 but not the conclusion C. Hence C is not valid.
(6) Only the first row of both R and S contains 1 but not the conclusion C.
Hence C is not valid. (c) Here both R and S contain T only in the first row
and the conclusion C also has ‘1’ in that row. Hence our conclusion is valid.
Example 37.29. Find the direct and indirect proofs of p -» (q -> r), ~ r v p, q
-> r -► h. (another premise) (premise) (premise) Solution. Direct proof (i) -
r v p (premise) (ii) r (iii) p [By (i) and (it)] (in) p — » (q -> r) (y) q -+ r [By
(iii) and (iv)] (at) q ( vU ) r [By (y) and (i>/)|, which is a conclusion.
Indirect proof (i) - (s — » r) (negative of conclusion) (ii) ?A~r (By
conditional equivalence) (iii) - r v p (premise) (iy) - r and (o) s [By
conjunctive simplification] (or) p [By dis conjunction of (iii) and fry)] Uni)
p -¥ (q -* r) (premise)
1166 Higher Engineering Mac hematics (viii) q —> r (fx) q U) r
(jci) r a - r This is a contradiction. IBy (ui) and (uii)l {premise) [By ( viu )
and (fjr)] [By (x) and (fi')j PROBLEMS 37,3 1. IF A at (1, 2, 3, 4. !>| be the
universal set, determine the truth values of each of the- following
statement* : (a) (V * e A) (.v + 2< 10) (ft) 3 x 6 A [x + 2 = 10) 2. Negate
each of the following statements : (a) V x, x3 =■ x ■ (b ) y*. x + 5 > x (c)
Some students are 26 or older. id) All students live in the hoatels. 3. What is
the truth value of V x PT*) where P(x> is a statement ‘j2 < 10' and the
universe of discourse consists of positive integers not exceeding 4. 4. Use
universal quantifier to sLate ‘the sum of any two rational numbers is
rational'. 5. Over the uni verse of real numbers, use quantifier to say that the
equation a + x = b has a solution for all values of a and b. 6. Translate the
following statements involving quantifiers, into formulae ! (a) AH rational s
are reals, (fr) No rationals are reals. (e) Some rationale are reals. id) Some
rationals are not reals. 7. Show that Qv(Pa-Q}v(-Pa - Q) is a tautology. 8.
Convert ~ A a ( - B C ) ^ 0 into CNF. {V. T, U. . MCA, 20()1 ) 9. Without
constructing truth tables, obtain the product of sums canonical form of the
formula HP -* R) a «? P). Hence find the sum of products canonicals form.
(Anna, 2004 S) 10. Find the direct proof of p -*■ r, g -> s, p v q => s v r. 1
), Prove IhaL P -> Q, Q -* R, P v R -» R by using indirect method. [Anna,
2004 S) 12. Using quantifier say is not a real number ? 13. State whether
the conclusion C follows logically from the premises R and A' S : - q, C.\q
[b)R :p-*q, S:q, C\
1167 Discrete Mathematics 3. Distributive law : a v {fa a c) = (a v
b) a (a v c ) a a f> v c - [a a 6) v (a a c) 4. Complement law : a a ar = 0, a v
aT = 1 The operations a, v and / are called sum, product, and complement
respectively. We shall follow the usual practice that / has precedence over vt
and v has precedence over a, unless guided by brackets, e.g., a a b v c
means a a (h v c) not (a /\b} v c while a v bT implies avf?' not ( a v 6)’* (2)
Boolean function. The variable x is called a Boolean variable if it assumes
values only from B (0, 1], Def. A function from the set f(xlf x2, xj : xt e B,
1 < i < n) is called a Boolean function of degree n< Boolean functions can
be represented by expressions comprised of variables and Boolean
operations. e.g.i 0, 1, Xy x2P xn are Boolean expressions in the variables xL
(1 £ i £ n). If p and q are Boolean expressions then p a qf p v q and p * are
also Boolean expressions and each represents a Boolean function. By
substituting 0 and 1 for the variables in the expression, the %ralues of this
function can be found* (3) If f and g be Boolean functions of degree n f
then {; i ) Complement off is the function fr where f (^1i ^2* "fl ^2* Hi)
fond g are equal if ffav x.zt xj - glxlt x2> xj {id) Boolean sum f v g is V g)
ix , , x2, . Xn) = flxl rx3, *n) v g(xt , xz, .... xn) (iu) Boolean product f a g is
(/*A Jif) (Xp A'jj, tb., 1^) /(X|? **■* ■"» (4) Power in a Boolean function :
x* = ;t v x = a: j3 = j2vj:=i vi = i, x" = jf Similarly, 2x = x, 3x = x etc.
Example 37.30. Find the values of the Boolean function f - (x a y') v z\
Solution, /"being third degree Boolean function has 2s i.e. 8 values which
are shown in the following tabic : X y 2 y z' jc Ay' (x Ay') vi' l i 1 n 0 0 6 l i
001010lX0000101i011001i0001a0i1110i0010100
0 1 L 0 i mm duality _ (1) The dual of any Boolean function is obtained by
interchanging Boolean sums and Boolean products along with the
interchange of zeros and ones. For example the dual of x v (y a 0) is jc a (y
v 1). The dual of any theorem of a Boolean algebra is also its theorem. This
implies that the dual of any theorem in Boolean algebra is always true. (2)
Principle of duality. The dual of any theorem (or property) in Boolean
algebra is also a theorem (or property).
H 1 SB Higher Engineering Mathematics 37.17 BOOLEAN
IDENTITIES There are many identities in Boolean algebra which are quite
useful in simplifying electrical circuits. Some nf the important ones art?
given below : 1. Identity law : 2. Dominance laws ; 3. Complement law : 4.
Idem potent law : 5. Double complement law : 6. Commutative law : 7.
Associative law : 8. Distributive law : 9. De-Morgan's law : 10. Absorption
law : xv0 = x-,xa1=x jcv1 = 1;jca0 = 0 ivi' = 1;iaj' = 0 x v x - x ; .v a x = x
(jcT = x xvy=yvxtx*y-ynx x v (y v z) = (x v y ) v z x A(y a ?) = (r aj) a?
iv{yAz) = (rviy)A(iv2l x A (y V z) - (x A y ) V (a: a z) x a y =x’ v y’ ; (x
vy)’ -xf a y’ x a fsc v y) = x (Bhopal, 2008) Example 37.31. iff B be a
Boolean algebra. Show that for all a e. B, there exists tt unique complement
a' {Andhra, 2004} Solution. Let b and c be two complements nf a. Then 6 =
6 a I = 6 A (Cf v c) - (b a a) v (f> a r) = (a a ft) v (b a c) = 0v(6 ac) = b A C
Similarly c=c a1=c A(ovi) = (c A (l) V {f A fo) = (o A ( ) v (b a c) = 0 v (fe a
c) = 6 AC From Ei> and (it), we find that b -c. Thus the complement of o is
unique. [ v 0 is an additive identity! [v c is complement of o] [v nA6=cAo'
= 0l [v a v 6 = a v a' - 11 l V fl AC = fl Afl’ = 0| ...(ii) Example 37.32. In a
Boolean algebra, show that (i)x + (x . y) = x (ii) x , (x + y) = x. (Bhopal.
2008 J Solution. (0 x + far .y) = x a (x vy) = (je v 0) a (jc vy) fv xv0=ji| = x
v (0 Ay) [By distributive lawl = x v (y a 0) IBy commutative law) f v y a 0 =
0 - x . (ii) x . (x + y ) = x v fjc a y ) = (x A 1) v (x Ay) [v X A 1 =x = x a (1
vy) 1 By distributive law! = jc a (y v 1) |By commutative law| = X A 1 r v y
v 1 = 1 - x. Example 37.33. Simplify the following : (i ) (x + y) . x* . y’ (if)
x v y Ay vz Ay vzr Uii ) x v y a f(x Ay*) v yf.
OlSCrt£T£ M*1>tEMATlCB 1169 Solution. ( i ) (x a y ) v x' v y'

= (x Ay) v (*' v y') - (x a .vJ v(ia y)' - 1. (ii) X vy AJTVJ Aj'vz'sij V*)A(y
vz) Atj1 v/) = |y V (x A z)\ A (y V z') = y v [x a 2 a 2I =y v ]x a Ua/)I = y v
(re a 0) = yvO = y* flit) x vy a |U Ay') vy)' = x vy a jy v (x Ay')|' = x v y a
l(y v x) a (j- v y'»' — (x V y) A l(jvjr) A 1|' = (x vy) a (x vy)' = 0. [By Dt*
Morgan’s law] fv pvp' = I| |By commutative law| I By distributive law] ! By
associative lawj [y z a?' = 0] I y x a 0 = OJ [By commutative lawj [By
distributive law] [v y v y ' = 1 1 Example 37.34. Show that U ) x vy a y v z
a z v jr = (x a yJ v (yAj) v (z ax) (ti) (x a y) v (x' a 2) = fx' v y) aIjcv z).
(Bhopal. 2008) Solution. (/} R.H.S. - (x a y) v (y a z ) v (z a x) - (x Ay) V (z
A y) V (x A x) [By commutative law| = (x a y ) v (z a y v x) = (x v z) a (y v
z) a lx v (y v x)j a [y v (y a x)J IBy distributive law| = (x v 2) a (y v 2) a
l(xvy) A(yvx)] - (x V z) A ' V (x' A 2)] - ((x v x') v (x v z)\ a l(y v x') a (y v
x)| = [1 v (x v z)| a f(y v x') a (y v z)\ - (x v 2) a (y v 2') a (y v 2) v 1 = (x v
2) a (y v x') a [{y v z) v (x a x')| - (x V z) A (y v x') A [{y v 2) vx[ v (y v 2) v
x'[ = (x v z) a (y vz v x] a (x' vy) v fx' a (y v 2)| = fx v z) v (1 Ay) a (x' vy) v
(1 a z) = [(XV 2) A II A [(x' vy)v 1] - (x v z) a (x' v y ) = R.H.S. IBy
distributive law[ Example 37 J 5. S/iow iftut (1) x v y a f'vy* = fx' a y) v (x
Ay') Hi) lx a (x' v yjj v /x' a fas v y)J —y~ Solution, (i) (x v y) a (x' v y') =
f(x vy) a x'] v [(x v y ) a y'] = [(x a x') V (y A x')| V I(x A y') v (y a /)} [By
distributive law'] = (0 v (x' a y)} v ((x a y') v 0| = (x' a y ) v (x a y'). 1 Y x a
x' - 0 (») \x A (x' v y )] v (x' A (x v y )) = l(x A x') v (x A y )] V |(x' A X) v
(x' a y)l = [0 v (x a y)] v [0 v (x' a y )] = (X V x') A y = y A 1 -y. | v X A x' -
0
1170 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 37.36. If a v x =

b v x and a vx' ~ b vx', then prove that a *b. i.e.f Solution. Since avx — b v
x and a v x' — 6 vxf to V x) A (tt V x‘) - (b V x) A (6 V x’) £1 V (x A x') = h
V (x A x‘) [By distributive law] or a v 0 = b v 0 fv X A x' = 0] or a = b.
Example 37.37. In Boolean algebra [B, +, ,, /j, show that (x.yr + y . z) . (x .
z + y . z'j = x . z (Bhopal, 2008 ; M.P.T.U., 2001 ) Solution. |(x vy') a t_y v
z) I v (|jt v z) a (y v z')} = l(jc V y') Ajl V l(x V y') az] v (tar a zi a y] v |(x v
z) az') = Kx Ay) v {y' a y)} v |(x a z) v ty‘ a z}} v ((x Ay) v (z Ay)] v i(x a
z’) v (z a/)] = {(x Ay) v 0] v {(jc a z) v (y' a z)} v Ux Ay) v (z Ay)] v Ux a
z') v 0) = {(x Ay) v(x Ay)) v «x ax) v (x ax')] v \(z Ay) v{z Ay')] = (x A y) V
(x A 1) V lx A 1) = (x A y) V X V 2 = (x v x v z) A (y V x v z) = (x v z) a (y
v x v z) = (X V 2) A (1 V y) = (x v z) A 1 = X V 2. PROBLEMS 37,4 1.
Find tht* truth table for the Boolean function f\xt yt z} = (x a y) v A a 2.
Write Lho dual of the Boolean expression x + _vf * y - x + y, CA^rfAr«t
SOfM J 3. Simplify the following : U) be a y a z)1 (u) Ixvyv ip) a {x* a / a
4. In a Boolean algebra \B , a, vt / j, prove that ' i ) U ■ y » Ir a y') = x.
(Anna, 2005) Hi ) x" a U v v} = x a _y, 5^ If a a jc = 6 a x and d a = b /. x\
Lhen show ch at a = h. U„ In a Boolean algebra [fl1, a, v, /J, show that O') x
a (x a y) = x aj . lYove t hat (x vyl a U v fx' aj"}J = (x v y) a 13. In a
Boolean algebra B , prove that (a + b)1 = ap , 6" V a, fc o (Bhopal, 2009}
12* In any Boolean algebra, &how that a = b if and only if a , (V * o' * ft =
D. (Madras, 200 1) 13. In Boolean algebra* show Unit UiJJtt + b) * (a1 +
t?) ^ a . o + n" . fr + 6 . c. Uf) 4- £/! , fb + r') . (c + o'> - (a' + b) . W + c) ,
(e1 + a}t {Andhra, 2004) 14. Give the truth table for the Boolean function /:
B,} «♦ B determined by the pol>TiomiaJ P(xL, xyp x^) = Cx, v X3J a (Xj. a
(x.j V xy. (V.T. U. p 200/ j 37.18 MINIMAL BOOLEAN FUNCTION Def.
.4 m/nj'ma/ Boo/tun /urtciion m n variables in the product afx ,, x2, .... xti. It
is also called rninttrm . If x,y are two variables and x\ y’ are their
complementary variables respectively, then x vy, x' vy, x' a y, x a y\ x' vy '
are each a minimal Boolean function.
1171 DtSCRETTE MATVrETWATpCS Similarly there are 2*
i.e* 8 minimal Boolean functions in the three variables x, yt z ia*, > xvjvz,
x* v y v zt Jt v y ' v z, x v y v z', A*vy v z, irvj/v z\ x * v y r v z, v y r v z‘.
In general, Mere arc 2n mini™/ Boo/ean /unctions for miniermsj in n
variables. Similarly the join of the variables xv x2l .... xn is called a
maxterm and there will be 2U maxterms. feTffEl DISJUNCTIVE
NORMAL FORM _ (1) Def. .4 Boolean function which con be expressed
as sum of minimal Boolean functions is called a Disjunctive normal form or
minterm normal form or Canonical form. (2) If the 1 1 umber of distinct
terms in a disjunctive normal form of Boolean, function in n variables are
2n, then it is called a complete disjunctive normal form. (3) Complement
function of a disjunctive normal form function f is the sum of all those
terms of a complete disjunctive normal form which are not present in the
disjunctive normal form off The complement of f is denoted by f‘. For
example, if f = (x v y ) a (x v y' ) then its complete disjunctive normal form
in variables x and y is (x v y) a (*' v y I a (x a y'} a (x* v y ) The
complement function of l his disjunctive normal form is fix, y ) = (x’ a y) a
(x' vy'). Example 37.38. Find the value of the complete disjunctive normal
form in three variables .t. y, z, Solution. The complete disjunctive norma)
form in three variables x, y, z is fx,y, z) = (x vy vz) a (x vj v z‘) a (x v/ v z) a
(x’ vy vz) a (ivy'v2')A U" vy vz') a (x* vy' v 2) a (*' vy' v z' ) - [(x vy) V (2
A 2')J a [tfA/)v{2 A 2')j A [(x' A y) V (z A 2')I A |(x’ V/)v(2 A Z')] = [{x vy)
v Oj a [(x a/) v 0] a [{x’ Ay) v 0] a \{x‘ vy') v 0| = lx v(y Ay'>| a U' v(y Ay’)|
= (x v 0} a
1172 Higher Enginee ring Mathematics - (x2 A 1) V (jfj' A Xg) [v

pvp'=l] = x2 v Xj* a xa IBy identity law) Min term norma] form of /lxt, x2,
x3) = l(Xa' A X2) A (xT V Xj/)] v fOtj' A Xg) A (Xg V Xg')| V [{Xg A Xg)
A lx, V X,')i - (x.f A X2 A Xj) V (x3' A X2 A Xj'l V (x,' A X3 A X.J V (xf A
Xg A Xg') V {Xg A Xg A X, ) V (Xg A Xg A Xj') - (x3’ A X2 A x,) v (x3' A
X2 A Xj') V (Xj‘ A Xg A Xg) V (Xj* A Xg A Xg'} V (Xg A Xg A Xj).
Example 37,40. Express The. following functions into conjunctive normal
forms : (i) x- a y (x Ay) v fx' Ayr>. Solution, (i) x' A y = x' Ay a (z v z') - (x’
a y a z) v (x' a y a z‘). Hi) (x a y) v (x' A y') = [*aja(jv 2’)] v fx' a y' a (z v
z')1 = (x A y A z) V fx A y a z) v (x' a y' a 2) v (x' Ay’ a 2'}. Kxnmple 37.41
. The function f = fx a y a z) v fx a y a z) v fx a y a zV v fx' a y' a 2) r's in
conjunc tive normal form. Write its complement ? Solution. The complete
conjunctive normal form in three variables x, y, 2 is lx a y a z) v lx' Ay a zi
v lx a y' a z) v lx v y v z') v (x a v' a 2') v (x* a y a z') v (x' a y‘ a 2) v (x' a y'
a 2'). The complement of the given function F is F' = (x’ a y a z) v (x a y' a
2’) v (x’ a y a z') v lx' a y' a z’). PROBLEMS 37.5 1. Find the value uf a
complete disjunctive normal form in (i) Lwu variables xt y. Ui) three
variables x, yf z. 2, Express tile following functions into disjunctive noruaal
form : U)x v y (7i)xaU' vyh Express the Boolean function = A . (B* a CJ in
a sum «r min terms, 4, Convert the function x a yr to disjunctive normal
form in Ihree variables x, yY z fj. Express the function f - U v y*) / Cx v z)
a (x v y> into conjunctive normal form in winch maximum number of
variables are m?d, ft, Write the complement of the conjunctive: normal
form function lx y a z’) v (x a / a z*) v (x a y a zfL 37.21 SWITCHING
CIRCUITS (1) A switching network is an arrangement of wires and
switches lor gates) which connect two terminals. A switch can be either
closed or open. A closed switch permits and an open switch stops (low of
current 12) If jo denotes a switch, then p' denotes that switch which is open
whenp is closed and p' is closed when p is open. lfx denotes the state of the
switch p, then x' represents the state of the switch p‘. x is called the Boolean
variable which is a binary' variable. lfx = 1 denotes the switch is closed or
current (lows, then x — 0 denotes that the switch is open or current stops.
(3) Two switches p7 and pH are either connected in series (represented bv
a) or connected in parallel (represented by v). These are shown as follows ;
(i) (p, & /?« in series : /», a Pi) (it) P2 ip, &. p.2 in parallel :p, v p.J
1173 Discrete Mathematics If B [0, 1] is non-empty set and a, v, /

are the operations on B, then the system |(0, 11* a, v, 1] is usually called
Boolean switching algebra. (4) Simplification of circuits. The simplification
of a circuit means the Least complicated circuit with minimum cost and
best results. This depends on the cost of the equipment, number of switches
and the type of the material used. Thus the simplification of circuits implies
the use of lesser number of switches which can be achieved by using
different properties of Boolean algebra. In other words, the simplification of
switching circuits is equivalent to simplification oft he corresponding
Boolean function. Example 37*42- Draw t/u circuit which represents the
Boolean function : ft > (p i P->] A rP,V V O'iJ (pj A p.Jv fjD3 vp||. Solution.
Here p1 a p a is a series circuit while p3 v p4 is a parallel circuit. The
required circuits are as follows ; (i) Pi Pi Pf - (ii) j— i - 4 — / pf Pa P 4
Example 37.43. Write the Boolean functions representing the following
circuits ; Also draw the circuit diagram which would be the complement of
the circuit in ( it). Solution, (i) The given circuit is represented by the
Boolean function : f=P[ A V \p^ A (/JsVpfi)| (/i) The Boolean function for
the given circuit is /“ a pf = (pf A pf) V |tp3 A pf A ((p& V pfl A p7Y\ “
1174 Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. The given circuit
is represented by the Boolean function f = [(/^ vp2) v (p, v p3>J a (pj Ap2')
= (p, vpjvpj) a (p, = (Pi APj Ap2') v (p2 AP1 APj') V (p3 APj A p2') = (pt
Apa’} V V (p-.‘ A (p, Vp , Vp/))] A f.>. 2. Write the Boolean functions
representing the following circuits : 3. Simplify the Boolean functions, p v
ip’ a q) v fp a r/) 4. Simplify the following circuit, and draw the diagram of
the resulting circuit. : 5. Draw the simplified network of fix, y,z}- (x v y v z
> ■ U v v* v z) a far' v 3'' v z ). 6. Consider the function flxv x2, xs) = [(JCj
a .O a («) Simplify f algebraically. (6) Draw the swit ch Lug Circuit of f. (c)
Also find the mintcrm normal form of/. iM.p.fiv., mi 1 lA/odro.?, 1998) IV.
FUZZY SETS 37.22 FUZZY LOGIC We have so far dealt with the
fundamentals of classical logic. Besides this, we have crisp logic which
deals with propositions that are required to be either true or false. There is
however another type of logic which includes not only the crisp values but
all the values between true (1) and false (0>. But there is some degree of
vagueness about the exact value between 10, 1|. The logic to infer a definite
outcome from such vague inputs is culled fuzzy logic. (2) Fuzzy set. To
provide a mathematical modelling to fuzzy logic, L.A. Zudeh introduced
the concept of 'Fuzzy sets’ in 1965 on the basis of a membership function.
The theory of ‘fuzzy sets’ is now fully developed, Def. A fuzzy set F of a
nonzero set X(x) is defined as F = {x, \ipfx)} : x e X. Here ; X -> [0, 1J is a
function called the membership function of F and ppbr) is the degree of
membership ofx e X in F. In particular p(x) - 1 implies full membership
p(x) = 0 implies non-membership and 0 < p(x) < 1 means intermediate
membership, A fuzzy set F is, therefore, a set of pairs consisting of a
particular element of the universe X and its degree of membership i.e.,
eachx is assigned a value in the range (0, 1) indicating the extent to which x
has the attribute F. It can also be represented as F =• (lx,, pffxl)J, [x2,
pF(x2)], ixJ(, p^tx^}]}.
1 1TS Discrete Mathematics For example, if x is the number of
cars in a lane, ‘small’ may be taken as a particular value of the fuzzy
variable x and to each x is assigned a number in the range (0, 1) then p{jr>
e. (0, 1 ) is the membership function . gmftU Ki. ample 37.45 . In a car-
race, all the cars complete the race in four time-groups : shortest time,
moderate time, long time and longest time, Jf we note the time taken by
each car in n group, it will give rise to a distribution of times. Now let us fi
nd the outcome of the race based on engine power, car speed and road
conditions. Each of these variables may further be divided into : (f ) tow,
media m and high for the variable engine power, (ii) slow , moderate and
fast for the variable car speed, (Hi) rough, bumpy and smooth for the
variable road conditions. Now we try to predict on some basis, in which of
the four groups the car will finish, if it has low engine power, moderate
speed and rough road. Then the distribution for the engine power would
correspond to the membership function for low, medium and high.
Similarly the distribution tor the speed would depend on the membership
function for slow, moderate and fast, while the distribution for road
conditions would depend on membership function for rough, bumpy and
smooth. 37.23 FUZZY SET OPERATIONS (1) A fuzzy set is said to be
normalised when the largest element of the set (called supremum ) is unity.
For instance, the set of members (5, 10 . 15, 20, 25} is normalised to |0.2,
0.4, 0,6, 0.8, 1| by dividing each member by 25, the sup rein uni in the set.
The normalization of a fuzzy set F is expressed as Sup F(x) - 1. T £ A' (2)
Complement- The complement of a fuzzy set F is the set F‘ with degree of
membership of an element in P equal to one minus degree of membership
of this element in F. (Fig. 37.5) For example, i (F = |0.4 Rani, 0.6 Sham, 0,8
Jyoti, 0.0 Ritu| be a set of intelligent students, then Fc = 10.6 Ram, 0,4
Sham, 0.2 Jynti, 0.1 Ritu! is a set of nan-intelligent students. Fig. 37.5 Frs G
Fig. 37.6 (3) Intersection. The intersection of two fuzzy sets F and. G is the
set F n G, where the degree of membership of an element, in F r\ G is the
minimum of the degrees of membership of this element in F and G. (Fig.
37.6) (4) Union. The union of two fuzzy sets F and G is the set. Fu O,
where the degree of membership of an element in F u G , is the maximum
of this element in F and G. (Fig. 37.7) For example, if F - |0.5 Rani, 0.2
Suman, 0.4 Anita, 0.8 Sunital he a set of fat girls, and G = [0.1 Rani, 0.G
Suman, 0.9 Anita, 0.5 Sunitaf be a set of tall girls, then F c\G = |0.1 Rani,
0,2 Suman, 0.4 Anita, 0,5 Sunital and FkjG= 10.5 Rani, 0.6 Suman. 0.9
Anita, O.fi Sunital (5) Equality. Two fuzzy sets F and 6T are said to be
equal if and only if Fbr) = GUr) for all x in X. (6) Subset. The fuzzy set F is
said to be a subset of the fuzzy set G ii.e., F c G) if and only if Fix) < Guc)
for all x e X. (7) Double negation. If F is a fuzzy set, then (FCY - 1(8) De
Morgan’s laws. If F and G are two fuzzy sets then (F u GY “ F* r, G‘‘ ; (F n
GY = F u G' .
1176 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 37.46, Let the
membership functions fur the fuzzy sets F and G be as in the following
table : Jf 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 F 0 0 0.1 0.5 0.8 1 0.3 0.5 0 0 G 0 0 H c. 0.1
0.3 0.5 0.8 1 1 F 1 1 0.9 0.5 0.2 0 0,7 0.5 1 1 Then the correspond mg FnG
= 10, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5] F
Discrete Mathep.«tk:-<= 1177 if Fj and or G]t then F, ,, else Table
1 if Fv and or GJr then /f2i, else *i *12 if Fj and or G2, then fl 1JJP else if
F.a and or G.£J then fi22. *21 *22 Gx Gi In case, the fuzzy statements have
more variables, then ‘if then’ rules becomes more complicated to tabulate.
However such a tabulation can be simplified by following a Here u is the
variable that takes value u from some universal set U and F is a fuzzy set on
U which represents a fuzzy predicate such as young, tall, low, high etc.
Given a particular value u (say u), this value belongs to F with membership
grade F(v). This membership grade is then interpreted as the degree of truth
Tip ) of proposition p i.e., 7\p) = F(v) ...(2) Here Tis a fuzzy set on |0, 11
which assigns the membership grade F(v) to each value v of u. In some
fuzzy propositions, values of variable it in (1) are assigned to individuals in
a given set / i.e,, variable u becomes a function u :I —* u where u(i) is the
value of v for individual i in U. Accordingly the canonical form (2) is
modified to the form p : u (i) is F where i e / ...{31 Example 37.47.
Consider a set l of persons, each person is characterised by his ‘ape and a
fuzzy «*/ expressing the predicate 'young’ is given. Denoting our variable
by ‘age’ and fuzzy set by young’, the canonical form is p : age (i) is young.
1178 Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. The degree of
truth of this proposition Tip) is then determined for each person i in / by
moans of the equation T(p) = young [age (i)|Example 37.48. At n particular
place on the earth, consider the air temperature u (in *C). Let Fig. 37.8
represent the membership fiinction as predicate high’. Assuming that all
relevant temperature readings are given, the corresponding fuzzy
proposition is expressed as, p : temp fu) is high (°C) i'' fW+ +-> (f 10 20 :?0
40 50 60 70 80 00 100 Fit. 37*8 Solution. The degree of truth Tip) depends
upon the actual value of the temperature and on the nature of predicate
‘high’ which is defined by the membership function T in Fig. 37.9. e.g., if u
= 75 then F(75) = 0.65 and Tip) = 0.65. Type II. Conditional and
unqualified propositions. A proposition p of this type is expressed by the
canonical form p If x is F then y is G ...(4) where x,y are variables whose
values are in the sets X, Y and F, G are fuzzy sets on X and Y respectively.
These propositions may also be viewed as propositions of the form U.yHsfi
-..(5) where R is a fuzzy set on X x Y which is determined for each x e X
and each y e Y by the formula R(x,y) = B\F{x),Giy)], -(6) where B is a
binary operation as [0, 1| representing a suitable fuzzy implication . Type
III. Unconditional and qualified propositions A proposition of this type is
expressed by either of the following canonical forms : p v u is F is S ...(7)
or p : Prob iU is F) is P ...(8) where u is a variable that takes value a from
some universal set U and F is a fuzzy set on U which represents a fuzzy
predicate .such as small, young, daughter etc. Prob. f U is F) is the
probability of fuzzy set event ‘n is F ’ ; S is the fuzzy truth qualifier and P is
the fuzzy probability qualifier, 5 and P are both represented by fuzzy set on
[0, If. Example 37,49. Mary is ’young' is ‘very true * where the predicate
‘young ’ and the truth qualifier ‘very true’ are represented by the respective
fussy sets shown in Fig. 37.10. Fig. 37.10 Fig. 37.11
Discrete Mathematics 1179 Solution. The degree of truth Tip) of
any truth-qualified proposition p is given for each wet/ by 7’(p) = Assuming
that Mary’s age is 20, she belongs to the set representing the predicate ‘very
young’ with membership grade 0.50, our proposition belongs to the set of
propositions which are 'very true’ with membership grade 0.50 as shown in
Fig. 37.11, This implies that the degree of truth of our truth qualified
proposition is 0.50. If the proposition be modified by changing the predicate
to ‘young’ or the truth qualifier to ‘fairly true’, we would obtain the
corresponding degree of truth of such propositions by the same method.
Type IV. Conditional and qualified propositions Tliis type of propositions
can either be expressed in the canonical form p : If x is F , then y is G in S
or p : Prob (x is Fly is Gj in P, where Prob lx is F/y is G) is conditional
probability. 37.2S APPLICATIONS OF FUZZY SETS The concept of
fuzzy sets has already influenced all engineering disciplines to various
degrees. Electrical engineering is the first such discipline where the utility
of fuzzy logic and fuzzy sets has been recognized by developing
controllers. Electronic circuits for fuzzy image processing have also been
developed. Some ideas regarding the application of fuzzy sets in civil
engineering emerged around 1970, In the construction of bridges, dams,
buildings etc. a designer has to take into account the safety factor for which
the fuzzy theory has an effective role to play. Fuzzy set theory has also
proved quite useful for assessing the life of existing constructions, In
mechanical engineering design problems, the utility of Fuzzy set theory was
realised during mid 1980’s. The membership function is expressed in terms
of thermal expansion or corrosion or cost of different materials etc. When
the utility of fuzzy controllers was increasingly felt around mid 1980’s, the
need for computer hardware to implement the various operations involving
fuzzy logic, had been recognized. In digital mode, fuzzy sets have been
expressed as vectors of f0, 1 ) members. Fuzzy control and fuzzy decision
making are two well -developed areas of fuzzy set theory. These are directly
relevant to industrial engineering problems. The utility of fuzzy sets has
also been recognized for estimating the service life of given equipment
under various conditions. Modern Reliability theory has also been
developed on the assumption of fuzzy sets. At any given time, an
engineering product may be in functioning state to some degree or in failed
state to another degree. The behaviour of an engineering product with
respect to its functioning state and failed state has been characterized as
based on fuzzy set theory. The use of fuzzy set theory in Robotics includes
approximate reasoning, fuzzy controllers, fuzzy pattern recognition and
fuzzy data bases. PROBLEMS 37.7 1, Given fuzzy Bets F] = jfl.G So mn
0.9 Remu, 0 7 Paul, 0.3 Sham] F,k = [0.3 Sham, 0.3 Paul, 0.9 Renut 0,5
SuntjJ and FT1 = [0.8 Paul, 0.3 Sham, 0,5 Sunn, 0.9 ftami] Which of the
above two sets are equal ? 2r Write the complement set of the fu^zy set F. if
F « 10.8 Kam, 0 3 Sham. 0,6 John, 0.7 Charui. ;h IfF- ICkJkp 0.1x£% 0
5xa, 0.8* J and G = |0.4xt, G+6;%( 0,1%. O.t&J been Iwu Tuny sets, l hen
write down F u G and F G. 4, State the trut h values of the negation of the
following propositions : til Truth value oPF is rich' is 0.8 f ii ) Truth value
oFG is Fat* is 0.6 (Hi) Truth value of ‘Mary is beautiful' ia (L7. 5. Let the
membership functions of fuzzy F and G be os follows : X : fl, 2,3.4. 5n 6*
7, St 9, 10J
1180 Higher Engineering Mathematics F 10, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0-3, 0,5,

0.9, 1,1] G : t0, 0, 0.1, 0.5, 0.9, 1, 0.9, 0.5. 0.01 State whether (t) F = G Ui)
F is a su bset of O Also write down Fc. F r\G and F U G. 6, The truth values
nf the statements 'Latir is a good player’ Is 0.7 and 'John is a good player' is
0.6. What is the truth value of {£) the conjunction of the above two
prepositions. (ii) the disjunction of the above prepositions. 7. Define a
Fuzzy set and the standard operations on ft. State the constituents of the pair
in a fuzzy set. 9. Write a note on ‘Fuzzy logic affects many disciplines’ ?
(Bhopal, 2009 ) (Bhopal, 200 n
Tensor Analysis . 1 . Introduction. 2. Summation Convention. 3.
Transformation of coordinates. Tensor of order zero. 4. Kronecker , 1 Delta.
5. Contra variant vectors, Covarianf vectors. 6. Tensors ol higher order. 7.
Symmetric and skew -symmetric I tensors. 8. Addition of tensors. 9. Outer
product of two tensors. 10. Contraction of tensors. 11. Inner product of 1 I
two tensors. 12, Quotient Law, 13, Riemannian space. Metric tensor. 14.
Conjugate tensor, 15. Associated | | tensors. 16. Length of a vector, Angle
between two vectors. 17. Christ offei symbols. 13. Transformation of | .
Christoffel symbols. 19. Covariant differentiation of covariant vector ;
Covariant differentiation ot a contravariant . ' vector. 20. Gradient,
Divergence. Curl. 38.1 Some physical quantities art* specified by their
magnitude only while others by Iheir magnitude and direction. But certain
quantities are associated with two or more directions. Such a quantity is
called a tensor* The stress at a point of an elastic solid is an example of a
tensor which depends on two directions — one normal to the area and other
that of the force on it The properties of tensors are independent of the
frames of reference used to describe them. That is why Einstein found
tensors as a convenient tool for formulation of his Relativity theory. Since
then, the subject of tensor analysis shot into prominence and is of great use
in the study of Riemannian geometry, mechanics, elasticity, electro-magnet
theory and numerous other fields of science and engineering. The
emergence of tensor calculus as a symmetric subject is due to Ricci and his
student LcviCitu. 38.2 SUMMATION CONVENTION Consider a sum of
the type tl + GgE3 + *** + anxn aixi .,.(1) i = l In tensor analysis, the
subscripts of the symbols xv x2 f ... xn are replaced by superscripts and we
write these as *3tx2, .... jd* l. The superscripts do not stand for the various
powers of x but act as labels to distinguish different symbols. The power of
a symbol (say : x*) will be indicated as (xA)2, (x*)'3 etc, Hence (1) is
written as Y, OjX' . . J2) i- 1 A still simpler notation is to drop the I sign and
write (2) as In this the repeated index i successively takes up the values 1P
2, ...* n and the expression (3) represents the sum of all such terms. The
repeated index i over which the summation is to be done, is called a dummy
index since it doesn’t appear in the final result. This notation p known as
summation convention, is due to Einstein. We shall adopt this convention
throughout this chapter and take the sum whenever a letter appears in a term
once as a subscript and once as superscript. 1181
1182 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 38.1. Write the
terms contained in S = ajfgf taking n = 3. Solution. Since the index i occurs
both as a subscript and as a superscript, we first sum on i from l to 3. S = a
lxlxJ + a2jX2x-> * GgX'V Now' each term in S has to be summed up w,r.t.
repeated index j from 1 to 3. 5 = On*1*1 + a^x1 + + aÂ1 + a22Aa +
a23x^3 + agjX3*1 + a32x3 x2 + a33x3x3 = GjjCx1)2 + a.22(x2)2 +■
GggU3!2 + (a12 + a2,)xTlx2 + (o13 + a31)xJx3 + (a^ + Example 38.2, Iff
is a function of n variables x1, write the differential off Solution. Since f =
fix1, x2f , *" ) From Calculus, we have a/ df df - — -dx + — -^dx + ... + af
df cV -dxn =^-dx‘. dxn rV 383 (1) TRANSFORMATION OF
COORDINATES In a 3-dimensional space, the coordinates of a point are
(jc1, x2t x 3} referred to a particular frame of reference. Similarly in an n -
dimensional space, the coordinates of a point are n independent variables
ix\ x2^ ..., xri) with respect to a certain frame of reference. Let lx 1 , S2# xn
) be the coordinates of the same point referred to another frame of
reference. Suppose, jc1, x2J xn are independent single-valued functions of
jc1, jc2, ..., xn so that xl - ^ fe1* x2. ,m,/) jc2 = ^ lx\ x2, JCJ|) xn = $n (jc1,
jc2, jc") or more briefly x1 - ^ (jc1, jc2, je") ... (1) We can solve the
equations (1) and express xl as functions of x' so that x' = V1 (x\x2,...,xn) ..-
(2) The equations ( I) and (2) are said to define a transformation of the
coordinates from one frame of reference to another. (2) Scalars or
invariants. A function (*\ xa, jc31) is called a scalar or an invariant if its
original value does not change upon transformation of coordinates from x1,
x2, x3 to X1 , x2, x3. i. e.t A scalar or invariant is also called a tensor of
order (or rank} zero. 38.4 KRONECKER DELTA* The quantity 6f defined
by the relations iV = 0, when j *■ i and i- si, when j — i , is called
Krunecker delta. Evidently = 6 ff = fi33 = ... = 6^ = 1 while 6j2 = Sja = 532
= ... = 0 "“Called after the German mathematician Leopold Kronecker {
1823—91) who made important contributions to number theory, algebra
and group theory.
Tensor Analvsls 1183 We note that by summing up w.r.t. the
repeated index In general. ^3j^2 " ^31^2 1 + a32®2 + aS3®23 + + “* = 0 +
+ 0 + 0 = o.3g a y V - aalV + %-V + - + aikhk + - + V “ 0 + (} + ... + aik . 1
+ ... + 0 - olftExample 38.3. Show that atAki = Aft-*, ut/tere A {$ ti
dcft'rmittfm/ o/- order throe and A** are cofactors of a’’. {Delhi, 2002)
Solution. By expansion of determinants, we have allA11 + uiaA12 +
a]3A13 - A unAai + ayiA22 + ai;iA23 - 0 UjjA31 + a l2 A32 + a.laA33 - 0
which can be compactly written as altA b = A. a yA% = 0, ayA% - 0 Using
Kronecker delta notation, these can be combined into a single equation a
ltAhi = Aftt* Similarly a2jAkj = AS2*, aSjA^ = Aft3* All these nine
equations are included in &tjAk* - Aft*. Solution. The partial derivatives of
^ in the two coordinate systems are different and are connected by the
following formula of Differential Calculus : tty ckji dx"1 + cty dx* cty dxa
_ tV|) fix1 ~ dx1 ' dx‘ fix2 ' dx ' dx3 dx1 ~ dxk dxi dx Sx^ d x* In
particular, when 4> = as', we have — - = — — dx1 dxk dr1 Since jd is
independent ofjt', dxddx' = 0, when,/ ^ i — 1, when j — £ Hence the result
follows from ti) and fit). ...If) ...tit) (1) COMTRAVARIANT VECTORS Let
A1. A2, ..., A" t£.e., A') he a set of n functions of the coordinate system x1,
x2, .... x" (t.e,, x'J. Ifthe.se transform in another system of coordinates xl ,
x2, . xn(i.e., x‘) according to the law — . 5x* A' =?±-AJ &xJ ...Cl) then A'
are called components of a contra variant vector or contra variant tensor of
order one. An example of a contravariant vector. Let us transform the
coordinates of a point x' to x' in a ts-dimeiisional space. Since x is a
function of x' (i.e., xv x2, ..., xn), therefore, d? + &t' , -4 fix1 „ dx" dx ex' t?
ici - ~——r clx\ using the summation convention. dxJ
1184 Higher Engineering IVIatneawLCS Comparing this with
(1), it follows that the set of differentials dx\ dx2, .... dx* 1' is an example of
a contravariant vector. That Is why the coordinates of a point are numbered
by superscripts and not by subscripts. (2) Covariant vectors. Let Af he a set
of n functions of the coordinate system jc'. If these transform in another
system of coordinates x1 according to the lain A = — A dx1 J .,.(2) then A -
are called the components of a covariant vector or covariant tensor of order
one. An example of a covariant vector. Let $ be a function which has a fixed
value at each point of space independent of the coordinate system
employed. Therefore, is a function of the coordinates jc’ in the first system
and a function of the coordinates x‘ in the second system. By the chain rule
at1 at* a*2 *¥L _ j*t at a*' T dx’ ~ ac1 dx‘ fix2 dx‘ dx’1 dx ~ dx1 dx’ dx2
dx' + ex’ Ax’ Comparing this equation with (2), it follows that the set of
derivatives, diffdx1, dtydx2 . d$lcx!l form a covariant vector. Example 38-
5. A covarinnt tensor has components xy, 2y - z2, xz in rectangular
coordinates . Find its co variant components in spherical coordinates. and
Solution. Here Let jc1 = x, x2 = y, x s = 2 jc1 = rT x" =0,xJ =( z - r = cos 0
yi Now cfc1 . dx2 . cw3 A -TTfA + A + cx ox A dx Ay,-. 2. dz . Aa ~ — xy
+ — (2y — z) + — xz Bx1 dr dr dr ...ini) [From (i) and («)] - sin U cos . r
sin 0 cos 0 , r sin G sin $ + r sin G cos } be a set of nz functions of the
coordinates x1, x2, xn which transforms to A,J in another system of
coordinates x1 , xy , x " , according to the law A’* Px' cx‘ ki dx* ax' ...a)
then the functions A J are said to be components of a contravariant tensor of
the second order.
Tfnson Analysis 1185 (2) If At) be a set of ril functions of x1, x2.
.... x" which transform to A,-, in another system of coordinates, x1 , 3c2, ...»
xn according to the law -r ik* fie' ...(2) then the functions Ay are said to be
the components of a covariant tensor of the second order. (3) If A'j be a set
of n2 functions of x\ x2, ...» xn which transform to Aj in another system of
coordinates, X1, 5ca, ...» according to the taw -Ti dx1 fix1 A = — . - rAki, }
dxk dxJ ...(3) then A'; are said to be the components of a mixed tensor of the
second order. It transforms like a contra variant vector with respect to the
index i and like a covariant vector with regard to the index j. That is why i
is placed as a superscript and j as subscript. We can similarly define tensors
of the orders higher than two. Ob*. Each of the above laws of
transformation (1.) to 13), give rise to /ia equations as i and j are each given
the value 1 to n . Example 38.6. Show that the Kronecker delta is a mixed
tensor of order two. Solution. If lx( transforms to 5/ in the coordinate
system x1,*:2,,.., xn by the law for mixed tensors of order two, then T; fix1
dxJ dxJ dxm dxJ _ j Oj “ . ui ” » r- ” ' '™ Oy 1 dx1 fix"1 &cm fix1 fix' [ v B
= 0 for l * m | Hence is a mixed tensor of order two, having the same
components in every coordinate system. Example 38.7. Show that the
velocity of a. fluid at any point is a contravariant tensor of rank one.
Solution. Let dx^/dtydx^ldi, dxA/dt be the components of fluid velocity of
the point (x1 , x2, x3), i,e., dx'tdl be the components of velocity in the
coordinate system xl. Suppose the corresponding components of velocity in
the coordinate system xJ are dxJ Idt. Then x1 , 5t2, x3 being the functions
of' x], x2, x3 which in turn are functions of t, we can write dx^ _ dx± dx'
fi&_ dx2 fix^_ dx* dt dx1 dt fix2 dt Sjc3 dt dxJ fix J dx ' or dt fx' dt Now
according to the law of tensor transformation, (i) shows that the velocity of
a fluid is a contravariant tensor of rank one. Example 38.8. Prove that there
is no distribution between contravariant and covariant vectors if the
transformation Iau> is of the form x‘ = a‘mx"‘ + b', where a’s and b’s are
constants such that = o'jr t Bhopal, 2003 ) Solution, Given transformation x'
= atmxm + bl yields fix1 fix'” - a’ ...U) Mi) Also from ti), u' x‘ — a' a xm +
a1 b‘ r * ^ r m ' r = + aib* = x* + a‘ bl. m r t rx dxr i . — r = ar i.e,, —?=K
cx dx ..Xiii)
1186 Higher Engineering Mathematics From (ii) and (i ii), it is
clear that any vector with components e, b, c will on transformation give the
same components whether transformed as a contravariant vector or as a
covariant vector. Thus in this case, there is no distinction between the two.
38.7 SYMMETRIC AND SKEW-SYMMETRIC TENSORS (1) A tensor is
said to be symmetric with respect to two contravariant tor two coco riant)
indices if its components remain unchanged on an interchange of the two
indices. Thus the tensor Aij is symmetric if A1' = A'L, for every i and j. (2)
A tensor is said to be skew -symmetric with respect to two contravariant (or
covariant) indices, if its components change sign on interchange of the two
indices. Thus the tensor A** is skew-symmetric if AJ’ = -A,J for every i and
j. In general, the tensor Aj£* is said to be symmetric or skew symmetric in i
and j according as or - Af* Example 38.fl. Show that (i) a symmetric tensor
of the second order has only j n (n + 1) different components. (ii) A skew-
symmetric tensor of the second order has only |:Vi (n - I) different non-zero
components. Solution. (0 Let A‘J be a symmetric tensor of order two so that
A*-' = A'*, If each of the indices i and j take the values 1 to n, then A1J will
have n2 components. Out of these n2 components, n components A, j, A22,
... Anfi are independent. Thus the remaining components are In2 - n) which
can be taken in pairs ( v An - A2], A3l - Ai3 etc.) Hence the total number of
independent components = « + i(«2-n)= ]-n{n + 1) jL xL (ii) Let A1' be a
skew-symmetric tensor of order two so that A‘J = A’1. As above, A'1 will
have n2 components. Out of these, n components A] 5, A22, ... A'1'1 are all
zero. [ v A 1 1 = - A1 1 j. Omitting these, there are (n2 - n) components.
Since A 12 = - A21, A13 = - Aaj etc., therefore ignoring the sign, (/i2 — n 1
components can be taken in pairs. Hence the total number of independent
non-zero components = — (n2 - n) = — - 1) . 2 2 PROBLEMS 38.1 1 .
Write the following using the summation convention ; (ii) (*l)J + U2)2 +
(x3)2 ♦ ... + vx1’)*. dxl nfi dx2 tty dx" ' 1 f _ . “ _ 1 . ^ _ I* „ + "O dt rbe*
dt at2 dt 2. Write out in Full the fo} lowing : (i) iij ~ 1, 2, 3) 3. (o) Shows
that o'f is an invariant. (h) Evaluate it) o'; &>f. ■1, Show that It) - — = & e
Sr' 9 dx" dt (it) gud*fidmi,j = 1. 2, 3) .... dxp hxp (u) - - =&f. cxQ ox'
(Bhopal, 2003 ) 5. If the r ’s are n independent Functions of x’s end i.j, k, i.
each take values from l to n, show that ft? dxf ,.r.
Tensor Analvsis 1187 Write down l he law of transformation for
the tensors «>V 7. A quantity Aft, j, k, l, m> which is a function of the
coordinates xp transforms to another coordinate system x'* 1 according to
the law : 8. 9. to. II. A Cr, s. t , u, u) = cxr dx fit* fit' fir kj,m) fixJ SxJ fix'
fttu fix" Is this quantity a tensor ? If so express it suitably and state its
nature and rank ? If the components of two tensors are equal in one
coordinate system, show that they are equal in all coordinate systems. A
covariant tensor has components 2x~z, r^y, yz in cartesian coordinate
system. Find its components in (a) cylindrical coordinates (Punjab, M.E.,
1989) rf>) spherical coordinates. If g(-t denotes the components of a
covariant tensor of rank two, show that the product chf dx* is an invariant
scalar. J (Delhi, 2002) A contra variant tensor has components n, h, c in
rectangular coordinates : find the components in Spherical coordinates. 12.
Prove that is an invariant, iffl1 and t? are con Lrs variant vectors and A, is a
covarianl, tensor. (Madras, M.E.. 2000 ) Id. Show that rA^dx‘! is not a
tensor even though A is a covariant tensor of rank one. (Bhopal , 2003) 14.
If a tensor Aw^ is u skew-symmetric with respect to the indices p and q in
one coordinate system, show that it remains skew-symmetric with respect to
p and q in any coordinate system. 38.8 ADDITION OF TENSORS type.
The sum (or difference) of two tensors of the same order and type is another
tensor of the same order and Let Atj and B,; be two tensors of the same
order and same type. Their components in the coordinates system x 1 , xZ ,
x'1 are A., and li.,, such that t fix* dxl , — - 7 - 7 A J fix’ fix-' and B, = fix*
fix' V -.-i j -®A( ox CXJ = fir* fix' Ai T ± B, = ~(Akt ± Bki ) Le. , Cs = ™-
^l_Cw ^ J fix1 fixJ v fix' dxJ ThuK C. ■ transforms in exactly the same
manner as A and B. and is, therefore, a tensor of the same order y v *j and
same type. OUTER PRODUCT OF TWO TENSORS If is a contra variant
tensor of order two and Bkt is a covariant tensor of order two then their
product is a mixed tensor C^k! of order four such that >U "(i fix' SxJ __ V
fir ex' „ A1* - ; - -B fisp fix7 ){dxk fix' " * ^ fix’ fix-' fix'" fir *£/*}£ _ fix1
fixJ fixr dx" cxp fir7 fix* fix' Dxp dx9 fix* fix' But this is the law of
transformation of a mixed tensor of order four. Therefore, Cijhi is a mixed
tensor of order four. Such products are called outer products of two tensors.
38.10 CONTRACTION OF A TENSOR Consider a mixed tensor Af* of
order four. By the law of transformation, we have Aii* = At»ir 1 dxp fix7
dxr fix' 9
Higher Engineering Mathematics In this, put the covariant index l
- a contravariant index i, so that dxs _ dx‘ fad fix* dxs pqr _ 8xJ fix cxF
fix* dxr dx1 ex' 7 dxr dxp A™r 8x_ ^ ^pqr _ dx* dx j^pqr ^ dxr p a dxq dxr
p tX’ This shows that Ajjk is a contravarian t tensor of order two. The
process of getting a tensor of lower order (reduced by 2) by putting a cai
ariunt index equal to a contravariant. index and performing the summation
indicated is known as contraction. The tensors A'fk and AJ* obtained from
contraction of the same tensor Af* are generally different from each other
unless the tensor A‘ff: is symmetric with respect to i and./ {i.e.,Ajk = A?*),
3S.11 INNER PRODUCT OF TWO TENSORS Given the tensors A% and
if we first form their outer product Bjjr and contract this by putting p - k,
then the result is AiJkB*r which is also a tensor, called the inner product of
the given tensors. Hence the inner product of two tensors is obtained by
first taking their outer product and then by contracting it We can get several
inner products for the same two tensors by contracting in different ways.
Example 38 A 0. Show that any inner product of the tensors Af and Bf* is a
tensor of rank three , Solution. The transformation laws forAândiJ^ are ...
(i) and Dx ^ D a? = ——a: - , . , dx1 dxr S*,.K KKb*. dx J 6x 1 dx1 UU)
Inner product of Af and Bf* is Apsr = r dxp ex"'' fix* dx* fix'" 1 ^ fix' dxq j
^ c*xJ dx1 fixf , Ai Bl 8xp fix* ex’" fix' fix* fix dxp dxs fix'1 —t J ft* Al
Hi fix' Sac1 dx 1 Aj B>n Hence the inner product of Ap and Bf* is a tensor
of rank 3. Similarly putting p = t in the product of (j ) and (it) and noting
that dxp fix'" fix'” - — - — ft i, fix’ dxP fix' A!*B'jf is found to be a tensor
of rank 3. r p Similarly, A^Bêan also be shown to be a tensor of rank 3.
fix* fix'* fix* k V — - - - - r = b ; fix'* xV fV J 38.12 QUOTIENT LAW To
ascertain that a set of given functions forma the components of a tensor, we
have to verify if the functions obey the tensor transformation Jaws. But tliis
is a very tedious job. A simple test is provided by the quotient law which
states that if the inner product of a set of functions with an arbitrary tensor
is a tensor, then these set of functions are the components of a tensor. The
proof of this law is given below for a particular case.
T emeor Analysis 1189 Example 3ft. 1 1 . Show that the
expression A(i,j , k) is a tensor if its inner produet with an arbitrary tensor
Bjjis a tensor. Solution. Let A(l,J, k) Bg= C\ ...(i) where C[ is a tensor. In
the coordinate system x\ let (i) transform to A(p, q, r)B?° = C; .Mi) where
Bqs and Cp are the components of the tensors B,/ and C/. Expressing in
terms of Bj/1 and Cp in terms of C/ , (ii) takes the form dx1* dxs ex* g ji _
dxa Bx* k ~^xfWp ' 0X* ErX* Multiplying ii) by — r — — and
subtracting from {Hi), we get dx* dxp a, \ dx* dxs dx A , . . t using
summation convention. 1> The coefficients afJ are the Functions of the
coordinates x\ The quadratic form ( 1) is called a Riemannian metric and
any space in which the distance is given by a such a metric is called a
Riemannian space.* If in a particular coordinate system X*f the quadratic
form (1) reduces to the form ds2 = (dXx)* + (dX2)2 + ... then il is called a
Euclidean metric and the corresponding space is called the Euclidean space.
See footnote on p. 67 ’i
1190 Higher Engineering Mathematics Obit, The geometry baited
un the Riemanman metric is called the ffiemarmum geometry and that
based tin the Euclidean metric is cal led the Euclidean geometry. (2) Metric
tensor. As in the physical space, the distance da in the n -dimensional space
is assumed to be independent of the coordinate system* i.e. a scalar
invariant or a tensor of order zero. In the relation (1), dx' and dx! being
displacements are components of a contravariant vector or a tensor of order
one. Therefore, their outer product dx’dxJ is a contravariant tensor of order
two. By the quotient law, the functions aij must be components of a co
variant tensor of order two. Let us write ai} = gtJ + hif where gtJ = \ (atJ +
aj() and hi} = \ (atj -aJtl Interchanging i and jt we have gJt = + atj} = gy and
hjt - | (aJt - atj) - - hy gif is symmetric and A - is skew- sym metric. Thus (1)
take the form ds2 = ahdx^dxf = (gtj + h.j) dx*dxJ Now hijdxldxJ is zero,
since Ay is skew- sym metric. Hence ds2 =g-jdxldxJ where is a covariant
symmetric tensor of order two. Ft is called the metric tensor or the first
fundamental tensor. 38.14 CONJUGATE TENSOR Let g be the
determinant | g | and Cjp denote the cofactors of gy in g. Define the function
of gv by the relation ffi ~ CtJg ,„(1) Since the functions gtj and Gt) are
symmetric in the subscripts, the functions will be symmetric in the
superscripts. Now Gti g Gtl gii^f = gij~r = ~ = 1 g,g,J=gy o v s g v y g = 1,
if l = it =0, if l*i Thus gygb = 6/ .,.(2) If u1 be an arbitrary contravariant
tensor, then its inner product with the tensor gy will be an arbitrary
covariant tensor due to contraction, i.e.. gyU/ = Vf .43) sfyj = gt'gyiiJ = u\
which is a contravariant tensor of order one. Therefore by quotient law, gb
are the components of a contravariant tensor of order two. Hence g1' is a
symmetric contravariant tensor which is called the conjugate tensor or the
second fundamental tensor. Ob*. In view of (it), (he relation between gy
and ft5 is reciprocal. As such the first and second fundamental tensors are
also called reciprocal tensors. Example .18.12. Find the components of the
first and second fundamental tensors in Spherical mordi nates. Solution. Let
(r1, x2, x3) be the rectangular cartesian coordinates and r 1 , r2, je* be the
spherical coordi* nates of a point so that xi = x,x2 = y, x3 = 2, and jc1 = r,
x2 - 0, 5f: 3 = $ ™(i) and We know that x = r sin 0 cos i|i, y = r sin 0 sin 2 =
r cos 0 ...fit) Letg^ and grj be the metric tensors in cartesian and spherical
coordinates respectively. Then ds2 = (dx1)2 + (dx2)2 + (dx3)2 = g^dx^dx*
-■ gll~ ^ " ^2S ” ^33' 5 12 " ® " ^]3 " ^23 *4tu) _ dxp dxq dx 1 dx 1 Cx2
dx2 dxs &3 s‘J~WSF*”=a¥Wtu +WWg™ "wed*™ ...iiv) On
transformation
Tensor Analysis Putting i =j = 1 in (in), we have ( dx' f f dx 2 f
Mi? g,,+b? ^ + ''at"''2 ifi1; £33 "(I) +(!) +(S) [By «,»d (/,«,] = (sin 0 cos
ij>)2 + (sin 0 sin )2 + (r cos 0 sin
0 0 l/r2 0 0 0 l/r2sin2 0 Example 38-13- Find the

components of the metric tensor and the
conjugate tensor in cylindrical coordinates.
Solution. Let (x1, x2, x3) be the cartesian
coordinates and {x1 , x2, x3) be the cylindrical
coordinates of a point so that x1 = x, x2 = y, x3 = z
and x1 = p, xz = , y = p sin z = z ...(H) Let gpy and
g- be the metric tensors in cartesian and
cylindrical coordinates respectively. Then ds2 —
(dx1)2 + (dx2)2 + (dx3)2 = g^cb? gji = 1 =^22 =
^33 and ^12 = 0 = g13 =^2a —(wi) On
transformation, dxp dxq dxL dx1 dx 2 dx1 &c3
&3 gtJ ~ dx‘ d& gpq ~^¥~d^gn + dr dxJ g%i + dr
dxJ g™ -Mv)
1192 Higher Engineering Mathematics Putting i - j = 1 in Uu\ we
h^ve fix' Jf f&V = cos3 + sin2 4> + 0 = 1 Putting i =j = 2 in hu), we have
!By (i) and (it)] S'i'i = i- a"2 dx2 gn + fit2 dx* g'i'i + wi?) **■(!) +(f) +(t) =
)2 + 0 = p2 (By (i) and (it) \ Similarly g$Q ~ ar3; Sn + 2 \ dx dx 3 J Si 2 *
'dx* S¥ fc-0*0*l-l an(l gl2 - 0 - #jg - gZ\ ~ 33 - ail - gas Hence the metric
tensor, written in matrix form, is 1 0 0 '1 0 o' 0 P2 0 g = 0 P2 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 -
P2 Also cofactors in g are given by - P2, G22 = 1, G33 - p2 j Grz = 0 = Gig
- G21 = G2g - G The components of the conjugate tensor are given by g,J -
G^/g. Hence the conjugate tensor in matrix form is 1 0 0 0 1/p2 0 0 0 1 31 ~
^32 38.15 ASSOCIATED TENSORS From (3) of § 38.14, we have u ■> , g
~ — vt ...( 1) i.e., the inner product of the tensor uJ with the fundamental
tensor gtJ is another tensor u which is called the associated tensor of uJ,
Similarly, we have v(.^ = uJ ...(2) Hence ur is the associated tensor of u(*.
Thus the indices of any tensor can be lowered or raised by forming its inner
product with either of the fundamental tensors gi} o t gij as in (1) or (2J
above. 38.16 in LENGTH OF A VECTOR The vector A is given by A =
A’gi or A = Afg‘ Also we have the associated vectors A; = gifA> or A 1 =
gÂj Length of vector A = (A . A) 1/2 = (Aigi . A,gj)1/2 = (g,-ALA)m - (A-
A')1'2 Also length of vector A = (A . A) 1/2 = LA,#1 . ) 1/2 - (gijA!Aj)'12 -
(A -A1)112 Hence the magnitude or length of the vector A = V(&/A*AJ } =
^(giJ Ai A j ) - ^(AÂ’) which is an invariant. ...(]} ...(2J ...(3} [By (1)1 gj ■
gk ~ ify l [By (2)| (By (3)1 ...(4)
Tensor Analysis DIjh. The length of a vector A\ 0. 0 (in 3-
dimensions) is J{gllAiA[ JT Le. yfgnAl . Similarly the length of the vector
0, A?* p 0 is -jgÂ1 and the length of the vector 0,0, A ® is yjgÂ* . f
fence the physical components of a vector A 1 art {2} Angle between two
vectors. Let A and B be the given vectors such that A ~ A*g. and B = BJgf
A , B = | A ] | B | cos 0 or cos i) A . B x&gu lAllBl yJ(gijA'Aj ) ) In terms of
associated vectors, we have cos 0 A'B, ...(5) [Using <4) and (5)1
PROBLEMS 38.3 I. If rfs2 = 5W*1)2 + attbt-P + 4fv3)2 - 6 daldx2 +
4dx7dx3i find the values of git and g‘j. 2. Find g and gV corresponding to
the metric ds2 dP + iîdO2 + sin- fi d!«|sa). l-rVna 3. The cuntrnvariant
components of a vector A in plane cartesian coordinates * ■ *>, y = are (33,
66). Using the tensor law of transformation, obtain the new components in
polar coordinates r = jE1, and 6 = xs. *1. Prove that the angles C12, 0^ and
BSI between the coordinate curves in a 3 -dimensional coordinate system
are given by «* #a = T " 'i- ; • 108 &si = ■ \\BuBto) vl@S&£aaJ n) 5*
Prove that for an orthogonal coordinate system (i) ffu = Sx = ^31 = 0 («) gl
1 = %u. gn = g-sx = Ug™ 38.17 CHRISTOFFEL SYMBOLS Christoffel
symbol of the first kind is denoted by [y, A] and is defined by &gjk , 4ra %
) . & fix*' dx* J -..(I) where gtj are the components of the metric tensor,
Christoffel symbol of the second kind is denoted by J and is defined by j*j
=*" U/> n 13 Some authors write Christoffel symbol of the second kind as
ty. k ) or 1 d . Obm 1 . No summation is indicated in the Christoffel symbol
of the first, kind, but summation is to be made over t in the Christofiel
symbol of the second kind. Ohs, 2. It is evident from ( 1) and (2) that the
Christoffel symbols ofboth kinds are symmetric in the indices i and j. ly, *1
= \ji, A] and «i Example 38.14. If fdsp = (dtp + r2 (d§P + r2 sin2 0 (dfy)2,
find the values of (a) [22, 11 and \ 13, 3] (M
Higher Engineering Mathematics Solution. It is a 3 -dimensional
space in spherical coordinates such that x1 = r, x2 = G and Clearly £n = 1,
ua2 =r2, = r® sin* 0 and gcJ = 0 for i *j Alsou11 ~ 1- A'22 = 1/r2, u33 -
1A*3 sin2 0 (a) Christoffe) symbols of the first kind are given by [y, + 2 fix'
dxJ cxk I , Taking i = 2 ,j = 2, and k = ] in (tit), we get Putting i = 1, j = 3
and k = 3 in (iii), we obtain kj'.A 1,2.3 \ (See Ex. 38.12) ...mg'j or &” % =
i\/k,j\ 4 [jk, VI) ex dx dx —(Li) ...(ui) IBy (in) I (By(it)J [By (o)l ...(it)
[Refer to §38. 14 12) [ v S', - 1 or 01 [From (a)J
Tensor Analysis 1195 or £• - (** ji) - •* (**■ [*'|)-*h {« }-**£}
Interchanging itt and _/T we obtain the desired result* 38.18
TRANSFORMATION OF CHRISTOFF EL SYMBOLS The fundamental
tensors g--, glJ and also (y, A I are functions of the coordinates x‘. Let these
transform to gtJ , g>J and [ij, A1 in another coordinate system xr. (1) Law
of transformation of Christoffel symbol of first kind. Let ly, A] which is a
function of .it', transform to [y, AJ in another coordinate system x!. Then W,
o *=* 2 ^ Ox1 Since gi} is a oovariant tensor of order two, wo have _ dxp
dxq Bit “ dx1 dx* g, P and (5) in f 1 J, we obtain jTT- 7, d2xp &
1196 Higher Engineering Mathematics and V^tw. H rl - [ 1 } Ipv]
d2xp 8xl thcp fix'1 cxl S' or 8x‘8xJ a c'x fix' ex’ ex fiV r^t t pq ex' dxp fix"
dxl + '} PQ J dxldx-* fix' fix1 fixJ c'x1 This is the law of transformation of
ChristofTel symbol of the second kind. Olw, 1, From (10), we obtain the
following important relation : ...(10) fix' H tlx*1 fix* 1 pq ...(01) dx*dxJ
fix' [y'J (Sr dxJ 1 si. 2. It is evident from (6) and (10) that the ChristofTel 3-
itidex symbols are not tensors. These symbols transform like tensors only
for linear transformation of coordinates. or Example 38,16, Prove that { ' j-
= — (log x jg ) . IvJ fir' Solution. Let Gjk he the co-factor of^ in# so that#
=gik Gifr dg = G ik Also We know that ogJ ogik dxJ 'k dxJ gik _ 2it 8
(summation over k only) |v Gsk does not contain^ implic*tly| (summation
over t and h) (/') ...(H) Substitut ing the value of Gjf, from (ii) in (i), we get
cxJ 86 & g fir' S fix' dxJ dog g) =.gk(\jkt *1 + Uj, A]) (By Ex. 38,15 (n)J
Hence ...(iii) 38.19 (1) COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION OF A
COVARIANT VECTOR Let Ar and A, be the components of a covariant
vector (i.e., a tensor of first order) in the coordinate system x* and if'
respectively. Let us investigate the tensor character of the partial derivatives
of A, w.r.t. the variables - dxp xJ. From the law of transformation. A, = -^—
A fix' 8 A. tbcp i’A.. fit9 Differentiating w.r.t. xs , we have — - - — rA„ +-
— - p fix' dxJdxl p fix' fir9 fix' ..(1) (Note that A is not directly a function of
x*h fiA„ Due to presence of the first term on the R.H.S. of (1), it is evident
that — — is not a tensor. fir9
Tensor Akalvsjs 1197 2„* 0‘j On replacing this term by _ . As anti
substituting lbr the second derivative from Ml) of § 35.18, we gel dxlGxJ
M, or 8At dx3 . j l | 6xp ex'* ^ f s } 8xp ctc^ & dxJ dx1 ]i j\ dx‘ 8xJ * | PQ J
6xl dxJ 8 dxq [p?j ^-a r «eJ- ' V j\ This shows that the expression rtc* dxq
dx1 8xJ 1 1 A , 8xJ li j is a covariant tensor of the second order. Th is is
called the covariant derivative of A, w.r.t xJ and is denoted by A j(2)
Covariant differentiation of a contravariant vector. Let A‘ and A' be the
components of a contravariant vector in the coordinate systems x 1 and x*.
From the law of transformation Af - -—.A1. dx Differentiating w.r.t. xi , we
have dA« d2xs -i dx* eA‘ ^ A' + cx] dxJdxl dx’ dxJ Substituting for the
second derivative from (11} of § 35.18, we get PA* dxq (he* | l 1 8xp dx**
1 s 1 (he* dA' W 8x‘ \ l 1 s U« 33eJ dx1 |i j\ dx1 dxJ Ip q) dx q dxJ dx ' 1/ j)
dx* dxJ [p ?! dx' dxJ Interchanging the (lummy indices i, l In the first term
on the E.H.S. and putting ebe^ — ■ A1 = A? in the second term, we obtain
ex' dxq dA =K\ 1 s ) Ci‘ [( j\ SxJ !/> - first tensor. Example 38.17. Prove
that the covariant derivative of g‘J is zero. Solu« ion- Let At denote a
covariant vector which moves parallel to itself so that *A , i - n
1198 Higher Engineering Mathematics Let 4 -g'i AlAj so that is a
scalar invariant. Differentiating it w.r.t, xk, we have — = |jr44 j + g” + gu A
— is denoted by grad 4» - - — which is a covariant vector. (2} Divergence.
The divergence of the contra variant vector A' is defined by div A' = — r +
A* I .1 which is s 5xl j* ij sometimes written as A1 , ** The divergence of
the enva riant vector is defined by div Af = g’k A^. (3) Curl. Let A( be a
covariant vector, then A ^ dxJ are covariant tensors. A- — A dx* ex‘ is a
covariant tensor of second order, which is called curl ofA{ , Thus curl At =
A( j — A , 01 iff 1. Curl Af is a shew -symmetric tensor. Since 4 .i“4j ““*4
J~AJ.P(Jim. 2. Curl is a tensor and not a vector. In a 3-dimension at space,
however, curl has only three independent nonzero components and it can,
therefore, be taken as a vector. Example 38.18. Prove that [ ■
TENSQft ANALYSIS 1199 Solution, (a) Using i 1 8 , r 1 djg . =

—J lOg ^ = -T= -vf! ij &* .. Ai M1 .* [ i I SAl A* djg 8Ak A * dyfg cbc' [ft
i j ^Jg dxk 8xk Jg dxk Hi) We have and - div grad § pJL grad 4> = — ,
which is a co variant vector. ckr The eontravariant vector associated with
d$/dxr is A* = gkr Then from and Hi), V2
Useful Information 1. Basic Constants i. BASIC DATA * =
2.7183 Ve = 0.3679 log,. 2 =0.6931 log,, 3 = 1.0986 n = 3.1416 1/jt =0,3183
logr 10 =2.3026 kigjjje =0.4343 V2 = 1.4142 v'a = 1-732 1 rad. = 57*17'
45" I" =0.0174 rad. 2. Conversion Factors 1 ft. = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m 1 m
= 100 cm = 3.2804 ft. 1 ft* = 0.0929 m1 1 acre = 4840 yd2 = 4046.77 m2 1
ft3 = 0,0283 m3 1 m9 = 35.32 ft® 1 m/scc = 3.2804 ft/sec. 1 nvile/h =
1,609 km/h 3. Systems of Units Quantity F.P.S. system C.G.S, system
M.K.S. system Length foot (ft) cenlrimetre (cm) metre (m) Mafia pound
fib) gram (gm) kilogram (kg) Time second (sec) second (sec) second (sec)
Fort# lb. wtdyne newton fnt) Note. The M.K.S. system is also known as the
International system of units fSI system). 4. Greek Letters Used a alpha * V
0 theta t kappa X tan u beta 4 phi M mu X rhi 7 gamma V pd V nil to
omega 8 delta \ xi n pi T cap, gamma c epsilon n eta P rho & cap. delta l
iota C X fceU lambda sigma £ cap. sigma 5. Some Notations e belongs tp u
union £ does not belong to n intersection implies V such thrtt implies &
implied by 1201
Hiqheh Engineering Mathematics Factorial n i.e., n ! = n(n -1) (n-
2) 3,2. 1. Dauble factorials : (2ft)!! = 2 n (2 n ~ 2) (2ft — 4) . . 6.4.2. (2n
-!)!!= (2n - 1) (2ra - 3) (2n - 6) . 5.3, 1. Stirling’s approximation. When n is
large n ! - . ft'1 e~ n. D. ALGEBRA 1 . Quadratic equation : ax2 + bx + c =
0 has roots -£> + Vfc2 -~4ac) -b-îb2 -4ac) ot - — — - “ . ) = - 2a 2 a a + |i
- - — , aJJ = — , a a Roots are equal if 62 ~ 4 tic = 0 Roofs are real and
distinct if 62 - 4ae > 0 Roots are imaginary if 62 - 4ar < 0 2. Cubic equation
; i3 + tx1 + mx + n = 0 Cardan’s method : ii.) Remove jc2 term by putting y
= x - (- //3) (ii) Equate coefls. in the new equation and y;* - ‘Suvy - (u:i +
l3) - 0 (mj Find a3 and t?3. Then find u and u. (if) Gel y - u + o and x~y- 11
3. 3. Biquadratic equation : xA + kx3 + lx'2 + mx + n = 0 I. Fer run’s
method : (i ) Combine jt4 and x3 terms into a perfect square by adding a
term in X. (ii) Make R.H.S. a perfect square to And X. {iii) Solve resulting
quadratic equations. II. Descarte’s method : ti) Remove r1 term by puttingy
= x - (- it/4) (ii) Equate transformed expression to (y2 + py + g) (y2 - py +
q) (iii) Equate coeJTs. oflike powers from both sides. (in) Find p, q and q
and solve resulting quadratics, 4. Cross-multi plication : a^x + b,y + CjZ =
0 OgT + b^v + câ = 0 Then fv y = u + o 6|CS - bjCj cjOj - CgOi a tb2 -
o26j 5. Method of least squares : (t) Straight tine of best fit y = a + bx.
Normal equations : Ly = na + blx, Ley = aLr + bZx2. To find a, b, solve
these equations. (ii) Parabola of best fit y = a + bx + cjc2 Normal equations
; Ly — na + blx + cLr2, Lry - oLr + blx~ + rLr3, Lr^y = nix’ + bLx3 + fix4
To find a, b, c, solve these equations, 6, Progressions : (i) Numbers a, a + d,
a + 2d, ... are said to be in Arithmetic progression (A.PJ Its nth term T = a +
n - 1 d and sum S - — (2u + n - 1 d) n "2 (ii) Numbers a, ar, nr2 . . are said
to be in Geometric progression (G.PJ Its nth term T = or*1- 1 and sum S„ -
— — — S = Q 1- r 1- r (r< 1)
Appendix 1 — Useful Information (iii) Numbers 1/a, 1/fa + d),
l/(a + 2d), ...... are said to be in Harmonic progression (H.F.) (i.e., a
sequence is said to be in H.P. if its reciprocals are in A.P .) Its nth term Tn -
l/(a + n - 1 d) (iu) If a and b be two numbers then their Arithmetic mean =
— (a + b), Geometric mean - Jab, Harmonic mean = 2abf(a + b) 2 (o)
Natural numbers are 1, 2, 3, _ _ n. _ nfn + 1} _ , n(n + 1) (2n + 1) in = - , I
n£ = J — “ - 7. Permutations and Combinations np n! ■ ''C = r> n I nP _ 1 r
. nr > —nr ■ nr _ 1 _ nr Tu^TTT Crt C«-1-C" (n - r) ! 8. Binomial theorem
(i) When n is a punitive integer (1 +*)'1 = 1 + nCl x + nC2x2 + "C,*3 + . +
nC" jc*. iii) When n is a negative integer or a fraction (1 + x)n = 1 + nx +
{in) Binomial coefficients : nCf = n (n " 1) 1.2 jc2 + n(n-l)(n-2) 1.2.3 sc3 +
n ! r !(n ~ r) ! 9. Logarithms (i) Naturals logarithm logs has baser and is
inverse ofV, Common logarithm logl0 x - M log x where M = log10 e =
0.4343 fit) logu 1 = 0; logu 0 = - « (u > 1) ; loga a - 1. (iii) log (mn) = log m
+ log n ; log (min) = log m - log n ; log (mn) = n log m. 10. Partial
Fractions A fraction of the form _ + fttac + * , + a m 60xn +61jc’l_1 + . . +
&„ in which m and n are positive integers, is called a rational algebraic
fraction. When the numerator is of a lower degree than the denominator, it
is called a proper fraction. To resolve a given fraction into partial fractions ,
we first factorise t he denominator into real factors. These will be either
linear or quadratic, and some factors repeated. Then the proper fraction is
resolved into a sum of partial fractions such that ii) to a non -repeated linear
factor x - a in the denominator corresponds a partial fraction of the form
A/{x - a); {ii) to n repeated linear factor (x - a)r in the denominator
corresponds the sum of r partial fractions of the form A, + ... + K x-a (j e-
a)2 (tf -a)3 (j£-a)r (ii/) to a non- repeated Quadratic /actor ix2 + ax + b) in
the denominator, corresponds a partial fraction of the form j— — ; x* + ax
+ b (iu) to a repeated quadratic /actor (x2 + ax + bf in the denominator,
corresponds the sum of r partial h Arx + Bf fractions of the form A1' * + +
+ x2+ax + b (x3+ox + 6)2 {xz + ax + 6}'' Then we have to determine the
unknown constants A, Av Bj etc. To obtain the partial fraction
corresponding to the non-repeated linear factor x-a in the denominator, put
x-a everywhere in. the given fraction except in the fae tor x-a itself.
1204 HiGHEft Engineering Maihevuics In all other case*, equate
the given fraction to a sum of suitable partial If actions in accordance with
(i) to (iv) above, having Found the partial fractions corresponding to the
non-repeated linear factors by the above rule. Then multiply both sides by
the denominator of the given fraction and equate the coefficients of like
powersofjc or substitute convenient numerical values ofjcon both sides.
Finally solve the simplest of the resulting equations to find the unknown
constants. 11. Matrices (i) A system of mn numbers arranged in a
rectangular array of m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m « n.
In particular if m - n, it is called a square matrix of order n. in) Two
matrices of the same order r an be added nr subtracted by add i ng or
subtracting the corresponding elements. (Hi) Product of a matrix A by a
scalar k is a matrix whose each element is k times the corresponding
elements of A. (iv) Two matrices can be multiplied only when the number
of columns in the first is equal to the number of rows in the second. If A is
of order m x ti and B is of order n x p, then the product AB is a matrix of
order m xp, obtained by multiplying and adding the row elements of A with
the corresponding column dements of B. (u) Transpose of a matrix A is the
matrix obtained by interchanging its rows and columns and is denoted by
A'. A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = Ar and skew symmetric
if A = -A'. (ui) If A and B are two square matrices such that AB = I (Le., a
unit matrix), then B is called the inverse of A and is denoted by A-1,
ThenAA-1 - A'1 A -1. (mi) Rank of a matrix is the largest order of any non-
vanishing minor of the matrix. (uiii) Consistency of a system of equations
in n unknowns. If the rank of the coefficient matrix A be r and that of the
augmented matrix K be r\ then (а) the equations are inconsistent (i.e. there
is no solution) when r t r, (б) the equations are consistent when r = r . (c) the
equations are consistent and there are infinite number of solutions when r =
r' < n. (ix) Eigen values: If A is any square matrix of order n, then the
determinant of the matrix A - )Jn equated to zero is called the Characteri&t
equation of A and its roots are called the eigen values of A. (x) Cayley'
Hamilton theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic
equation. 12. Determinants ( i ) A determinant is defined for a square matrix
A and is denoted by | A | . Unlike a matrix it has a single value e.g. , I A b‘i
c2 b;i f‘:i a* °.i C2 C3 h = Oj (b
1205 Appendix 1— Useful I^gfcmation III. GEOMETRY 1*
Coordinates of a point : Cartesian fa, y) and polar (r, 0). x = r cos Gt y = r
sin 0 or r = + y*}9 0 - tan-1 iy/x). (Fig. 0,1), Distance, between two points
ixx, y% ) and f.t2J y2) ” V({*£ - xx)~ + t>2 Point of division of the Jine
joining (jC|,._V|) and (x2f yr£) in the ratio m : ; m2 is ( mjij + 1712*1 m\y*
+ ^>1 m ^ ■ m.. mj + m2 In a triangle having vertices (x%f j,)f ;y2) and
(x3, y3) (i) Area - — 2 *1 1 *2 1 *3 >'3 1 (it) Ceitiroirf (point of
intersection of medians) is (xi +x2 +x3 Ji + >a+y3 (33 (tit) Incentre (point
of intersection of the internal bisectors of the angles) is ( axi+bx 2 + ar3
Qj>i + by2 + c y3 ' 1 o+ft+c ’ u + ft + c j where a, ft, c are the lengths of the
sides of the triangle. (io) Cirrumcentrr is the point of intersection of the
right bisectors of the sides of the triangle. UO Ortkvcentre is the point of
intersection of the perpendiculars drawn from the vertices to the opposite
sides of the triangle. 2. Straight Line [i) Slope of the line joining the points
(*., y.) and (x„, vJ = — — — x2 -x, fl, .. , a . coeff. of x Slope of the line ox
+• 6v + c = 0 is - — i.e. , - ft coen. of y Hi) Equation of a line (a) having
slope m and cutting an intercept c on y-axis is y = mx + c. (ft) cutting
intercepts a and ft from the axes is — + 2. = 1. a b (c) passing through
(Xj.y,) and having slope m isy -y, = m(x — x() id) passing through (x,, y.)
and making an ZB with the. x> axis is - — — = - — - r eus 0 sin 0 (c)
through the point of intersection of the lines a,x + b^y + ct = 0 and u^x +
ftay e c2 - 0 is UjX + ft].v + c, + k[a^c + ft^ + c2) = 0 mj — (iii) Angle
between two lines having slopes and m2 is tan -i 1 + fnjma Two lines are
parallel if Two lines are perpendicular if Any line parallel to the line Any
line perpendicular to m , = TTi.j fTt' j tn ™ 1 ax +- by + e = 0 is ax + fty +
k - 0 ax + by + e = 0 is bx - ay + k - 0 (it) Length of the perpendicular from
(Xj.yj to the line ax + by + c = 0, is lM 1 * — 1 j+fV(a2 + fr) 3. Circle (i)
Equation of the circle having centre (ft, A) and radius r is (x - h)* + (y - ft)2
- r~ (it) Equation x2 + y2 + l2gx x2fy + c-B represents a circle having
centre i-g,- f) and radius - 'lig2 + f1 - c).
1206 Higher Engineering Mathematics (lit] Equation of the
tangent at the point to the circled + y2 = a2 is wcJ+J0't = fl2‘ (it1)
Condition for the line y ~ mx + r to touch the circle x2 + y2 — a2 is f =
fl^(l + m2). (c ) Length of the tangent from the point (xr y t ) to the circle x2
+ y2 + 2gx + + c - 0 is V(jft2 + yf +■ 2gxt + 2fy^+ c). 4. Parabola (ij
Standard equation of the parabola y2 - 4 ax. Its parametric equations are x -
at2,y - 2 at, Latus-rectum LV = 4a, Focus is S (a, 0) Directrix ZM is x + a =
0, Focal distance of any point P {xlT Vj) on the parabola y2 = 4ojc is SP =
Xj + a Equation of the tangent at (xt,y,) to the parabola y2 = 4ax is yyx = 2c
ix + xt) Condition for the Uney - mx + C to touch the parabola y 2 - 4 ax is
c - ahn. Equation of the normal to the parabola y2 - 4 ax in terms of its
slope m is y = mx - 2 am - am3. Fig, AP-l.2 Fig. AP‘1.3 (ii ) Other standard
farms of parabola v* = - 4oa‘ y" - - 4 ax Lai us rectu m : LV - 4a Focus- S (-
at 0) Directrix ZM : x ~ a Focal distance : SP = a —x x2 p day xJ- 4ur S
(0,a) ZM : y = - a SP = a + y x 8 •* - fey - - 4oy LV = 4a S (0, - a) ZM :y = a
SP = a y 5. Ellipse x2 v 2 (i) Standard equation of the ellipse V— + Z_ = 1
(a > 6 > 0). a b It parametric equations are x - a cos 0, y - b sin 8.
Eccentricity e= ^{1- f>2/a2), Latus-rectum LSL' = 2b2lu. Foci S l-ae, 0)
and S' (etc, 0) Directrices ZM (x = -u fe) and Z'M' {x = ale ). Sum of the
focal distances of any point an the ellipse is equal to the major axis i.e., SP
+ S'P - 2a. Equation of the tangent at the point Uj, y, ] to the ellipse a-2 y 2 ,
■ vyi i -r+T2=lls-r+Tr = 1 a 2 b 2 a b Fig. AP-1.4
Appendix f— Useful Information 1207 is c = 'l (a2 m- + f>2) %
y_ b 2 X y Cii) Another standard form of ellipse — + = 1 (a > 6 > 0) o~ fr
Vertices,' A (Oo, ft) ; AJ (I 1, - a) Foci : S (0, lie) ; S ' (0, - ae) Directrices ;
ZM :y — ale, Z'M' : y = - ah Lut us rectum : LSU - 2 b2!a, 6. Hyperbola (i )
Standard equations of the hyperbola is *L £ml 2 j 2 ft 6 Its parametric
equations are x = ft sec 0, y - h tan 0, Eccentricity e = \'(1 + b2/a2), Latus-
rectum LSL' = 2 b2/a. Directrices ZM (x = ah) and Z'M' (x = ~ ale). (ii)
Equation of the tangent at the point (jrp.Vj) to the hyperbola x4 y1 - 1 iR ”1
m _ i a2 b 2 1 lS u2 b2 ~ 1 (Hi) Condition for the line y~mx + c to touch the
hyperbola Ji v2 ^V-1r = liaf = V(ft2 m2-f>2) a1 b£ iiv) Asymptotes of the
hyperbola ±_ _ = 1 are — + — = 0 and — = 0. a2 G2 n 6 ah (y) Equation of
the rectangular hyperbola with asymptotes as axes is jc.y Its parametric
equations are x = ctty - e/t. 7. Nature of a conic The equation ax 2 + 2fuy +
fry2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a h g It) a pair of lines, if h b f (~A) = 0
.8 f | («) a circle, if u = b, h = 0, A * 0 tiii) a parabola, if ab - h? = 0, A * 0,
(it.) on ellipse, if ab -h‘1> 0, A * Q, (y) a hyperbola, ifab - k2 < 0, A * 0.
and a rectangular hyperbola if in addition, a + b = 0. -M -AT c2 IV. SOLID
GEOMETRY 1. (i) If/, m, n be the direction cosines of a line then I2 + m2 +
n2 = 1. If a, b, c be the direction ratios of a line then / = ■” ■ ; m - ^ ; n - c
/za2 VXo* (ii) I T 6 be the angle between the lines having d.c.’s /, m, n and
T , m\ n', then cos 0 = IT + mm' + nn' Lines are perpendicular if, IT + mm' +
nn' - 0 Lines arc parallel if l = T, m = m’, n = n'
1208 Higher Engineering Mathematics (m) Projection of the line
joining the points {jc1> yt, z,) and (x2, v2, z2) on a line having (Lc.’s l, m,
n = l {*, - jc£) + m(y, - y,f) +- «(s , - z2), 2. Plane (/} Different forms of
equation of a plane — Genera/ form : ax + by + cs = d where a, b, c are the
d.r.s of a normal to the plane. — Normal form : lx + my + nz = p X y z —
Intercept form : — + — + — = 1 . a b c — Any plane passing through the
point (jf,, Vj, zfi is cr (jc - jfj) + b (y -y,) + c (z -Z]} = 0 (ii) Angle 6
between the planes ax + by + cz=d and a'x + b'y + e'z - d' is given by „ aa' +
bb' + cc1 cos 0 = - — V(a 1 + b2 + c2 ) V (a'E + b'2 + tr#s ) Phenes are
perpendicular if cm' + bb' + cc = 0 Planes are parallel if ala’ = bib' - vie’
[Hi) Any plane parallel to the plane ax + by + cz - d is ax + by + ez - k, 3.
Straight line (i) Equation of the line through the point (jc,, .yp zt) having
d.r.s a, 6t c is j-*i a b c (ii) Equation of the line through the points U^yj. Zj)
and (#2>y2, 'fi *-*i y-yi . 2~2i *2"*i y2~y} (Hi) Angle 0 between the plane
ax + by + cz = d and the line *-*i_y-yi izli a ' b ' c' . . _ _ aa’ + bb’ + cc' "
V2-^1 *3-2i mi ni oh >h and equation of the plane containing these lines is
x2 -*i k h *-*i y-y i 2 - zi 1, mx b, 1-2 m2 n2 (i>) Shortest distance between
two skew lines = 0 iza.=2z*=£zi an
1209 Appendix \ — Useful Information Equation of the line of
S.D. is given by x-xl 1 i 1 * - *» y - y* * - h h 77l j = 0 and . /«£ fTlo tl 2 I
m n it m n 4. Sphere (i) Equation of the sphere having cen tre (a, b, e) and
radius r is (a: - a J2 + (y - b )2 + (z - e)2 = r2 (ii) Equation x2 + .y2 + z2 + 2
ux + 2iry + 2wz + d = 0 represents a sphere having centre [- u, - i>, - u>)
and radius = V(u2 + v2 + w2 - d) (Hi) Equation of the sphere having the
points (x1,y]> zt) and (x2,„y2, z2) as the ends of a diameter is (x -Xj) (x-
x2) + (y-y,)(y-y2) + (z -Zj) (? -z2) ~ 0 (it/) Equation of a circle (Le. , section
of a sphere S = 0 by the plane U - 0) is given by S = 0 and U = 0 taken
together. (u) Equation of any sphere through the circle of intersection of the
sphere S = 0 and the plane U - 0 is S + kU = 0. {oil Tangent plane at any
point (xlt y,, z,) of the sphere x2 + y2 + ir2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2 wz + d = 0 is
xx, + yy, + zz, + u(x + x^ + o(y + y,) + u/ (z + zx) + d = 0 (vii) Two spheres
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2 ux + 2uy + 2wz + d ~0 and x2 + y2 + 22 + 2u'x + 2 v'y +
2a 'z + d' - 0 cut orthogonally if2uu + 2c o' + 2 ww' = d + d'. 5. Cone (i)
Equation of a cone with vertex at the origin is a homogeneous equation of
the second degree in x, y, z. (ii) Enveloping cone of the Sphere S = 0 with
vertex (xlP yx, zx) is SSj = T~ where S - x2 + y2 + z2 - a 2, Sl=x2+y*+z*-
a*.T = xx1+yyl + zzx-a* 6. Quadric surfaces (i) Ellipoid: (ii) Hyperboloid
of one sheet: Hyperboloid of two sheets: lift) Cone: (to) Elliptic paraboloid:
Hyperbolic paraboloid: 7. Volumes and surface areas Solid Volume Curi’ed
surface urea Total surface area Cube (side a) a2 4 a2 Qa1 Cuboid (length
breadth 6. bright A) Ibh 2(Ub)h 21 lb 4 bh + hi) Sphere (radius r) inr2
Cylinder (base radius r , height h) nr’A 2 Krh rter(r + h) Cone {base radius
r, height h) ;tr/ nrtr + /} whore slant height / is given by l = Vfjra + A4).
1210 Higher Engineering Mat hematics V. TRIGONOMETRY 1.
ff" = 0 30 45 60 90 tm 270 360 sin 6 0 V2 \/S S/2 l 0 -1 0 cos e 1 m VS 1/2
0 - 1 0 1 tan 6 0 1 is 1 s (» 0 “ M 0 2. Signs and variations of t-ratios
Quadrant sltt 0 cos 0 fan 0 I + + + {o to u lltoW (0 to ») II & nt no) (0 to - I)
(- to 0) m — + (0 to - 1) (-1 totn (fl £$ w) iy tI(-1 loO) (Otot) 3- Any t -rutin
of in . 90° ± 0) = ± same ratio of 6, when n is men. = ± co-ratio of fl, when
n is odd , The sign + or - is to be decided from the Quadrant in which n .
90“ ± t) lies. e.g., sin 570° = sin (6 x 90° + 30°) = - sin 30° =■ tan 315' - tan
{3 x 90° + 45°) = - coL 45° = - l 4. sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos (A ±B) - cos A cos B + sin A sin B sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A = 2 tan A/(l +
tan2 A) cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A = 1 - 2 sin2 A = 2 cos2 A - 1 tan(A±B)= ^
^ ~ tan ^ ; tan 2A = 2ta"A 1 + tan A tan B 1 - tan2 A 5, sin A cos B = — |sin
(A + J?) + sin (A — B)J j£i cos A sin B - — [sin (A + Bl- sin (A - B)1 2 cos
A cos B - — [cos (A + B) + cos iA - fi)] 2 sin A sin B = - [cos (A - B) - cos
(A +■ B)] 2 _ „ ■ C + D C-D 6* sin C + sin D - 2 sin — - — cos — - — d d
. „ . n rt C+D . C-D sin C - gin D = 2 cm — - — sin — - — d d C+D C-D
cos C + cos D = 2 cos — - — cos — - — „ , - C+D . C-D cos C — cos Z) =
- 2 sin - sin 1 -tan2 A 1 + tan2 A 2 2
1211 Appendix ' — Useful Information 7. sin 3A = 3 sin A - 4
sin3 A, cos 3A = 4 cos3 A - 3 cos A; tan 3A 3 tan A - tan 3 A 1-3 tan2 A 8. a
sin x + 6 cos x = r sin (x + 6) a cos x + b sin x-r cos (x - 0) where a = r cos
6, h = r sin 0 so that r - 'Jfa2 + 621, 0 = tan-1 ( bla ) 9- In any A ABC : U)
a/sin A - bl sin B - c/sin C (Sine formula) (ii) cos A = — — {Cosine
formula ) 26c (m) ct = 6 cos C + c cos B (Projection formula) (iu) Area of A
ABC = — 6c sin A - Js(s - a) (s - 6) (s - r) where s = — (a + b + c). 2 1 2 10.
Series X X 3 (i) Exponential series : e* = 1 + — + — + — + . «■ l! 2! 3!
(ii) Sin . cos, sink, cosh series x 3 *5 sm x = x - + . . bo, cos x 3! 5! , x* x3
sinh x = x + — + — + ...... w, cosh x 3! SI (Hi) Log series (iu) Gregory
series x2 x3 x 2 _ _ _x_ x 4 r 2! 4! 2 4 X _ .1. X 2! T\ f Xs x + — + — + . 2
3 tan-1 * = x - “ + - _ _ «, tanh-1 x = - |(ig ^ + 1 - x + fL + fL + 35 2 B 1-* 3
5 11. (i ) Complex number : z - x + iy - r (cos 0 + i sin 8) = r e'9 [see Fig.
AP- 1.11 (ii) Euler's theorem ; cos 0 + i sin 0 = (i ii) Demoivre's theorem :
(cos 0 + t sin 0)n = cos hB + i sin n0 12. (i) Hyperbolic functions : (i) sinh x
= e* - e~* A* - £ e + e ; cosh x 2 2 . sinh x cosh x , 1 .1 tanh x = - ; coth x =
- ; sech x = - 1 cnsech x - cosh x sinh x cosh x sinh x (it) Relations between
hyperbolic and circular functions : sin ix ~ i sinh x; cos ix - cosh x ; tan ix -
i tanh x. (iii) Inverse hyperbolic functions: sinh 1 x - log [x + ^x2 + 1 Ji
cosh-1 x = log [x + V(x2 - 1)1; tanh-1 x = — log 1 + x . 2 1- x VI,
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 1. Standard limits : xn - an (i) Lt - = nan ~ l,
n any rational number *-» » X — a (tii) Lt (l + x)w* = e nO _ ttx — 1 (v) Lt
- =logo *-+0 X .... . sinx (ii) Lt - - 1 x — * 0 X (in) Lt xiU * 1 j “
HtGHEfl Engineering Mathematics 2. Differentiation d , . dv du
(l) — (uu) = u— + L1 — dx dx dx du du dy (ChainR^ ( it ) -p(eI> = eT dx
d — (tog, x) = 1/x (iii) -“-(sin x) = cos x dx — (tan x } = sec2 x dx d —
(sec x) = sec x tan x dx ~] - a " [sin (ax + 6 + nrc/2)] [cos (ax + 6)J [cos (ax
+ ft + /ni/2)J Dn f* [sin (ftx + c)"j = (a2 + [cos (fax + c) J ft2)"1'2 [sin (ftx +
c + n tan-1 bla) cos (ftx + c + n tan'1 6/a) (oii) Leibnitz theorem: (uv)n = itn
+ nC,iin _ ,0, + v2 + - + "C,. un_r vr + . + "Cnvn 2 Y y~ x3 3. (i) A
laclaiirin's series : fix) = /(0) + — f (0) + — f" (0) + — - f"’ (0) + 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
2 x3 (ii) Ta^/or's series : fix + a) = f[a) + — f* (a) + — f ” (a) + — f (a) + ...
1! 2! 3! 4. Curvature (i) Radius of curvature p = 2\3/2 J_2 , _ 2^3/2 fjr
_0±Kri n_ tr*Wv yi > p - 1 - - ; P = r — . r + 2 r, - rr2 «P (ill Centre of
curvature : x ~x ~ >^1 + Jj2} „ ■- y -y + — u +y1\ y% y2 (/ii ) EvoJute is
the locus of the centre of curvature of a curve „ The curve is called the
involute of the evolute, (ii.1) Envelope of a curve fix, y, a) = 0 is the "a* el
inunant from f(x>y,a) = 0 and (x, y, a) - 0. da. The envelope of the norma/s
to a curve is its evolute.
1213 Append;:- 1— Useful Information 5. Asymptotes O')
Asymptotes parallel tax-axis are obtained by equating to zero the coefficient
of the highest power ofx in the equation, provided this is not merely a
constant. Asymptotes parallel toy-axis are obtained by equating to zero the
coefficient of highest power ofy in the equation, provided this is not merely
a constant, (ii) Oblique asymptotes tire obtained as follows: Put x - l,y = m
in the highest degrees terms getting §n(m ) Put (m) = 0 and find the values
of m. Find c from c = - bn _ If two values of m are equal, then find c from y
C f "i ) + 0 for minimum.
1214 Higher Engineering Mathematics VII. INTEGRAL
CALCULUS 1. Integration (0 *n+ 1 i) f x*dx = ?— (n*- 1) J TJ + 1 | e1 dx
^ e* (ii) | sin x dx - - cos x J tan x (Lx - ~ log cos x J sec x dx - log (sec x +
tan x) sec2 x dx = tan x dx J' J a +x a a i 3 - ~3 2a J a-x dx 1 , a + x - — log
a- x -j - ?- = — loe x -a* 2a x + a J ^ dx = logf x j a* dx = ar/log. a | cos-xdx
= sinx | cot x dx = log sin x | cosec x dx ~ log (cosec x - cot x) J cosec2x dx
- - cot x f dx , j* J Vta2-*3)^ a h J V(a +x2} a J d(x2 - a2) a liv) J V(as-
x2)d* = [ V(aE + x3)dx = J 2 xti (a* — x* ) a" . _iX ■ - - + — Sin — 2 2 a |
V{ x 2 -ai)dx xV(a2 + x2) a2 ■ ,-1 * — + — sinh — 2 a xV(x3-a2) a3 (o) |
e“ si sin 6x dx = a3 +b2 - — cosh"1 — (a sin bx - ft cos fax) I cos bxdx—
(a cos 6x + ft sin fix) I a2 + f>2 (id) | sinh xdx = cosh x J cosh x dx - sinh x
J tanh x dx = log cosh x J coth xdx - log sinh x j sech 3 xdx - tanh x J
cosech3 xdx =- coth x , ^ f"/2 ■ n f"/2 n , (n - 1) (n - 3) (re - 6) (k , .t . \ (on)
sin x dx = cos x dx = - - - — - - - x — , only if n is even Jo Jo n(n-2)(n-4) .
{2 } r * cm- x * . (m - iHm - 3)— x tn - 11 (n - 3) Jo (ocii) [ fix) dx = f f(a -
x) dx Jo Jo J fix) dx - 2 1 fix) dx , = 0, Jêi fa fix) dx = 2 fix ) dx , o Jo (m +
n) (m + n - 2) (m + n - 4) , 1 1, only if both m and n are even = 0, if /tx) is
an even function if fix} is an odd function. \{fi2a-x) =f(x) iff (2a ~x) = -fixl
Appendix 1— Useful Information 1?15 2. Lengths of curves (i)
Leath of curve y = fix) between x = a, x = b is j 1 1 + | dx £ii) Length nf
curve x - f(y) between y = a, y = b is J Jl 1 + J dy (Hi) Length of curve x =
f(t)ty = § ft) between t - ty t = t2 is j Jj(^) + (^) i-ll | 2 ( dr dt (iv) Length of
curve r - f(Q) between 0 ~ a, 0 = |3 in J ^ |r" + [ do ^ ^ ^ 3. Areas of curves
d> (i) Area bounded by y = fix), x-axis and x = u. x = h is y dx Jq fti (ii)
Area bounded by x - fly), y-axis and y = a,y - b is xdy Jq 1 fp (Hi) Area
bounded by r = f (ft) and lines 0 = a, 0 = fi is — r 2 dB 2 Jo 4. Volumes of
revolution (i) Volume, of revolution about x-axis of area bounded 6v y =
fix), x-axis and x = a, x = b \ s jv dx (it) Volume of revolution about y-axis
of area bou tided by x = f (y)t y-axis and >■ - a, y - b is rnx2 dy (Hi)
Volume of revolution bounded by r - f(Q) and 0 =; a, 0 = Ji (a) about OX = f
— r'^sinBdB (b) about OY~ f — r'^cosBdB J& 3 Ja 3 5* Surface areas of
revolution (i) Surface area of revolution about x-axis of curve y = fix) from
x = a to x = b is fx = b S ~ I 2 ny ds Cartesian Polar form : arm farm \ S =
where ^ j Parametric form : S-Jz-wf* whe" f * j|(f ) +(f ) (ii) Surface area of
revolution about y-axis is i 27tx ds. 6. Multiple integrals (i) Area - £ J dx dy
• Volume = J ' J zdxdy or j J J J ' dxdydz jj xp dx dy j j y p dx dy (it) C.G. of
a plane lamina: x |J p dx dy JJ p dx dy
C.G. of a solid x Higher Engineering Mathematics HI Jtp dx dy
dz J|| yp dx dy dz ||| ^p dx dy dz HI p dx dy dz ||| p dx dy dz ||| p dx dy dz J|
px dx dy || pydxdy (iti) Centre of pressure x ~ — _ A || pdxdy || p dx dy A A
(it?) M.L about x-axis i.e., lx = |j| p (y2 + z2)dx dy dz M.I. about y-axis Le.
, ly - ||| p iz2 + x2)dx dy dz M.L about z-axis i.e. , I. - ||| p (jf2 + y2)dx dy dz
7. Gamma function Rn) = J e~x 5fn_1 dx = (n- 1) t, Tin + 1) = n Hu) = n !,
Rl/2) = Vn Beta function p(m, n) = f xm~l f 1— ^ 1 dx - (m > 0, n > 0) Jo
T(m + n) vm. VECTORS 1. (i ) If R = *1 + j J + zK then r = | R j = >/f x2 +
y2 + a2) — > (ii) PQ - Position vector of Q - position vector of P. 2. If A
=«jl + a2 J + atj K, B = ft, I + ft., J + ft;i K, then (i) Scalar product: A • E =
ah cos 6 = «, ft, + u,, ft2 + ft., (ii) Vector product: A x B = ab sin BN = Area
of the parallelogram having A and B as sides I J K £ll q2 dj ft, ft2 6-, (h 0 B
1 A if A . B = 0 and A is parallel to B if A x B = 0 3. (i) Scalar triple product
[ABC] = fit} fl-J ft, ft2 63 - Volume of parallelepiped ci c2 c3 {ii) If [A B
C] = 0, then A, B, C are coplanar. (ill) Vector triple product A x (B x C) =
(A . C) B - (A . B) C (Ax B)xC*(C. A) B - (C . B) A 4. (i> grarf/^V/Î + ^J
+ ^K ax ay dz divF= VF- + dx dy dz l J K ± ± ± dx dy dz fi ft ft (ii) If div F
= 0, then F is called a solenoidal vector. (id) If curl F = 0 then F is called an
irrotational vector 5. Velocity = dR/dt ; Acceleration = d'*¥Udt2 \ Tangent
vector = JR/dt ; Normal vector = V p 6. Green's theorem: |^(
Appendix 1 — Useful Information Stoke’s theorem: f F . dR - f
curl F . N ds Jr Js Gauss divergence theorem: J F . N ds = | div F do 7.
Coordinate systems Coordinate transformations y = r bin 0 dCx, y) Polar
coordinates (r, 0> j£ = r cos 6 Jacobian (Arc-length)2 Vnlumeêlement = r
t&r, BJ {dsf = { drt + rHdtt? dxdy = r d() dr Cylindrical coordinates fp, z)
A- p cob y = p si n 2 - 2 dU. y, z) = 3Cp. $. *) ' (ds)1 - (dp)2 + + (dz)3 d.V
= p dp dty dz Spherical polar coordinates (r, 6, x=r sin 0 lob 0 y - r sin 0 sin
$ 2 = r cos 0 =^Bine Mr, M> (ds>4 = (dn3 + HidQr + (r sin dV - n sin 0 dr
d0 di jt DC. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 1. Equations of first order (i)
Variables separable : fly) dy/dx - (ft (x), | f(y) dy - J c|i(x) t£r + c. (ii)
Homogeneous equation dy/dx = fix, y)ty{x,y) where fix, _y) and
1218 Higher Engineering Mathematics l To find C.F. Roots of A.
E. C.F. (l) 171^, ^2 1 ,p,,,p c^m'*+cse"^ + r3 emt* + c/'^ + iiiii a, + ip, a -
tjj, ms, . , cos [& + + + .... (tv) a ± ip, a ± i|), t:UI [f,c. + c./.i cos par + fc& +
c4 x) sin jlxj + c5 + .... To find P.l (i)X-d*, P.L = — — ellXt putD = a, m
(/(g) ^0 = x f’(D) = x2 put D - d. e ax, put D - a. n.D) (ii)X = sin (ax + 6} or
cos {ax + 6) P.l. = — sin (ax + 6} |or cos (ax + 6)], put D2 -- a2, *{Z>2) =
X f2> sin (ax + 6) (or {cos ax + 6)1, put D2 = - a2, sin (ax + 6) |or cos £ax
+ 6)1, putZ?2 = - a2. (f(a) = 0,rU*)*Q (/'(a) = 0,/" [a) * 0 [(Jjf-a)2 1 0] |
Appendix 1— Useful Iwfopmatio-j 1219 To find C.F : Roots of
A. E. C.F. {it * . f\ tv + »ijJ :) 4 f2(y + m^v) * fsiy * m^:) + . (U) m-p ma, .
fj (.v + iJijBj + x.}\ tv + + fs {y + + ...... WO mp/ntj, mv /j (y + m rvJ 4- kf2
iy + [-v + nizxA * - j- To find P J. eax + fr' put D = a, D’ = b. {«} F tx, y) -
sin (mx + n y) or cos (ma: + ny ) P.I. = —z — - — sin or cos (mx + ny ),
put D2 = - m2, DD' - - ran, D2 = - n1 (iii) F(x, y) = xmyn , P.L - \f (D,
D')]’1 xm y". Expand I/- (D, D')! f and operate on xmyn,] (iu) Fix, y) is any
function of x and y, P.L - — , F {x, y J. f(Di D ) Resolve 1//TD, D'i into
partial fractions considering f(Dt D") as a function of D alone and operate
each partial fraction on ffx, y) remembering that — - — F(x,y) = f F{x, c -
mx) dx. D - mD J Complete solution: C.S, is y = C.F. + P.I. X, INFINITE
SERIES 1. 8a- tv ft ■; If Lt w„ * 0 then the series htn diverges. n~* « 2. C
T, Sent l + r + r2 + r* + . “ converge if | r | < 1; diverges if r > 1 and
oscillates if r < - 1 . ;}. p-series: — + — + — +- . ■*> converge for p > 1;
diverges for p < 1. 1 “ 2V 3^ 4. ('nmpurist'i! ti’-'t Tf two positive term series
S/< and Zn be such that Lt - finite quantity 0), then « -* " t>„ lun and
converge or diverge together. 5. Hatio test: In the positive term series Em ,
if Lt — - k, then the senes converges for k > 1 . diverges for h c l and fails
for k = 1. 1, 7, Lop 1, diverges for ft < 1 and fails for ft = 1, fip If u fu t }
does not involve n as an exponent or a logarithm, then the series 1 ur
diverges. 9. rcjurftvV root test In a positive term series Luf1 if = A* then
the series converges for A < I, diverges for A > 1 and fails for A = 1 . 10,
Integral tor A positive term series If In ) converges or diverges according as
J fix) dx is finite or infinite where /(n) is continuous in I < x < « and decr
eases as n increases, 11. Leibnitz V. ti\si fur uitvmattng senes: An
alternating series u . , - - t/4 + * . converges if each term is numerically less
than the previous term and Lt uti = 0, if Lt ^ 0, then the given series is
oscillatory.
Hie hep Engineering Mathematics 12. dm, nil Run 1 and the
test fails if | k | = 1. XL FOURIER SERIES 1. fix) - — u(( + cos 3 c + u,j
cos 2x + + 6j sin x + b2 sin 2x + in (0 2n). 2 1 1 f2n 1 r2jc where tf, = —
fix) dx,un - - fix) cos nx dx, b = — | f{x) sin tve dx jt Jn Jt Jo n Jo 2. fix) =
— af( + ^ ur cos nx + ^ bn cos nx in any interval (0, 2c), * ft = I FI = I 1 1
Jijrr _ 1 tlHX + where an = — [ fix)dx, a - — F fix) cos — dx, b = — I fix)
sin — — dx c Jo c Jo c c Jo c 3. For even function fix), Fourier expansion
contains only cosine terms. Le., «(! = — [ fix) dx, a = — f /"(jcl cos-^^ dx,
b - 0. c Jo c Jo c = | A | , then Ztin is absolutely convergent For odd function
fix), Fourier expansion contains only sine terms. 2 C Jo' c Xn.
TRANSFORMS Le., o0 = 0, an s 0, ftft = - f fix) sin dx . c Jo C 1. Laplace
Transforms. L if it)) = f e ** fit) dt Jo ii) L tl) = 4‘ iiii) Ud“) = Hi) Lit") n !
+ 1 s-a (itd L tsin at) 9 £ (v) L(cosat) = s 2 + a2 ft?i) L(sinhaJ) = a £ s s -a
(vii) L{coiha*) = 2 u s - a fix) Lr(t)^sLf(t)-f{ 0) (xi) L ’>H F($)ds ixiit )
L\u{l - a)J iviii) L e** fit) = F is - a) (x) L | r fit)] = (- 1 r— [F(s)l ds" , ... . f
0 when t a ixiv) LS it ~ a) = e~ “* 7 J e* fit) dt (xo) L fit ) = — - = — where
fit) is a periodic function of period T. 1-e *' 2. Inverse Laplace Transforms
(0^(1) = ! Hit) L-1 (— ?-| =e* ls-aj (v) L-1 f _ 1_1 = cosat U2 + a2J (ii) L~l
iiv) (ft) L ( 1 ]_ *
1221 Appendix 1 — Useful Infohmation ( (m) I-1 ( ix) L1 s 2 -a2
s 2 - a 2 - cosh ut. iviti) Zr: S ] ) 1 i (s2 + u2}2 j t sin at = f cos at. (s2 + sjn
st fit in Fourier cosine transform : Ft, (s) - f fit) cos st dt -to 21*2. a u dx a I
=-*2 Fiul 4. Z- Transforms : Zlu^J = ^ unz~ n =0 (i) Z(l) = z-l Hi) Z («) =
(fit) Z(n2) = Z2 + Z (^ - I)3 (y) Z inun) az iz-aV luii) Z (cos n.0) =
£U_COf50) tz- l)2 (iy) Z (o'*) = _L_ z- a (ui) Z (sin nB) - — — z sin 6 z - 2
z cos 0 + 1 (nr) Z (cosh n0> = 1. AM. 22 - 2 2 COS 0+1 z(z- cosh 0) (out) Z
(sinh nfl) - . z sinh 0 z~ - 2z cosh 0 + 1 z2 - 2 z cosh 0+1 xm. STATISTICS
AND PROBABILITY 2. S.D. a = S/JUi-x)2 3. Moments about the mean :
|l„ = 1 , |i, = 0, ^ = a2, jir = I. Caeff. of skewness = (mean - mode Vo which
lies between - 1 and 1. 3. Kurtosis : fi2 - ji4/|l22. (i. Coeff. of correlation r n
L dxdy - I dxh dy V Un Id2 - {Ydx)2}tnLdy - lid, f \ ■; - 1 < r < 1 X f a. 7.
Line of regression of y on x : y - v = r — - - (x - x) ar Line of regression
ofxony :x-x = i- ( y - y ) ay » «. , , , , . No. of‘ ways favourable to A H.
Probability p[A) = - - - , p + q = 1. Total no. of equally likely ways ( i ) ptA
or B) = p{A) + piB), Hi) piA and J3) - p(A) . p(B ) 9. Binomial distribution
: pir) = nCr pr t f~r Mean - up. Variance (o2) = npq
Higher Engineering Mathematics 1 fh Poisson distribution tp(r) =
e~m r\ Mean = m, Variance to2) = m. IL Normal distribution :f(x)1 Gyfltt (x
- lP2 — ™ — H x — LL 2fr': , Standard variate - - — U) Probable error A.
- 0,6745 a 07) 68% of values lie between a: = p - c and x = p + G. 95% of
values lie between x - 4 - 1 .96 o and x = ji + 1.96 o 99% of values lie
between x = p - 2.58 0 and x = p + 2.58 <5 XIV. NUMERICAL
TECHNIQUES L Solution of equations O’) B inert ion method : xn = —ixn
_ j + xn _ a) 2 Ui) Method of False position : (Hi) Newton Ruphson method
: xn + A = x X, - Xr fix,) -fix,) - fix"} 1 n*„) A*,}t it.') Iterative form ula. to
find 1 ! N is .rn + 3 = ( 2 - Nxn ) (y) Iterative form ula to find 1 [N is xn 1 5
= i (xPl + Nfxn) 2 2. Solution of Linear Simultaneous equations O') Matrix
inversion method. For the equations cijX + b:y + e, 2 = dv a^x + b,£' + c,r 2
- d,}, a.p + b^y + c^z = Gauss-eliminution method, in this method the
coefficient matrix is transformed to upper triangular matrix. (Hi) Gatiss-
Jardan method. In this method the coefficient matrix Is transformed to
diagonal matrix. Or) GaussJordan method of finding the inverse of a matrix
A. The matrices A and l are written side by side and the same row
transformations are performed on both till A is reduced to I. Then the other
matrix represents A *. JL Finite differences and Interpolation ( i) Forward
differences: Ayr = yr ^ t - yr Backward differences: Vyr = yr -yr _ t Central
differences: 5y„ _ M = y„ - yn _ 1 Ui } Relations between operations : A =
E- 1; V = l-J?-l;8 = £w-£-w p = I (Em + E~m\ A = EV = VE = S EV2\ E -
ekD 2 On) Factorial notation Factorial polynomial x |f = jc(* - 1) (jc - 2) (x
— r + 1), \x)n = x(x — h) (x- 2h ) ...(x - h - Ih)
Appendix 1 —Useful Information 1223 Hv) Newton's forward

interpolation formula ^,=>0 +/»4y0+ gt “ -yQ 3! (u) JVewton’s AufîifarJ j
nferpo/ofiofi formula: P ^ ^ A*y0 + — — A3 v,) + ... where p-(x- x^/h. pip
+ l) „ pfp + lHp + 2) y „ =yn +pVyn+ 2; v + 3! “ v y* + where^ = (jf - ^v/l'
(vi.) Stirling's formula: f Ay o+ Ay. y„=ya + p (vii) Bessel 's formula: 2
0+â2v i pip2 - 11 il£^. Ai y f 21 y~' 3! ( 2 J 4! Ay~ pip - 1) A ~y. , + Aay0 ^
=>o + /J4Vo + — 2i - 2 - - + (dim) Lc/grange's interpolation formula: 3!
A3.v_ j (p + 1) ptp - 1) ( /? - 2) aV2 + A4j_ i + 41 2 + y _ (x- Xt-Mac —
Jig) . - (x - x , ) [x0> x, , x2] + (x - xn> (x - xt) (x - x2) {x0, x, , x2, x3] + ...
where Jx^x.) — — — , [x0.x., xj = and so on. *i“*o ‘ lx2-xB] 4. Numerical
differentiation ( i ) Forwa rd d ifferen ce form u he: f#*\ _jj s**\ "ft2L TtI
Afy0 - a\ + ^ A% + . and so on. (a) Backward difference formulae:
^14[vW^4v3*+iv-i 1 A3y_! + A3y_z i 1 Afty 2 + aV3 1 2 6 2 30 2 d dx ?1
=^[AVi"ii4V2ÂVs+ . 5. Numerical integration (i) Trapezoidal rule: + tih
f(x)dx=~ [(yo + yn) + 2 (y, +^2 * . +*« - i»
1224 HtSHEfi Engineering Matm6m«iCs (if) Simpon’s 1/3 th
rule: J'jfa + nh fi X[i f^X)dx = — [(y0 +yn) + 4(y( + y% + . +>„ _ j) + 2 (y2
+ y4 + ...... + }’„ _2 (Number of sub intervals should be taken os even) {Hi)
Simpsons 318 th rate: r» + ^ - , 3 h JXj 1 [X) tLx - ^ i(Vo + ) + 3{î + + J'i
+ + - . + yn _ ,) + 2(ya + y5 + ... {Number of sub-intervals should he taken
as a multiple of 3) (it1) Weddle’s rule: J,jEo + 3 h f(x)dx = —rb0 + %J + >2
+ $y3 + ?4 + 5?S + 2?6 + %7 + . J *□ io (Number of sub-intervals should
be taken as multiple of (6) 6* Numerical solution of ordinary differential
equations PJC (?) Picards method: yx =y0 + U,y0)dx >2 = >PD + [ / u, V| }
dx etc. J*0 (ii) Taylor's method: y - + 0 . Hu riu I n**-j5y = 0 )J + ^--Pl
Appendix 1— Useful Information 1225 lii) Laplace equation: ^4r

+ = 0 dx2 dy2 Standard 5-point formula: u = — |u , + u . u . + u . .] ** J ^ *
■ *ij * > I* j *pj * 1 " 1 iJiagona/ 5-poin.i /ormuiu: wf J = ^ lu,_lj + , + ui +
i.j- j uc + l.y + 1 + 'J;- 1.>- tl (iii) Poisson's equation: = f { x , y), dx2 3y2
Standard 5-point formula: i ipj + Ur > 1. + \j + 1 + \j - t “ 4u,, j = h* ft* Jh)
(il l One-dimensional heat equation: £li = r2 dt Sdunidi formula: ut j + x - a
. , + (1 - 2d) U, :J + a + , j whore a - kc2fh2 when a = 1/2, it reduces to
Bcndre Schmidt relation: y. . . = — (u. . , + a. . ,) fhj T 1 2 1 * r + J ►J (u)
equation: — — =c2 — — 3x2 Explirt formula for solution is u ... = 2(1 - a2
c~) U- t + ii2 c2 ( u . . , + u- . J-u t where ex = kfh P, j + l iij i — lrJ I + i,/ I,/
— J if a is so chosen that the coefficient of tti . is zero i.e., A - /i/r then the
above explicit formula tabes the simplified form
Tables Table I : Gamma Function, JH(ot) = f e *ta"ldt Jo a If n

1227 Afpenobi 2 — Tables Table II : Bessel Functions X ! «¥*>

X 0.0 l 0000 o.oooo 3.0 - 0.2601 0.3991 o.i 0,9075 0.0499 3.T - 0.2921
0.3009 0.2 0.9900 0.0995 3.2 -0.3202 0.2613 0.3 0.9776 0.1483 3.3 -
0.3443 0.2207 0.4 0.9604 0.1960 3.4 -0.3643 0.1792 0.5 0.9385 0.2423 3.5
- 0.3801 0.1374 0.6 0.9120 0.286? 3.6 - 0.3918 0.0955 0,7 0,8812 0.3290
3.7 - 0.3992 0.0538 0.8 0.8463 0.3688 3.8 — 0,4026 0.0128 0.9 0.8075
0.4059 3.9 — 0.4018 -0.0272 t.O 0.7652 0.4401 4.0 -0.3971 — 0.0660 u
0.7196 0.4709 4,1 -0.3887 -0.1033 1.2 0 0711 0.4983 4.2 - 0.3766 -0.1386
1.8 0.6201 0.5220 4.-3 -0,3610 -0.1719 1.4 0,5669 0.5419 4.4 - 0.3423 -
0.2028 1.5 0.5118 0.6579 4.5 - 0.3205 -0.28U 1-3 0.4554 0.5699 4.6
-0.2961 -0.2566 1.7 0.3980 0.5778 4.7 - 0,2693 -0.2791 I.S 0.3400 0.5815
4.8 - 0.2404 - 0.2985 1.9 0,2818 0,5812 4.9 - 0.2097 -0.3147 2.0 0.2239 4
0.5767 5.0 -0.1776 -0.3276 2.1 0.1666 0.5683 5.1 -0.1443 - 0.3371 2.2
0.1104 0.5560 6.2 -01103 - 0.3432 2.3 (1.0665 0.5399 5.3 - 0 0758 -0.3460
2.4 (1,0026 0.5202 5.4 -0 0412 -0,3453 2,5 — 0.0484 0.4971 5.5 - 0,0068
-0.3414 2.6 - Q.0968 0.4708 5.6 0,0270 - 0.3343 2.7 - 0.1424 0.4416 5.7
0.0599 -0.3241 2,8 -0.t8f>0 0.4097 5,8 0,0917 - 0.31 10 2,9 - 0.2243 0.3754
6.9 0.1220 - 0.2951
1228 Table HI : Area under the Normal curve Higher Engine ring,
MatHEMRTKS O Z W 0 1 2 3 t 5 6 7 8 9 no owon 0.0040 0-0080 00120
0.0160 0.0199 0-02:19 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359 0,1 (1.0398 0.0438 0.0478
0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0754 0.2 0.0793 0,0832
0.0871 0.091.0 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0,1.141 o.a 0.1179
0.1217 0.1256 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0,1406 0:1443 0.1480 0.1517 0.4
0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 (1.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.212:1 0.2157 0.2190
0.2224 0,6 0,2258 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2339 0.2422 0.2454 0,2486
02518 0.2540 0.7 0,2580 0.2612 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0,2764
0,2794 0,2823 0.2852 0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0,2939 0.2967 0.2996 0.3023
0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133 0,9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0,3238 0.3264
0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389 1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485
0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3*21 1,1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686
0,3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830 1.2 0.3849 0.3:869
0.3888 0.3907 0,3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0-3997 0.4016 1.3 0.4032
0.4049 0.4086 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.417 V 1.4
0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0,4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0,4346 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429
0.4441 1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4615 0.4525
0.4535 0.4545 1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.45SI 0.4590 0.4608
0.4616 0.4625 0.4633 1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0,4671 0.4678
0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706 1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0,4738
0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767 2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788
0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817 2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830
0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0,4854 0.4857 2.2 0.4861 0.4864
0.4866 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4831 0.4884 0,4887 0.4890 2.3 0,4893
0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4908 0.4909 0.4911 0,4913 0.4916 2.4
0.4918 0,4920 0.4922 0.4925 0:4927 0,4929 0.4031 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0,4961
0.4052 2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962
0.4963 0.4964 2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971
0.4972 0.4973 0.4974 2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.1977 0.4978
0.4979 0.4879 0.4980 0.4981 2,9 0.4981 0.4982 0,4982 0,4983 0.4984
0.4984 0.4985 0,4985 0.4986 0.4986 3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988
0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990 3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991
0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4093
1229 Appendix 2— Tables Table IV : Values of I f I with

probability P and degrees of freedom v Mo 0.10 O.flft 0.02 0,01 1.000 6.34
12.71 31,82 63.66 0,816 2.92 4.39 6.96 9,92 0.765 2.35 3.18 4.64 6.84
0.741 2.13 2.78 3,75 4.60 0.727 2.02 2,57 3.36 4.03 0.718 1.94 2.45 3.14
3.71 0.711 1.90 2,36 3.00 3.50 0.706 1.86 2.31 2.90 3.3G 0.703 1.83 2.26
2.82 3,26 0,700 1.81 2.23 2.76 3.17 0.697 1.80 2.20 2.72 3.11 0,696 1.78
2.18 2.G8 3.06 0,694 1.77 2.16 2.65 3.01 0.692 1.76 2.14 2.62 2.98 0.691
1.75 2.13 2,60 2.95 0.690 L75 2.1 2 2.58 2.92 0.689 1.74 2.11 2.67 2.90
0.688 1.73 2.10 2.55 2.88 0.688 1.73 2.09 2.54 2.86 0.687 1.72 2.09 2.53
2.S4 0.686 1.72 2.08 2.52 2,83 0.66G 1.72 2.07 2.51 2,82 0.685 3.71 2,07
2.50 2.81 0.685 1.71 2.06 2.49 2,80 0.684 1,71 2.00 2.48 2.79 (1.684 1.71
2.06 2.48 2.78 0.684 1.70 2.05 2.47 2.77 0,683 1.70 205 2.47 2.76 0.683
1.70 2,04 2.40 2.70 0.(583 1.70 2.04 2,46 2.76 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30 11 12 13
14 16 16 .17 18 19 211 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
1230 Higher Engineering Mathematics Table V : Values of xa

with probability P arid df v ' o.m 0,95 0.50 0,30 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.01 1
0.0002 0.004 0.46 1.07 1.64 2.71 3.84 6.64 2 0.020 0.103 1.39 2.41 3.22
4.60 5.99 9 21 3 0.115 0.35 2.37 3.66 4.64 6.25 7,82 11.34 4 0.30 0.71 3.36
4.68 6.09 7.78 5.49 13.28 6 0.55 1.14 4.35 6.06 7.29 9.24 11.07 15.09 6
0.87 1.64 6.35 7.23 £.56 10.64 12,59 16.81 7 L24 2.17 6.35 8.36 9.80 12.02
14.07 18.48 8 1.65 2.73 7,34 9.52 11.03 13.36 15.51 20.09 9 2.09 3.32 3.34
10.66 12.24 14.66 16.92 21.67 10 2.66 3.94 9.34 11.78 13.44 15-99 18.31
23.21 11 3.05 4.58 10.34 12.90 14,63 17.28 19.68 24.72 12 3.57 6.23 11.34
14.01 16.81 18.56 21.03 26.22 13 4.11 5.89 12.34 16.12 16.98 19.81 22.36
27,69 14 4.66 6.6? 13.34 16.22 18.15 21.06 23.68 29.14 16 5.23 7.26 14.34
17.32 19.31 22.31 25.00 30.68 16 5.8 1 7.96 15.34 18.42 211.46 23.54
26.30 32.00 17 6.41 8.67 10.34 19.51 21.62 24.77 27.09 33.41 18 7.02 9.39
17.34 20.60 22.76 25.99 28.87 34.80 19 7.63 10.12 18.34 21.69 23.90 27,20
30-14 36.19 20 6.26 10.85 19 34 22.78 25.04 28,41 31.41 37.57 21 6.90
11.59 20.34 23,86 26,17 29.62 32.67 38.93 22 9.54 12.34 21.34 24.94 27.30
30.81 38.92 40.29 23 10,20 13.09 22.34 26,02 2843 32.01 35.17 41.64 24
10,86 13.85 23.34 27.10 29.55 33.20 36.42 42.98 25 11.52 14.61 24.34
28.17 30.68 34.68 37.65 44.31 26 12.20 15.38 25,34 29,25 31,80 35.56
30.88 45.64 27 12.88 16.15 26.34 30.32 32,91 36.74 40.11 46.96 28 13.56
16,93 27.34 31.39 34.03 37,92 41.34 48.26 29 14,26 17.71 28.34 32.46
36.14 39.09 12.56 49.59 30 14.95 15.49 29.34 33.63 36,25 40,26 43.77
50,89
Appendix 2 — Tables 1231 7— - - - 7 - 1 - ) Table VI : 5% and

1% points of F 1 2 3 4 S 6 8 12 24 *4 2 18.51 19.00 19.16 19.25 19.30
19.32 10.37 19.41 19.45 19.50 SS.49 99.00 9S. 17 99.26 99.30 99.33
@9.36 99.42 99.4 S 99.50 3 10.13 9.55 9.2ft! 9,12 9.01 8.94 8.84 8.74 8.64
8.53 34.12 30.82 29 46 28.71 28.24 27.91 27.49 27.05 26.60 26.12 4 7.71
6.94 6.59 6.39 6.26 6.16 6,04 5.91 5.77 5,63 21.20 18.00 16.69 15.98 15.52
15.21 14.60 14.37 18.93 13.46 5 0.61 6.79 5.41 6.19 S.06 4.95 4.62 4.68
4.53 4.36 16.26 33.27 12.06 11.39 10,97 10.67 10.27 9.89 9.47 9.02 6 5,99
5.14 4.76 4.53 4.39 4.28 4.15 4.00 3.64 3.67 13.74 10.92 9,78 0.15 8.75
8,47 8.10 7.72 7.81 6.88 7 6.59 4.74 4,35 4,12 3.97 3.87 3.73 3.57 3.41 3.23
12.26 9.55 8.45 7.85 7,46 7.19 3.84 6.47 6.07 5.65 8 3.32 4.46 4.07 3.64 M
3.58 3.44 3.28 3.12 2.93 11.26 8.66 7.59 7.01 6,63 6.37 8.03 5.67 5.28 4.66
0 5.12 4.26 3.86 3.63 3.4S 3.37 3.23 3.07 2.90 2.71 10.56 8.02 6,99 6.42
6.06 5.80 547 5.11 4.73 4.31 10 4.96 4.10 3.71 3.48 3.33 3.22 3.07 2.91
2.74 2.54 10.04 7.66 0.55 5.99 5.64 5.39 5.00 4.71 4,33 3.91 12 4 7fi 3.88
3.49 3.26 3.11 3.00 2.85 2.69 2.50 2.30 9.33 6.93 5.95 5.41 5.06 4.82 4.50
4.16 3.78 3.36 14 4.60 3.74 3.84 3.11 2.96 2.85 2,70 2.53 2.35 2.13 8.86
6.61 5.56 5.03 4.69 4.46 4.14 3.80 3.43 3.00 16 4.49 3.63 3.24 3,01 2,85
2.74 2.59 2,42 2.24 201 8,53 6,23 5.29 4.77 4.44 4.20 3.69 3.55 3.18 2.75
18 4,43 3.55 3.16 2.93 2.77 2.66 3,51 2.34 2.15 1.92 8,28 6.01 6,09 4.68
4.25 4.01 3.71 3.37 8.01 2,57 20 4.36 3.49 3.10 2.87 2.71 2.60 246 2.28
2.08 1.84 8.10 5.65 4.94 4.43 4.10 3.87 3.56 3.23 .2.86 2,42 25 4 24 3.38
2.99 2.76 2.60 2.49 2.34 2.16 1.98 1.71 7.77 5,57 4.68 4.18 3.86 3.ai 332
2.99 2.62 2.17 30 4.17 3,32 2.92 2.69 2,53 2.42 2.27 2.09 1.89 1.62 7,56
5.39 4.51 4.02 3.70 3.47 3.17 2.84 2.47 2.01 40 4 OS 3.23 2.84 2.61 2.45
2.34 2.18 2.00 1.79 1.51 7.31 5.18 i ,31 3,83 3 51 3.29 2.99 2.65 2.29 1.81
60 4.0U 3.15 2,76 2.52 2.37 2.25 2.10 1,02 1,70 1.39 7.08 4.98 4,13 3.65
3.34 3.12 2.82 2.50 2.12 1.60
Answers to Problems Problems 1.1, page 5 1. x* - Gx3 + at-2 +
42* - 70 = 0 2, (0-2, 1 + 3i, 1 -3i 6. Two roots between ( 1, 2) and (-3,-4) 6-
2, 2, - £ 9. 6, 4, - 1 12, i{3±75;i(5±^5> 16. (t ) — 5, — 2, 1.4 18. 36 7. 3 10.
-4,2.6 13. 1.4,7 /§, 3, - 5 8, a = 2, h = 1 11. 1, 1, 2, 2 14. 1, I i 2*4 17. (i) m2
- 2ln, (ii ) Im - n Problems 1 .2, page 8 1 . x3 + Gv2 — 36* + 27 = 0 4 J,i2
** 2 ' 3 ’ 2. 6V5 - 7x* - 13*s + 4je2 - 2 = 0 3, lO.r'1 + 9x3 + 8x2 - 7x + 1 =
0 5. (t) x? — 9af2 + 26a — 24 = 0 ; (if) x* + 13*3 + GOtr2 + 116r + 80 = 0
; Uii) **+7 = 0 6. x3 + IS*2 + 52* - 36 = 0 9. y3 - qy2 + pry - r2 = 0 10. (o
) yE + 4 my - 8n = 0 ; (b) nx3 + m2x2 - 2m nx + n2 = 0 ; (r) x(nx + in)2 = n
11. y8 - 30y2 4 22% - 68 = 0 7. y3 + ( p 3 + 3 q)y2 4 3q2y + q3 = 0 8. 3x3 -
1 1*2 + 9* - 2 = 0 t„ ... -5±^1 5+V9li 12. (.) - - Uv) - 1, - 2, 3, - 1/2, 1/3; (ii)
2, 2, 1/2, 1/2 (y) ± 1,-3,- 1/3, (iii) 1,-2, 4, -1/2, 1/4; 3 + ^6 13. 1(5 ± ^2l) ;
1(- 3 ± -JE) 14. -1,-2, -6. -7. Problems 1*3, page 11 1. -6,3,3 2- 6, i(-5± i\5)
3, 6, -3 ± 2 " 3 5 4. -1,-2, 1 5. |,-^(3±i^> 6. 5, i(l + i>/3 ) i 7. 2 cos , 2 cos , 2
cos I'1* 9 9 9 a 1 -7±9;V3 2* 6 1232
Appendix 3— Answers to Prgeelems 1233 Problems 1.4. page 12

1. 1. 2. 3, 4 2. - 3, 1, ± 2 3. 4, - 2f — 1 ±i 4. - 1,3, 3 ± VSO 6. 1 ± J7 , 2 ±
y/3 6. l ± 2i, - 1 ± J2 7. 2 ± v'3 , — 2 ± ij3 8. 2, 4, 2 ± 2iyf2. _ Problems 1,5,
page 15 1. 1.32 2. 2.29 3. 0.45 4. (i) 0.71 rad 5. 1.81 rad 6. 0.26. Problems
1.6, page 15 j 1. id) 2, (c) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (r) 6Ca) 7. (d) 8. (6) 9. (f) 10. (a )
11.
1234 Higher Engineering Mathematics Problems 2.3, page 35 ‘ 3
0 5.5" 0 -2 5 a y{a + cl f (5 + e) 0 f (a - c) 2. <0 0 7 1.5 + 2 0 -2.5 (iij + c) b
l(u + 5) |(c-«) 0 5.5 1.5 0 -0.5 2.5 0 ^(6 + c) -§(« + b) c |(c - 6> |(a-6) 0 4. (0
2 3 4/5 -4/5 9/5 -14/5 Hi) 1/33 -4/33 - 4/33 2/11 ‘ 14/33 13/33 -1 1/5 6/5
2/11 13/33 -1/33 '1 0 O' 1 -1 o' 0 2 0 6. (() - 2 3-4 0 0 1 L_ J I -2 3 -3
Problems 2 A, page 4Q 1. 3 2. 2 6- No value of p is possible. 7. ( i ) 3. 3 4. 2
r 8 - 1 -3 i 10 -7' -5 1 2 Hi) ~ i -11 14 10 -1 -4 A 1 -3 12 0 - 1/9 2/9 2/9 1/2
-1/2 1/2' (Hi) 2/9 -1/9 2/9 (it/) -1/2 3 -1 2/9 2/9 -1/9 5/2 -3/2 1/2 8. P1 0 O'
-2 10 1 2/3 -7/24 5/6" tQ = 0-1/3 0 1/3 1 -2 1 0 0 -5/24 1/2 0 0 -1/12 0 ,
Rack (A) = 3 6* 3 9. "1-1 0" -2 3 -4 s "a ti 10 0 -11 0 2. 2 y rQ = "1 1 -1" 0
10 -2 3-3 i i La aj 0 0 1 (k> P = 1 0 0 -2 1 0 -1 -l 1 h 0 0 l a 0 1 11.(0 3 (ii) 3
Cm) 2 (u>)3. ebuzzpro.blogspot.com Problems 2.5, Page 43 Problems 2.6,
page 45 1. x = l,y = 2 ,z = 1 3. x = 1.2, y = 2.2, z = 3.2 2- x = 2, y = — 1, 2
= 1/2 4, x - y = z = el
Appendix 3— Answers to Problems 1235 5. u = 1, L' = 1/2, iu =
173 7. jr = 2, y = 1, z = 0 9. ar=y = z>=2 11. jc=l,y = -l,, (0, 5, 5) 5. (i) 8, 12,
6 (ii) 49, 121, 25 6. 1, 1, 1/5 '• «> [e 1 | 0 3 3" 1 12 4 6 1 1/2 - 2/3 i * j [3 5_
• Ui) 5 3 2 - 7 3 -1 -1 ; m 4 -5 -1 -3 -1 -1 -1 ; (tu) 0 - 1/2 0 0 0 1/3 10- X3 -
4X2 - 20X- 35 = 0, ^ -4 11 -5 -1 -6 25 6 1-10
Higher Engineering Mathematics ii. m 4 4 12. 625/ r 3 1 -r -1 - 3

-2 21 (Hi) ~ 1 10 -8' 1 3 1 Hi) 6 5 -2 - 8 1 10 -1 1 3 3 -6 -2 5 27 10 -8 1 13.
X3-6X2 + 8X-3 = 0, 124 - 123 162 -95 96 -123 95 -95 124 '1/5 0 0 15. A1 -
I 1 6 6 1 -18 -18' 14. 0 1/5 0 -1 6 2 L n 1 -5 10 - 6 0 0 1/5 4 1 -10 -6 16 5 6
22 n 1 78 78 ' 1 0 O' A'3 = — 64 -21 90 26 16. 25 1 0 21 -154 -90 25 0 1
Problems 2.10, page 67 -6 0 0 2 4. A" = ;a4= 976 960 320 336 251 -405 235
-405 891 -405 235 -405 251 8. jc2 + yz - 2zz 10. (a) 1, 2. 4 ; (1. 0, 0), {0, 1.
1), (0, 1, - 1J ; (fc) x j2 + 2*22 + 4jc32 - 2n + 6" Z,T + 6" 7. (l, 1,-1), (1, 1,-
IX (2,-1, 1);4 xz+y2 + z2 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 -1 10. (i i x* + 4r22 + 4x3£, '- l/i/3
0 2/76 t/73 i/72 i/7e 1/73 -i/7a i/7e , positive definite ; (it) 3y2 + 15z2, 11. 2,
1 1/3 2/3 2/3 2/3 1/3 -2/3 2/3 - 2/3 1/3 , positive Kemidefinite 12. Indefinite.
Problems 2.11, Page 71 8. *021 -2 0 0 + i 2 1 -1' 1 -1 3 -10 0 -1 3 0
Problems 2.12, page 72 1. (5) 7. (a) 13. (6) 19. 2 2. (a) 8. (5) 14. (rf) \3 20.
3. (c) 9. (d) 15. (c) 21. 0 4. 10. (a) 16. 2 5. (c) 11. ( d ) 17. sum 6. (a) 12. (r)
18. 0,8 22. Ail the eigen values are £ 0 and at least one eigen value is zero,
23. (a) n = p, (6) m = p, n = q 24. 8 25. ( b )
Appends 3 — Answers to Problems 1237 26. 27. x2 + 4xy- 4y2 2
3 1 4 6 2 6 9 3 30. A2=A SI. 2 34. 4 36. zero 38. The elements of its leading
diagonal 41. (c) 42. A or AT 45. 1, 1/3 46. x = 3 - 1 cos 36 sin 36 - sin 36
cos 36 28. x=y = z- 0 32. 1,4, 9 36. Indefinite 39. 2 43. 1, 1/2, 1/3 29. 2, 2, 8
33. (iv) 37. 1-1 40. Xit i - 1,2, .... n 44. k3-7k3 + 16k — 12 = 0 49. 47,
Symmetric ; skew-symmetric 48. 7 ; 5 50. its determinant 51, ka - 6k + 3 =
0 52. Augmented matrix 4 -1 53. - 1 -2 3 0 57. 38 60. False 64. False 68.
False 54. V’V'V 58. 2 61. False 65. True 69. True 1 55. 1/k 56. - 0-5 -0.5
59. Index = 2, Signature = 1 62. False 63. True 66. False 67. True 70. True
71. True. -0.5 1 -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 1 j Problems 3.1 , page 80 1 . (i) ^159 ; 6/^59
, l/jl59, 1 1/^159 ; (ii) Vm ; 9/^/^31, - 7/>/m, 1/ Vl31 3. 90° 5. x = 1, y = - 1
11. 2: 1. Problems 3.2, page 88 j 1, 5 2. (ii) A, B , C form a A, rt. Zed at C 4,
cos-1 (.62) 6. 2.11 7. 13 ; 12/13, 4/13, 3/13 13. 60* 14. cos-1 f - ?_] ^ 3^21
J 1 Problems 3-3* page 89 j 1. I - 10J - 18K, 1 i 2 i 18 ^ „;„-i f 5>/l?l 5^7
J17 S^7 * l 21 J 3. (2J + K)/V5 5. iJidT) 6. (6} 10-s/3 7. — 2/\/26. Problems
3.4, page 92 j 1. 40 2. 17 ; - 241 + 13J + 4K 3. 3.33 4. 70.5 5. 21 - 7 J - 2K ;
J(57 ) 6. (1,2, 2) 7. 6 8. 8.25 9. | (- 31 + 2J + 10K), tVTIa . j Problems 3.5,
page 96 J 1. 7 2.-4 3. (ii) Yes 4. Not linearly dependent 5. 5/6 6,(015; («)li
11. (t)-7I- 11J + 5K; (ii) - 301 - 15J + 15K 1 1 COS COS lj> 1 15. (5) ia6c
<509 1 cos 0 cos Q cos 6 1
1238 Higher Engineering MATHEMAtics Problems 3.6, page 101
1. 2x — y + 3z = 9 2. R . (21 + 2J +■ K) = 5 3. ±(2l + 2 + K) 4. 3 5. 4x - 3y
+ 2z = 3 7. x - By - 2z + 7 = 0 8. 2;2x + 2y-3z = 6 9. I(Xj -x2)[x + x2)} =0
10. y = 2 11. 3x + 4y-5z = 9 12. k = 10.2 ; 5x - I5y - 2lz = 34 13. 1/6 . 2x -
3y + 6? + 5 = 0 14. cos'1 f>/2/3) 15. voo \rOO voo (iii) fix - 7y - Sz + 7 - 0
17. 6x + 3y - 2z = 18 ; 2x - 3y - 62 = 6 20. x"s + yr2 + z~2 = 9 p-‘* 21. xyz
= 6k3 22. (i) 25x + 17y + 62? - 78 = 0 ; (//) x + 35y - IO2 - 156 = 0 ; (iti)
bisects the acute angle. Problems 3.7, page 105 x - 3 y - 2 z -4 1 ~~3 " -2 2.
43°3' 3. 90° 4. x + 2 = = f— 4 2 2 jf-1 y +2 2 -3 x-1 1 -19 3.5 ’ 11 5. 3 >r +
1 _ z - 3 13 ~~ - 21.5 x-l_y-2_z+l 6* 8. (3, 4, 5) 9. 4.1 11. (3, 4, 5) ; (it)
(26/7, - 15/7, 17/7) 13. 29jc — 27y - 22s = 85 10- 8.57 12. 40° 15' 14. 2 —
x=y + 1 = (z + l)/3. 1. 7x - 2y — 3z = 0 4. 3y-z = 2 7 x + 4/15 _ y - 2/5 _ z -
11 9 15 Problems 3.8, page 107 2. 2x + 3y + 6? = 38 x-4_y — 6_z + 2/3 5’
7 " —13 " 9 8. ^l2 = Zrl = £^l, 3 -1 1 3. llx + 12y-8? = 5 6. x +y + 2z = l.x
+y + (2/5)z -1 Problems 3.9, page 110 1. x-2y + z = 0 2. (5, - 7, 6) a ua + 6|i
+ cy + d a a + 6'|3 + c‘y + d' al + hm + cn a 7 + fr'm + c'tt 4. (0, 1, 2) ; 4x +
y — 2z + 3 - 0 7. - ^
Appendix 3 — Answers to Problems 1239 Problems 3.11, page
115 4. First and second planes cut along x - 36 = — — (y + 22) = z.
JhProblems 3.12, page 116 1. x2+ya + z2-4x + %-2z + 5 = 0 ;(2,-3,- I); 3 2.
3. 7. jr2 + y2 + z2 — 2x + 2y - 4z = 0 ; (1, — 1, 2) ; (a) x2 + y2 + z1 - 4x -
Ay - 4z + 3 - 0 (i) X2 + y2 + Z2 - ax - by - cz = 0, iii) x2 + y2 + z2 — ax -
by -cz = 0 and ^ + & (6) 3(x2 + .v2 + z2) - 2(x + y + z) - 1 = 0 b + c = 1*
a(b ^ + c 2) fc(c 2 + « 2 ) c(o 2 + 6 2 ) 2Sn“2 ’ 2Sa“2 ' 2Za-2 8* (1,3,4); >/7
10. x2 + y2 + z2 + 2(x + y + z + 1) = Q 11. 13(x2 + y2 + z2) - 35x - 21y +
43z + 176 = 0 12. 3(*2 + y2 + z3>- 7x - 8y + z + 10 = 0 13. x2 + y2 + z2 +
ly - 8z + 24 = 0. Problems 3.13, page 120 1. (i) x + 3 = 0, x - 7 = 0 (it) x +
2y + 2z = 9, 2x + y - 2z = 9 2. x2 + y2 + z2 + 2x + Ay + 6z - 11 = 0 and
5(x2 + ya + z2) - 4x -8y - 12s - 13 = 0 3. (i) x2 + y2 + z2 — lOy — lOz - 31
= 0 4. -ll = 0 7. a(nx - Iz'f + 2h{nx -Iz) {ny — mz) + b{ny - me)2 + 2gn(nx
- lz ) + 2 fn{ny — me) + cn2 - 0. Problems 3.16, page 131 1. Ellipsoid,
33.51 2. Hyperboloid of revolution of one sheet ; Hyperbola 5x3 — y2 - 6.
No area
1240 Higher Engineering Mathematics 3. Right circular cylinder
with axis along *-axis 4. Hyperbolic paraboloid 5. Hyperboloid of two
sheets 6. Parabolic cylinder 7. Right circular cylinder 8. Cone with vertex at
the origin 9. Hyperbolic paraboloid 10. Hyperboloid of two sheets.
Problems 3.17, page 131 1. fir) 2. ia) 3. (c) 4. (6) 5. (6) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. id) 9.
(c> 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (6) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (A) 19. (f)
20. (c) 21. (A) 22. (A) 23. h 4 "3 = 0 33. y2 + a2 = {bxfaf 36. cos 'l ( 6/V42
) 38. (3, 5, 7), <5, 8, 11) 34. 12x + 31y - 20s = 66 35. 523.6 2 2 X , y 37. -—
+ 4- + z2 = (x + y + z? 4 9 38. — (jr — 1) =y — 2 = ±(z-3) 41. al + bm +cn
= 0, ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d - 0 40. + y 2 + z2 + x - 6y - 7z + 9 = 0 42. 2/^26
43, (3/2, -2, 2), 3-75/2 46. Parabolic cylinder 48. cos-1 f - ' \ ■ Kyfsi) 51.
True 54, Elliptic cylinder 56. (I-2J -8K)/^69 6. a/Mi-t2)3 44. -v/44/3 45. 47.
Hyperboloid of two sheets 49. 6, - 4, 12 50. 6 52. True S3. True 55. 4(x2
+y2 + z2) + 9(ay + yz + zx) = 0 X + 1/3 _ y + 2/3 _ z 1 - ~2 ~ 1 Problems
4.1, page 135 7. 8- sin t/a cos4 /. Problems 4.2, page 1 38 1. (- l)"wl (n - 1)1
2" [<2x + ir* + (2x-ir*] 2. (-l)n j - — — - - + [(x+l>n+1 (a: + 2)" {* + !)" 3.
— (2 sin (x + /iJi/2) + 3" sin (3x + nn/2) - 5'1 sin (5* + njc/2)) 16 4. 5. 256
(20f/z [9° cos (96 + n n/2) + 9.7n cos (70 + mt/2} + 36.5" cos ( 50 + titc/2)
+ 84.3" cos (36 + nn/2) + 126 cos 0] [e2* sin (2ar + n tan" 1 2) — e~ 21 sin
(4x - n tan^1 2)1 6, g e51 S (41)n/2 cos [4x + n tan-1 (0.8)] + (29P/a cos \2x
+ n tan-* (0.4)]
Appendix 3— Answers to Problems 1241 (-1)" n\ 4 1 8. (- l)n n 3

1 [{x - If"1 (x+2r+1 (-If n! J 4 . i-l 1 i + 1 1 1 3 (x+l)"''1 4 (I+If+1 4 fx-»r+1
j | 9(2)n_l 4 |(2x +3)n + 1 (x + 2)n + 1 f 10. 1 w.!cob(w +1)6 wtere 6 =
tan"1 ia/x) {x* +a2in + l)/2 1 1. 2(-l V' - 1 (n - 1 ) ! sin not sin" « where a =
cot-1 x. Problems 4.3, page 141 , {-lf^ -. (2m) ! 7. (yn )rJ - 0, if n is even =
m(l2 ~ m2) (32 — m2) . \(2n - l)2 - mz|, if n is odd 8. (y2n)0 = emvr}
m2(22 + m2) (42 + m 2) . |(2n - 2>2 + m2l (y2n + A “ “ m (l2 + tn2) (32 +
m2) . |(2n - l)2 + m2l 17, ( m 2 - (n - 2)2} (m2 — (« - 4)2I . . (m2 - 22) m2,
n even ( m 2 - in — Zf) {m 2 - (rc - 4)ZJ ...... (m2 - l2} m, n odd. Problems
4.4, page 146 2. x = (2m - 1) fl/(2m + 2n - 1 ) 3. ti) c = 3.154, 0.846 ; (
ii)c~idZ ; (iri)c = e-l. (jo) c = 0.6413 6. 0.36 12. 0=:O.25, Problems 4.5,
page 150 2 a x , x x 3 "4 3. i+x-^- + ^_ + - x3 A x5 x7 6-^T+-5r-T + ,,.4-4 2.
X X X 1 3151 7! X*- + 4. I *L + L1 x5 24 2' 3 2.4 ' 5 -1- 6. 2 4 6 r y x ....
-1- + 2 12 45 9. msm0 mtinz -1*} . 3 m{m2 - l2)(m2 - 32) . Ba 24. _ - - -
sm e + - - - «" 25. 4 + 21 (x - 1) + 13 (x - l)2 + 2(x - l)3 26.
1242 Higher Engineering Mathematics 29. log (0.5 > - >/3(* -

n/3) - 23 + . u 30. 0.8482 31. (t) 2.6121. (a) 1.12. Problems 4.6, page 1S4 1.
log,, (a/6) 2. - 1/3 3. 1/3 4. a log a 6. 1 6. 1/18 7. 1/2 8. 1/12 9. 3/2 10. 0 11.
1/30 12. 1 13. 1/3 14. 2 15. 1 10. 1 17. 2 18. 1 Ip/24 19. a = 2 ; 1 20. a = 5, b
= - 5 21. a = 1, b = 2, c = 1. Problems 4.7, page 1 56 1. -1/3 2 7. op. 8 13. 0
14 *9-5 20 1/2 3. - 2 l 9. e 1 15. e-™ (6)w3. 4. -1/3 5. 2/3 6. 1/e 10. Vyfe 11.
1/e 12. 0 16. e 17. e2'" 18. eV12 Problems 4.8, page 1 60 1. x — 20y = 7 ;
20* + y = 140 2. (o, i>) 10. ti/4 14. T - 2a sin t/2 ; N ~ 2a tan t/2 . sin f/2 ;
S.r. - a sin f ; S.N. - 2a sin2 tf 2. tan t/2 15. a sin3 6 tan 0. Problems 4.9,
page 162 7. (i) it/2 ; (u) il/2, Problems 4.10, page 166 4. r3 = 2aps 8. (l +
ma>pa = r* 11. (/) 2a sin 0/2 ; 5. r3 — a2p 9. {£) V(l + 9x/4a) ; (££) a y/(
se^20) ; 6. pa"1 = rJn*1 (ii) cosh x/c (Hi} r -J(8r - 3) . 7. r* + 1 = V2 a™*p
10. a0 Problems 4.11, page 172 1. 1; (ii) a“/(n + l)r" -1 (Hi) (1 +a3)3b/6a2
1243 Appendix 3 — Answers to Prqelovis 14. {xiaf + (ylbf = 1
15. y = *1 - S*! %g 2 u2 16. (i) Jx + = Vc; 2. a = 1, b = 1/4, Point of
minima 4. x = 0.42/ 6. v = (aw2/3b)m 8. 0 = * _ ® ; (1 — sin «V( 1 + sin a)
4 2 10. Sq, with side V2a 13. 8 + 2^7 , 2 + 2>/7, 5 - >/7 14. Depth is half
the width 15. /3a/4 25. 2.5 km/hr. | Problems 4.14. page 185 1. x + y + a = 0
2. x = ±aty = ± h 3. x = ± a, y - ±h 4. y = 0;x + l = 0;x + y = 0 5- y = *,y +
2x = 0.y + 2x + I = 0 6. x + a = O;x-a = 0;x -y + J2a = 0 ; x -y — ^2 a - 0 7.
x + 2y + 2 = 0, x + y = ± 2>j2 10. r cos 0 = a ; r cos 0 = — a 11* r cos 0 = 0
; r cos 0 = 2o 12. r sin 0 = 2 13. r sin (0 — midii) = a/n cos mn. i Problems
4,1 5, page 1 94 j 2. V jg \ * u v* ‘V
1244 Problems 4.16, page 194 Higher Engineering Mathematics
1. c 7. (c) 13. (c) 2. x2 + 4ay = 0 3. 1/5 8. (6) 9. (b) 14.(6) 15. x2 - 4y 4. a
43. (C). 31. (B) 34. node 38. 46 41. (D) Problems 5.1, page 198 1. 2/3 2.
Does not exist 3. Zero 4. Does not exist 7. Discontinuous. Problems 5.2,
page 202 1. (i) xy(2 - cos xy) - sin xy ; xH 1 - cos Jty) ; (M>
2*tfx2+y2),2y/(jc2+y2); (iii) (x2 + 2 xy -ylV\{x2 + y2)2 + Cr + y)2| ; (y2 +
2xy - x2)f{{x2 + y2)2 + (x + y)2| ; (to) ik = g* = . 4 dx dy 1-2 11. n = 2,-3
18. e^z(xzy2z2 + 3xy* + 1). Problems 5.4, page 208 13. 2u. Problems 5.5,
page 211 2. 4a2i(/2 + 2) 2. — 2/(ezt + e~ 2> 3. zero 4. 6.5 sq. ft./sec 6. 84/.
Problems 5.6, page 214 9. 0 i 0. Problems 5.7, page 218 6. zero 11. u2-vz =
8ut 7. jc(yi> + 1 - ia) + z — 2 uv 10, 0 ; u = tan o
220 I. 4X +Y+Z-6; = Y- 1 =Z + 3 2. 37 + 2Z-X-3 = 0, 1-X= — — 4 3 3. ^ +
^ + = 3;x1(X-*1)=y1(Y-y1) = z1(£-a1) 4. 7X-3Y+8Z=26; = 7-3 8 5. f- 1,2,
2/3) X-xY-yZz x ~ y ~ z Z+\ 2 Problems 5.9, page 226 1- (I) X - ~ (x3 +
3xy2> t> (it) 2V2 . 1 + {(* + 1) + (y - ti/4)} + ” |(x + 1)2 - 2(x + l)(y - it/4)
+ (y - x/4}2} + i |(x + l)3 + 3(x + 1)2( y - n/4) - 3{x + 1) (y - Tt/4}2 - (v -
n/4)3 } + . 6 W) 1+J+ ^|(x2-y2> + | + 2- 1 + (x - 1) + (at - 1) (y - 1) + i{x -
1)2 (y - 1) + ... 3. - 0.8232 11. ^ cot a + 2 4. - 4500 units 12. Re. 43.20 5.
2% 13, (p ~ 3? - 4r)% 7- 2% 14. -1^lS. 5 r. Problems 5.10, page 233 1- (t)
(a, a) gives maximum if a < 0 and minimum if a > 0 (tt) Min. at (a, a> (iii)
Max, at (4, 0), Min. at (6, 0) (£<>) Max. at (+ 1, 0) ; Min. at (0, ± 1) (v)
Max. at (n/3, n/3) ; Min. at (2n/3, 2n/3) 2. 4, 2, 1 3. (i) 3a2 ; (u) p2/(a2 + fi2
+ c2> ; (iii) 3a2 4. 12 x 12 x 6 cm 6. (0, 0, ± 1) 8. 4, 1 9. 50 10. 4, 8, 12 11.
Two stationary values of u are given by m au-1 bu - 1 cu - 1 = 0. Problems
5.11. page 236 1. 2a tan-1 — + a 2 a2(x2 + a2) 2. tH «! (m + l)n + 1 3. n log
4. - ic/(a2 - D3*2. Problems 5.12, page 236 1. zero 2. (a) 3. 1 4. (b) 5. (h) 6.
«.) 7, 8. (c) 9. (rf) 10. (d) 11- ( b ) 12. (rf) 13- (o) 14. (d) 15. (e) 16. (b) 17.
zero 18. 2/(x+y)
Higher Engineering Mathi-maiics 19. rt-s2< 0 20. id) 23. fja, b) -

0, fy(a, b) = 0 24. 26. (c) 30. False, 27. - 1 21. 4 u (c) 25. 28. (c) 22. 3/(k,
i>)/fl(x, ji) du dx dy dx ' dt dy ' dt 29. equal 1. (i) 128/316 ; (ii) 8/46 3. (i)
(2n - 3) (2n - 6) . 3.1 n (2n - 2)(2n - 4j ...... 4.2 2 6. U) 371/512 ( ii ) 1/144 8.
ft) 5tc/8 ; (U) 2877. Problems 6.1 , page 244 2. (i) 128/315 ; (ii) Hti/192 6.
(i) 5^256 ; (ii) 1/15 4. 35:1/10240 7. (i) 35nu4/8 ; (it) bna3/2 Problems 6.2,
page 247 1. (t) ^ tan5 x - i fcan:i x + tan x-x (ii) - \ cot4 x + ^ cot x + log sin
x o ^ 4 2 3. ilog2-± 4. *-? 4 3 n- 1 n -1 "~2 6- (i) sec4 x . tan x + ^ (sec2 x +
2) tan x (ii) UlIK + OL )0i£ (2 + J$) 6 15 4 8 {/til — cot x cosec x - ^ cot x
cosec x + log (cosec x — cot jc) 4 8 6 7- |S#+H,°g<1+j5>}‘1' 1. eMl-X +
X2-!3 + X*) m + 1 f5 *3 8. — — + i - tan-1 1. 5 3 3H Problems 6.3, page
250 3. f x"1 (log x)n dx = (log x)" - — ^-r f xm (log x)n - 1 dx i f X5 (log
x)3 dx = - 1/216 J m + 1 m + 1 J Jo 5. 149/225 6. 3tt2/64 - 1/4 7. ^ rc4 -
15n2 + 120 11. /„ = eax cos" 1 x(u co« x + n sin x) n(n - 1) 2 2 £1 + n + ^
e2x cos3 xdx = ^ (3^-11) u + n 65 12. 24/85. Problems 6.4, page 254 7. (£)
3n/8 ; (it) 5n/8 ; (iti) 3ti/256 ; (iv) 15n/640 8. (i) 16it/35 ; (ii) Bti/315.
Problems 6.5, page 256 l. log 2 2. | Log 2 3. 1/3 4. ti/2 5. I log 2 4 6.
Problems 6.6, page 260 2. 21 £ 1. (i)7la6; (ii)8a2/3 3. 2a2/5
Append)* 3— Answers to Prqb^ms 1247 4. (i) 8a2/ 15^3 ; 8.

3tki'2 II. -^-273 d 15. 11, 6 (ii) (2 - iU2)a2 5. (i) na2 ; (ii) -~a2 U 9. a2/6 13.
(3tt - 8) a/6 6. (i) Jta2 ; (h) 4a2 10. 3rt«2 ; na2 14. 64a 2/3 Problems 6,7,
page 262 1. U)3na2f2; Hi) a2 2. (i)na2/8; (ii) Jta2/ 12 5. 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (c)
12. (c> 13. (a) - . 3 na2 1415. (Hi) 16. naVl2 17. i 18. 7ji/8
1246 Higher Engineering Mathematics 19. (ill) 20, (tit.) 21.

7ift(rt2 + + r2®) 22. (c) 23. (a} 24. {b)or(c) 25. (a). E Problems 7,1, page
260 1. 13 %, 3/35 3. \ie~l) 4. |ti log(l + n/2 } 5. a*/ 8 6. â&) dx dy , Jo
JjJSo Jo iii) i j /"(r, 8) rdr dQ 18. 4a 2/3 19. 45n/2. I Problems 7.2, page 283
1. 4.5 2. 7/6 3. no2 4. f l°S.3“f 5. a2 6. a2(l -rc/41 7. 4/3 8. aa/4. Problems
7.3, page 284 i. abc («a + h1 + c2) kJ 2. ^ abc (o2 + £»2 + c2) O 3, 4/35 4.
êta- f e20 + e“3 a 5. £ log 2 - ^ 3 9 6. |(13-8e+2) 7. 5tqi'V64. Problems 7.4,
page 291 1. re/S 2. ji/2 3 ■ 8(f~|)“! 4. 2"+a n + 4 _ IT 1 6t 4"2 6. 0 7 15m/
64 9. n 10. 7t2/8 11, 4na ,2- K,ok2-I) 14. 7iatt/12 15. 3n 16. 4tt 17. rca3(2 -
V3 18. 16u3/3 19. 20. 12&;;V15 21. 3m*3 22. 4 \fH K 23. 8c4/3 25. l 4 26.
-jta/jr. [ Problems 7,5, page 293 5. 2. 64 3. 2(*-2)a2 4. 2na2 4
Append* 3 — Answers tq Problems 1249 Problems 7.6, page 297

2. 21 npa4/32 n(4ti + 3fo) fe(3a + 6} 6(o + 6) ’ 6(a + 6) 3. 30.375 6. 1. 182
-!-X 24 A ( 3a 3flî 4' Izo-TeJ 8. x ~ 3a/5, y = 9a/40 where o = OA 9. (1/5,
1/5, 2/5). l0'i=a/4 “-(iM»-W) 13. -r!rl 14. Divides the diagonal in the ratio 7
: 5 \ S 16 * 15. ^ where a is the base, h the depth 16. C.P. lies on the radius 1
to the bounding diameter at a depth 32a/(15rc) from the centre. , (3^.o) 12.
— metres 26 Problems 7.7, e 301 1. afc3/12 5. (21/32) Ttpfl4 2. 5Ma2/4 6. |
MR2 5 3. 2M/9 4. lM(oa + 62) 7. J, Mr2 ; ~ MOr2 + 4A2) 3Mr2 3 M 20 10
6. (i) ; fie) ^-(r2 + Ah2) ; (tit) ~ (3r2 + 2AS) 9. 104803770p 10. ~ 30 11.
*Pab«a +j_> 12. paV 30 Problems 7.8, page 309 1. (t) 3.323, (it) 11.629 ;
(Hi) Kyfe ; (to) 0.1964 ; (v) 0.1227 2. (i) Vtt /2 ; (it) HS/4) ; (Hi) JH/3; (iv)
2P 'l'1 $ (pt q) r(^)r,p + 1, 4. a/4 s/2 10. 16/35 7. -3/8 9, *rf— + p + 1 + -1 \n
n/ , «) («) ^ ft) 396 ■ r(H) 15. *aW 48 Problems 7.9, page 31 2 2. |K{V3/2)
3. J3 4. 2 V 2£{1/n/2 ) - V 2iftW2 ) 5. erflx) = — T( X - + 3 £l_5l+ V 10 42
. . J* erf[o) - 0 6.< t) 0.3248 ; (it) 0.5204. Problems 7.10, page 313 2. Area
of the triangle having vertices (0, 0), (0, 1), ( 1, 0) 4. 3.1416 5. lbJn/8 8. -
1/3 9, 1/2 p(4, 3/4) 1. 4 3. Jn/2 6. 26 6, 92te 10. 1
1250 Higher Engineering Mathematics 11. 3/4 12. Tin3 Q 13. id)
14. 27/4 15. JI£I2/12 lfi. - 1/3 17. Ml 18. 44/105 19. rl sin 0 dr dd dfy 20.
e2- 1 21. 1 nab (a2 + 62). 22. 1 ItlOgd + 72) 4 23. 3/256 24. (c) 25. i+!si” 3
1 5 26. 48/5 27. 1/6 28. 16/3 29. c° r7“*Jn V) „ fix.y> dy dx 72 IT 30. 31.
3te/256 32. 1/2 33. Jo Jo r dO dr 34. 7 A 12 35. (A A) ^20' 16^ 36. 16 37.
SMr^/lO 38. 1 39. log 2 40. 5* 41. (c) 42.(6). Problems 8.1, page 318 3. (i)
/:i sin t + 7/ 2 cos / + 20/ sin / lOt ; Ui ) (20/5 + / sin / - cos /) I — (2/ cos / +
2 sin i 1 + 75/2) J - /(/ sin / + 2/ 2 COS / + 10 COB /)K 5. - 4(1 + 2J) \ 6. (i)
{ua2 sec a). (it) a: * tan a ; (cos / J - sin 1 1) cos a + sin a K 7. Id + 2J + (2/
-12/ + 13> ; ±(2I + ; 3 J + K) 8. (x - «/72 ) =.y - o/72 { an = 12_t tan « j / 72
tan a 9. (i) abf(a 2 sin2 1 + b2 cos2 tf’*'1 ; 07) 1/472 10. (i) R = (p + q)l +
qJ + 2qK ; K 75 Ui) R=pl + {p + 2q)J + (p + q)J + {p + q)K-, (2K - I - J>/^6
. Problems 8.2 page 321 1- o(at t-0)~ 737 , a{at t = 0) = 7325 2. a= ± 1/76 3
. Rjl4/7 Jl4/7 6. (a ) d*s/dt2 ; v*fp ; (h) 0;3 7. 7(17 > m.p.h. in the direction
tan-1 (0.25) North of East. 8. 21.29 knots/hr. in the direction 74*47' South
of East. Problems 8.3, page 325 1. (a) 2(.r( + yJ + 2K)/(jc2 + y2 + z2). (6 )
® + t* 2. (- I + 3J + 2KV 7u 3 3. 12 i 4. 15/7T7 a 6. - 260/(09) ; 7(1056) 7.
a = ±^,6=±^,c = ±^ 10. ^(21 + 2J ™ K) 13. a.= — 6„ 6 = — 10. 9. 9 12.
cosrM- I/VSO ) 5. a = 6, b — 24, r - - 8 8. 96(1 + 3J-3K); 96 709) 11. COS
1 (1/722)

333 1. (i) 12 ; 51 - 16J + 9K ; (ii) 278 ; 5(27 / - 54 J + 8 K) ; (Hi) - 32 ; 0 4.
a = - 2 ; 4x (z -xy) 1 + (y - 2yz + 4^2) J + (2x2 + .y2 -*2 - ?) K 13. (i) 0 ;
(ii) 2(x + J + 2y K 14. (a) 2*{2n - IVx2 + >'2 + z2T + 1 ; n = 1/2 16. It)
2(y3 + Sx2? - + 2(3^y£ + x3 - 6x2 y ) zJ + 2{xyii + x3 - 3x2 y ) tyK ; {«}
Zero 17. 1724/721. Problems B.S, page 335 1. 75*1 + 360 J -42 K 2. (/3 - 1
+■ 2) 1 + (1 - r*)J + (4 - 4 cos f - 3/) K 3 3, V = 6 sin 2/1 + 4{cos 2f - 1)J +
8/2K ; R = 3(1 - cos 2/)I + 2 sin 2/J + “K. d Problems 8.6, page 336 1. 0 2.
35 3. - 2/3 4. 5 5. 6. zero 3 7. 303 8. 8^ 9. 9n 10. (2”j) I- (*- ■§)«!.
Problems 8.7, page 339 3. 8. Problems 6.8, page 341 3. nab 4 . na2 5. Zero
6. 128/5 7. 35n«Vl6. Problems 8.9, page 345 3. — 2nfr2 5. 6. ZeTO 10. 2
11. 0 12. ic. 2 Problems 8.10, page 350 4, 108ft 7. (i) 15 fta5 (£i}12(e-e-1l
8. 4na3 & 9. 10. ?fta4& 11. -4tt 12. 8/3. 12 4 3. 14 § 5. (i) iOc3 + y3 + z3 -
3xyz) ; (iii) xz3 —yz + 3x2y. 6. U) Yes, f (x2 + y2-2z2); £ 7. xy sin z + cos
x + y2 z + c 3, a = 4, 6 = 2, r = — 1 Problems 8.11. page 354 4. x3y ~ y2z2
+ z3 (ii) x^y + y2z + z ; (if) xzy 2 + y2z2 + xyz = 0 (ii) Yes 8. x *y + xzA ;
202 10. a =4;2x2y-xza;47.
1252 Higher Engineering Mathematics Problems 8.1 2, page 362
1. (iJ (p sin 20 - z sin (0 Tp - (2p sin2 $ + z cos $} T0 + 3p cos Tz Hi) (2p
cos2 — 3 p2 sin3 p) Tp - (p sin 2$ + 3pa sin2 t|> cos > + r cos2 0 sin <>) Tr
+ icos 0(1 + sin2 l Te + sin cos $ ] Hi) r 2 sin 0 |(sin2 0 cos2 + sin 6 cos 0
sin2 + cos2 0 cos ({>) Tr + (sin 0 cos 0 cos2 $ sin 4 + cos2 0 sin2 - sin 0
cos 0 cos $} Tft + (cos 0 sin $ cos - sin 0 sin2 cos ) T^l 1 3. p z sin 20 + pz
cos 20 T + — p2 sin 20 T., K T Problems 8.13, page 363 l. l/Ju , 2/Vl4 ,
3/14 4. 4x — 32 + 2xz 7. 3V 10. 4JT 11. 14. - (yf + zJ + jcK). 15. 18. zero
19. 22. Wr2;nd‘-2K 23. 2. i(x — 2)=iy — 1 — z + 3 4 5. zero 8, 3 ; 0
solenoidal 12. - 28/S SulL . 16. zero cfcr dy dz zero 20. zero §8.5(2) 24. *
(21 + 4J Si 3. dudv = —1— iLxdy *lih'± 6. | (xdy ~ ydx ) 9. Irrutatiuiial 13.
zero. 17. -U2I + 5J + 8K) 21. zero 25. 2, -2, 2 26. 6^7 3 30. (c) 34. (a) 36.
irrotationaJ field 41. (a ) 44. (o> 48. (b) 27. 2 ir 28. 7/3 20. zero 31. (c) 32.
(6) 33. (c) 35, (a) 36. 5u 37. zero 39- (a) 40, the rate at which fluid is
originating at P per unit volume. 42. it gives the maximum rate of change of
0. 43. Uu) 45. (a) 46. ib) 47. (it) 49. zero + 50. True 51. True, Problems 9.1 ,
page 366 1. Convergent 2. Convergent 3. Convergent 4. Divergent 5.
Convergent 6. Convergent 7. Convergent 8. Divergent. Problems 9.2, page
367 1. Convergent 2. Convergent 3. Oscillatory 4. Convergent 5. 15 m.
Problems 9.3, page 372 1- Convergent 5, Convergent 8* Convergent 2,
Convergent 3. Divergent 6. Conv. for p > 2 ; Div. for p < 2. 9- Convergent
10* Convergent 4. Divergent 7* Divergent II, Convergent
Appenoix 3* — Amsvjeas to Problems 1253 12, Divergent 13.
Divergent 14, Convergent 15. Convergent 16. Convergent 17- Divergent
18- Convergent. Problems 9.4, page 376 1. Conv. forx < 1 ; Div. for x > 1 3.
Conv, for x < 1 ; Div. for a: > 1 5, Convergent for all values uf p 8.
Convergent 11, Convergent 14. Convergent 16, Divergent 2, Conv. for x < 1
; Div. for x > 1 4, Conv. for > L ; Div. for x < 1 6, Convergent 7.
Convergent 9, Conv. for x < 1 ; Div. for x > 1 10. Convergent 12.
Convergent 13. Divergent 15. Conv. for x < 1, Div. for x > 1 ; Conv. for p >
1 and Div. for p< 1 17. Conv. if [1 > a. > 0 ; Div. if a > fi > 0. Problems 9.5,
page 379 1. Conv. for x < 1 ; Div. for .v > 1 3. Conv. for x < 1 ; Div. for x >
1 5. Conv. for x < e ; Div. for x > e 7. Conv. for x < 1 ; Div. for x > 1 9.
Conv. for x2 < 4 ; Div. for x2 > 4 II, Conv. fora: < 1/e ; Div. forx > lie 13.
Diverges 14. Conv. for x < 1 ; Div, forx > 1, When x = 2. Conv. forx < 1 ;
Div. forx > 1 4. Conv. for x < 2 ; Div. for x > 2 6. Conv. for x < 1 ; Div. for
x > 1 8. Conv. for x2 < 1 ; Div. for x s > 1 10. Convergent 12. Conv. for x <
1 ; Div. for x > 1 1, Conv. for h — a > 1, Div, for b - a < 1, Problems 9.6,
page 381 1. Convergent 2. Convergent 3. Convergent 4. Convergent 6.
Conv. forx < 1 ; Div, for x > 1 6- Conv, for x < ; Div. for x > ^ 7.
Convergent. Problems 9.7, page 383 Oscillatory 5* Convergent 9.
Convergent 2. Convergent 6™ Oscillatory 19, Oscillatory, 3, Convergent 7*
Convergent 4, Convergent 8* Convergent Problems 9,flt page 387 1. (i) and
(ii) conditionally convergent 3. (ij Conditionally convgt, for 0 1 6.
(t) - 1 < x < 1 ; («} - 1 < x < 1 ; 7. — e 1 2, Convergent 3. Divergent 4.
Convergent 5. Divergent 6. Conv, for x < 1 ; Div, for x > 1 7. Conv, for x <
1 ; Di v, for x > 1 8. Conv. for x < 1 j Div. for x > 1 9. Conv, for x < 1/4 ;
Div. for x > 1/4 10. Conv. for x < 2 ; Div. for x > 2
1254 Higher Engineering Mathematics Up Convergent for all x

12. Conv. for x < 1 ; Div. for x > 1 13- Convergent 14. Absolutely
convergent 15, Convergent 16. Convergent forp > 1 ; divergent for p < 1.
Problems 9.10, page 391 1- Uniformly convergent for 0 < x < 1. 2. to 5.
Uniformly convergent for all real values of x 6. Uniformly convergent for 0
< x < 1/a 10- (i) and Hi) Both converge uniformly for all real values of*.
Problems 9,11, page 392 1* (c) 2* id) 7. i a) 8. (61 12* (a) (-1,1) (6) (- 1/2,
1/2) 17. All values of jf 22- Divergent 28- Convergent. 28. Divergent 29- jc
> 1 34. (6) 35, True. 3. ia) 9. (6) 13. - 1 < *< 1 18. A < 1 24, 0 < jf < 4 30. 0
£ x £ I 4. (6) 10. id) 14. k > 1 19, Convergent. 25. yes 31. <61 5. (c) 11. ic)
15. an < k 20, Divergent. 26. True 32. (cl 6. id) 16. Oscillatory 21. q - p > 1
27. Convergent 33. id) Problems 10.1, page 400 2 sinh tin | ffi. a cos x a cos
2x 4- . ~ , sin x 2 sin 2x 3 sin "1 1 1 \ * 1 [l*« l2 + a2 2* + u2 "‘J + i, 1 + a 2
+ a 3 2+«2 "*Jj * -2 1 1 1 ■ sinh n 22 +1 32 +1 42 +1 * 1. No 2. No
Problems 10.2, page 401 3. Yes. Problems 10.3, page 404 I. ±n-±f 2 n K cos
x + cos 3jc cos 5jt \ „ In 1 r 2/q V cos ^nx 1 52 > n 2 0 I " 4ns-l 2 _ jtz n f
cos 2jc cos 3jc 3. — — 2 cos jc - = — + s — 6 { 23 32 *]U3 i n = l . f2 /l . ,
sin jf - ^ — - — j sin 2jc + ... 4. 2 I ?t - — ) sin jc — n sin 2x + - f n — — )
sin 3* - sin 4x + ^ k ) 3 V 9nv 2 _ 4 ( , sin 3j: sin 5jf 'l 5, — sin jc + — - —
+—-—+.
Appenehk 3 — Answers to Prooiems 1255 o f[\ « u I 1 „r Zio: 1

Pnr/I-J[ , 1 ct2 [1 . 2tlv 1 . 4iu; £’ {l} "5"“ 7z]7n 008 -— + -2Ct>s4TI— + S
— (Tsin tt sin 3 [12 a 22 « J it U a 2 a f \ a*\ 2 4 f cgs2ji/ cos 3jrf ^ 2 3 cos
(2o - Dice 1 . 3 12 y- 1 f cos (2o - Drat ] '2 *2 ,4; (2n-l)2 1 3 f E E 2E T 1 1
1 5, — + sin ii)t - — cos 2 orf + 7 — cos 4oif + — — cos 6 tDt + it £ ic LI.
3 3.5 5.7 J t* 6. fix) = + 2^ (- 1 )" + 1 sin titex ; put x = 1/2. Problems 10.5,
page 412 i ^ , V 4a2 , «jw 1* — + > — s-s-l-IJ cos 3 "i n2Tt2 « 12 2 2 3. 1 -
— cos a: — — — cos 2x + ; “ cos 3x - rr cos 4.r •u X .iJ J&iTi OtU _ 1 4 (
cos 3x cos 5x 5. -r IT - COS X 4- - s - + - 5 - + 2 71 6. (i) . -) 0 *-if tt cos 2x
cos 4x ~ir~ + 15 + cos 2nx 4n2 - 1 7 ~ + 1 - — f cos x + -4 cos 3x + -4- cos
5x + . .. ] ; 4r*' 2 k{ 32 52 ) fi a 4k ( . sin 3x sin 5x 'I n k 3 5 f m - + y Tt
4(— 1) m + 1 COS 2 fTl KX „ = 1 (4m2 - 1)ji 1 2. — - — 2 71 3 *L _ 4 3‘
3 Problems 10.6, page 416 cos x 4- “4 ■ cos 3x H — 4 . COS 5x + . j ; 2
(sin x - ± sin 2x + ± sin 3x - . ] Cos x - -4 Cns 2x + -4 cos 3x - -4- cos 4x +
... » j 4. X 1 ji-1 h 1 sin 2nx 5* Mi 3 cos rtnx » = a n j n 6. Af™ rc3 1 sin nt
sin 3 nt sin 5nt + ■ ,3 0 1 . v (-l)".2n 8. - — sin x + 2^ - s - sm ft* n = 2 7-
— [I — f- l)nl rat »• y -^<1it»V 12‘ 7+E 7^?{2c“ n!-l i°- T. , JOi Pi = 1 8 Tt
13. — cos — U — (*** 1)” 1 sin nx sin 2x sin 6^ sin lOx + e cos ran) sin
niuc / . V1 2/ J0 fills . / iviJ 4 £* m f i 2 cos f! 711" 1.3 5.7 9.11 - . 2 lzh . jio
. Ttr 1 . 2tut . 2tw , 1 . 3tkj . 3tiit 14. - — ~ sin y «*n -r- + -s' sin — r- sin —
— s- —=• sin — =— sin — + . . u(/-o)re2L ll 22 * t 32 / l
Higher Engineering MuTHEMtnes 3. rtVSfi. Problems 10.7, page
419 Problems 10.8, page 420 j ^ {sinh at cos nid - i cosh at sin nnl) (a +
inn) , 2 . 2 2\ (a + n it ) n f a2** , -4 if « 2 J. e + e e+e e+e * n I 1-3 3.5 5.7
rt I Fit 3, — sin an It (- 1) e (- If (9 + niu) 4. sin h 9 > „ f- 01 + (nn)2 ^ttuc/3
** a a f u -u\ . 1/ J B- 2‘il(' -* )+3te 3" e-^l + ils5” -e-s“) + 5 where u =
iTtar//. Problems 1 0.9, page 423 1. 11.733 - 7.733 cos 2x — 2.833 cos 4* +
...... - 1.566 sin 2x - 0.116 sin 4x + 2. 1.45 + (— 0.37 cos x + 0.17 sin x) —
(0.1 cos 2x + 0.06 sin 2x) 3. a0 = 41 .66, at = - 8.33, bt - - 1.15 4. - 0.0731
5. y = 2.102 + 0.558 cos x + 1.531 sin x + 0.354 cos 2x + 0.145 sin 2x 6.
7,8 sin 0 + 1.5 sin 20 — 9,2 sin 30 + 11.6 sin 40 - ...... . Problems 10.10,
page 424 l. 2it/3 2. Iftfc0) + flc + OH 3. (— 1, 1) such that/(x) = -fl-x) 4.
fix) - A when 0 < x < it and fix) = -A when it < x < 2lt 5. Sine 6. § 10.11 (3)
7. Zero 8. not defined 9. odd 10. Cosine 11. even 12. x ~ k/n 13. Zero 14.
Cosine 15. Zero 16. r cos "" Ox Jo 2 17. 1 r6*25, T Ja fix) sin dx 18. §10.3
19. Zero 20. «fl=f J fix') dx . «!.* i j: cos 22-dx 81. Ajsin* + sin 3x sin 5x ,
.|L -E_ j 22. it 23. Zero « l 3 5 24. 21 “• t „ (1-tnit) s£nh lf,inKC 1 + nV 26.
False 27. -n/2 28. odd 29. Zero 30. 3.5355 31. zero 32. - 172 33. — a 2 n
34. it2 8 85. ™ - — J cos x + “ cos 3* + “ cos 5x + ... 1 36. fix ) =5 + 1 cos
2x + A cos 4x 2 It 1 32 52 J 8 2 4 87. x2 — x 38. x(l + x) 39. True 40. False
41. False.
Appendix 3— Answers to Problems 1257 Problems 11.1, page
429 1. x2^J -4x^ + 6y = 0 dx dx o II * + >\\ CM c4 3. x^J + 2“ -xy = 0 dx 2
4. d*y - 2dy + 2y = 0 dx2 dx fin * m w+ u o dv 6. 2xy^ + x2 — y2 = 0 7. )
= c 12. a log ( ?-£-a'| = 2y + e. ^ x - y + a) 14. tan (x + y ) = sec (x + yl + x
+ c 2x 1. x(x2 - 3ya) = c 4. y + J(*2 + y2) -c 7. y = 2x tan-1 (ex) Problems
11.3, page 432 2. cy3=xV^ 5. y2 = 2x(y + x log (ex)] 10. logx = 8. e*1? ~y
+ c + c 11. xy cos (y/x) - c. 3. (x/y)a = 3 log cy 6, x(c+y)-ay2 »• logy - ( z
log ^ + 1) = c 4v >■ X / Problems 1 1 .4, page 434 1. (XU 2Y2? = c | -}
where X = x + I, Y = y-1 IV2Y + XJ 2, (y -x)3 = c(y + x - 2) 4. axa + 2Axy
+ by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 6- x -y + y log (8x - 12y -5 ) = c 4 3. (x + y>7 =
cfx — y — 2/3 )3 5. 3{2y - x) + log (3x + 3y + 4) = c 7. log (x + y + \ ) + |
(y - x) - c. 1 . y = ce~ **n x + tan x — 1 2 4. y cosh x = c + — cosh3 Q 7.
yd + sin x) = c - x2/2 Problems 11. 5T page 437 2. y = log x + c/log x 5. y
i/(l — x2 1 - sin-1 x + c 3. y sec2 x = sec x - 2 6. y = c(l-x)2 + (l-x2) j 9. ye
=2x +c 8. 2r sin2 0 + sin'1 9 = c
1258 Higher Engineering Mathematic? 10. x = y3 + cy 13. xetan
v = tan-1 y + c 1. y-1 sec x — tan x + c 4, 1/y = x2 - 2 + ce-**'2 7. sin y =
(1 -t- x) (e1 4- c) 10. cos y - cos x (sin x + c) 11.* = sin-1 y - 1 + re 8,n y
14. xe y = c + tan y. Problems 11.6. page 439 2. 1 Jr ~ sin 0 4- c cos B 5. y2
= x2 + cx - 1 8. = le^ + c 2 11. 3. *2 + (4JC6 + c)y4 = 0 6. y/x - logy + c 9.
tan y - x3 - 3x2 + fix - 8 + ce~x 12, y-1 = 1 log x + j + cx2. Problems 11.7,
page 442 1. Xs + y3 - 3crxy - c 3. x3 - Bx1^ - Bxy2 + y3 = c 6. r' + x3y2 -
*2y3 - y5 = c 9. 3y cos 2* + 6y + 2y3 = c 2. x* + 2rV — y4 - 2a2*2 - 262y2
= c & 4. — - x1 y2 + xy4 + cos y = c 5 7. x3 + ae^y2 + y4 = c 10. e* = sec
* tan y + c 5. e** + y2 = c 8. x2 - y2 = cya 11. x2 y +■ xy - x tan y + tan y
= c. Problems 1 1 .6, page 445 1. ax + tan"1 y/x = c A. 3 log * - (y/x)3 - c 7.
(y + 2 iy2)x + y2 = c 10. lug (x/y) = c 4- xy 13. 4y log x = y2 4- c. 2. x2 + y
2 — 2o2 tan-1 (y/x) = c 5. log (y/x) + |x2y2 = c 8, 4x4y + 4xay2 -*4 = r 11.
(x/y) + =r 3, y 4- cx + lug x + 1 = 0 6. xy 4- log (x/y) - { 1/xy) - c 9. 2 cos
(xy) 4- x’2 = c 12. 4(xy)U3- |(x/y)3/2 = c Problems 11 .9, page 446 1. (x -y
4- c) (x2 + y2 + c) = 0 2. (2y — x2 + c) (y + x 4- ce~x — 1> = 0 3. x2 + y2
- cx 4, (y - cx) (ya - x2 - c) = 0 5. (y - c) (y 4- x2 - c) (xy + cy 4- 1) = 0.
Problems 11.10, page 448 1. X + C = — 2 2. xy = c2x + c 3. y = 2îxc) + c2
4. 2cy = c2x2 + 1 5. x = (log p - p + c) (p — l)2, with the given relation 6. x
= sin p + c, with the given relation. log P-1 V(l + p2) - tan p , with the given
relation Problems 11.11, page 449 1. y = c(x~c? 2. y2 - 2cx + e3 3. (y + ctp)
V(p2 - 1) + a cosh-1 p - cr with the given relation 4. y 4- ( 1 4- p2)~] = c,
with the given relation.
Appendix 3— Answers to Problems 1259 Problems 11.12, page
450 1, (t) Gun. sol. ; y = c x + ah2 \ Singular sol. ; 2ur2 = (2ctc + x)3 (ii)
Gen. sol. : r = log (cx - y) ; Singular sol. :y - x(log x - 1) (lit) Gun. sul.y =
ox + ii(«'c” + b4} ; Singular sol. y + yjl " xs = 0 (tti) Gen. sol. y = cx - sin*1
c ; Singular sol. y = Jx’z - 1 - sin-1 ~ 1 x 2* y = cx + (c - 2c2) 3. (y - cx) (c -
1) - c 4. (y - ex) {c + 1) + ac2 = 0 5. y3 - cx2 + c3 [Hint : Put x2 = u, y2 = u|
6. xy = cy - c2 [Hint : Put u = y, v = xy\ 7. y2 = cx2 - . Problems 11.13,
page 450 l. (0 2. (it) 3. (iti) 4. (t) 6. logy + c = x2/2y2 6, yx2 = x3 + r 7- c*
+ x^y + cy - 0. 8, (m) 9, x2 + y2 + 2 tan-1 y/x = c 10. log x + c = yVSx3 11.
( i ) 12. ys + 1/x + ce~yl/2 = 2 13. y = cx + ctSc2 14, c = log (cx -y) 15- xy-
c or x2 - y2 = c 16. 2 17. xy = c 18. (h) 19. ( b ) 20, (1 +x2)3/2 + a +y2)3/2
= c 21. y = 5e-* 22. x + y = u 23, x-5 24, §11.11 (3) 25. 5x4y2 + 2(xs + y5)
= c 26. sin (y/x) - rx 27. (a) 28. (c) 29, x + y dy/dx = 0 30. e_I + 2cosy=c
31. (c) 32. False 33. False. Problems 12,1, page 454 1. (£) 9v + 4x2 = 0 ;
(£0 3(.r + 3y) = 2(1 - e3*) 2. j + l= 2ell/a 3. x2 + v2 = cx 4. y = -4 ( a 2 - x2)
+ ft log ( l~2 2 a - ij a - x X T L 5. y2 = 4x 6. y = uet x J 7. y = ux + 6 8. x =
3y2 9, (i) r(9 — a) = r ; (ii) r = a + b cos 9 10. r2 - a2 sin 20 11. c¥ = 2 cy +
1 12. r = ce0«M« Problems 1 2.2. page 457 l. 2x2 + y2 = c 4. x 2 + y2 +
2|iy - c = 0 7. r ~ /j(cos 9 — sin 9) 10. r* n sin 0 = 6 2. x2 + 2yl - c 2 5. This
system is self-orthogonal 8. r - 26/( 1 - cos 0) 13. x2 + y2 + cx + 1 - 0 3.
3y2 + 2x2 = c2 6. r = c( 1 - cos 0) 9. r2 - c3 sin 20 14. v - ex. Problems 1
2.3, page 462 fi. 2ôJk 3. I log(j 2 6. vz - 2gx — — x3 10. y = (VlSO -
0.001328/ )2 ; / ( = 45 rain. 1 sec., £2 = 1 hr. 16 min. 51 sec., f3 = 1 hr. 38
min. 13 sec 11. 17 min. 4 sec.
1260 Higher Engineering Mathematics Problems 12.4, page 465
1. 0.0006931 sec 3. i = I (1 - p- 1Q0) 5 1. 52.5 mts 4. 490,000 cal 2. 10 L2
+ R 2 (R sin t-L cos t + Le~Rt,L) sin (titf + 0) where 0 = cot (JfCco), 4. i =
ke~t/RC + yja + i?2C2tt)2) Problems 12.5> page 467 2, 48 "C 5. 2.16 cm.
3- B drinks hotter coffee Problems 12.6, page 469 1. 604.9 3. (1 — Up)21
times the original amount 5. 21.5 gm 7. 3 hr, 50 min. 16 sec 2. 2 tog 3/log 2
4. 64.5 days 6. t = 300 - 5 log 2 + 5 log 0.7 - x 0.5 - x 8. 100(2-*-"“); 13.9
min. Problems 12.7, page 469 1- 6(1 -r3) 2, 54 m 3- 90.25% 5. y = ae™ 6.
rectangular hyperbola 8. The system is self- orthogonal 11. Sunil 12. id) 15,
2.21 16. (c) 19. False 20, True. 9, 2 \'Vfe 13. (c) 17. (c) 4. r(0 - a) = c 7. jt2 -
y2 = c 10. 2 log 3/log 2 14. id) 18. (a) Problems 13-1, page 474 1. — sin 3 1
2* y = e1 {4 cos 3x — sin 3jc) 3 3- y = Cj + { c2 + Cgi) er**2 4* y - c}e~*
+ z**2 cos + c3 sin 5- y = (Cj + c^x + c^x2) c1 6- y = (ca + Cjx) cos 2x + (
c 3 + c4 x) sin 2x 7* y = + ^t/2 fcj cos x/ \/2 +■ c4 sin x/ \^2 } 8, y - (c j +
CjX) cos x + (c3 + c4x) sin x + c5e*. Problems 13.2, page 486 1. y = (c, +•
CjX) e ^ + 3x2 e3* + ^ e-K* - i log 2 *d y 3 „ c* Ax 2. y = 2. er “ (cos * + 3
sin r) — ^ 3. x - Cj cos fi^ + c2 sin nt + sin int + (x) 4. x = e-1 (Cj cos i/2t +
c2 sin \f2t ) -t- ^ (sin f - cos f) 5, y = c jp-* + cê~ Zt + 1 + (3 sin 2x - cos
2x)
Appendix 3— Answers to Problems 1261 6* y = c.e1 + cê3* +

— i— ( 10 cog 5x — 11 gin 5x) + 7^- (sin x + 2 cos x) 1 * 884 20 g 2 7, y -
c j + (c£ + c^x) e™x - — e~x + ^ cos 2x - — sin 2x 11 8- y = (c j + c^x) e-a
+ — + — (2 sin 2x + cos 2x} z, o 9, y = (Cj + + e3 e3* + — (xe3* - x2e*)
10, y = Cje* + cê-1 + CZar* — 3x2 + 9x) 8 12 11* y = Cj + Cgje1 +
c3e_Jr + xe* — (x2 + x) — 2 sin x 1 1 I? 12. v = e^tc, cos 4x + sin 4x) + —
e2* + -r^r (23 sin jc + 6 cos x) + -^- + — — 12 17 565 25 625 (Cj + CgX)
cos x + (c3 + c4 x> sin x + x4 - 24x 2 + 72 + sin 4x - ^ sin 2x zzo y ■ 2i =
c* e >-2x , ^ “ ~w c-*^ |(c, + x/4) cos tx^3/2) + /2x + c~ sin Vlx } + ^— (4
sin x + 5 cos x>. i - 4 1 17. y _ , _ fir f ct e * + e2e v - — 18. y 19. y 20. y
21. .y 22. y 23. y 24. y . . _ . e3x ( 5 "1 (sin x + 2 cos x) + — {x - jj j = c,
cos i/2x + c2 sin V2x + p— f Jf12 — TT-^ + 1 + tx sin 2* — cos 2x) II \ 11
X Z X / Xi ; CjC* + c^rx + c3 cos x + c4 sin x - (1/5) cos x cosh x c 1 + (c2
+ c3x)e-*+ ^>-l£+U) + _l_ (3 sin 2x + 4 cos 2x) = et cos 4x + c3 sin 4x + X
j^x sin 3x — y cos 3x j = (c j + Cgjf) e~x + X cos x + X (jf _ i ) sin x Z 4
c,e* + c2c" 1 - 7j (* 9in x + 0051 *1 + (*e“/12) (2x2 - 3x + 9) + c2e-^ +
c3F-^ + e-2x . cP* 26, y = ct cos ox + cE sin ax — -y cos ax log (sec ax +
tan ax). = c Problems 13.3, page 490 1. y - {cn —x/a) cos ax + lc2 + (1/a2)
log sin ax] sin ax 2. y — cl cob x + c2 sin x + cos x log (cos x) + x sin x 3.
y = c, cos x + c2 sin x — cos x log (sec x + tan x) x x2 4. y = c , cos r + cs
sin x + g- sin x — — cos x 6. y = (c1 + CgX> e* + xe* log x 6. y = (e1 +
e2*) log (1 + #?*) + (cT — 1 -x) c* + (c2 — x) e21 7- y = e1 (c, cos x + c2
sin x) - e* cos x log (sec x + tan x) 8- y = c, + - 1-e* sin x 9, y = c, cos x +
c2 sin x + sin x log ( 1 + sin x) - x cos x - 1 10, y = tj e* + c2 e2* + ^ (x2 +
3x + 3.5 — 2xe*) 11, y = c, cosx + e2 sin x — x sin x
1262 Higher Engineering M^rHÂTtcs 12- y = cxe ^ + c2e^ +
xeat + ~ (sin x + cos x) 13. y = cAe* + i (2x +- 1) — ^ (cos x + 3 sin x) 14-
= F* (Cj cos J2x + Cjj sin •J2x ) + (9xa + l&r2 + 6x - 8) + (cos x — sin x)
15. y = ct + Cge2* — ^ e1 sin x. JL Problems 1 3.4, page 495 1* y = c{x2 +
CgX3 - x2 log x 2- y = Cj x4 + c2 x 1 +■ log x 3* y = (c, + cH logxlx2 +
■£• + 2x + (log x)8 4, y - c,x2 + CgX-1 + i (x2 - I/x) log x B. it = — (as -
r2) 3 S 6. Cj*'1 + Cg*”2 + ^ log jc ~ 7. y ~ Cjjr 1 +■ 4x lc2 cos [< 73/2 )
log x| + c3 sin f( 73/2 ) log a:]} + ^ x + log * 8. .V = Cjar-2 + x[c2 cos ( 73
log x) + c3 sin < 73 log x)| + 8 cos (Log x) - sin (log x ) 9. y = CjX-1 + {c2
cos (log x) + e3 sin (log x)l x + 5x + 10 log x/x 10. y ~ i(c, + Cj, logx) + 7.
log - * - II. y = x~2(ct +cs logx) + ^(logxa 1 2. y = etx3 + cjc~* + — log x
<7 log x - 2) 13. y - ct{2* + 3r + CtfZx + 3J^ - ^ (2r + 3) + | where a, b = ^
14. y = c-^x - 1) + c2(x - l)2 + c3 (x - D~2 +■ log (x + 1) + 1 15. y - Cj cos
log (1 + x> + cs sin log (1 + x) — ^ sin [2 log (1 + x)J 16. y = ct(3x + 2)l/3
+ c2(3x + 2H + ~|^{3x + 2)2 + ± (3x + 2) - 7 Problems 13.6, page 499 1. x
= ;y = 2c1e"f - 2c2C3f + -i (sin / + 2 cos f) o HK,'=‘l(t + 7)-y = M-(+?) 1 ■
2 1 1 1 . x = c,c-f + c2e3t — — (cos ? - 2 sin n, y = 2 c.r-* - 2c.jp:1 e~l + ^
[c4 (1 — t)
Appenojx 3— Answers to Problems 1263 13. x = Cjfi* + c2e * +-

c3 cos / + e4 sin t * - t f - , — cns / + ~r sin / 4 4 y = - Cje' - c.js~ f -** c3
cos / + c4 sin / + — (2 + /> (sin f 4 cos t > 14. 1=8(1.CMS(13,-4t_| sin If. 9
V 2 J 3 9 2 Problems 13.7, page 500 1. y ~ + ^p_tlx + c3 cos ax + sin 2. —
(3 sin Zjp + 4 cos 2x) 25 3. 1/6 4. e*U - 1) 5. (&) 6. > “ *1 + (ca + c3 xr +
c4 x2)e^ 78y - e* (Cj + c^x) cos 2r + (c^ + c4 x) sin 2x 9. y = cos x + 2 sin
x 10. (ii) Ily = (Cj + c£ *) cos X + (c3 + c4 x) sin x 12. -L cosh 3bc ls. y = a
log x + 6 10 14. y = (Cj + c23c) e'*"4 4- (c3 + e4*)e -V2* 15. i *3(?“ * 6
16. A -,2r 2 17. sin 2x 18. i*1** 19. y - (ct + c2 x)e~*/z + c3 20. (c) 21. {a)
22. 23. d2v ^ + 7 y - 2e*. 24. (e) 25. (a) 26(h) 27, y = (cj + c2 log x) x 28.
^273 + = 0 29^log2 30. e1 31. id) 32. 2ii+-j2}x . 2(1 y = c,e +cae + c3e •J2)
x 33. + 2 cbc3 34. 35. False 36. False. dxi dx Problems 14,1, \ page 506 1 1.
38 sec 4. x = ~ = sin [nt V(1 - l2) I rtij 1 6. It must be shortened by 1/86-10
of its length 7. It must be increased by 0.0074 ft ./sec2 6. 4321/4319 9. k2 >
4(j., 0 = c,e 2 + c2e 2 where A. = V(A“ - 4|i) k2= 4ji. 0 = (et + e^f*"3 k 2 <
4p, 0 = Cj «"*** cos ^^2 + ca j F — — (sin nt — n cos nt). 2 nT 10- x =
1264 Higher Engineering Mathematics* Problems 14.2, page 513

2- 1 ft. ; n/2-j2 sec; 4>/2 ft. /sec 4. -Jl 5* x = e"5f (cos n/2207 + C5/V220)
sin v/220 (] . 6. 0.45 sec. ; 1.15 sec 8. x ~ M e * ~ M e * ~ sin (9; + 4) âf1
If sec ’ 9/211 cycles/sec 9. 0.8 (2 sin 4t — cos 4 f ) 10. (i) x = Ae'*f cos —
A2) + i?j + {e~*V(62 + k2 - n2)l sin nt (ii) x — Ac-*' cos |f tJ (62 — k2 ) +
Zjj — ( te~k,!2n ) cos «/ Problems 1 4.3, page 51 7 2. f « J sin (T/yfLC) 3. i
= 2Eke~Rtf2L sin (kt/2L ), where * ■I 4 L-CRa) 4- R2 > 4 L/C for over
damping ; R 2 “ 4 L/C fur critical damping ; R 2 < 4 L/C for under damping
; criticaJ resistance = 2 -JL/C 5* q = (0,002 cos 1323* + 0+l>008 sin
1323*) E 8- (0 i - Atraf cosh (p* + y) ; (ii) i - Ae~°* cos (p t + y) + -p cos §
sin (pt + i}>) where a = — — , p = ±J 2 E (A) - and 0 = tan-1 [(1 —
CLp2)fCRp]. [2L) CL J Problems 14*4, page 525 wl nl f A ■*- .. (’AO fry
nl ^ | wl Jl(x2-/X) jm * Y — LU15 f Iwl J 2 Pn 2 1, 1 2 nP 1 2 2P U 1 6. y =
-p \n sin nx — l cos nx + * — xj 8. sech ^ - sec a* 2 a2 1 2 J 7 . t:2E//4/2
Problems 14.5, page 528 1. 2a sin a u sin2a 2. (i) 2u2 sin (a - p) cos a . , 5. /,
= S S 4. 4x3 + k^y2 = 4 « i - B(2 -1 1. ■' sU 5* ~s‘ 7, jc = a(tt* - sin n£)ty =
ail - cos nt) E E 8. x - -^= — ( I - cos (Of),y — •=— {(Of — sin (of), where
m = eft/m. H(a Ht o g cos2 P ; (Hi) £(1 + sin p) a a sin pt, 4 - - COS pt.
3Et/L ■ M 3 2 . . _ , _ 1 . 1 -aiw/i * l2 - to g Qe + -e p + to 1 6 p +- o j
Appendix 3 — Answers to PpotiLEMS 1265 Problems 14.6, page
529 1. ( b ) 5. (6) 9. 30/ ji v/Ec 2. < b ) 6. (6) 10. 0.0074 sec 3. (c) 7. (6) 11.
Tes finance 13. y = 0 and = 0 dx 4. (b) B. 60 sec 12. EI^- Py = ^(x2 ~tx) dx
£ Problems 15.1, page 531 1 , y - - x2 sin x - 4_r cos x + CjX + c $ 2. y =
x* x* . 11 * 2 24+TkBI-35I +Cl1 +C2r + C= 1. 2iyWi- 1) = * V{l!2-"2''2
Problems 15.2, page 533 2. Vty2 -8y) + 4 cosh - 1) = 3x 3. r = 4. ( = J(2A')a
-
High eh Engineering Mathematics [ Problems 15*7, page 540 [ l.
nx - Iz = eimz - ny) 2. x2 + y2 + z2 - ex 3. xy2 — cz3 4. x2 + y2 — xz - cz
5. y(x +z)= c(x + y + z) 8. x + y + z + log ( xyz ) - c. Problems 15.8, page
541 1. x*~y* = cltx2-zz =c2 2. lx + my + nz - c x2 + y2 + z2 = c2 x-y z~x
3. - - = cv - = c2 y-z y-z 4. x2 - y - 2xy = cv x2-y2-z2 = cg 5. xyz =
c1.xl+y2 + z2 = Ci 6- y - CjS, x2 + y2 + z2 = c^z. Problems 16.1 , page 544
i* y 2. y = “’(X‘f! 3 *fi 5! ,12 3 8 ■ 7 ■ 4 ■ 3 1211-8 74-3 . ) + a. *5 x - - -
+ ■ ,13 3, y = do 5-4 9-8-54 13 12 -98-5-4 e \ ( „a { % 4 t X X A ~2 + 2~4 ~
2-4-6 + “■(*-! 5 3 x5 x1 4. y = 4 + B* - 4xJ - -x — - - - — 6. y = O^l — x2
+ 4x4 — + . i+QjX. 3 3-5 35-7 { 5. y = £i|j , x2 x4 *6 5x8 1 -i - -i - 12 8 16
128 " . | + a,x Problems 16.2, page 550 l- y = c, cos \fx + c% sin -Jx 2. y =
n0 x4 1 , X2 + fL ) 1 -+- rr. r _ x3 3x5 \ 4 } JL 2 10 . J 3. y = flV 2 3> 4. .v -
Cj(l + x + x2/4 + x»/4 . 7 + ...) + cjc.ma + ±x + x2/3 . 6 + x3/3 . 6 . 9 + ...)
6. y= O0I1-2X +~*s -^*3+...j + a1 ^ log x + 3x - ^x2 + ...Jj 6. y = ci^x ( x
x2 1 1 + - + — + ... + ttlx-1/a r. *2 i 1 5 70 J 1 2 J r- y = 2jl 7. y = C,X 2 | 1
+ + ^rr 2 40 I 1/4 1,* * + C.J * 1 + — T + 14 616 ) + c2 V x(x + x2 / 2 . 3 +
x4 / 2 , 4 . 3 , 7 + x6 / 2 . 4 , 6 . 3 , 7 . 1 1 + ...) 8. y - «(, VxH — x) + 1 —
3x + 3xz 3x3 3x4 1-3 3-5 5 7 ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
Appendix 3 — Answers to Problems 9. y= o()U-|jk + |jc2 + ...) +

a^* (I - 2x + 3x2 - 4x3 + ... ) - ji + §*• . w- +s^ * . ). i. 0.224, 0.44. 1. y =
c1JviUc) + c2J_lfll{x) Problems 16.3, page 557 Problems 16.4, page 562 2.
y — + c ^ 3. v =*"[clJn(Ar) + C^Cfcr)] where n = — ft — a) 4. y = *^,(2*)
+ c2Y,(2*)] 7. v - c, ^/xc/„~ 2c/2(2a„ )) n=ii r/i l w* 3 Problems 16.5, page
570 3. (i)2P:i+4P1; 2 4 2 7 U0S*t5*-s'l-iJfc 8 47 (til) - fl, - 4P2 + — + 4 9.
(i) /(*> = -| pofx)-|^(x) + |pB(i)+|p3(a:); («) / = ”“w-|PiW-^PaW + fp8(*> +
^P4W 8 6 2 34 224 fc)5iP^s'B--5T^+irf''-To5p” Problems 16.6, page 572 1*
x* = — (3T| +T3). 4 Problems 16.7, page 575 I. y,((x) = sin «x, n = 1, 2, ...
3. ynix) - cos /«, n = 0, 1, 2, ... 6. >n(x) = sin (2n + l)|logfx|J. n = 0. 1, 2, ...
2, ^„(x) - sin |(2n + lhur/2/1, n = 0, 1, 2, 4. 1, sin x, cosx, sin 2x, cog 2x, ...
6. ]xe *y'Y + ne 1 y = 0, p(x) = e~* 7. \e~* /]' + 2 ne * .y = 0, p(x) = e~z .
Problems 16.8, page 575 1. — ( 10 — 9Pj + 8P2 ) 3 4. zero 7. J‘
xJIt{ax)J„{frt)dx = Q 8. x 2. -/(2/tix) cos x 5. zero d2y dy ^*t,+xyâ 3. (2 n
+ 1) ■/"
1268 Higher En&ineehfng Mathematics ,e ti , a2* (x) + y(y) 2. z -
— x3y + xf(y) + 3. u - - e~( sin x + 4. z = fix) + *) 5. z = e* cosh y + e"x
smh x 6- z = sin x + ev cos x. Problems 17.3, page 584 1. x=z3f(xfy) 2. 4x -
4y = f(4x~ 4z) 4. | cos (jc + + sin (x + z& tan ( sin x sin v ’l 6. 4> — - . . = 0
^sm y sin zj 9. x2 +y2_z2 = f(x+y + i) 12. x2 + y2 -fiy2 -yz) IS. + 7. x log(x
+ y)-z = f{x + y) 10. x+y + z-f(xyz ) 13.
1269 Appendix 3 — Answers to Problems Problems 17.4, page
587 1. z ~ ax — ay/i 1 + a) + b 2. 2 = ax + V (1 — a2 )y + c 3. 4z(l + a2} —
(x + ay + ft)2 4, <1- a +• az ) = (x + ay + b >2 5. 2z = ay2 - [o/tci + DJx2 +
6 6. z = a(jt — v) - (cos x + cos y) + b 7. Is = (x + aim + (y + a)are + h 8. 3z
= (x + a)3 + (y — a )3 + b 9. z = a2 . j x x1V(xz+cf2) Wly2 -a2) a 2 ..jy , h -
cosh 1 — + /} 2 a 2 2 2a 10. z ax + by + sin (a + b ) 11. z - — (zx + a)3 +
asy + b o 12. ^ = ax + % - 2 /z3 4a2 - 2a2 log |z + - 4a3 J | = 2ax + 2y + ft 4.
log tz - axj =y -a log la +y) + ft 5, 2 ^ (z — a — 6) = ^fax 1 + ~j*y ya + cr
6. 2 = axe~y - 4«2f?-2y + b. Problems 17,6T page 595 x + 2 y 1.2 = f^y) +
fz(y + 2x) + xf3(y + 2x) 2. z = f^y - x) + f2(y +■ 2x) + xf3(y + 2*) + - —
x2 3. 2 = /j(t + y) + X fyx + 3/) + — x «?*+v 4. z = /^{y + x) + z/^ly + x) +
/3(v + 2x) - e2* +y K 5. 2 = /j(y + x) + x/2(y + x) - sin x 6. y = /jlx - at) +
f2(x + ai) - j sin pt 7. z = f^y) + f2{y + 2x) + xf3(y + 2x) + 3x cos (3x + 2 y)
1 . , 2 3 8. /^(y x ) + f2(y - 2x) + f3iy + 3x) + — sin (x + 2y) •+■ — x . 1 «,
1 9. z = ft{y + x ) + f2(y + 2x) + ~ * - xe* ** - ^ cos (x + 2y) 10. 2 = f^y) +
f2(y + x) + ^ {sin x cos 2y + 2 cos x sin 2y) 11.2= fr(y) + f2iy + x) + g [sin
(x + 2y) + cos (x + 2y)] - ^ [sin (x - 2y) + cos (x - 2yJ] 3 12. 2 = /*j(y + x) +
f2{y -x) + — e* _y[sin (x + 2y) - 2 cos (x + 2y)] 13. z = fjy - x) + f2(y - 2x)
+ 4x3.y - 3x4 14. 2 = ft(y - x) + xf2[y - x) + — {x4 - 2x;,y + 2x2y2) ex 15.
2 = ft(y - x) + f2(y + 2x) + ye1 16. 2 = f}(y - x) + xf.Jy - x) + f3(y + x) + —
(cos 2y + 2 sin 2y ) 17. z = fîy — x) + x/j(y - x) + x sin y.
1270 Problems 17.7, page 597 Higher Engineering Mathematics
xe 1. z — e~* ^(y) + — x) — 2. z — — x) + — 2x) + x + 2y + 6 5. z =
^jty) + e~*0H(x + y) + |cos (x + 2y) 2. z = + x) + + x) + ê2*-? 4. z - f}(y)
+■ e~xf/y + x) + | xa - x2 + xy'2 +Qx 6. « = fy[x) + ea*fz(2y -x> + |4 cos
(3x - 2y) + 3 sin (3r-2y)] Problems 1 7.6, page 598 1 . z- ^(x) + 2(x + y + z)
3. z - ifrjtxy2) + tU) + e*j(jy + sin a-) +■ îity “ sin a) 4. z - ^^y/x) + ^(x2
*■ y2) + xy 6. y = ijijU + y + + x$a(x + y + z). Problems 17.9, page 598 1.
order two & degree two 4. x2 + y2 + z2 = f{x + y + z) 7. z — ax + ( 1 —
4ol )2y + r 10, First 13. z = ffo) + f2{y + x) + f3(y + 2x) 16. c = 1 19. (to)
20. (iii) 25. (£u) 26. (r) 31. False. 2. * = /iCv + : 2r) + xfjy + 2v) 5. -|SinU +
y) 8. LN I § ir 11. z = 2.T + y logx +f(xy) 14. o* II $ 17. 6*^ + xf(y) + 21.
(Hi) 22. (iii) 27. False 28. False 3, z ~ - x2 sin xy + yf(x) + ^(r) 6. xp +yif =
z 9. x log {x + y ) = z + f (x + >) 12. tfe / the = dz I dy 15. u = J f(y) dy +
Appendix 3 — Answers to Problems „ , 4lzc f . tk . vat 1 , 3itr .

3nti/ G. yU. ti = — - — s ?i " n 40 3> ££(x, f) — — / TI 1 40 ^ [1 — 4(—
IV1] , f (anaff _y^ fim I ”30" _T 900 fZ sm — — (? 5 5. «= — X 7 n4n_b4,
- 4- U^> e) = 2, ^{a ) " nK) 310 4 Mfi n * 1p 31, 5 ... ^ * sin (2n — 1)0 , „
200 1 fry B.u(r,e)=50--ry _[-j 6. u(r, 6) = caw ^ j + sin 6 1 2r - J- u(r. Gt = 4
cos 0 (r - l/r> + 4 sin 0 i f t 1/r). 1. u i m= 1 cos £!,„/ c/(a,rir). Problems 1
6.6, page 630
1272 Higher Engineering Mathematics Problems 18.7, page 634 .

itr itt 1, e = sin cos l IjiLC) , . IfCA j vc ; 1 = Io“t>o 008 T sin nt l JCL vn+1
20 U“*) 24 ^ (-1)" ' . nice 2 2 2 . 3. l" = - + — > - sin — - exp (-n u t ! RCl )
l n “ n l n ~ 1 IR tR t ti.m\ 4. v - VQ cos [pt - px ^j(LC) I. Problems 18.9,
page 638 i. gL**g4k*aa dx1 , k2 3*® dt* du _ 2 f dzu d2u dzu ' at “c [a^ +
d^ + &* 3. If utr, t) is the temperature, then temperature gradient at a point
is dufdx for all t. 4, elliptic 6, it — — jc + 30 . 2 92u do d t _ tjsy dc dr2 *
dx2 « 23.§ 18.7 — (3), (41,(5) 22 , L flltx . uix, /3 9. - 2 + 0, i, 1 - tV 3 10.
— 1 — i, V 2(? sin I6e ± i cos 15°), >/ 2(t cos 15° ± i sin 15°)
Append! * 3— Answer to Problems 1273 11* ii) Annular region
between the circles of radii 2 and 4 with centre {- 3, 0) including boundary
of inner circle; (ii) Region of complex plane above the liney - 2; (iii)
Infinite ri?gion bounded by the lines R = it/3 and 0 ■= it/2; (iv) Real axis
and region above it between x = ± 2 13. (i) Ellipse with foci at z = ± 1 and
major for axis - 3 Ui) (a) Right bisector of the line joining z = 3 and z = - 1;
(b ) Circle through the points z = 3 and z = - 1, 14- ft) Right bisector of the
points 0 and 2; (ii) Circle through the points ^ and 3 15- (i) A straight line;
{ii) Circle with centre (1, 1/2) and radius \/5 / 2 « Problems 1 9.2, page 650
6. 4 mnfnin + 1) 7. 2 ft + 1 sinfl a - f3 cos n{—2—y Problems 19.3, page
653 1. 1/s cos ^ ji, where n — 0, 1, 2, 3, 4; (til) ± 2\f2 (iu) 2:i -J2 cos rJt/9,
where r = 1,7 or 13 3. *£, l(V3±i).l(-V3±i) 5. {£) 1,— 1, cos (± n/5), cos (±
3tc/5) (ii) - I, £ (l ± i v^3 ), ± (1 + i)i j2, ± (- 1 + i)i J2 . l±i — l±i f 2tO f .
4*0 (ui) -^,—^-;1,cos^±~J,cos^±^J. t/u) cos (2n + l)n/6, where n = 0. 1, 2,
3, 4. 5; 2 (2m + l)n/3t where m = 0, 1, 2 6. (-1 + iV>/2, (1 -iVj 2 7. ± 1 , ±
£, ± (cos ^ ± f sin ± (cos ^ ± t sin ; Last four values 9. xs + x2-2x-1 = 0.
Problems 19.4. page 655 1. 32 cos'" 0-24 cos3 0 + 6 cos 0 13. - (2)-11 (sin
120 — 2 sin 100 - 4 sin 89 + 10 sin 60 + 5 sin 40 — 20 sin 20) 1 4. sin5 0 =
A sin 8 - JB sin 36 + C sin 50. Problems 1 9.5, page 661 1. (i) / ; cos 2jsy, y
sin 2xy (ii) ie5.
1274 Higher Engineering Mathematics Problems 19.6, page 664 n
it 1 + stn 8 10. ± - + — log - - — — according as cos 0 is + ve or — ve 4 4
1 — sin fl 11. sin-1 (,/sin 0) + i log |V(1 + sin 6) - ,/sin 0 j. Problems 19.7,
page 667 1. U) log,, 10 + i [tan ",1 (4/3) ± 2/mJ; («) log, 1 + i in + 2nn) 4.
(i> V2c‘ i2n (2n - + log ; («) g-**'8, (n/4) log, 2 9. î{cos2x + cosh 2^)| - i
tan-1 (tan x tanh y ) 10. (i) 2njc ± i log (2 + ) ; (it) - | log 3 + {n + i)iit 33
Problems 19.8, page 669 1. (0 + sin2 0) 2. sin a cos (cos p) cosh (sin p) -
cos a sin (cos P) sinh (sin pi 3. tan-1 — V Bin - — , except when x = 1 and
a — (2n +■ 1)ji 1 + x cos a 4. tog (2 cos 0/2) 5. - 1 tan’1 (cos p cosech a) 7.
(2 cos 6) ~lf2 cos 0/2 6. 5 tan-1 2c sin a 1 - r % - ■ ( n— 1 ^ . rtp 9. sin I a +
— - — p I sin cos cosec 11. sin a (cos « - sin a) 1 - sin 2a + sin2 a 8. sin
—/( 2 sin (t/2)" jCH cos Iff + i (« - l)p) sin « I 10. - 2 - s. sin |p 1 - x cos 0 -
x'1 cos n0 + x" + 1 cos n — 10 12. 1 - 2x cos G + x Problems 19.9, page
670 2. 0.053 radians 3. la59' 4. 39.7. Problems 19.10, page 670 1. ib) 2. 21.
stnh 2) 22, 16 coss « - 20 cos-1 ft + 5 cos ft 23. an equilateral 24. n/2 25. x
— ± 1, y = — 4. 2G. a circle 27, True 28. True 29. True 30. True 31. False
32. True 33. False.
Appendix 3 — Answers to PnaatEMs 1275 Problems 20,1, page
682 4. a = 1, 6 = - 6, t = 1, d = 2, e = 4 6. (0 and (ii") Not analytic, (iii)
Analytic 7. p=- 1 11 & 12. /Iz) is not analytic at origin although C-R
equations are satisfied there 14. (i) 23 + 3z2 + 1 + it ; (ii) cos z ; (iii) log z ;
(it,1) itz \ (w) tr + i{c - z) ; (ui) zt?2 + tc ; (i ;ii)z sin z ; (uiii) x2e* + ir 15-
(i) ( 1 + i)tz + c ; (ii) cos z + r; (iii) p* ; (it/) ze + c ; (a) 1 + ize~ z ; (ui) (2
cos x cosh y V(cos 2a: + cosh 2y) 16. (i)/(z) = c — iz3 ; (ii)/lz) = ^ - cot ^
{Lit) + c [ ** + c 17. i)/ = 3xy2 - x3 + e lfl. 2 tan-1 (y/x ) ; 2 log z + c 20. v
- C — e'2**' cos (x2 - y2) ; fiz) = C - ie“ 22. (i)x* - 6x^y2 + y4 = c (it) x2 -
y2 + 2c1 sin y = r (iii) r3sin 20 = c' 23. (i)x/(x2 + y'2) ; (ii) \ log (x2 + y2)
24. (i)a (1 + cos 8 + i sin 8 log r) ; (ii) (r + 1 fr) cos 8 + (r - L fr) sin 8 + c
27. - 2 tan"1 [(y - 2V(x - 1)1, 2i log (z - 1 - 20. Problems 20.2, page 6S7 1*
z = ± i % w =* — 1/a 3* w = (2i — 6 zV(tz — 3) ; fixed points z = i, 2i ; n
o critical points (20 + IS i) - (32 + 12/ )z 4' w (29 + 17i) - (11 - 3t)z 5. (i) ut
= i(l — zV(l + z) ; (ii) to « — ~j> + t5 ~ — (iii) w = (1 - zV( 1 + z). 2i + (1
+ t)z Problems 20.3, page 692 1. (i) Rw) > 0 ; Ui) Region bounded by the
parabolas v2 = 4(1 ± u) ; and u 2 = 1 - 2v ; ( iii ) Region bounded by
parabolas v2 = ^ ± ut v 2 = 4(1 ± u) ; Uv) Region boundary p = 2 *jp cos-^
+ 3. ■“fr 2, w = z* 3- Lines parallel to a- and y axes map into two families
of rectangular hyperbolas in the uj -plane which cut each other at right
angles. Lines parallel to u and v axes map into two families of parabolas in
thez plane which cut each other orthogonally. It is conformal at z = 0 4, (a)
Line 4v + 1 = 0 5, (6) Every circle through the origin ( z - 0) transforms into
a sL line not passing through the origin Uv = 01 If a line passes through z
— 0t its image is a line through w = 0.(6) Circle with centre ( l/2t 1/2) and
radius ( 1/ \/2 ) (e) Lemniscate p 2 = cos 20 10. z = ± a 11- See § 20.10 (31
14. See § 20.10(4). Problems 20-4, page 694 1* z = cosh w 3* w - sin z 4.
w - log z. Problems 20.5, page 696 1. [o)( 5 - 0/6 (fe) (5 hk 1 3/6 2. (0 4 +
(25/3)i ; (it) 4 + 8t 7, (o) |(i-l), (h) |(5i-3) 6. (0 i ; (it) 2i ; (iii) 0 3. | (64 i -
103) 9. (/) | ; (it) - | .

1. (t) 0 ; (if) 2tl£ 2. 0 3. (a) zero ; (6) zero 4. (f) 5tu ; (it) ni/2 Cm) 4ju 5. Co)
- 10 ju (6) 2n£e 6. (i) 4m ; (ft) 2ra*~i ; Cm) - ref 7. (f) Stti ; (ft) 0 8. Cf) 0 ;
Cff) 2nC6 + 13i> ; (Hi) 12m 9- zero. Problems 20.7, page 709 1, ^ {~l)" + i
niz - 1)" ; Cnnvgt. in |z — 1 | <1 rJ =1 2. flz) — ^ ^ (z + i) - - (z + l)2 + .......
Region of convergence is \z + i \ < 1 O- 5? £■ I 3, (i) £(z - 1) - \{z - 1>S + -
L {z - l)3 - . (if) -(z- ji/2) + (z - n/2mt -(z- n/2W + . — 1 **■ / | 'ill Cut)
(a)/fe) =* — — ^ (-1)" (z + l)n --- - * 1 in the region \z + 1 1 <1. Also, (z +
1) < 4 «=0 o=0' ^ «/«•»- jz(vr»ti J>|“ 0X y ft -0 -lY1 in the region \z - 1 1
<2. Also \z — 1 1 < 3 4. (t) — 7-r + - - — 5- + - - — 5- + i 2 + 1 U + l)2 U
+ l)3 2 , z + 1 U + l)2 U + l)3 I + — =— + - 3 — + 23 (if) 6. (i) e i(1 + i+7
+ -)-^(1-|+T--)' Um-2 U=v'*tr^ [ 1. (££) — 2 n=l #i-2 2ft -5 2(n - 1)! . BH+-
S* . ) .... 2 3 . 3 (n) Tn + - 5+ - r 2 + 2 U + 2)2 (z + 2)3 ..... . . 7 9 45 81 , 2
22 23 z4 (6) 7 z-3 5U - 3)2 7U-3>2 2U - 3) 12 24 432 864 c {„y z 5z2 21
5_ . _ L_ J. + *i + Y f _% J _ 3_ 8' 4 16 64 . 6 3UB *3 4 36 64 . J’( 23 zs .
9. z - 0, z = 2 are the isolated singularities 10. 7. = 0 is an isolated essential
singularity 11. z = 0, is a non-tKoIated essential singularity 12, z = 1 is a
pole of order 2 13. 2 - 1 is a pole of order 4 14. z - a is a double pole and z =
0, ± 1, ± 2, are simple poles. Problems 20.6. page 715 1. — — — 2t + 3/ +
4i f2 + ... where t = z — f ; — 1 #
1277 Appends 3— Answers to Pftoejlems 2. 3. > («) (Hi) 4. (i) 5.

(<> 6. (i) 8. (i) 9. (i> to. (i) 11. 2 ni > = 2^; 1 + 2 i 2(1 -i) 2 + i - 1 + i .Res
/I-t) = = Ae“‘ 2 e 2i- 1 at/ -l) — 2 + £ 1 + 1 - f) = (it) 1 6ra/( 2 + 3£) 7U(?
2lra . 16 ; (it) 0 ; (iii)ild4 (ii> ju : (iii) jt/16 («) 8j«73e2 ; (itt) 7, (*) ni \ (it)
n/2 (3 + 2i), (iii) zero. up 2i (iv) 8tt . -te ,-2 (ti) 2nt sec If 1 -*■ tan 1) ; (iii)
— 2rci 7z 31z ,6 12 _L__L ‘ ,3 6? ' 360 15120 ■;-3m Problems 20.10. page
723 I. (t) 2. (iii) 7. («) 8. (it) 13. (it) 14. (Hi) 16. 3jc 2y-ys + c 19. 1 22 25 z
= i,~a±j3) 2 3 4 1 f 2[_^2 dz zero 28, 31. 34. z = 2 37. zero 38. |{z - a)V(^)l
z = a. 3. (a) 4. (iii) 5. 9. (iii) 10. Ui) 11. 15. v(x, y) = X2-y2 + 2y +■ c 17. u
+ iv is an analytic function 18. 20. N II eT + 6) 21. 23. z = 0 24. 26, zero 27,
29. zero 30. 32. e* sdn y 33. 35. no point in the 2> plane 36. 6. (it) 12. (i) 3u
_ ikf du _ _ da dx tfy’
1278 Higher Engineering Mathematics 59. essential singularity

60. zero if,., ,,, iz-K/4f tz-v/4? . U-tt/4)4 e*. - 21 - 3i - + - +.-| 62. a circle
with centre (3, 2) and radius 2 in w-plane. 63, nn, n an integer 64. (ti }/y' (a)
65. circles 66- True 67. False 68. True 69. True 70. False 71. True 72. True
73. True 74. True 75. True 76. True 77. False 7B. False 79. False 80. True
81, True 82. True. Problems 21.1, page 732 1. 4. 7. 10. 13. 15. 1 24 32 21. 1
4 e' s24f 2 e~2x 2 -*1®* 24. 4-£_(2+3s4 3s?) + S 5 S' .2 22. (5s- 1) S2 + 1
1 . ( l/s*T) - e~ *T/s( 1 - e*7) 4. (1/s3) tanh \ an Problems 21.2, page 734 2.
[Ewffs2 4 uj3)] coth (rcs/2ia) 1 5. Vts2 + a2) 3. (a/s) tanh (as/2) 6. (s2 - 2as
+ a2 + 62) 1/2 7. (s - 2W2 16 [s~ + 4 r 4. 5.
Appends 3— Answers to Problems 1279 6. 9. 2s3 - 6q2s (s2

+a2)3 82 2 (s3 + 6s2 » 9s + 2) (s2 + 4s + 5>3 13. log Us2 + 36V(s2 + 16))
16. A log _2 s'1 +9 + 4 log s2 +9^ s - log 2 (4S2 + 1)2 2 i_s2+4J 19. 16. sin
t 8. ± {azt2-4at + 2)e~',,t dU 11. «rf-er “ -tr31 14. — {et - cos 1 ) i 17. 2
(sinh t - t cosh f) 9. 12. 15. 18. 1 — e y (cos at cos bt) sin 2 1 -bt -at e - e a -
b
1280 Higher Engineering Mathematics 19. —4 (sin at — at cos

at) 2 aJ 22. ~ (e3' - c~ a - 4fe~ a) Id - Ki 25- * (sin 3t - 3 1 cos 30. 54 20* —
(tif — sin uO a 23, -^(3sm3f + 2cos2f-2c 21. /(e-' + 1) + 2(e-'- 1) tS 24. —
+ cos t - 1 Problems 21 .6, page 754 I 1. y = le"f -ê"3' -I ' 4 4 2 2. x = —
sinh t 2 3* y = t — 3 sin t + cos t 4. y — 2t + 3 + 1 (e31 -e1)— 2e2t 5. y =
4e® (1 + t) - 7e‘ 6- y — 2 cos 5f + / sin 5^ - 1 . 7. V = rr— sin tod 8- v = 4
e f — -k- e 31 - -4- (2 sin / + cos t) 2w 8 40 10 9, y = -1 (cos kt + cosh kt)
10- y = ^ 1(3 - i2) sin t — 3f cos f | 11- y — “4 f (sin t + sin 2/} 3 12. 14.
16. 21. y = — + ~ e cos 2t + 4 er* sin 2 1 13. y = e* (x*-6x + 12) -e' (15x2
+ 7* + 11) 5 5 10 .v - ^ sin 2i -^r sin t - ~ t cos 2/ 15. y = ^ ^ s|n * _ f j 4 .. 9
J, 3 y = e* 17. .v = t (rt sin at - u sin nt ) F^nuiUi* — a2), where n2 = k/m ,
18. .y = 3 J0 (20 Problems 21.7, page 756 1. i = | U‘r + cos t + 2 sin t - t cos
t),y = ^(/ sin t — e1 + cos / — sin O 2 jt = e* + e~ \ y = e-f - + sin / 3. jf = 2
+ ra/2,y - - ] - M2 x - 777 (5 - 2e“f - 3e-am),y = 4 ê~l ~ e-0"11) 5. x = efi
(1 + 2 f) +■ Ze^-y = sinh t + cosh / — e_:* — te1 It) 5 4 6. i j = — — —
(sin oit + sin pt) ; iz = — — — (cos tat — cos pf). p + o> /? — (0 Problems
21.8, page 762 1. 2. s + 4 — Jjl2i ^ — 4msj U) (1-20 «{( - ft} + 2r»(0, 4 +
f1 2Tr- 4) s \ s s ) 2(1 -e 2*) 4e“2* (1 + s) .a (ti) fa ln(f) — u(t — 2)J, s~ s'
(iff) luff) - u{t — D) cos (oV +- 0) ; I(s cos - co sin - e~sT * Is cos (fl) +
toD — to sin { + coDH/ts2 + toi2) 3. (i) * + 1 1 s lc-w fl. '—I t 1 s2 + 1 l*
S2+lJ s s2 + lj a- Sit* / ■; 1 1 , -» f * S . - 2n* f fi S * +1 {**+4 s2 + lj U +S
® {(if) 4 (1 + c-2s(2s2-l)- 2e-*Ml + 4s)| s*
Apffnpix 3“ Answers to Problems 1281 4. ti) e_,/(s - 1} ; {«)

2e~sisi ; (iii) e_2ff • ~ + ~ + ^~ + —1 ; (iy) e~s (2 + 2 s + s2 + s3Ve3 IV s3
s2 * J 5. 20e“2 6. {*) - a in t . u(t - ti) ; (it) i e-1 sin 3 . 9. yix ) = 10. >(jc) =
2Wx2 (3/ -5a) 81£7 t0 24. f * fit) dt jo 27. .2(»-3> . 12 S2 - 6s + 34 s2 - 6e
+ 25 30. (d) 34. (it) 38. (t)
1282 Highhm Engimeerwo Mathematics rb 39. I f(x)dx 43. True

40. (h) 41. UU) 42- id) 44. False 45. False. Problems 22.1, page 776 1 . —
f” s^n COfe ^ ^ . * for | T | 1 Jp X 2 4 . 2 * - r 7t J0 4 sin co - tacos to i. u) -
r 71 JO COS CUE dfco .... 2 fw a , cos tar - — tuo to Hi) - r K JO a + to2 2
^ 4* {/) - , ji ; (ii) 2 ((a2s2 — 2) sin as 4- 2a s cos tu?}/**3 5. — (sin sa - «a
cos saj jsj 6. (£) V <3n) e" 3si/1 (U) — e'3is ~ *i,A) 2 7. 1 - cos 2 k sin 2s
10. 1 11. 8. V (jt/ 2) e 13. (i) — t (1 -e -“*>(«) tan-1 (s/a} 3cT 9. u d1 + s2 ’
2« 71 e-"A a ^ ’ 2a3 42 14. (,)ljsin lo (1 2 [ 1-s 15. 2/(jis2) 17. CTO's) cos
sic \ _ e~ s* / 4o* s)j sin to 0 + «)] !

792 1. FIs)* f“ fit) cos st dt 2. s2/2 c Jo 3. The Fourier transform of the
convolution u(f(x) and^(x) is the product of their Fourier transforms. 4. fix)
- — P F(s)e'“ ds 5- f fn/tf)e“' dt 2tc J- #* ** 7. — f sin Ax f fit) sin AJ dt dk
8. — n Jo a 10. — f sin (Ax) dX f sin (A/) dt. 11. — — f fix) cos dx 7t Jf Jo
l Jo l 13. fix) = 15. l/tir2 + 1) 16. True 1[L p= i ^ cos pn ~jz am px P J 16.
True 20. False 17. False 21. True. 6. F(s) 6. -e2[F zie~* — 1) ; iiii) z - e 16
2z zi^2 z 2. (t> — tr + — - 7= - + (z — l)2 z2-JTz + l Z-l* ... z3 — 3z2 +
4z w to-tf zlz + 1) 3z i 2z {m) - r + - - + _ ... z£sin0 .... z(z-costi/8) 6. (t) - ■
— - — (w) cos o t s - - — - sm c iz-lf iz-lf z-\ z sic it/8 z2 - 2z cos 0 + 1 z2
2 z cos n/ 8 + 1 _ z(z - cos 0) , , zi; z1 - 22 cos tt/8 + 1 .2 z* ~ 2z cos 8 + 1
(zE — 2z cos 6 + l)2 (z + c"“) e~a ; (iii)K * n Z~ . . , Z2 8* -a z2 + 1 " z2 +
a2 iz-e~a? 12. 2^(1 + 3z2) (1 -zHl + z2) 13. «„ = 2, u3 = 11. Problems 23.2
page 804 l. 4z - 4 5 z ; | z [ > 4 ! I ® I > 6 2. ; \ * \ <2 (4-S)2 7. (1 -«■/*)- 1;
| z j > | eB |. 2 — z 6. — log < 1 - 3/z) ; | z | >3 3. 3z <4 - z) (z — 3) ; 3 < | z
| < 4. 6. e3*, ROC is z- piano Problems 23.3, page 807 1. |(3B + 1-1) 6. 4a"
8. 4 1(2)" -1 l- 4)n 2- (ft + l)art 6. (l/3)"-2" 9. (n2 + 7n + 4) (4)«- 1 3, —
ft(ft-i) 7. n
1284 Higher Enginf.ering Mathematics 13* un = (2)n-1 + (3)fl-1
+ (4r-1(n > 0) 12* {- l)'1 + 1 - 2n + cos md2 13. 1 - e ~lU 14 . (i) (iii) (3"-l-
2 1,0, nÔ 15. i (ra — 1) (n - 2)5n - 3, n >3 and = 0, n < 3 2 II- 2 + f2)« + 3
(n - 1) 2\ ( n > 1) 1 z zz z3 A fl * S* S3 I v 3 3a a3 34 ; T [2 2a 23 24 J ; (ii)
(- 2n~i) z~n, n >0 16. 2(~ i _ 1 - (- 2)ft -l 17. an 2j 18. 3 3 1, 2 J is. un = i +
- «£)»-* + (-ir~ . _ 8(1? 3 f- 1 * >k 5(2] “ 5 1 3 3. y n = 2n-1 + (-2 J"-1 3 3\
2, 20. 2 n sin (md2), n = 0, 1, 2, ... Problems 23,4, page 311 2. (n- 1) (- l)n-
*y(n - 2)- 2" 4. fin) =2 + {— 4 }n 5. y„ = |[2(-l)n +(2r] 7. yn = (cL + eyi) 3*
+ ~ n(n - 1) 3n-a Jm I 9. >n = 2 11. | (- If1 - |
Appendix 3 — Answers to Problems 1265 Problems 24*2, page
819 1. y = 13.6* 2. 15.2 thousand tons 3. V=0.004P + 0.048 4. R = 70.052 +
0.292/ 6. a = 0.545, 6 = 0.636 6. Ctr)y - 4.193 + 1.117* (6) y = 8-0.5* 7. y =
1.243 - 0.004* + 0.22*2 8. y = 0.34 - 0.78* + 0.99* 2 9- y = 18.866 + 66.
158* - 4.333 10. R = 3.48 - 0.002V + 0.0029V2 11. V = 2.593 - 0.326T +
0.023 T2. ^ _ Problems 24.3, page 823 I. 6.32. b - 0.0095 2. o = 1.52,6 =
0.49 3. a = 3, 6 = 2 4. y = 7.187 - 5.16 - ; 4.89 4 X 5. a = 0.988, 6 = 3.275 6.
y = 2.978*° 5143 ; 5.8769 7. a = 0.1839,6 = 0.0221 8. fit) = 0,678 e-3' +
0.312 e"2* 9, a = 146.3, k = — 0.412 10. a ~ 99.86,6 = 1.2. Problems 24,4,
page 026 l.o= 11,1,6 = 0.71 2. y = 46.05 + 6.1 x 3. a = 0.0028, b = 0,01, c =
4-18 4. a = 15.8, 6 = 2.1, e = — 0.6 6* u = 1-459, 6 = 0.062. Problems 24.5,
page 828 . 1. y = 0.12 + 0.47* 2. y = 1.184 + .523* 3. y = 1.53 + 0.063* +
0.074*2 4. y = 0,485 + 0.397* + 0.124*2. L _ Problems 24.6, page 829 _ 1.
Y - aX + 6 where X - x, Y - y/x 2. Y = A + BX , where X - log J0p, Y -
log10 vtA = - log 6, B = - 1 fr r 3. §24.4 4, y = aX + c* where X = xb 5. Ui)
6. Zy = nA + BXx, Zxy = ,41* + J3Z*2 where y = log10y , A - log10 a. B -
log1Q b 1. § 24.12 8. Zero 9. y = aX + b where X- x2/log10s, Y = y/log]0 x
10. a = 0.0167, b = 1.05. 11. The moments of the observed values ofy are
respectively equal to the moments of the calculated values ofy 12. a - 1.7, 6
- 1.26 13. y = a + bx where x = 1 fx,y - 1 fy 14, tr) 15. (6) Problems 25,1,
page 837 1. 336.79 2. 64% get more than 50 marks ; median 54.7, = 46, Q3
= 61.5 3- Mean = 27.9 ; Median = 25. 66 ; Mode = 21.85 4. Mean = 32.58 ;
Median = 32,6 ; Mode - 35. 1 5. 3.1% 6. 1.3% 8. 60 km/hr 9, 38.6 ; 36.2 10.
Median = 12.2 days ; Mode = 1 1.4 days 7. 192 km/hr Problems 25.2, page
842 1. 4.45, 0.39 3. 4,7 4. 10.04, 10.13, 11.69, 5.54, 2.35
1286 Higher Enmeshing Mathematics 5. 32, 32.6, 12.4 6. Q.D. =
10.9, S.D. s 15.26 7, 1.845; 1.8175 8. 0.55, 1.24 ; first, yes 9. Height 10. A
11. B is a better player and more consistent 12. A is more efficient, B is
more consistent 13. 161.3,5.68. Problems 25,3, page 845 i. 4i = % = 0, = 2.
11 ; Pi = 0, p2 = 2.75 2. 8.85 ; 5.25 ; 0.32 ; 1.09 3. -0.2064 4. 0.22; 1.157 6.
0 ; 2.9 7. P, = 0.493 ; p2 = 0.655 ; platykurtic. Problems 25.4, page 854 i. r
= 0.81 ; x = 0-5y + 0.6, ,y = 1.3x + 1.1 2. r = 0.96 3. r = 0.92 4. r = -0.055 6.
0.7291 6. r = 0.4517 7. r = 0.632 ;y = 0.467 + 0.8*, x = 0.167 + 0.5y 9. m =
(|3 - b)/{a - ce> 10. * = 4, y = 7, r = - 0.5 11. * =9.06, y = 5-52. r = 0.46 12.
r = 0.7395 ; x = - 0.1034 ; y = 0.5172 13, 134.5 14. 1.28 inch 15. 0.8545 16.
0.932. Problems 25.5, page 855 1. (d) 2. (d> 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (6) 6. (a) 7. (6)
8. Coefficient of correlation 9. No 10. 13.83 11. x — 2, y 3, r — ^3 12. Zero
IS. f«3,-Q,> 14. -1 2.XY 15. § 25.9 16. 17. (5c, y) n Of uy 18. Reliability or
consistency 19. -J(i) 20. degree of peaked ness 21. y—y = r ^ (x - x) 22. 100
o/x 23. \ r ol+o2y 24. 3 25. Two regression coefficients 26. perpendicular 6
Id? 27. greater 28. i 1 29. rr - n 30- Coefficient of standard deviation 31.
zero 32. — 1 and 1 33. - 0.6 34. False 35. True 36. False Problems 26.1,
page 858 1. 4096 2. 360 ; 120 3. 120 ; 115 4. (a) 676000 (b) 468000
Problems 26.2, page 868 1. (i) 7/12 ; («) P(A/B) = 3/4, PiA ufi) = 7/12, HA'
B ') = 3/8 2. (a) 1/36 ; ib) 1/6, Yes 4. 1/7 5. (i) 1/4, («> 7/8, (lit) 11/16 3. 36 :
30 : 25 6. 15/1024
1287 Appendix 3— Answers to Problems 7. 3/28 8. 20/81 9. 10.

0.11 11. (0)6.739 ; (6) 0.024 13. 2/801 14. 10/21 15. 16. 15/17 17. 1/2 18.
20. 1 — 2/(n - 1 ) 21. 7/20 22. 24. 0.72 25. 0.2223 26. (/) 2816/4165 ; (ii)
2197/2025, 12. (a) 1/114 ; (6) 685/1140 I -(1 -p^) (1 -ps> ... (l-pn) ; 0.518
5/12 1 9, (i) 83/1 10 («) 25/83 (a] 1/6 ; (6) 3/4 23.61/90 0.88 Problems 26.3,
page 671 1. 3/11 2. 25/69, 28/69, 16/69 3. 0.3175, 0.254 4. 15/59. 1. k = 1 ;
p = .8, o2 = 2.232 3. Ffjc) = 0, - » < a: < 0 = 1/8, 0 < 1 = 1/2, 1Si<2 = 7/8, 2
< x < 3 = 1, 3 < x < « 6. 2 9. (£) 0,37, («> 0.63 12. y0 = 3/4 ; Mean = 1 ;
Variance 14. 1/3, 2/9 Problems 26.4, page 678 2. 2 & 5. 7 32 7.
/WUap.d.f.I-i.o’.-L 10. 4/9 1/5. 15. Fix) = 0, x < xt ; (i - jc,)/(jc2 8. {£) 9/16,
7/16 ; (ii) k = 0.45 13. 0.2 ,), x1 x2. Problems 26.5, page 881 1. n = 4, p = q
= A ; i| 2. 4C,(l/6)4 (5/6T ; r = 0, 1, 2. 3. 4 2 lb 3. (a) 0.02579 ; (6) 0.04571 ;
(e) 1.024 x 10" 7 4, 0.3456 5. 45927/50000 6. ii) 0.246 ; (ii) 0.345 5 7. ii)
!0C1(1/20) ( 19/20) 19 ; (ii) £ mCr (1/20 Y (19/20)“ “r (iii) 19 r e 0 8. ia )
0.08 ; (6)0. 26 ; (e) 0.92 10. (i) 0.59049 i Hi } 0.32805 ; (iii) 0.08146 12.
99.83 14. 600 16. 200 (0.554 + 0.446)e. 9. (fx) 250 ; (6) 25 ; (c) 500 11. 11
13. 0.3585, 0.3773, 0.1887 ; 0.0596 15. 100 (.432 + .568)5 Problems 26.6t
page 884 1. (i) 2 ; (ii) ^ e~2 3 4. (10)lSe-10/15! = 0.035 6. (i) 0.2231 (ii)
0.1913 2. P(0) = 0.2636, P(3) = 0.104 1,P(> 3) = 0.1506 5. 0.08 7. 0.0008 8-
m - 0.51 - ctz : Poisson frequencies of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 accidents are 180.1, 91.9,
23.4, 4, 0.6 9. 0.6 11, Theoretical frequencies are 44, 43, 21, 7, 1 12.
Theoretical frequencies are 109, 142, 92, 40, 13, 3, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0.
1298 Higher Engineering Mathematics Problems 26.7. page 890

2. (i) 0.1644 ; (ii) 0.7686 6. (£) 16, (it) 2 8. (i) 79 ; (u) 35% ; ( Hi ) 11 12. 7
866 3. (i) 0.096 ;{«)- 0.995 6. 294 10. 52 13. y = 100 6. Hl-eW 5. Mean = a
+ 6, variance - b2 8, (1 -*)». Problems 26.10, page 894 1. (a) 2. (6) 3. 7. (6)
8. (6) 9. 13. 0.21 14. 0,24 15. X : 0 1 2 16. plx): 1/4 2/4 1/4 18. zero 19. 21.
Pj = 0, p2 = 3 22. 24. 1/9 25. 27. e-3 28. 30, symmetrical 31. 33. 0.6915 34.
36. 1/6 37. 39. unity 40. 41. P(A) + P(B) 42. (d) (a) 4. 10. (6) (c) equal 120
0.2222 5/36 1 -e”'" (<7 + pe*} 3.5 5. 1/7 11. 0.1288 17. 0.7837 20. HA) +
P(fl) 23. 0.2646 26. 1/6 29. 2 32. six 35. 4:5 6. 1/2 12. 2 38, >/2 n -+ ", p —
> 0 such that np is fixed ycjy+*c 44. P(Aufl) = 0.72, P{AnB') = 0.1653 46.
1 49. 53. 57. 61. 65. 69. 72. 3/4 (q+pY1 2 True False k - 2 25/12 , T il 47‘ ^
= [df 50. 1/2 54. 2/3 58. §26.6 62. False 66. True 70. 8 73. 2 (E Pi etx' ) J#-o
51, 0.2 55. Mean and S.D. 59. er 4/3 63. True 67, False 71. fix) - 7&T** for
x > 0, X is a parameter 74. / 75. 4 43. np 45-{i 48. 1/6 52. 2/7 56. 1/13 60.
1/3 64. False 68. False \18 76. 8 77. n, m degrees of freedom 78. \"_JtiT-
a)f(x)dx
Appendix 3 — Answers to Problems 1289 79. -5/7 80 e x 1 Q < ^
oe 81. |(6 + o) r (/) 82. 50% 83. 3/8 84. 1 85. 3/4 86. (Hi) 87. Fix) = f f(x)dx
88. - f2r)l 89. —«
1290 Ht&HEn Engineering Mathematics 6. Nut significant at 1%
level and just significant at 5% level as F = 2, Fq 0l = 2.62 and os = 1.98 7,
F = 1.49, Not- significant 8, F = 1.025 ; Yes Problems 27 .6t page 917 1. §
27.3 (31 2- § 27.15 3. § 27.3 (2) 4. We are testing the hypothesis that one
process is better than another 5. §27.11 6. 1 7. 50 8. (0, «) 9. II 10. 8 i 16 11.
r = n - 1 12. False 13. Less than 30 14. § 27.17 15. - « < t < « 16. (ii) 17.
True Problems 28.1, page 926 i. (i) 2.687, (ii) 1.46, (nil 2.375, (iv) 2.875 2.
(i) 0.519, ( ii ) 2.875, ( iii ) 1.146, (ie) 0.367 3. (i) - 0.686, 0.518, (ii) 0.052,
(iii) 0.695, (iu) 2.911 11. * . = * (x + N/x) ■ ( i } 3.605 (ii) 3.162 iF p ■ *
12. 3.4482 13. 2.3784 14. (i) 0.055 (ii) 0.258 (Hi) 0.4347 Problems 28.2,
page 929 1. (i) 1.532, (ii) 0.684, (iii) 3.18, (iv) 1.168 2. 1.674 3. 2.231 4. -
1.328 5. 2.924 [ Problems 28.3. page 936 1. x ~ 7,y = - 9, z = 5 2. x = -
51/4, y = 115/8, z = 35/4 3. x =l,y = 2,z = 3 4. jr1 = 2, xz = — 1, x3 = 3 5. x,
= 1 , x2 = 2, x3 = — 1 , x4 = - 2 7. x = 8.7, y = 5.7, z - - 1,3 8. x - l,y = 2,z =
3 10. x, = 2, x2 = 1/5, jc3 = 0, x4 = 4/5 11. x~y-z-\ 6. x = l,y = 3, z - 5 9. x =
7, y = - 9, z = 5 12. x — 1, y = 2,2 = 3 1.2 -0.4 0.2' 13. x = 35/18, y = 29/18,
z = 5/18 14. xl = - 1 , x2 = 0, x3 - 1, x4 = 2 15. -0.2 -0.1 0.3 -0.4 0.3 0.1
Problems 28.4, page 942 1. x = 2,556, y - 1,722, z = - 1.055 2. (a ) x =
2.426, y = 3.573, z = 1.926 (6) * 3. z = l,y = l,z=1 6. x - 1.052, y - 1.369, z
= 1-962 9. x = 1, y = 2, z = 3, u = 4 11. x=y = z = 1 13. x = 1.93, y = 3.57,2
= 2.43 = 2.426, y = 3.573, z = 1.926 4. x = 0,998, y = 1.723, 2 = 2.024 8. x
= - 13.223, y = 16.766, z = - 2.306 10. z = 1-36, y = 2103,2 = 2.845 12. x =
52.5, y = 44.5, z = 59,7
Appendix 3 — Answers to Problems 1291 | Problems 28.5, page
943 1. x = 2,y = 1 3. x = 0.7974, y = 0.4006 4. x = 3.162, y » 6.45 2. x = -
1.853, y = - 1.927 5. x = -3, 131, y = 2.362 Problems 28.6. page 945 1. 34.
(a) 5.30 (6) 4.418, 1 0.618 (a) 6, [1, 1, - If tf>> 8, [1, - 0.5, 0.5]' (a) 7 ;
[2.099/7, 0.467/7, 1) ( b ) 25,182, [1, 0.045, 0.068]' 2. 3.41 ; [0.74, - 1,
0.671' (d) 11.66 [0.025, 0.422, 1.000]. Problems 28,7, page 945 m,-!) 2. x„
= x„ , - — - : * "“l f\xa_ i) 3. Chord AB 5. initial approximation x0 is
chosen sufficiently dose to the root 7. (c) 8. (a) 11. *2 = *0 ~ 1. Newton-
Raph son method 4. x„ . , = i (x„ + N/ x„ ) tt + 1 g ^ rj 6. diagonal 9. x„ . , =
— (2x„ -t-N/ x2 ) ft r 1. g rt Hi 12. (a ) 15. Newton-ftaphson method 18.
False 10. xn + L = — (x„ + xn _ A) 2 13. x„ + 1=x„(2 ~Nxn) 16. §28.6 19.
True 14. (b) 17, Upper triangular matrix 20. x = lTy = 1. Problems 29.1,
page 952 1.0.4 2.-7459 5. 239 6- 4,68,2.68,55.8,99.88 8. (£11-2 sin ix +
1/2) sin 1/2 ; = 74,y(6) = 261 19. 15. Problems 29.2, page 957 1. E + h
"2U* + UT-h '> ux + 2h — 2u 'X* fl ■Hi. Eiif UT*h 2. {£} 2(cos h — 1)
sin x ; (ii) 6x ; (£££) 2 (cos h — 1) Isin (x + h) + 11 ; (it/) 8 8. Error = 10 9.
31 11. y(4) = 74. y(6) = 261 12. ■ 99 IB. n(3n2 + 6n + 1) ; (££) n(V. U-(n-
l2) f— 3) 10. /U.5) = 0.222, f\ 5) - 22.022 13. y4 - 1 approx 4 16. 2/(1 -xf.
L 5.54 2. 6.36 3. 1.1312 4. 0.788 5. ? 110.52 6. 8666 7. 352 ; 219 8. 0.9623,
0.2903 9. 24 approx 10. /lx) - 9x — 4x2 11. 1.625 12. 0.1955 13. 4.219 14.
2530 16. yÔ.l.y^ 100 16. u2 = 42, ii4 - 49 17. 10, 22 18. 755. Problems
29,4, page 971 1. 19.4 2. 12.826 3. 54000 4. 3.2219 6. 3.0375 6. 395 7.
3.347 8. 9 9. 3250.875 11. 2.5283 by all formulae. Problems 29,5. page 974
1. 14.63 2. 2.8168 3. 0.89 4. 100 5. 648 + 30x-x* 6. x3 - 3xz + 5x - 6 7. x5 -
9x4 + 18x3 xa + 19x- 18 8. 3 0.5 0.5 1 ■J. V1# x-1 x + 1 x - 2 Problems
29*6S page 977 1. 1 2. 3.09 3. 448, 3150 4. 133.19 5. fix) = — x3 24 25x +
24 - ~ xz 6 + x - 25 6. fix) - — x3 60 20 7. /Tx} = xA - 3x’s + 5x2 - 6 8. 31.
Problems 29,7, page 970 1. 11.5 2. 6.5928 3. 37.23 [ Problems 29.fl, page
978 1. $7.3 2, (6) 4. Intermediate value of the variables. 0 [%i | Xg , 3tj , ]
— |j(| i I], f Xg ] ^ — 1 X *4 - *o 4 4 5. $ 7.8 8. $ 7.14 9. flx) = 0c - xÎx -
x2 ) (x - xp) tx - > (x - x,) ) (x - xt ) (x0 - Xj ) {x^j - x2) (xx - x0 )

987 1. - 27.9, 117.67 2. 4.75,9 4. fa) 0.493, - 1.165 (6) 0.4473. - 0. 1583 ;
(c) 0 4662, - 0.2043 6. - 0.06 ; 0.5 9. (i)- 52.4, (ii)- 0.0191 12. 3.82 rad/sec,
6.75 rad/sec2 16. 135 7. 0.175 10. 44.92 13. 0.2561 17. Wl) =
0.25<>min(Q) = 0 3. 0.63,6.6 5. 2.8326 8. 13,13 m/sec 11. 0.085 16. 0.0186
18. Afax/ri0.04>= 1340.03 Problems 30.2, page 995 1. ft) 0.695 («) 0.693
(tit) 0.693 2. (i) 0.7854 (it) 0.7854, (tit) 0.78535, (in) 0.7854 3. 1.61 4. —
6.436 6. (i) 70.16 (ii) 0.635 6. 0.6305 7. (i) 2.0009 ; (ii) 1.1873 8.
1.8278470, 0000005 ; (d) 1.8278474, .00000001 10. 1.3028 11. 403.67 12.
7.78 13. 710 sq.ft 14. 3.032 15. 408.8 cub. cm. 16. 1.063 sec ; 1.064 sec 17.
552 m ; 3 m/sec2. 18. 30.87 m/sec. 19. 29 min nearly. Problems 30.3, page
996 1. (c) 3. h should be small 6. 30.8 lL H V.. + -V‘ + - V3 ** 2 ’ * i * 13.
(c) 16. 1.36125 ' 17. 1.36 18. if the entire curve is itself a parabola 19. even
and multiples of 3 20. False 2. h Af (a) 4. 0.775 5. 2 — 3 7. (fc) 9. 0.7854
10. (d) 12. a multiple of 6 14. 0.783 15. 0.69 Problems 31; 1, page 999 1. yx
+ 3 — 2yx + 2 + 2y i*i - ® 2* Ayn = (- l)n * lf(n + 1) 3. «n + 1-2ua = 0 4.
(t) (x + 2)^ + 2 2(2r + l)y, r -§- 1 + xy x ~ - 0 ; (ii) (x2 + x)ys^-(2xz +
4x)yxi.l + (x2+3x + 2)yx 5. + 1 (M + £ H m3 + 15y„ = 0 -6yn + 1 + 4yjj =
0 6. (/) (x - l)yI + z(3^-2)yJ4 i + ^ = 0;(ti)yx+2-4vx = 0 ; (Ui) yr + 3-6yi +
2 %=0. Problems 31.2, page 1002 1. ttp h = (Cj +cî) Up 2. 4. vn = Cj . 2ft
+ ■ 311- 6. 7, fix) = (cj + Cgi) (- 1)* + c3 . 2* 8. 10. un = 2r,/2 [c, cos rm/4
+ cs sin rui/4] 2/i n . 2nlt — y„ = (2)n-1 + (-2y1-1 un = 2n + (- 2)n. Urtpj j
■ nilt - ym = 2 i cr cos—— + rz + sin - + c3 (4 4 cos 3m7t ■ + c4 sin 3mn I
~J 3, un - r?j cos nn/2 + c2 sin ntt/2 6. u, - c, (- 1 )* + (c7 + CoA) 2A. 9. yn
= 6 + (n - 3) 2n 4 14. yn=ct i-ir + c2(lQ)n
». = 'll- w + «»(«■'«« 2. >, ■ cl + CJ> * CjPa + £ P
* + — (5r-2) + ^x*~* + — 4 16 jn - Cj(— 2Y* + 2* (c2 cos nit/3

+ cs sin nn/3) + — (2)* + 2n~i (2n + 3 j 16 u„ = |cx + c2/i + -^ n (n ~ l)2 U
- 2)|2n. 17. = Cj . 2* + c2 . 3^ + ^j-(*2 - 13* + 61) {< Ml yn - 2/r + n } cos
— + + stn , mi } tn — > 3 J Problems 31.4, page 1006 1. 2. 3. 4. yx = a + b
(— 1 )* + x,zx = a + b (— D* + 1 - (a: + 1) 1 9 > - (a + 6x) (- 1)* - x -2 1 +
2, x = - - (- IF [a + b(x - — )] u 9 2 = 2,4* - 2“ ft(/i - 1), urt = 4" + 2 + ^ +
n(n + 1) u =~‘2a + b(~2r~e + -J- (3 -r), u = q + c + b (- 2f + jc< jc - 1 >. r 2x
x 2 Problems 31.5, page 1007 1- yt + , - 2^ + y. _ j = - Solve it for y,.
Problems 31.6, page 1007 1* y„ + a - Sv„ + J + Gyn = 0 2. = Cx + C2n +
c3ft2 4. = c + 2". 5. = c(2)* - (ft + 1) 6. (jc2 + x)^ + 2- (2x2 + 4x)yi + J -
(x2 + 3x + 2 ^ = 0 5. yn-(2)"+2 + (-2)n-1 9. Third 3. wn = Cj + c2 (- 2)n +
c3(3)n 7. yn = c(2)*+ 1
Appendix 3— Answers to Problems 1295 10. ( x + 2 )yR + z -
2{n + H>n + 1 + nyn = 0 11. Second 12. >rt = (Ct +- C2n)2n 13. |x(it-l)
(3)*^ 14. >„ + z - 6>„ + l + 9y„ = 0 15. True. Problems 32.1, page 1012 1.
>= 1- — + X*r~^r 2.0.0214 3. y = A*3 -jLj? + ... 2 8 48 3 81 4. (a) 0.9138.
(6)0.1938 5. >( 1. 1 ) = 0. 1 1 03 , >(1 .2) = 0.2428. Exact >( 1. 1} = 0. 1
103 and >{1.2) = 0.2428 6- 1.1053425 7. 1.1272 8. 1.005. Problems 32.2,
page 1017 3. 4.5559 5. 3r(0.2) = 1.2046, >(0.4) = 1.4644 8. 5.051. 1.
1.1831808 2. 1,1448 4. = 0.095, >(0,2) = 0. 181, >(0.3) = 0.259 6. 2.2352 7.
1.0928 Problems 32.3, page 1021 1. 1.7278 2. 1.1749 3. 1.0207,1-0438 4.
2.5005 5. >{0.1) = 0.9052, >(0.2) = 0.8213 6. ><0. 1) = £.9919,j40.2) =
2.9627 7- 0.3487 8- 0.8489 9. 1.1678 10. 1.0911, 1.1677, 1.2352, 1.2902,
1.338. Problems 32.4, page 1026 1. 3.795 2. 1.2797 3. >(1.4) = 3.0794 4. >
<4.5) = 1.023 5- >(0.4) = 2. 162 6- y(0.4) = 0.441. Problems 32.5, page
1030 3. 0.6897 6. >(1.4) = 0.949. Problems 32.6, page 1 034 I. 0.2416 2-
1.0408 4. >(4.4) = 1.019 5- 2.5751 , , X 3 5 1 g I j 1 3 4 1 g 3 jt 1. y,. — 1 +
— + — x + — x + - . 22 = — + - x + — x + — x + 3 2 40 40 192 2 8 10 34
340 7 jc9+ — x12 256 2. >(0.1) = 0.105, z(0.1) = 0.999 ; >(0.2) = 0.22,
Z(0.2) = 0.997 3. >(0.1) = 2.0845, z(O.l) = 0.5667 , 1 3 _ 4, >, = 1 + — x +
— x5 2 2 40 5. >(0.1) = 0.5075 7. - 0.5159 6. >(0.2) = 0.9802, >(0.2) = -
0.196 8. 0(0.2) = 0.8367, (dO/rff >0 2 = 3.6545. Problems 32,7, page 103B
1. 0.14031 2. >(.25) =>(.75) = 2.4, >(.5) = 3.2 3. >(1.25) = 1.3513, >(1.5) =
1.635, >(1.75) = 1.8505 4. >( .25) = - 0.3473, >( .5) = - 0.9508, >( .75 ) = -
1. 7257 5. ft = 2, >(0.5) = 0.1389, true value = 0.1505 ; n = 4. >(0.5) =
0.147
1296 Higher Engineering Mathematics 6- y(0.25) = 0.062, y{0.5)
= 0.25, ,v(0.75) = 0.562 7. y(l)= 1.0171, y(2) = 1.094 8. y(173> - 1.1539,
y(2/3) = 3.9231 ;y(l) = 7.4615. Problems 32.8, page 1038 1. (6) 2. yi + l~ 2^
+ yt _j + k2yl = 5 hz 3. 1 + x + x2 + x3/6 4. § 31.4 5. § 31.3 6. (6) 7- y4 - y.j
+ — 1/2 + 4/3 + fA) 8. Modified Euler's method *s 9‘ ?i=>o+ ~ <55/-0 -
59/1 , + 37 f_ 2 - 9f_ 3) 10. Milne's method and Adam-Bashforth method x2
x4 11. four 12. y = 1 + — + — 13. <6) 2 8 4 h h 14. y4 =>0 + — (2 fx -f2 +
2/3) 15. ^ =y0 + A + 19/; - 5/1 , + L 2> 16. LI 818 17. ^ = x,— +y(l +yz) =
G 18. §31.7 CW OJC 19. starting values 20. Picards and Runge-Kutta
methods 21. It agrees with Taylor’s series solution upto the term in ft4 22.
id) 23. yi + 1 + 2(h2 24. (a) 25. True 26. False 27. False. Problems 33.1,
page 1041 1. Parabolic 2. Hyperbolic 3. (0 Parabolic (ii> Elliptic (Hi)
Elliptic 4. Outside the ellipse (x/0.5)2 + (y/0.25)z - 1. Problems 33.2, page
1050 1. uA = 1.999, u2 = 2.999, «3 = 3.999 2. 2.37, 5.6, 9.87, 2,89. 6.14,
9.89, 3.02, 6.17, 9.51 3- ul = 10.188, u2 = 0,5, ua =1.188, u4 - 0.25, tt5 -
0.625, u6= 1.25 4. = 26.66, u.2 = 33.33, u3 = 43.33, u4 - 46.66 6. Uj = 0.99,
u2 = 1.49, ua = 0.49 6- Uj = 1.57, u2 = 3.71, «3 - 6.57, u4 - 2.06. «6 - 4.69,
= 8.06, u7 = 2, «8 = 4.92, u9 = 9 7. i/j --3, u2 -- 2, ua = -2. e 1054 i J 0 1 2 3
4 0 0 3 4 3 0 1 0 2 3 2 0 2 0 1.5 2 1.5 0 3 0 1 1.6 1 0 4 a 0.75 1 0.75 0 5 0
0.5 0.76 0.5 0 1,
1297 Appendix 3 — Answers to Problems J "x 0 i 2 3 4 5 5 7 8 9

10 l) 0 (1.09 0.16 0.21 0,24 0.25 0,24 0.21 0.16 0.09 0 1 0 0.08 0,15 0.20
0.23 0.24 0.23 0,20 0.15 0.08 0 2 0 0.075 0.14 0,19 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.19 0.14
0.076 0 3 0 0.07 0.133 0.18 0.21 0.22 0.21 0.18 0,133 0.07 0 X^ i 0 / 2 3 4 5
j X. 0 b 24 84 144 144 0 1 0 42 84 tu 72 0 2 0 42 78 78 57 0 3 0 39 60 67.5
39 0 4 0 30 53.25 49,6 33.75 0 5 0 26.6 39.75 43.5 24.75 0 6 0 19.88 35.06
32,25 21.75 0 t J ^X 0 / 2 3 4 0 0 0.5 1 0.5 0 1 0 0.5 0.6 0.5 0 2 0 0.25 0.5
0.25 0 3 0 0.25 0.25 0.25 0 Problems 33.4. page 1060 f = 0.3 . x = 0.1 0.2
0.3 0.4 0.5 Numerical 0.02 0.O4 0,06 0.075 0.08 sol. u = Exact sol. u = 0.02
Q.04 0.06 0.075 0.08 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0 20 15 10 5 0 3 0 7,5 15 10 6 0 2 0 -5
2.6 10 5 0 8 0 -5 -10 - 2.5 5 0 4 0 -5 - 10 - 15 -7.5 0 5 0 - 5 - 10 - 15 _ i -20
_02
1298 Higher Engineering Mathematics \, i if 0 J 2 3 4 5 6' 7 8 9

10 0 0 10.19 10.16 10.21 10.24 10.25 10.24 10.21 10.16 10.09 0 1 0 5.08
10.15 10.20 10.23 10-24 10 23 10.20 10.15 5.08 0 2 0 0.06 5.12 10.17
10.20 10.21 10.20 10.17 10.12 0.06 0 3 0 0.04 0.08 5.12 10.15 10.16 10.16
10.12 10.08 0,04 0 4 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 5.08 10.09 10.06 10.06 10.04 0.02 1 o
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.02 _ i 0 ^s. i J 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 ■ 1 0,5 0,1 0 0.037
0.07 0.096 0.113 0.119 0.2 0 0.031 0.059 0.032 0.096 0.101 0.3 0 0.023
0.043 0.059 0.07 0.074 0.4 0 0.012 0.023 0.031 0.037 0.039 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Problems 33.5, page 1060 1. <6J 4. Poisson’s equation 7. $ 32.8 (2) 2. False
G. u- . , ~ u. . +u. . — u i tj+1 E - Ip/ I + 1,J f.J-l. 3. a hyperbolic equation 6.
{u,_lj-2afy + «| + l//is 8- T 0) ; u(x, 0} - fix), 0 17. uu + 1 = ui + 1J~^_1J-
uu„1 14. * < 2 / ; fu7& (x, 0) = 0, 0 6Ju 5 2u 18. — rr + — =f(x,y) 6i'2 §y2
19. 100 21. y < 0 20. IL 1. J 2“t.J +“,-+! ,j + + _ = 0 22. k = 1/4. Problems
34.1, page 1063 1. Max. Z = 1.2rl + 1.4x2 ; subject to 4 Ox., + 25x2 - 1000,
35x, + 28x2 < 980, 25xt + 35x2 < 875 and jc,, x„ > 0 2. Max. Z = 3x^ + 2r2
+ 4xa ; subject to 4x, + 3x2 + 5tra < 2000, 2xj + 2*2 + 4x3 < 2500, 100 £ x,
< 150, 200 < x,2 and 50 < x3 3. Max. Z = 3x, + 2x.z + x3 ; subject to 3Xj +
4x.z + 3xa < 42. GXj + 3x;1 < 45, 3x, + 6x2 + 2r3 <41 and x1( x2, x3 3 0.
4. Max. Z - 400 x + 300 y ; subject to x + y < 200, x > 20, y > 4x, x > 0, y >
0 5. Min. Z = xx + x2: subject to 2jc1 + x2 > 12. SXj + 8*2 > 74, x3 + 6x2
> 24 and xx, x2, x;i 2 0.
Appenpi* 3 — Answers to Problems 1299 6. Max. Z = 0.15x, +
0.25*2 ; subject to 2*, + 5x2 < 480,000, 5rfj + 4xa < 720,000, 8xt + I6xa <
300,000, 0 < x , < 25,000 and 0 < x2 < 7,000 7. Min. Z = 41-v, + 35x2 +
96s,, ; subject to 2xl + 3x,2 + 7xa > 1250, x, + x2 > 250, Bar, + 3xa > 900,
6Xj + 25x, + x3 > 232,5 and xr x2, xa > 0 8. Min. 7, ~ lOOxj + 25Gxa +
160x3 ; subject to 0.94X, + x2 + 1.04x3 < 0.98, IQr, + 15x2 + 17r3 > 14,
470xj + 500xa + 520x3 > 495, x, + xa + x3 = 1 and x,, x2, x3 > 0. Problems
34.2, page 1069 1. xt = 100, xa = 50 ; max. Z = 550 2. xl = 8/15, x2 = 12/5,
max. Z = 24.8 3, X; = 15, x2 = 0 ; max. Z = 300 4. x x = 1000, x2 = 500 ;
max. Z - 5500 5. 450 units of product B only ; max, profit = 7 1800 6. X - 2,
Y - 4.5 ; max. profit = 7 37 1. A - 1.18 units, B = 0.53 units ; max. profit = 7
14,50 approx. 8. 2000/11 units of product A and 1000/11 units of B ; max.
profit - 7 10,000 9. x, = 4, x2 = 0 ; max. z = 8 10. Unbounded solution 11.
x, = 2,xa = 4 ; min. Z = 64 12. Production cost will be min. if G and J run
for 12 and 4 days respectively. Problems 34.3, page 1074 1. Max, Z = 3jc l
+ 5x2 + 8r3 ; subject to 2xx - 5x2 + = 6, 3Xj + 2x2 + jfg - s2 = 5, 3x, + 4Xg
+ sa = 3 ; *1» X'i> xa* *l* S2' sa - ^ 2. Min. Z = 3x1 + 2x0 + 5r3, subject to
— 5xj + 2x2 + $3 = 5, 2xt + 3x2 + 4jc3 — sz= 7,2xt + 5xa + s3S3 xi* *!»
*a» si» s2* ss ^ 03. Max. Z = 3x'j — 2.x., + 4.x 4 - 4x« ; subject to x, + 2x,,
+■ x4 - JCj + Sj = 8, 2r j — xa + x4 — x& - s2 = 2, - 4c, + 2x2 + 3*4 - 3xc
- 6 ; *j, x2, x4, s,, s2 > 0 4. (/) xi = 2, jc3 - 1 (Basic) ; xa = 0 (Non-basic).
(ii)x1 = 5, x3 = - 1 ( Basic) ; x2 = 0 (Non-basic) ; (iii) x2 = 5/3, x3 = 2/3
(Basic) ; xt = 0 (Non-basic), All the three basic solutions are non-degenerate
6, Basic solutions are (() x, = 2, x2 = 1 (Basic) and xa = 0 ; (if) = r3 = 1
(Basic) and x2 = 0 ; (iii) x2 = - 1, Jr, = 2 (Basic) and = 0 {a ) First two
solutions are non-degenerate basic feasible solutions (ft) First solution is
optima) and %max - 5. Problems 34.4, page 1081 1. Xj = 2, x2 - 4, max. Z
= 14 2. x, = 0, = 20 ; max. Z - 200 3. x, = 7/3, x2 - 4/3 ; max, Z - 16 4. jj =
5, x2 = x3 = 0 ; max Z = 50 5. JCj = 0, x2 = 100, = 230 ; max. Z = 1350 6.
jr, = 89/41, x2 = 50/41, *3 = 62/41 ; max. Z = ? 765/41 7. x} = 4, Jt2 = 5, =
0 ; min Z-- 11 8. X, = 280/13, x2 = 0, x3 = 20/13, x4 = 180/13 ; max. Z =
2280/13 9. x1 = 0, x2 = 400 units ; max, profit = ? 1200 10. Xj = 125, x2 =
250 units ; max profit = ? 2250 11. *j = 400 jgms, x2 = 0 ; min. cost = ? 2
12. = 0, x2 = x3 = 50 ; max. profit = 7 700
1300 Higher Engineering Mathematics 13, *1 - 0.5, x2 = x3 =
0.04 units ; min. cost - ? 5.80 14, Averages for corn, wheat, soyabeans are
250, 626, zero respectively to achieve a max. profit of 7 32,000. Problems
34.5, page 1088 1. x, = 0, x2 = 2, xa = 0 ; max. Z - 4 3, Xj = xa = — 6/15 ;
max, Z - 48/5 6. x, = x2 = x3 = 5/2, x , = 0 ; max. Z = 15 7. infeasible 2. Xj
= 3, x2 = 2, x3 = 0 ; max. Z = 8 4, Xj = 23/3, X;, = 5, x3 = 0 ; max Z - 85/3
6, x, - 21/13, x2 = 10/13 : max. Z = 31/13 8, x, = 23/3, x2 = 5, x;j = 0 ; max,
Z - 85/3 9. x, = 55/7, x2 - 30/7, x3 = 0 ; max. Z - 155/7 10* Xj = 2, x2 = 0 ;
max. Z = 18 11. Degenerate solution : x4 = 0 (non-basic) ; x2 = 1, x3 = 0
(basic) ; max. Z = 3. Problems 34.6, page 1091 1. Min. W - 26yx + 7y2 ;
subject to 6y: + 4 y2 z 10 + 2y2 > 13, 3yt + 5y2 > 19 ;y,, y2,y3 > 0 2. Max.
W = llyt + 7 y2 + y.t + 5y4 ; subject to 3y , + 2 y2 -y, + 3y4 < 2, 4î + % +
2y-i + 2>4 4’ - 2*2 + * 3 i y i’ y 2f y 3* y* — ® 3. Min. W = — 3y j + y2 +
4y3 ; subject to y: + 3y2 - 2y3 < — 3, yj + y3 > 16, y, - 2y2 + y:i < - 7 ; y j,
y2 > 0, y3, unrestricted in sign 4. Max. W = - 5yt + 9y2 + $>■ 0,y3
unrestricted 5. Min. y = 3y, + 4y2 + y3 + 6y4 ; subject to - 2y2 + y3 - 3y4 >
2, 6yt + >2 - - 3y4 > 5, -y, + 4y2 + 3y3 + 1 y4 Z 6,yltyit y3,y4 £ 0,
Problems 34.7, page 1094 1, x] - X2 = 0, x3 = 5/2 ; min, Z - 2.5 2. x: = 4,x2
= 2 ; max. Z = 10. 3. x, = 7, x2 = 0, max. Z = 21 4. Xj = 0,x2 = 100, x3 =
230 ; max, Z — 1350. Problems 34.8, page 1 097 1. x, = 0, x2 = 1 ‘ max. Z
= — 1 2. Xj = 3/5, x2 - 6/5 ; min. Z = 12/5 3. Xj = 6, x2 = 2, x3 = 0 ; min, Z
- 10 4. xt = 65/23, x2 = 0, x3 = 20/23, x4 = 0 ; min, Z = 215/23. Problems
34.9, page 1104 1. x]t - 200, xlz = 50, x22 = 175, x24 - 125, x^ = 275, x31
= 125; min. cost = ? 12075 2. Xj3 = 14, x21 = 6, x22 = 5, x23 = 1, x12 - 5 ;
min. cost = 143 3. xH - 50, x!2 = 100, x2l = 150,x.j;j = 150, x42 = 100, x4;i
= 50 ; min. tonnage = 3300 4. xu = 140, x13 - G0,x21 - 40, x22 - 120, x33 -
90 ; min. cost = ? 5920 5. *11 — x |4 — 2, Xg2 = 3, Xjj = t , x32 — 5, x34
— 13 , min. cost = ? 799 and maximum saving = ? 201 6. x,, - 150, x13 -
20, x22 - 160, x24 = 40, x3a = 90,xa+= 90 ; max. profit = 4920 7. x13 = 2,
x23 - 1, x23 - 2, x31 = 4, x^ = I ; min. cost = 33 8. x13 = 0, x15 = 800, x2J -
400, x24 = 100, xM = 400, x:W = 200, x34 - 300, xi3 = 300 ; min. cost -
9200.
Affencnx 3 — Answers to Problems 1301 Problems 34.10, page
1109 1- Jfj, = *«>;) = x;J3 ~ 1 ; min. cost = ? 18 2. A -+ 2, B -> 3, C -* 4, D
-* 1 ; min. Z = 38 3. / — ► fi, /f — » A, /J7 — > D, [V — » C ; min. cost =
T 49 4. A — > Dyn, Prog., R — > Queuing Th., C — » Reg. Analysis, Z>
— » L.P. ; min. time = 28 hrs 5. (i) A -> I,B -> H,C -* HI , D -4 IV ; (it) A -
> /, B -» /7/, C -> II, D -» IV 6. 1 — > /V, 2 7/, 3 -> V/, 4 -» /. 5 -> 77/, 6 ->
V; max. profit = ? 270 Problems 34.11, page 1110 1. § 34.5 Def. 2 2- it
provides an optimality test 3, §34,11 4. §34.16(1) 5. §34.13 6. §34.6(1) 7.
Min. IF = 7V] + 5 y2, subject to 2y, + 3y2 < 4, 3yj — 2y2 0. [v I/i, = TJbj =
35] 11. (i) Xj - 3, x2 = 6, xg = 0 ; (it) jfj - 0.5, x2 = 0, x3 = 2-5 12. § 34.5
(Def. 4) 13. §34.15 14. balanced 15. §34.9 16. §34.7(3) 17. optimal 18.
Minimize y - 5y4 - 3y3, subject to y4 + y3 = 5. 2 y4 - 5y,5 > 6, ya > 0 and
y4 unrestricted 19. 5 29. Max, Z = 5/19 21. § 34.7 22. § 34.16 23. § 34.7 [2
(«)] 24. Min, IV - 2y j + 4ya + 3y3, subject to - y1 + + y;j > 2, 2y , + y2 >
l,y,, y2 > 0 25. North west comer rule and Vogeli approximation method 26.
Slash or surplus variables. Problems 35.1, page 1118 1. (i)y = -1 x 2 + Cjjr
+ cB ; (ti) y = CjX" 1 + c2 4 4. y — — x cos x/2 5. y = (c + x) sin x 7. y =
x2 - 1 8. tx + c)a + y2 - kz 12. The spirals of the family r - a sec ((§ sin a +
b). 3. y-clex + c,A + 6. y = sinh (CjX + c2) 9. y = 2 sin x Problems 35.2,
page 1120 1. y = ± 2 sin m-j tx, where m is an integer 2. y = Xxu + ax + b,
where a, b are determined from the isoperimetric and boundary conditions. ,
1 , 1 , 4. y(x) = - (1 - eos x) + — (2 - n) sin x. Problems 35.3, page 1124 2. y
= fcj + cos x + {c1.^ + c4x) sin xt z - ic} + cos x 4* (e3 + c^jc) sin x - 2ciA
sin x + 2c4 cos Jf 3. y = af} sin nxt n = lt 2t 3 4* y - cos x 5* y — — — —
(x2 — a2)2
1302 HlRHES EraiNEERSNG Mathew as k:s6. ft) y = cê2* +

c2e_2x + c ^ cos 2x + cA sin 2x ; (u) y - c, + rgx + CgX2 + C4X3 + CeX* +
+ *7/7 L Problems 35.4, page 1126 1. (i) and (u) y = — x(l — x) 2. y = —
(5x - 1 ) 4. y = 0.58 + 0.27x 18 4 5, (i> and («) cx a 0.93, r2 = - 0,05 6. 0.05
7. ct = 3.27,ca = - 2.69 8. y = - (5xa - 3*). 2 Problems 36.1, page 1134 1.
y(x) - 6x - 5 + l (5 - 6* + 6#) y(t > dt. 2. y(x) = x - sin x + e* {x - 1) + f ' |sin
x - e* (x - *)J y(0 dt Jo 3. y(x ) = f * ti t - x) y{t ) dt + - a*2 JQ 2 4. y(x) + f
[1 + x - 2t + (x — t) e~ 1 ] y(t > dt = — - + x — 3 Jo 20 6 5* y(x) = cos x
— i x2 - - x5 - — f (* - tf ylt) dt 2 3 2 * 6. y(x) = sin jc - ^ + jf, *** _ ~~ 1 j
yW) dt 7. v(x) — f,|4-6U-f) + 2(x-f)z --(x-tf]y(t)dt=-tiOS2x- — + — x- —
x2 + — x3 * 6 4 12 3 6 3 8. y"(x) -2x/(x) - 3y{x) = 0 ;y<0) = l,y'|0) = 0 9.
,y"(x) — y(x> + 3 sin x = 0 ; j(0) = 3, y'(0) = 0 10. y"'(x) + 6y(x) = 0 ; y(0>
= 4, y'(0) = - 3, y~(0) - 2 11. y'"(x) - 3y"(x) + 4y'(x) + 2j(x) + tr1 = 0 ;y(0) =
l,y'{0) = 2,y"(0) = 3. Problems 36.2, page 1137 1. y(x) - G(x, t ) iy{t) dt + ^
x(x - 1), where £?(x, /) = x( 1 — t), lx < /) and = fU-x),x>f 2. y(x)= f G(x, f)
v(f) dt + — (x3 - 3x + 6), where Glx. f) = x, x < t and = fTx > t Jo 6 3. «(x)
= f G(x, t) el u(t) dt+ — (x3 + x), where G(x, f ) - x( 1 - 2f)» x < t and = f(l
— 2c), x > t h 6 , rt sinh x sinh (t — 1) , sinh t sinh (x - 1) 4. G(x, t ) = - . , _
- . x < t and = - - — _ - , x > t sinh 1 sinh 1 J'1 1 G{xrt)t . u{t ) dt, where G t
Problems 36.3, page 1141 5. y(x) = — (sin x + sinh x) 2 8. y{x) = ± 6f/n
(4x) fi. v(x) - x2+ — x* 12 9. yfxjaj, (2x) (x > 0) 7. y(x) = 1
1303 Appendix 3 — Answers to Problems 10. y(x) = — e_lr(cos
x + 3 sin x) — — e~x 2 2 12. y(x) = 1 + x* + x4/24. 3>/3 IS. y(x) = 4ji (3x
+ 2). 13. y(x) = 1 + xE/2 Problems 36.4, page 1145 II. y(x) - fl — x)e_i +
172 sin* 14. y(x) = 1/2 1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. 9. Has no eigen values and eigen
functions Eigen value X = 1/4 ; eigen function is y(x) - x2 + 3x/2 Eigen
values X -8/(n 2) ; eigen function is y{x) = sin2 (xj Eigen value X = I/jt,_y -
sin x 5. Has no eigen values or eigen functions Eigen values are X = ± l/a ;
eigen functions arey(x) = cos x + sin x,y(x) = cos a - sin * \!(6-X)*-4] _ . .
X y(x) = x + y(x) = x + 12 + X2 8. „y(x) = x + 12 (1 - 2X) - X 2Xjt) sin x y
(10 + <6 + X)xl - - - — { 2Xji + — re2 f 1 - i Xnl + n(l - 2Xji) sin x 1 tl-
w(l-*taW l 2 l 2 J f 10. y{x) = 2x - n + 2 - 2 ji sir x n — 1 1 1. yix) = 2 - X
sin x, X * 2 12. y(x) = x + 2Xn (Xitr — 4Xn sin x + cos x) 13. 14. 15. 1 +
2XV There is no solution to the integral equation when X = 3 X, = 2, Xj =
— 2 ; y.,(x) = 1 -x, y2(x) -1-3* (i) When fix) = x, solution is y(x) = x + X
(it) When Fix) - 1, solution is y(x> = 1. 2Xn2 \ ^ - si 1 xV - i sin x + 2it xV
- 1 COS X Problems 36.5, page 1148 1. y(x) = 1 ,v(x) = 3Xr 3. 5. y(x) = 1
2(3 + X) 4 + 2X(2-3x) 4 - X" (X*-3) (X * 2) 6. y - sin x 2- y(x) = only if | X
| < — 1 +■ K 4. y = e* 7. y(x) = 2. Problems 37.1. page 1154 2. (i) True,
since (a| is a subset of the set (a, b, c} ; (ii) and Uii) False, since the element
a cannot he a subset of the set la, 6. ej ; (iv) True, since the set la. 6) is a
subset of the set (a., b, r} ; (v) False, since the set la, 6| is not an element of
the set [a, 6, c) ; (oil True, since the null set 4 is a subset of every set. 17. 20
18. 105 19. 13G 20. Number of students not taking any of these courses is
71.

1. (a) It is not true that Sam is a teacher and John is an honest boy ; (6) Sam
is a teacher and John is not an honest boy ; (e) Sam is not. a teacher iff John
is an honest boy ; id) Tf Sam is a teacher then John is not an honest boy. 2.
la) ip v q) => r where p = / have no car. q = / do not wear good dress, r = I
am not, a millionaire. p tf p P=*QA- q 1 1 0 1 0 ! 0 1 0 0 a 1 0 i Q a 0 1 1 L
P tf r p « V ip A (r vqi I 1 \ 1 1 1 I l 0 1 i Cl 1 0 1 0 i 0 1 D 0 0 0 0 ft l \ 0 1 0
0 1 ' 0 0 1 o ft 0 \ 1 i 1 ft 0 0 I ft 0 7, (i) Ttl = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17. 19, 23,
29, 31] Tq = 11.3, 9, 27, ...|, Tr - [1, 3, 9, 71 Hi) Tr < Tq P tf q~*p p -* iq -
*p) 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 D 1 1 1 1 15. *] (6) ~ V x[Q(x ) - B(*)], (c) 3
x[Qfx) a fi(x», (rf) 3x \Q lx) a - K(x)| 8. (- A v - A) a (B v ~A) a(-j! vC)
a(BvC) 10. 1. p v q (Premise), 2. - p -> q (conditional equivalence) 3. , -> s
(Premise] ebUZZprO. blOgSpOt.COm 4. _ p _ , % 3 rule) 5. p — * r
{Premise) 6- - s —* p (4, conditional equivalence) 7. ~ s —> r(5, 6 chain
rule) 8. s v r (7, conditional equivalence) 12. ib x) R (x = Jz ) 13. (a)
Conclusion is not valid ( b ) Conclusion is not valid

1170 1. 2. xvz'Ay = XAy 3. (i)*' vy'yz' (it)0 14. *1 *2 x,vx3 V x2 V X3’ Xj
A t*a V X,/) P 0 0 I 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 J 1 0 (J 0 1 0 0 1 I 0 0 I 0 0 l 1 1 1 1 1 l
0 1 1 1 1 1 0 l 1 1 0 ] 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 Problems 37.5, page
1172 1. (i)0 ' a z) v Ex Ay' a z') 6. F = (x a y a z) v (x a y* a z) v {x' Ay a z)
v (x' a y a z') v (x' a y' a z) Problems 37.6, page 1174 2. V |/)?' A (Pj Vp2')J
3. x Ay (ll) l(pl V pz) v (pt V p3)| A (p, A p2') 4. p/ APj vp3 ;
1306 HiGHEft Engineering Mathematic 5 (Xj V X2* V Xa) A U,
v X,' V X3') A U3 V X,/ V Xj) A (Xg V X % V Xj') Problems 37.7, page
1179 1- Tjj = Fg 2. F’ - [0,2 Ram, 0.7 Sham, 0.4 John, 0.3 Charu] 3. FuG =
f0.4 xv 0.7 x2> 0.5 x3, 0.9 x4\ F n G = 10.3 xr 0,6 x2, 0,1 x3, 0,8 x4] 4. (i )
Truth value of *F is not rich* is 0.2 (ii) Truth value of “G is not fat* is 0,4
(Hi) Truth value of ‘Mary is not beautiful* is 0.3 5. (i) F * G (ii) F is not a
subset of G ; G is not a subset of F. (Hi) Fr - [1, 1, 1, 1, 0.9, 0.7, 0.5, 0.1, 0,
01 Fn G - [0.0.1,03,0.5] F u G = [0.1, 0.5, 0.9, 1, 0.9, 0.9, 1, 11 6. (i) Trut h
value of the cojunction of ‘Latif and John are good players* is 0.6. Im>
Truth value of the disjunction of ‘Latif and John are good players' is 0.7. 8.
Members and its degree of membership. Problems 38.1, page 1186 i. (i)
4*m**.*L j dt dx‘ dt (ii}xixi 2, (r) Hjjlx1)* + u22(x2}2 + u33(x3)2 + (a12
+ «2J) x*x2 + (a13 + u31)xsx3 + + ci^lx2*3 Ui} gu(dx 1)2 + g22(dx2)2 +
gîdx3)2 + 2g^dxldx2 + %23dx2dx3 + 2gAi dx*dx\ (iii) =^2^ + ... +4^ 3. (f
) ; (ii) . 6. (i) vr = a?1 dxr ^ dxJ dxk dxp A/k • + p z sin + p4 sin 0 cos3 0, pz
sin 0 ; (b)2r sin2 H cos2 0 - r sin 8 cos 8 cos 0 + r3 sin4 9 sin2 0 cos2 0 + r2
sin 8 cos2 8 sin : Zr2 sin 8 cos 9 cos2 0 - r2 cos2 0 cos <5 + r4 sin3 0 cos 8
sin2 0 cos2 $ — r3 sin2 9 cos 9 sin 0 ; - 2r2 sin2 0 sin $ cos cos3 0 11* (a
cos i|> + b sin tp) sin 8 + c cos 0 ; ({« cos 0 + 5 sin 0) cos 8 c sin 0|/r ; (6
cos 0 - o sin 0)/r sin 6. Problems 38.2, page 1189 6. Rank = 1 Problems
36.3, page 1193 1. g- 4,J?U = 2, gn - 5, g33 = 1.5, g12 = 3, g23 = - 2.5, g33
= - 1.5, 2. gu = 1 ,g.it = p2,#33 = l,gtJ - 0 (i *j);gu = l,g22 = p“2*g33 = l,£y
= o (i *j) 3. g = r* sin2 8/( 1 - r2/H2) ; gn = 1 - r2/R2t g22 - l/^.g33 = - 2, &
= 0 (i * j).
1307 Appendix 3 — Answers to Problems Problems 38.4, page
1199 I- (a) [ri, i\ = i dgii/dx*, [it, k] = - ^ dgjdx*, 2 ^ | ik, h\ = I hi, /,’| ~ — c
\gklJd3?, \ij, h\ = 0, when i,j, k are at) different 2 (6) { kb $f?ij dx'1 dghb
obc‘ (no summation over i or ft) l = 0, when i, j, k are all different vj 2. (a)
All are zero (ft) [21, 21 = p = [12, 2] ; |22, 1] = p, all others are zero (c) [21,
2[ = r = [12, 2] ; [31, 3l = r sin2 H = fl3, 31 ; [32, 3) - r2 sin 0 cos <> = [23,
3] ; [22, 1J = - r ; [33, 1[ = - r sin2 0 ; |33, 21 = - r2 sin fl cos = < ) = — ,
131J [13 J r 2 33 3 32 = J 3 ^ = cot 0. [23( al) others are zero 5. (o) r2 sin 0
COS 0 ; r 2 sin 0 cos fi €. (0) - r sin2 0 ; r2 sin 0 cos 0 8. (a) = | 1 1 ftc* + [is
>«• A'" (ft) - sin 0 cos 0 ; cot 0 (ft) - r sin2 0 ; cot 0 (ft) A* -**' A ij.k ~ fek
r-{4K+{4K 11. (a) ± P & i-(pA,1) + |:(A>) + £(fiAj cN|> 1 d (ft) f (r2Ar ) +
i (sin 0 A#) + — f-- - J r or r sin 0 dr r sm 0 oty 1o , . d2v 1 d2i> dzv 1 do n
12. (a) — - + — — - + — - + - =0 r)p“ p d tiz P dp d2t! 1 d20 (ft) — r+ —
—5T + cTO 2 dv cot 0 3u + — — + dr2 r2 30s r2 sin2 0 tk|>2 r dr r2 d0 —
= 0. ebuzzpro.blogspot.com
\»Df/ A Abel’s integral equation, I L40 Absolute convergence,

383* 703 Acceleration vector, 319 Addition of complex numhersT 639 of
matrices, 27 of vectors, 77 Adjoint matrix, 33 Adams-Rflshfnrth method,
1026 Algebra of Logic, 1155 Alternating series, 382 Amplitude, of c
omplex quantity, 640 nfaRM„503 Analytic function* 674 Angle between,
two lines, 82. 1193 two planes, 97 Angular velocity of a rigid body, 91 Area
as a double integral, 281 of curves, 256 of a curved surface* 292 Argand's
diagram, 641 Argument of a complex number, 640 Arguments* 1159
Assignment problem, 1 105 Associated tensor, 1 192 Asymptotes, 183
Atmospheric pressure, 462 Augmented matrix* 46 Auxiliary equation, 472
B Baye’s theorem, 870 Rending moment, 518 Ber and Rei functions, 561
Bernoulli's equation, 437 UemoulH-EuJer law, 518 Bessel’s interpolation
formula, 964 Bessel functions, 559 Generating function of, 555
Orthogonality of, 559 Hessefe equation, 559 Beta function, 30£ Bilinear
transformation, 685 Binomial distribution* 879 Binormal, 317 Bisection
method, 918 Boolean algebra, 1166 identities, 1168 Boole’s rule, 991
Boundary value problems, 783* 1035, 1124 c Calculus of variations, 1111
Canonical form, 64, 1071 Cantilever beam, 519 Capacitance, 463 Cardan’s
method, 9 Catenary, 1114 Cauchy -Reimttnn equations, 673 Cauchy's
homogeneous linear equation, 490 inequality* 701 integral formula, 697
Mean value theorem* 144 root test, 380 theorem, 696 Cayley-Hamilton
theorem, 58 Central differences, 947 Central limit theorem, 902 Centre of
curvature, 72 gravity* £94 pressure, 296 Change of, interval in F-series,
4D4 variables* 21 1, 287 Charpit’s method, 588 Chebyshev polynomials*
571 inequality, 894 Chemical reactions and solutions* 468 Chi-square
distribution, 91 1 Chris toffel symbols, 1193 Circle of convergence, 7U4
Circulation, 335 Clairuut’s equation. 449 Co-efficient of* correlation, 845
variation, 839 Comparison tests, 368 Complementary function. 472* 590,
1000 Complex inversion formula, 781 Complex numbers* 639 Complex
potential, 679 Complex variable* 656 derivative of a function of* 673
Exponential and circular functions of, 656 Hyperbolic functions of, 658
Logarithmic functions of. 664 Concavity* Convexity* 177 Conditional
convergence of series, 383 Conditions for a Fourier expansion, 400
Conditions for parallelism, of lines, 52 ol planes, 98 of a line and a pEane,
105 1306
ImgEx 1309 Conditions for perpend icularity oflinesT 82 o-f

planes, 98 Cone, 121, 122, ISO Confidence limits, 902 Conformal
transformation, 888 Comcoiria, 126 Conjugate functions, 674 matrix, 67
tensor, 1 190 Conservative field of force, 861 Consistency of equations, 46
Contraction of tensors, 1 187 Contra variant tensor, 1 183 Convergence of
series, 366 Convolution theorem, 748, 776 Correlation, 846 Co variant
differentiation, 1196 tensor, 1 JB4 Convex region, 1064 Cramer's rule* 43
Critical speeds, 622 Curl, 326, 366, 1198 Curvature, 166,317 Curves in
space, 316 Curve-fitting, 812 Curve tracing, 186 Cylinder, 124, 130
Cylindrical co-ordinates, 357 Curvilinear co-ordinates, 355 D D (operator),
472 D'Alembert's Ratio Test* 373 solution of wave equation, 609 De
Moivre's theorem, 647 Deflection of beams, 518 Degrees of freedom, 906
Del {operator), 322 Derivative of f (?)* 673 directional, 323 of a vector
function, 326 Desearte’s method, 12 Descarte’s rule of signs, 2
Determinants, 17 Difference equations, 998 Differential equations, 26
Bernoulli's, 437 Bessel's, 650 Cauchy's, 490 Clai rant's, 49 Legendre’s, 493,
562 numerical solution of, 1008 partial, 577 simultaneous linear, 496, 754
total, 639 Differentiation of vector under integral sign, 233 Dirac-delta
function, 761 Direction cosines, of a line, 78 of the join of two points, 78
DirirhleCs conditions, 400 Diri chiefs integral. 307 Discrete Mathematics,
1149 Distance between two points, 78 of a point from a plane, 98
Distribution function, 873 Divergence, 32fi+ H96 Divergence of series, 366
Divergence theorem, 346 Divided differences, 975 Double integrals, 274
change of order of integration in, 276 enclosed area ast 281 volumes of
solids as, 285 Dual Simplex method! 1094 Duality concept* 1089 Duality,
1167 Duality la wt, 1091, 1159 Dummy index, 1181 e Eigen values of a
matrix, 55 values by iteration, 943 Elastic curve of a beam, 518 Electric
circuits, 463, 514 Electro- mechanical analogy, 515 Electro- motive force,
464 Ellipsoid, 127 Elliptic equations, 1042 integrals, 310 Euleris method,
1912 Empirical laws. 812 Envelope, 174 Equation of, a cone, 121, 122, 130
a cylinder, 124, 130 a line, 102 a plane, 97 a sphere, 117 Equivalence, 1158
Error function, 312 Errors and approximations, 222 Euclidean space, 1189
Euler's, equation, 1111 formulae for Fourier coefficients, method for
numerical solution of differential equations, 1012 theorem, 295, 657 Even
functions, 408 Events, equally likely, 858 exhaustive, 658 independent, 862
mutually exclusive, 858 Everett's formula, 965 Evolute, 173 Expectation,
874 Exponential, function, 656 distribution, 893 F Factorial notation, 949
Factor theorem, 22 Factorization method* 933 F- distribution, 91+ Ferrari’s
method, 11 Field, conservative, 361 irmtational, 35! scalar, 322 solenoida],
351 vector, 322 Finite differences, 946 Fisher's ^-distribution, 916 Flow
problems, 678 Flux across a surface* 90, 338 Forced oscillations, 509
Fourier-Beesel expansion, 56U Fourier integrals, 767 Fourier-Legendre
expansion, 568 Fourier series, 395 Fourier transforms, 769 Boundary value
problems solved by, 763 Finite, 769 of derivatives, 789 Fredhlom's
equations, 1131. 1142, 1145 Frenet formulae, 317 Frequency, 83 1 curve,
831 Cumulative, 831 distribution, 831 of SJLM., 503 Frobenius method,
544 Functionals, till Fundamental tensor, 1190 Fuzzy sets, 1 174
applications of, 1 179 Fuzzy set operations, 1175 Fuzzy propositions, 1 176
131 Higher Engineering Mathematics a G Gain or loss of

oscillations, 505 Gaterkin’s method, 1125 Gamma distribution, 893
function, 302 Gauss elimination method, 928 Gauss interpolation formulae,
962 Gauss-Jopdan method, 37, 931 Gauss-Seidel iteration method, 938
Generating function of, Bessd functions, 556 Legendre polynomials, 565
Geodesics, 1117 Geometric series, 366, 6G8 distribution, 892 Goodness of
tit, 911 Gradient vector, 322, 367, 1 198 Graphical solution nf equations, 13
Green’s function, 1136 Green's theorem, 339, 349 reciprocal theorem, 359
H Half-mnge series, 412 Hamilton's principle. 1127 Harmonic analysis, 420
Harmonic function, 350, 677 Heat flow, laws of, 466 Heat equation, 61 1,
618, 1051 Helix, circular, 318, 1117 Hermile polynomials, 671 Histogram,
83 1 Homogeneous differential equation, 431 Homogeneous functions, 205
Hookds law, 458 Homer's method, 927 Hungarian method, 1 106
Hyperbolic equations, 1055 functions, 658 Hyperboloids, 127 Hypergen me
trie distribution, 892 i Image, of u point, 1 CJ4 of a line, 104 Inclusion-
principles, 1153 Indeterminate form* 151 Inference theory , 1165 Infinite
series, 366 I nner product of two tensors, 1188 Integral equations, 1131 of
convolution type, 1138 test, 369 transforms, 766 Integrating factor, 435
Integro-differential equations, 1140 Intensity uf loading, 519 interpolation,
946 Inverse interpolation, 977 Inverse operator, 475 Inverse Laplace
transforms, 740 Irrotational fields, 351 Isognnal Trajectories, 457
Isoperimetric problem, 1119 Iterative methods of solution, 936 j Jacobian,
215 Jacobi iteration method, 936 Joukowski* 1? transformation, 689 Jacobi
series, 556 K Kirehhafffs laws, 464 Kreneeker delta, ) 182 Kurlosis, 844 l
Lagrange’s, equation, 1128 interpolation formula, 971 linear equation, 581
Mean value theorem, 142 undetermined multipliers, 229 Laguerre
polynomials, 571 Laplace’s equation, 6 19* 623, 635, 1042 Laplace
transforms, 726 Inverse, 740 Laptarian, 357 Laurent's series, 704
Legendre’s equation, 493, 562 Legendre polynomials* 563 Orthogonality
of, 567 Leibnitiz, rule, 233 rule for alternating series, 382 linear differential
equation, 435 theorem, 139 Lengths of curves, 263 Level surface, 322
Level of significance, 898 Limiting (terminal) velocity, -166 Line integral,
335* 694 Linear differential equations, 471 Linear transformations, 51
Linear programming, 1061 Graphical method in, 1064 Simplex method in,
1072 Line nf greatest slope, 107 Liouville’s theorem, 701 Logarithmic
function, 664 test, 377 M Maclaurin's series* 147 M-method, 1082 Matrix*
26 Adjoint of a square, 33 Characteristic roots of a, 55 Conjugate of a, 67
Elementary* 36 ITermiiian, 68 Inverse of a, 33 Null, 27 Orthogonal, 55
Rank of a, 35 Singular, 26 Skew-Hermitian, 68 Skew-symmetric, 27
Symmetric, 27 Transpose of a, 27 Triangular 27 Unitary, 69 Matrix solution
of equations, 43 Maxima and minima, 177, 226, 986 Mean deviation, 838
Measures, of central tendency, 532 of dispersion, 838 Method, of false
position, 920 of FrobemuSt 544 of Group Averages, 823 of least squares,
816 of moments, 827 of separation of variables, 429, 600 of variation of
parameters, 486 Metric tensor, 1190 Milne's method, 1022 Milne-Thomson
method, 679 Mixed tensors, 1185 Modified Euler's method, 1013 Modulus,
of a complex quantity. 640 of elasticity. 458 Moments, 843 Mome-L of a
force, about a point* 90 about a line^ 91
Index 1311 Moment generating function, 876 Moment c?f inertia,

at)? Mange's method, 597 Marera’s theorem, 701 Motion, of a fluid, 678
under resistance, 503 Multiplication of, determinants, 23 matrices, 26
vectors, 86, 95 Mutually exclusive events, 858 N Negative Binomial
distribution, 802 NeumEinn's function, 551 Newton’s, backward
interpolation formula, 958 formula for unequal intervals, 675 forward
interpolation formula, 958 law of cooling, 466 second law of motion, 458
Newton -Raphson method, 922? 942 Non- homogeneous linear partial
differential equations, 596 Non linear partial differentia] equation, 584
Normal, distribution, 884 llux, 60 to a siirfacet 219 Normal forms, 1163
Null hypothesis, 596 Numerical, differentiation, 98(1 integration* 989
solution of equations, 916 solution of ordinary differential equations, 1008
solution of gjartiaJ differential cqun Lions, 1040 o Objective function, 1062
Oblate spheriod, 130 Odd (unction, 408 Ogive. 831 Ohm’s law, 464
Operator, del, 522 difference, 946 differential, 472 logical, 1155 Order of a
difference equation, 998 of a differenthil equation, 426 Orthogonal spheres,
120 system, 678 trajectories, 454 transformation, 52 Orthogonality of,
Bessel functions, 559 Legendre polynomials, 567 Oscillatory series, 366
Osculating plane, 317 Outer product of two tensors, 1188 p Parabolic
equations, 1051 Paraboloids* 128, 126 FarsevaPs formula, 417 identity.
Partial, derivatives, 168 differential equations, 577 Particular integral, 472,
596, 1060 Partition method, 4 1 Pedal equation, 163 Periodic functions,
395, 732 Picard’s method, 1008 Point of Inflexion, 177 Poisson
distribution, H83 equation* 1048 integral formulae, 702 Power series, 385
Predicates, 1 161 Predictor-corrector methods, 1022 Principal axes, 301
normal, 316 Probability, 859 Addition theorem ofT 862 Multiplication
theorem of, 863 generating function* 877 Probability integral* 312, 886
Probable error, 887 Product of inertia, 300 Projectile with resistance* 526
Prolate sphernid, 130 Q Quadrics. 126 Quadratic forms, M Quantifiers,
1161 Quotient law, 1 186 R Raabe-s test* 377 Radio equation, 631 Random
variable* 871 Rank, correlation, 853 of a matrix, 35 Ralio test, 373
Rayleigh's power method, 943 Rayleigh -Rilz method* 1124 Reciprocal
equations, 7 Reciprocal* tensors, 1160 Recurrence formulae, 552, 566
Reduction formulae, 239 Reduction of quadratic form In cannniral form, 64
Regression lines* 848 Regula falsi, 920 Relation between route and
coefficients, 3 Relations between the operators, 953 Relaxation method, 940
Repeated trial s* 879 Residue theorem, 71 0 Resonance* 509 Reimannian
space* 1189 Right handed and left handed systems, 77 Rodrigue’s formula,
563 Rolled theorem* 142 Root mean square value* 4 IS Roots of a complex
number, 650 Honcho's theorem, 46 Runge-Kutta method, 1(118 s Saddle
point, 226 Sampling, 897 Saw-toothed wrs*ve, 417 Scalar product, of twp
vectors* 8] nf three vectors, 93 Scatter diagram, 812 Sell warss-C h ri stoffe
I Era ns forma ti on, m2 Series, alternating, 382 Binomial, 668 Convergence
of. 366 Exponential, 668 Fourier, 395 Geometric, 366, 668 Gregory’s, 668
Jacobi, 556 Laurent’s* 704 Logarithmic, GfrS Power, 385 Solution of
differential equations in, 542 Summation of trigonometric, 668 Taylor’s,
704 Set theory, 1 149 Set operations* 1151 Shear forte, 519
1312 EnQINEEHING MmHEWAUCS Shortest distance between

two lines, 110 Simple harmonic motion, G02 Simple pendulum, 504
Simplex method, 1072 Simpson h rule, 990 three-eights rule. 990
Simultaneous differential equations, 496 total differential equations, 540
Singular |X>int* 708 Singularity, essential, 708 Skewness, 843 Solenaidal*
Held, 351 vector function, 327 Solution or, biquadratic equations, 1 1 cubic
equation, 9 difference equal ions. 999 differential equations, 426 differential
equations in series, 542 equations graphically , 13 Laplace's equation, 619,
1042 non-linear simultaneous equations* 942 partial differential equations,
577 Poisson’s equation* 1048 simultaneous equations* 929 Sphere,
equations of, 117 Spherical co-ordinates, 359 Spring, stiffness of, 458
Oscillations of a, 507 Stagnation points, 690 Standard deviation, 838
Standard error of estimate, 852 Statistical inference, 897 Stenieris theorem,
298 Stirling's formula, 964 Stake's theorem, 341 Straight line in
symmetrical form, 102 Stream function, 678 Strum-Liouville problem, 573
Strut* 519 Student's /-distribution* 99 5 Successive differentiation* 134
Summation, of series* 668 convention* 1181 Surface integral* 337 Surface
areas of revolution* 269 Switching circuits* 1172 Synthetic division * 2 T
Tangent plane* 119, 219 Taylor’s series* 704 series method, 1010 theorem,
145, 220 Telegraph, equations, 631 Telephone equations, 631 Tensor,
associated, 1192 Conjugate* 1190 Contravariant, 1183 Covariant, 1184
Fundamental, 1 100 Metric, 1190 Reciprocal* 1 190 Symmetric* 1186
Testing a hypothesis* 898 Tetrahedron, 81 Theorem of perpendicular axes,
298 Thermal conductivity, 466 Torsion of a curve* 317 Total differential
equations. 539 Transformation* Bilinear, 685 Conformal, 688 Joutoowski,
689 Linear, 51 of equations, 5 Orthogonal, 52 Schwarz-Chrisioffel, 692
Transmission line* 630 Trans porta Li on problem, 1097 Trapezoidal rule,
980 Triple integrals, 283 Trivial solution, 48 Truth value, 1176 Two phase
method, 1085 Two-dimensional, heal equation* 618 Laplace's equation, G
19 u Uniform, convergence, 389, 702 distribution, 892 Units, electrical, 463
Systems of. 458 Unit, impulse, 761 step function, 756 v Validity of series
sol u Lion, 542 Variation of parameters, method of* 486 Variance, 838
Vector, acceleration, 819 differentiation, 315 field* 322 integration, 334
products, 86, 95 Velocity of escape* 460 Velocity potential* f>78 Venn
diagrams* 1 151 Vibrations, damped, 507 forced, 509 of a siring* 602
Vibrating membrane, 626 Vogel’s approximation method, 1H99 Vollcrra
equations, 1131* 1138 Volume integral, 34G Volumes of solids, 285 of
revolution, 286 as double integrals, 285 as triple integrals* 285 w W&ve,
equation, 602, 1055 forms, 417 Weddle's rule, 991 Wei bull distribution*
893 Weiritrass's M-lest, 390, 702 Whirling of shafts, 522 Work, 90. 335
Wronskfen* 486 z Zero of analytic function* 708 Z-Lransrorm* 793
Application to difference equations, 808
The book provides a clear exposition ot essential tools of applied
mathematics from a modem point of view and meets complete requirements
of engineering and computer science students. Every effort has been made
to keep the presentation at once simple and lucid , It is written with the firm
conviction that a good book is one that cart be read with minimum guidance
from the instructor To achieve this, more than the usual number of solved
examples, followed by properly graded problems have been given. Many of
the examples and problems have been selected from recent papers of
various university and other engineering examinations. Basic Concepts and
Useful information has been given in an Appendix. However, the subject
matter has been set in eight main units * Algebra & Geometry : Solution of
equations. Linear algebra: Determinants. Matrices. Vector algebra and Solid
geometry. m Calculus : Differential calculus. Partial differentiation. Integral
calculus, Multiple integrals, Vector calculus. * Series : Infinite series and
Fourier series. * Differential Equations : Differential equations of first order
and their applications. Linear differential equations and their applications.
Differential equations of different types, Series solution of differential
equations and special functions, Partial differential equations and their
applications. * Complex Analysis : Complex numbers and functions,
Calculus ofcornplex functions. * Transforms ■ Laplace transforms, Fourier
transforms and Z-transforms m Numerical Techniques Empirical Laws and
Curve fitting, Statistical methods, Probability and Distributions, Sampling
and inference, Numerical methods, Finite differences and Interpolation,
Difference equations, Numerical solution of Ordinary and Partial
differential equations. Linear programming * Special Topics Calculus of
variations, Integral equations, Discrete mathematics. Tensors, An
exhaustive list of ‘Objective Type of Questions' has been given at the end of
each chapter Standard Tables, Answers to Problems, and a fairly
comprehensive Index is given at the end. KHANNA PUBLISHERS
1575/15, On kar Hou*v, Opp. Happ* Seliool, Darya Gan j. New Delhi-l
IU01J2 Phone ; 23243042, WH 1 1541400,' Fax . 25243043 H mail
Ichaiuiafm hlinht'n&'yuhixt i it.tn Webnite : wu'UKkhannftfiuhii>h«r»An

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16 Higher Engineering Mathematics 17, 1 n an equation with real

AlGEBRA I DETERMINANTS., MATRICES 25 PROBLEMS

Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices PROBLEMS 2.3 I. If A -

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Linear Algebra ; Determinants. Matrices 43 PROBLEMS 2.5

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Linear Algebra : Determinants, Matrices 61 8, Lor ft symmetrical

72 2,20 OBJECTIVE TYPE OF QUESTIONS Higher

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84 Higher Eugene ew/g MAWENWittcs Example 3.8* 4 K#ijp

86 Higher Engineering Mathematics 4- If A = I + 2#I - 3K and II

96 High eh Engineering Mathematics Aiso component of B 1 A -

IIS Higher Engineering Mathematics Now r2 has the least value

Vector Algebra & Solid Geometry 121 2. Find the equations of

124 Hit. he k Engineering Mathematics Solution. The equation of

128 Higher Engineering Mathematics Y V Its section bv the xy-

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136 Higher Engineering Mathematics 4, Ifjy = sin/i I m log U +

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146 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 4.18. Find the

DlFFEBEhfTtAL CALCULUS Sl \tS ApPUCWOHS 147 2.

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166 Higher Engineering Mathematics l or. 2. Wfi have Also ds fa

172 Higheh Engines™© Mathematics PROBLEMS 4.11 1 . Find

176 Higher Engineering Mathematics PROBLEMS 4.12 L Find

182 Higher Engineering Mathematics 2, a. 4. 5. 6. 7. B. 0. ID. 11.

194 HlGher Engineering Mathematics 4>.j (ffl J - K L- — 5 am -

196 Higher Engineering Mathematics f Jy Y 29, I I v- = I* U), r

202 HjGHER EnGIMEERIMS MATHEMATICS Similarly,

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PflHTlAt DIFFERENTIATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS 205

206 Higher Engineering Mathematics .\ z is a homogeneous

Partial Differentiation and Its Applications 207 i.e. i.e.. Example

212 Higher Engineering Mathematics du du ds t iu bt .(7) dy bs

Partial Differentiation and Its Applications 213 (dx)2 ( dx ' • 2 -

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216 Higher Engineering Mathematics Example 5.26. (i-J In polar

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220 Higher Engineering Mathematics Also the equation of th e

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226 Higher EihGiNEEAIno Mathematics PROBLEMS 5.9 1. 2.

Partial Differentiation and Its Applications 233 = 8 xy + h ^ = 82*

234 Higher Lmginceming MATHSdWtCB Let then | f(x,a)dx =

236 Higher Engineering Mathematics PROBLEMS 5.11 t* dx I x

ParTj ajl DfFFEJ^ENTIATION AND tTS APPLICATIONS 237 *

238 Higher Engineering Mathematics 22. If u and u art; funct ions

240 Higher Emghseerwg Mathematics cr i i r n , sinxcos" 1 x n-1

Higher Engineering Mathematics j sin2 .r cos2 x dx =

Integral Calculus and Its Applications (ti) Putting n - 3 m the

Higher Engineering Mathematics REDUCTION FORMULAE for

Integral Calculus anc Its Appucahons 249 r n/2 - — f cos"1 1 x

Integral Calculus and Its Applications 251 Property III. f f £ Ja Je

254 Higher Engineering Mathematics and Obs. The following are

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