1.

Ethical Frameworks
1.1. Utilitarianism
● Focuses on the results, and consequences of the actions and treats
intentions as irrelevant
● Principle of Utility: an action is morally right if it produces great
happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people. The
morality of an action is determined by the results it produces.
Pleasure and pain can be measured in terms of intensity, duration,
certainty, propinquity( how soon they will occur)
● Act vs Rule Utilitarianism: Act utilitarianism evaluates each
individual action separately. Rule utilitarianism focuses on general
rules and principles.
● Everyone’s happiness and well-being are of equal importance.
● What I should do is what I have advised a group of strangers to do.
● Problems: the difficulty of accurately measuring for the utility,
sacrificing the well-being of a few for the greatest good for the
majority.
● Example: Batman should have killed Joker because Joker will kill a
greater number of people

1.2. Kantianism
● To determine what’s right, we have to use reason, and a sense of
consideration for other people
● Moral truth is a constant
● Hypothetical imperatives: commands that we SHOULD follow if we
want something, they are about prudence
● Categorical imperatives: commands that we MUST follow regardless
of our desires => moral obligations that are derived from pure
reason
● Before acting we should ask what the maxim(the general rule that
stands behind action) of my action ..
● Example: I should never lie to protect someone else’s life. Because
this lie could somehow cause death => don’t violate moral law
1.3. Virtue Theory
● Emphasizes an individual’s character rather than following a set of
rules
● Nature has built in us the desire to be virtuous. We focus on being
good people, good actions follow
● Practical wisdom
● If you are virtuous you achieve eudaimonia: a life well lived
1.4. Contractarianism
● The state of nature: no rule to govern our behaviour, life will be
solitary poor nasty brutish and short => freedom but no security
 ● We need a CONTRAC. Right acts are those that do not violate the
free, rational agreements that we have made. We trade some
freedom for security and cooperation. Rights imply obligations
● Defection: break the contract for your own benefit

2. Privacy
Privacy is that which is hidden
We should use encryption
GDPR: The EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is the strongest
privacy and security law in the world.
This regulation updated and modernised the principles of the 1995 data
protection directive. It was adopted in 2016 and entered into application
on 25 May 2018.
The GDPR defines:
● individuals’ fundamental rights in the digital age
● the obligations of those processing data
● methods for ensuring compliance
● sanctions for those in breach of the rules
2.1. Data processing principles

2.2. Subjects’ rights

3. Informed consent
The Belmont Report marks an important milestone in the history of
clinical research. It established guidelines for basic ethical principles, as
well as informed consent, the assessment of risks and benefits and
subject selection.
Informed consent principles :
● Information: subjects should have enough information
 ● comprehension: the manner and the context in which the
information is conveyed is as important as the info itself. Subject
maturity, capacity of understanding… Sometimes researchers need
the consent of the parties to protect the subjects( limited age …)
● voluntariness: Researchers cannot threaten harm or offer an
excessive unwarranted, inappropriate or improper reward to obtain
compliance
● GDPR: Consent must be freely given, specific, informed and
unambiguous

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