MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES PHYSICS - I A

MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

5 Chandrashekhara Venkata Raman was born on November 7, 1888.
He carried out his experimental research in the laboratory of Indian
Association for the Cultivation of Science at Calcutta with Burning

2
CHAPTER
5
Desire. He carried out research in acoustics and optics. On February
28, 1928, through his experiments on the scattering of light, he
discovered the Raman effect. He was the first Asian and first non-
White to receive any Nobel Prize in the sciences. In 1941 he was
awarded the Franklin Medal. In 1954 he was awarded the Bharat
Ratna. He retired from the Indian Institute in 1948 and a year later he
established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore, where he C.V. Raman
worked till his death. 1888-1970

h Accuracy and Precision h Methods to minimise Errors

h Types of Errors h Significant Figures

2.1 INTRODUCTION error. To minimize the errors we repeat the

We can say that we know about a physical observations a large number of times and take the
quantity only if we are able to measure it. arithmetic mean of all the readings.
Measurement is comparison of a physical quantity The arithmetic mean of a large number of
with a standard reference of same physical quantity. In repeated measurements is taken as the true value
every measurement final result is a number followed or actual value.
by a unit. For example length of a black board is 2.4. ARITHMETIC MEAN
2.5metre . If X1, X2. . . . . . . . . XNare the results of an
Here metre is the unit and 2.5 is numerical value, experiment repeated N times, the arithmetic mean
that is length of the black board is expressed as 2.5 x is given by
times the unit of length. An accurate measurement
x  x  ............  x n  x i
of physical quantities plays a very important role in x 1 2 
the world of science. n n
However inspite of great technological Arithmetic mean is the best value of x that can
advancement and sophistication in the developement be obtained from the N measurements. This is 'true'
of instrumentation, no measurement can be free from when N is very large.
errors. Errors may be because of several reasons 2.5. ACCURACY AND PRECISION
both controlable and uncontrolable. Accuracy is a measure of the closeness of the
Hence a knowledge of errors is essential to measured value to the true value.
interpret the results and evaluate the measurements Smaller the uncertainty in the measured value,
on a scientific basis. greater is its accuracy.
2.2. ERROR Precision refers to the agreement among a
Error is the amount of uncertainity that is group of measured values.
present in the measurement made with a It does not imply anything about their relation
measuring instrument. to the true value.
It is the difference between the measured value A precise value doesn't necessarily mean an
and the true value. accurate value.
2.3. TRUE VALUE Eliminating systematic error improves accuracy
We can never determine exactly the real or true Repeating the experiment number of times
value of a physical quantity due to the presence of improves precision

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No measurement can be made with complete i) Instrumental errors : These are inherent
'accuracy.' For this , it must be shown by a value errors of the apparatus and the measuring
with infinite number of decimal places. insturements used.
Example : Example :
The length of a straight line is measured a Zero-error of a measuring instrument. If a scale
number of times by a number of observers. The is worn off at the starting end upto 0.3cm reading
following are the results of these measurements. and we do not notice it and treat it as zero, then every
Actual length = 3.785 cm  0.001cm length we measure will be always 0.3cm more than
1st set of measurements 3.8 cm, 3.9cm, 3.7cm the true value.
2nd set of measurements 3.478 cm, 3.479 cm, The instrumental error can be detected by
3.478 cm, 3.478 cm, 3.479 cm interchanging two similar instruments or by using
different methods for measuring the same physical
3rd set of measurements 3.55 cm, 3.65 cm,
3.45 cm, 3.35cm quantity.
4th set of measurements 3.784 cm,3.785 cm, ii) Constant errors : When the result of a series
3.784 cm, 3.785 cm, 3.784cm of measurements are in error by the same
amount, such an error is called constant error.
First set of measurements are accurate because
it is closest to the actual value but not precise. These are also instrumental errors. Zero error is
Second set of measurements are not accurate a constant error.
but it is most precise because the readings are iii) Environmental errors : These arise due to
reproducible. external conditoins, that is, due to changes in the
Third set of measurements are neither accurate evnironment. During the experimnetal measurement
nor precise. there maybe changes in external conditions i.e.,
Fourth set of measurements are accurate as changes in temperature, pressure, humidity, wind
well as precise. velocity etc. For example if a metal scale is calibrated
2.6 CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS in winter and is used in summer as it expands in
Errors creep in the observed or calculated values summer the measured values will be less than true
due to various reasons. They are categorized under values.
two heads. iv) Personal errors : These are entirely due to the
(a) Systematic errors personal pecularities of the experimenter. Individual
(b) Random errors bias, lack of proper setting of the apparaturs,
2.7. SYSTEMATIC ERRORS carelessness in taking observations (without taking
the required necesary precautions.) etc. are the causes
Error that is allways unidirectional is called for this type of error. A perosn may be habituated to
systematic error hold his eyes (head) always a bit too far to the right
If some error is occurring in the positive (or left) while taking the reading with a scale. This
direction only (or in the negative direction only) all will give rise to parallax error.
the time, it is systematic error.
If a person keeps his eye-level below the level
Example : of mercury in a barometer all the time, his readings
If measured value is allways 2 units more than will have systematic error.
true value it is systematic error. (positive) These errors can be mimimized by obtaining
If measured value is allways 3 units less than several readings carefully and then taking their
true value it is systematic error. (negative) arithmetical mean.

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v) Imperfection in experimental technique or –0.2cm, +0.2cm, +0.4cm respectively

procedure : Sometimes, even when we know the Random errors are also called indeterminate
nature of the error, it cannot be eliminated due to errors.
imperfection in experimental arrangement. For Random errors can not be eliminated but can
example, in calorimetry, loss of heat due to radiation, be minimized by increasing the number of
the effect on weighing due to buoyancy of air, etc. observations.
These errors will always exist. The total random errors are determined by
2.8. MINIMISATION OF SYSTEMATIC statistical methods.
ERRORS Random errors can not be minimized by
We can minimise systematic errors. taking precautions.
1) by selecting better instruments with higher Note : Allmost all measurements contain both
resolution. systematic and random errors.
2) by taking care to avoid personal bias. 2.10. GROSS ERRORS
3) by improving the experimental technique.
The gross errors are the result of sheer
2.9. RANDOM ERRORS carelessness on the part of the observer.
The errors which are irregular whose cause Causes for gross error are (a) neglect of the
is not known, and random in nature in their sign sources of error and (b) reading the instrument
and size are called random errors incorrectly.
Unlike systematic errors these errors are at Example :
random with respect to the sign and magnitude. They
occur irregularly - some times increasing, some times 1) In a tangent galvanometer experiment, the
decreasing with changing magnitudes. coil is to be placed exactly in the magnetic meridian
These errors arise due to the random fluctuations in and care should be taken so that no other magnetic
experimental conditions that cannot be predicted. For materials are present in the vicinity.
example, the random fluctuations in temperature, 2) In the measurement of length of a pendulum
voltage supply and mechanicl vibrations of the obserever may read it as 52.4cm but may record
experimental sep up etc. are the causes for radnom it as 25.4cm. This is gross error due to careless
errors. recording.
The diameter of a wire may be varying from
position to position along its length due to non No corrections can be applied to these gross
uniform cross section. [Link] all precautions that are required, we
can minimize gross errors.
Hence we get random errors in the measurement
of diameter. At some places the value will be more, 2.11. TYPES OF ERRORS
at some places less with different magnitudes. QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
The uneven tightening of the screw in a screw The same error can be expressed in different
gauge at different places of a wire of uniform cross ways as an absolute error, a relative error or a
section also results in random errors . percentage error.
Thus, even when the same person repeats the same
Error (  a): Difference between measured value
observation, he may get different reading each time.
and actual value (or true value) is called error
Example:Suppose true length of a body is 2.5cm
 a = measured value – actual value.
Same person measures it three times as
So it can be +ve or – ve.
2.3cm, 2.7cm, 2.9cm, then the errors are
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Example : Absolute error D amean

Relative error = = a
Suppose true length of a body is 2.5cm Actual value mean

Relative error is a pure number having no units.

If it is measured as 2.7cm, then the error is +0.2cm
Percentage error = Relative error x 100
If it is measured as 2.2cm, then the error is -0.3cm a
 mean  100
Absolute error (|  a|) : The magnitude of the amean
difference between the true value of the measured Problem : 2.1
physical quantity and the value of individual
In an experiment, the values of refractive index of glass
measurement is called the absolute error of that were found to be 1.54, 1.53, 1.44, 1.54, 1.56 and 1.45
measurement. in successive measurements. Calculate (i) Mean value
If amean = actual vale, and ai = ith observed value, of refractive index of glass (ii) Absolute error in each
measurement (iii) Mean absolute error (iv) relative error
then the absolute error ( a ) in the ith observed value and (v) Percentage error.
is defined as : ai = ai  amean Sol. (i) Mean value of refractive index,
1.54 + 1.53 + 1.44 + 1.54 + 1.56 + 1.45
Absolute error is allways positive and has same mmean = = 1.51
6
units as that of the quantity being measured
(ii) Taking mmean as the true value, the errors in the six
Mean absolute error (  amean) measurements are
The arithmetic mean of all the absolute 1.54 – 1.51 = +0.03; 1.53 – 1.51 = +0.02;
errors is considered as the mean absolute error 1.44 – 1.51 = – 0.07
or final absolute error of the value of the physical 1.54 – 1.51 = + 0.03; 1.56 – 1.51 = + 0.05
quantity concerned. and 1.45 – 1.51 = – 0.06
Suppose a1 ,a2,a3,...an are measured values of a The absolute errors are
quantity and their mean value is amean 0.03, 0.02, 0.07, 0.03, 0.05 and 0.06
Each individual observed value has an error (iii) Mean absolute error in the value of m is
attached with it, as follows. D mm ean =
0.03 + 0.02 + 0.07 + 0.03 + 0.05 + 0.06
6
 a1 = a1  amean 0.26
= = 0.04
6
 a2 = a2  amean (iv) Relative error in the valiue of m ,
D mmean 0.04
 a3 = a3  amean = = - 0.02649 = 0.03
mmean 1.51
(v) Percentage error in the value of
 an = an  amean
n
m = 0.03 ×100 = 3%
 a i Problem : 2.2
i 1
 amean =
n Readings of length of a pole are 2.63 m, 2.56 m, 2.42
m, 2.71 m and 2.80 m. Calculate the absolute errors
So we write actual value, a = amean   amean. and relative errors and percentage errors. What do
Relative error. you think of the actual value of the length and its
limits?
The relative (or proportional) error of a
Sol. The mean value of length
measured physical quantity is the ratio of the
(2.63  2.56  2.42  2.71  2.80)m
mean absolute error ( amean ) to the mean value L=
5
13.12
( amean ) of the quantity measured. = m = 2.624m = 2.62m
5
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As the lengths are measured to a resolution of This means that the length is (2.62 ± 0.11m)
0.01m, all lengths are given to the second place of i.e., it lies between (2.62 + 0.11 m) and (2.62 –
decimal, it is proper to round off this mean length 0.11m)
also to the second place of decimal. i.e., between 2.73 m and 2.51 m.
In the first measurement 2.11. COMBINATION OR PROPAGATION OF
Error =  a1 = 2.63m – 2.62m = + 0.01m ERRORS
Absolute error = 0.01m Suppose we want to calculate acceleration due
2 L
Relative error = 0.01/2.62 =0.0038 to gravity using the formula, g = 4 2
T
Percentage error = relative error x 100 = 0.38
We can measure length L using scale and we
In the second measurement can measure timeperiod T using clock.
Error =  a2 = 2.56m – 2.62m = –0.06m There may be errors in all measuring
Absolute error = 0.06m instruments and measurements.
Relative error = 0.06/2.62 =0.023 We should know the errors in individul
measurements of length(L) and time (T) , then combine
Percentage error = relative error x 100 = 2.3
them to find the error in the calculation of ' g '.
In the third measurement So we must know how errors combine(or
Error =  a3 = 2.42m – 2.62m = –0.2m propagate) in addition,subtraction, multiplication and
Absolute error = 0.2m division.
Relative error = 0.2/2.62 =0.076 i) Combination of errors in case of addition
Percentage error = relative error x 100 = 7.6 Suppose a physical quantity Z is sum of the
physical quantities X and Y
In the fourth measurement
Z = X+Y
Error =  a4 = 2.71m – 2.62m = +0.09m
Let X and  Y be the respective absolute
Absolute error = 0.09m errors in X and Y. Then the values of X and Y will
Relative error = 0.09/2.62 =0.034 be X  X and Y  Y
Percentage error = relative error x 100 = 3.4 Let the error in Z be  Z
In the fifth measurement Since Z = X+Y
Error =  a5 = 2.80m – 2.62m = +0.18m Z  Z  ( X  X )  (Y  Y )
Absolute error = 0.18m Z  Z  ( X  Y )  X  Y
Relative error = 0.18/2.62 =0.068 Maximum possible error in Z is Z X Y
Percentage error = relative error x 100 = 6.8 (If Z =X+Y then), Maximum possible error D Z
Mean or final absolute error = absolute error D X +absolute errorD Y

15 a i  X  Y 
Percentage error in Z =   100

5  X  Y 
(0.01  0.06  0.20  0.09  0.18)m ii) Combination of errors in case of subtraction

5 Suppose a physical quantity Z is difference of the
= 0.54m/5 = 0.108 m = 0.11m physical quantities X and Y
Z=X–Y
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Let X and Y be the respective absolute Problem : 2.5

errors in X and Y. then the values of X and Y will If L = 2.01 m ± 0.01m, what is 3L ?
be X  X and Y  Y Sol. Here, we should equate 3L with
Let the error in Z be Z (L + L + L) to find out the absolute error in 3L.
Since Z = X –Y Thus 3L = (3 × 2.01) m ± 3 × 0.01 m
Z  Z  (X  X)  (Y  Y) = 6.03 m ± 0.03m Ans.
Z  Z  (X  Y)  X  Y
Problem : 2.6
Maximum possible error in Z is  Z   X   Y If L1 = 2.02 m ± 0.01 m, L2 = 1.02m ± 0.01 m, determine
(If Z =X-Y then), Maximum possible error DZ L1 + 2L2
= absolute error D X +absolute errorD Y Sol. L1 + 2L2 = L1 + L2 + L2
= (2.02m±0.1m) + (1.02m±0.01m) + (1.02 m ± 0 .01m)
 X  Y 
Percentage error in Z =   100
 X  Y  = 4.06 m ± 0.03 m

Note : In both addition and subtaction maximum iii) Combination of errors in case of
possible error = sum of absolute errors multiplication
Suppose a physical quantity Z is the product of
Problem : 2.3
the physical quantities X and Y
If L = 2.06 cm ± 0.02 cm
B = 1.11 cm ± 0.03cm
Z = XY
What are (L + B) and (L – B) equal to ? Let X and Y be the respective absolute
Sol. L + B = 3.17 cm ± 0.05 cm errors in X and Y. then the values of X and Y will be
L – B = 0.95 cm ± 0.05 cm X  X and Y  Y
Please note that actual values i.e. 2.06 cm and 1.11 cm Let the error in Z be Z
are added in case of (L + B) and subtracted in case of
Z = XY
(L – B), but absolute errors are added in both cases.
logZ = logX +logY
*Problem : 2.4 differentiating both sides
Two objects A and B are of lengths 5 cm and 7cm dZ dX dY
determined with errors 0.1 cm and 0.2 cm respetively. = +
Z X Y
What is the error in determining (a) the total lenth and
Z X Y
(b) the difference in their lengths ? Maximum relative error  
Sol . a = 5cm,  a = 0.1cm
Z X Y
DZ D X D Y
b = 7 cm,  b = 0.2cm In multiplication (Z=XY), Maximum relative error = +
Z X Y
If x = a + b is the total length, then
iv) Combination of errors in case of division
 x =  a +  b = 0.1 + 0.2 = 0.3 cm and x = ( 5+7) ± 0.3
= (12 ± 0.3) cm.
Suppose X,Y, Z are physical quantitie such that
If 'x' is the difference between the lengths, X
Z
then  x =  a +  b = 0.3cm and Y
x  5  7  0.3   2  0.3 cm
Let X and Y be the respective absolute
errors in X and Y. then the values of X and Y will be
Note : If a 'constant' is multiplied with an observed/
X  X and Y  Y
measured value, the result will have its absolute error
equal to 'constant' times the absolute error in the Let the error in Z be Z
observed / measured value. This means, the X
percentage error in the result will remain unchanged.
Z
Y
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logZ = logX –logY g     T 

    2
differentiating both sides g     T 
dZ dX dY  0.1   0.01
= - =  2 = 0.003 + 0.02 = 0.023
 31.4   1.12 
Z X Y
Z X Y Relative error in determining g is 0.023 and percentage
Maximum relative error  
Z X Y error = 0.023 × 100 = 2.3%

In division Z= X Maximum relative error D Z D X DY

= + Problem : 2.9
Y Z X Y

If L = 20.04 m ± 0.01 m
Note : Both in multiplication and division Maximum
B = 2.52 m ± 0.02 m
relative error in the result is the sum of the relative
What are the values of (L × B) and (L / B)?
errors of the quantities being multiplied or divided.
Sol. Given errors are absolute errors, while the rule says that
Similarly Both in multiplication and division percentage errors are to be added. Hence, the first step
Maximum percentage error in the result is the sum will be to convert the given absolute errors into
of the percentage errors of the quantities being percentage errors.
multiplied or divided. 0.01
L = 20.04 m ± × 100%
20.04
*Problem : 2.7 = 20.04 m ± 0.05%
The length and breadth of a rectangular object are 0.02
25.2 cm and 16.8cm respectively and have been B = 2.52 m ± × 100%
2.52
measured to an accuracy of 0.1cm. Find the relative
= 2.52 m ± 0.79%
error and percentage error in the area of the object.
Sol. Area A = l × b L × B = (20.04 × 2.52)m2  (0.05 + 0.79)%
l = 25.2 cm and  l = 0.1cm = 50.50 m2 ± 0.84%
b = 16.8 cm and  b = 0.1cm This is the result. However, since the data given in the
 A      b  question was in terms of absolute errors, so we should
\ Relative error in area  A        b  give our result also in absolute errors.
 0.1   0.1  0 .8 4
  L × B = 50.50 m2 ± × 50.50m2
 25.2   16.8  100
= 0.004 + 0.006 = 0.01 = 50.50 m2 ± 0.42 m2 Ans.
 A  Note : The result should be rounded to which place of decimal
  100  0.01  100 is explained later in this chapter.
A 
Percentage error (a = 1%. Similarly,
L 20.04 m
= ± (0.05 + 0.79)%
* Problem : 2.8 B 2.52 m
In an experiment to determine the value of acceleration 0 .8 4
= 7.95 ± 0.84% = 7.95 ± × 7.95
due to gravity g using a simple pendulum, the measured 100
value of length of the pendulum is 31.4cm known to 1 = 7.95 ± 0.067.
mm accuracy and the time period for 100 oscillations
of pendulum is 112.0s known to 0.01s accuracy. Find v) Combination of errors in case of a quantity
the accuracy in determining the value of g. rised to different powers
Sol. (Accuracy is to be taken as the error involved) Suppose the physical quantity z depends on
the quantity x as z=kxn where k is a constant and n
l = 31.3 cm and  l = 1mm = 0.1cm
is a real number
112.0
T= = 1.12s and  T = 0.01s Let  x and  z be the respective absolute errors
100
in x and z.
2  
Formula for g is g  4  2 
T  Let z  kx n

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log z = log k + n log x Maximum error in the measurement of density

Differentiating both sides d M L
× 100 = × 100 +3 × 100
z x d M L
n
z x = 3 + (3 × 2) = 3+ 6 = 9%
DZ DX  Maximum error in the measurement of density = 9%
If Z = kX n Maximum relative error = n
Z X
* Problem : 2.12
Percentages error in z = n times percentage error
in x Error in the measurement of radius of a sphere is 1%.
p q Find the error in the measurement of volume.
A .B
Similarly Let Z = r
Cr Sol.  100 =1%
Where A, B, C and Z are variables, and p, q r
3
Volume of sphere V = r 3
and r are constants. 4
Error in the measurement of volume
log Z = p log A + q log B – r log C V r
× 100 = 3 × 100 = 3 ×1 =3%
Differentiating both sides V r
dZ dA dB dC
= p. + q. – r.. * Problem : 2.13
Z A B C
An experiment measures quantities a, b, c and then x is
Z A B C
p q r ab2
Z A B C calculated as x  3 . If the percentage error in a, b,
c
Maximum fractional error in Z is c are  1%,  3% and  2% respectively, find the
Z A B C maximum percentage error in x.
p q r Sol. Here
Z A B C
a b c
× 100 = ±1%, × 100 = ±3%, × 100 = ±2%
Note : All quantities are positive a b c
Maximum %error in Z = ab2
x= 3
p (%error in A) + q(%error in B)+ r(%error in C) c
Maximum percentage error in x is
Problem : 2.10
x a b c
One side of a cube is measured as a = 4.03 ± 1 %. × 100 = × 100 + 2 × 100 + 3 × 100
x a b c
What is its volume ?
= 1 + (2 × 3) + (3 × 2) = 13%
Sol. Volume = a3 = (4.03 m ± 1%)3
Maximum percentage error in x is 13%
= 4.033 m3 ± (3 × 1)%
= 65.45 m3 ± 3 % * Problem : 2.14
The percentage error in the mass and speed are 2%
* Problem : 2.11 and 3% respectively. How much will be the maximum
We know that the density of a cube can be measured error in kinetic energy calculated using mass and ve-
by measuring its mass and length of its side. If the locity ?
maximum errors in the measurement of mass and m 
length are 3% and 2% respectively, what is the Sol. × 100 = 2% , × 100 = 3%
m 
maximum error in the measurement of the density of
the cube ? 1 2
Kinetic energy. E = m
2
M L
Sol. Here × 100 = 3%, × 100 = 2%
Maximum error in kinetic energy
M L
M Mass(M) E m 
× 100 = × 100 + 2 × 100
Density d = V = E m 
Length(L)3
M Maximum error in kinetic energy
d=
L3 = 2% + 2 × 3%= 2% + 6% =8%

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*Problem : 2.15 *Problem : 2.18

In the measurement of a physical quantity In an experiment of simple pendulum the error in
A2 B measurement of length of the pendulum L and time
X 1 .The percentage errors introduced in the period T are 3% and 2% respectively. What is the
C 3 D3 L
maximum percentage error in the value of 2 ?
measurement of the quantities A, B, C and D are 2%, T
l T
2%, 4% and 5% respectively. Then the minimum Sol. × 100 = 3%, × 100 = 2%
amount of percentage of error in the measurement of L T
Maximum percentage error in the value of
X is contributed by which quantity ?
L L T
A2 B 2
= × 100 + 2  × 100
Sol. X = 1
T L T
C 3 D3 = 3 + (2 × 2)
A B C D =3+4
%  2%, %  2%, %  4%, %  5% L
A B C D Maximum percentage error in the value of 2 = 7%
T
X A B 1 C 1 D
=2 + + +
X A B 3 C 3 D *Problem : 2.19
X The measured mass and volume of a body are 2.42 g
Percentage error in X =  100
X and 4.7 cm3 respectively with possible errors 0.01g,
A B 1 C D and 0.1 cc. Find the maximum error in density.
=2  100 +  100 + +3 
A B 3 C D Mass(m)
Sol. Density, d =
 1  Volume(V)
  2  2 + 2 +   4   3  5  22.34%
3  Here m = 2.42 g, m = 0.01 g
 The minimum amount of error is contributed by C.
3
v = 4.7 cm V = 0.1 cc
*Problem : 2.16 Maximum error in density
Dimensional formula for a physical quantity X is d m V
× 100 = × 100 + × 100
M–1L 3T –2. The error in measuring the quantities M, L d m V
and T respectively are 2% , 3% and 4%. What is the 0.01 0.1
maximum percentage error that occurs in measuring = × 100 + × 100
2.42 4.7
the quantity X ?
= 0.413% + 2.127%
Sol. X = M–1 L3T-2
Maximum error in density = 2.54%
dM dL dT
× 100 = 2%, × 100 = 3%, × 100 = 4%
M L T
* Problem : 2.20
Maximum percentage error in
A rectangular metal slab of mass 33.333g has its length
M L T
X= × 100 + 3 × 100 + 2 × × 100 8.0cm, breadth 5.0cm and thickness 1mm. The mass is
M L T measured with accuracy up to 1mg with a sensitive
 2   3  3  (2  4)  2  9  8 balance. The length and breadth are measured with a
Maximum error in X  19% vernier calipers having a least count of 0.01cm. The
thickness is measured with a screw gauge of least count
*Problem : 2.17 0.01mm. Calculate the percentage accuracy in den-
In Poiseuille’s method of determination of viscosity, sity caluclulated from above measurements.
what is the physical quantity that requires greater Sol. The precentage error itself gives us the percentage ac-
accuracy in measurement ?
curacy.
Pr 4 mass(M) M
Sol. Formula  = d= 
8Vl length()  breadth(b)  height(h) bh
the inner radius of the capillary tube appears with a 4th
power in the equation. So if there is an error it becomes
\ The relative error is given by
4 times. Hence inner radius must be measured with high d  M      b   h 
       
accuracy. d  M      b  h 

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PHYSICS - I A MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Given l = 8.0 cm and  = 0.01cm; 2.12. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

b = 5.0 cm and b = 0.01cm
The digits of a number representing a
h = 1mm and h = 0.01mm and
measurement that are definitely known, plus one
M = 33.333g and  M = 1mg = 0.001g more digit added at the end which is estimated
M 0.001 are called significant digits or significant figures.
Hence, 
M 33.333
Example : Suppose least count of a scale used to
 0.01 b 0.01 h 0.01 measure length of a rod is 0.1 cm.
 ,  and 
 8.0 b 5 h 
Suppose one end of the rod is coinciding with
The percentage error is given by
zero of the scale and the other end is in between two
 M  b h 
      100 marks reading 14.5 cm and 14.6 cm.
m  b h 
 0.001 0.01 0.01 0.01 So length of the rod is more than 14.5cm but less
      100 than 14.6cm
 33.333 8.0 5 1 
= 0.003+0.125+0.2+1.0 = 1.328. One observer may think that the correct
1.328 @ 1.3 measurement is perhaps 14.52 cm
The percentage error is 1.3% Here 1,4 and 5 are reliable and last digit 2 is guess-
* Problem : 2.21 work and thus not reliable.
The error in the measurement of the length of a So in 14.52 cm there are 4 significant figures.
simple pendulum is 0.1% and the error in the time The last significant figure is called the 'first
period is 2%. What is the possible percentage of error
doubtful figure' or the 'least significant figure'. It is
in the physical quantity having the dimensional formula
also called 'uncertain digit'. It is 2 in 14.52 cm.
LT–2.
Sol. Percentage error in LT–2 is
Rules to count Significant Figures :
 L T  1) All non-zero digits in a given number are
a    2.   100 significant without any regard to the location of the
 L T 
 0.1 2  2  decimal point if any.
    100  4.1%
 100 100  6,482 has four significant digits
*Problem : 2.22 648.2 or 64.82 or 6.482 all have the same
number (four) of significant digits.
The heat generated in a circuit is dependent on the
resistance, current and time of flow of electrical current. 2) All zeros occurring between two non-zero
If the errors measured in the above are 1%, 2% and 1% digits are significant without any regard to the
respectively, what is the maximum error in heat ? location of decimal point if any.
i 2 RT 206008 has six significant figures.
Sol. Heat H =
j
Maximum error in measuring the heat
206.008 or 2.06008 has also got six significant
digits.
H i R T
×100 = 2 ×100 + ×100+  100 3) If the number is less than one, all the zeros to
H i R T
Here J is a constant.
the right of the decimal point but to the left of the
first non-zero digit are not significant.
Giventhat
R i T In the number 0.000608 the three zeros to the
×100 = 1%, × 100 = 2% ×100 = 1% right of decimal point and upto 6 are not significant.
R i T
The zero that is conventionally placed before decimal
H
× 100 =  2 × 2  + 1 +1 = 4 + 1 + 1 point is obviously not significant. The given number
H
has three significant figures. The zero between 6 and
Maximum error in heat = 6% 8 is significant from rule 2.

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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES PHYSICS - I A

4(a) All zeros to the right of a decimal point are * Problem : 2.23
significant if the number is more than one. 60.00 Write down the number of significant figures in the
contains four significant digits. following.
(i) 0.007 (ii) 2.64 × 1024 (iii) 0.2370
4(b) All zeros to the right of the last non-zero
digit after the decimal point are significant. (iv) 6.320 (v) 6.032 (vi) 0.0006032
Sol. (i) 0.007 has one significant figure.
0.007800 has four significant figures. The zero
(ii) 2. 64 × 1024 has three significant figures.
between decimal point and 5 is not significant from
(iii) 0.2370 has four significant figures.
rule-3. But the zeroes after eight are significant.
(iv) 6.320 has four significant figures,
Otherwise it would have been reported as 0.0078,
only with two significant digits. (v) 6.032 has four significant figures.
(vi) 0.0006032 has four significant figures.
5(a) All zeros to the right of the last non-zero
digit in a number having no decimal point are not 2.13. ROUNDING OFF THE NUMBER
significant. The process of omitting the non-significant digits
4060 contains three significant figures as the and retaining only the desired number of significant
zero to the right of six is not significant. digits, incorportating the required modifications to
the last significant digit is called 'rounding off the
40,6000 has also got only three significant number'.
figures.
Rules for Rounding off Numbers :
5(b) However, there is an exception to rule 5(a).
i) The preceding digit is raised by 1 if the
All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit in a immediate insignificant digit to be dropped is more
number having no decimal point will be significant than 5.
if they come from an actual measurement.
Ex : 5728 is to be rounded off to three significant
Suppose a distance measured in metres is
figures. Here 8 is the non–significant digit to be
reported as 4.500 m having four significant figures. dropped and is more than 5. Hence 5728 = 5730.
Expressed in cms it will be 450 cm. It has only two
ii) The preceding digit is to be left unchanged if
significant figures. To have four significant figures,
the immediate insignificant digit to be dropped is less
we should express it as 450.0 cm. Similarly, if we
than 5.
want to express the value in km, we have to write
the result as 0.004500 km and not as 0.0045 km. Ex : 5728 is to be rounded off to two siginificant
When expressed in mm, the value becomes 4500 figures. Here the immediate or first non–significant
digit to be dropped is 2(along with 8 also) and is less
mm. It has only two significant figures from rule
than 5. Hence 5728 = 5700. In the above two example
5(a). Now arises a problem. We cannot write 4500
1 and 2, zeros are to be placed in the places of digits
mm in any way as we have done with cm and km to dropped. Otherwise the values will change drasticaly.
have four significant figures.
iii) If the immediate insignificant digit to be dropped
To avoid such ambiguity, we write the number is 5 then there will be two different cases (a) If the
in scientific notation as powers of 10. Now 4500 preceding digit is even, it is to be unchanged and 5
mm is written as 4.500×103 mm and by rule 4(a) the is dropped.
number has 4 significant figures. Similarly the result Ex : 6.7258 is to be rounded off to two decimal places
is expressed as 4.500 ×102cm and 4.500 ×10–3 km. (or three significant figures). The digit to be dropped
Note : Very large and very small quantities of physical here is 5(along with 8) and the preceding digit 2 is
measurement are usually expressed in scientific even and hence to be retained as two only.
notation to denote accuracy of measurements. 6.7258 = 6.72

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PHYSICS - I A MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

(b) If the preceding digit is odd, it is to be raised Rule 1: In addition or subtraction the final result
by 1. should retain only that many decimal places as
are there in the number with the least decimal
6.7158 is to be rounded off to two decimal
places.
places (or three significant figures). As the preceding
digit 1 is odd, it is to be raised by 1 as 2. Note : In addition and subtraction, the rule is in terms
of decimal places (and not in terms of significant
6.7158 = 6.72
figures)
In the above two example 3(a) and 3(b) zeros
Rule 2: In multiplication or division, the final
should not be placed in places of decimal digits result should retain only that many significant
dropped. Otherwise the number of significant digits figures as are there in the original number with
will drastically change. the least number of significant figures.
* Problem : 2.24 2.14.1. EXPLANATION OF THE RULES
Round off to 3 significant figures: i) Addition and subtraction
(i) 20.96 (ii) 0.0003125 In addition or subtraction of numbers, before
Sol. (i) 20.96 has four significant figures. The fourth signifi- performing the operation we must identify the
cant figure is more than 5 and hence on rounding off to number with the least number of digits after
three significant figures, the given measurement will decimal point (say n ) and round off other numbers
become 20.9 + 0.1 i.e., 21.0. to one extra digit in the decimal part (say n + 1). The
(ii) 0.0003125 has four significant figures. The fourth final result is again rounded off , such that it contains
significant figure is 5 and hence on rounding off to same number of decimal places as that of the number
three significant figures, the given measurement will with least number of decimal places (say n) among
become 0.000312 or 3.12×10–4. This is because 2 be- all other numbers.
fore 5 is an even number.
* Problem : 2.25
2.14. RULES FOR ARITHMETIC OPER- Find the value of 2.2 + 4.08 + 3.125 + 6.3755.
ATIONS WITH SIGNIFICANT FIGURES Sol. Out of all the four numbers 2.2 has got the least number
Because of the errors involved in measurements, of decimal places – one.
the measured values of physical quantities have Hence we should retain only two decimal places in the
limited number of significant figures. To obtain many remaining numbers. Hence 4.08 remains as it is 3.125 is
physical quantities we have to make arithmetic to be rounded off as 3 : 12 (as 2 before 5 is even)
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, 6.3755 is to be rounded off as 6.38 (as 7 before 5 is
division etc.) of the measured quantities. To obtain odd). Now adding 2.2 + 4.08 + 3.12 + 6.38 = 15.78.
linear momentum, we have to multiply mass with Finally we should have only one decimal place and
hence 15.78 is to be rounded off as 15.8.
velocity. To obtain velocity we have to divide
distance travelled with time taken. Now, any reuslt * Problem : 2.26
of such operation should also indicate the errors A stick has a length of 12.132 cm and another stick
involved in the original measured values. The result has a length of 12.4 cm.
can never be more accurate than the original (a) If the two sticks are placed end to end, what is
their total length ?
individual measured values.
(b) If the two sticks are placed side by side, what is
So the final result of arithmetic operations the difference in their lengths ?
should never have more significant figures than Sol. (a) Let lengths of the sticks are named as
the least number of signigicant figures in the l 1 = 12.132cm, l 2 = 12.4 cm
original components. Here l2 has one decimal place and l1 has to be rounded
off to have only two decimal places
This results in the following rules. l1 + l2  12.13 + 12.4 = 24.53.

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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES PHYSICS - I A

This is to be rounded off to have one decimal place figures (say n)as that of the number with least
only. number of significant figures among all other
 The total length is 24.5cm numbers.
(b) l1 = 12.132, l2 = 12.4.
Note : The final result of arithmetic operations should
l1 - l2 = 12.4 - 12.132 never have more significant figures than the least
Here 12.4 has only decimal place and hence 12.132 number of signigicant figures in the original
should have only two decimal places.
components.
 l1 - l2 = 12.4 - 12.13 = 0.27
This should be rounded off to have only one decimal
iii) In square root value of the given number,
place. there can be same number of significant figures
 l1 - l2 = 0.3 that are present in the given number.
Hence difference of their lenghts is 0.3cm Example : 58.97  7.679
iv) In case of Transcendental Functions:
* Problem : 2.27
Find the value of 44.8 – 21.235. Transcendental functions have the same number of
Sol. Only one decimal place is there in 44.8. Hence the other
significant figures as their arguments.
number is to be rounded off to have two decimal places. Non-algebraic functions like sine, sin –1
21.235 = 21.24 (as 3 before 5 is odd). exponential and logarithmic functions are called
Now 44.8 – 21.24 = 23.56. transcendental functions.
Finally this is to be rounded off to one decimal place
Arguments are quantities on which some
 44.8 – 21.235 = 23.6.
operation is performed e.g. in case of sin 30°, 30° is
* Problem : 2.28
argument; in case of log x, x is argument, etc.

Solve with due regard to significant figures.

Example :
(i) 46.7 - 10.4 = (ii) (3.0 × 10–8) + (4.5 × 10–6) =
sin (60°) = 0.89
Sol. (i) 46.7 - 10.04
sin (60.0°) = 0.886
Here 46.7has one decimal place, and 10.04 hastwo deci- sin (60.00°) = 0.8660
mal places. sin (60.000°) = 0.86603
 46.7 - 10.04 = 36.66.
The result should have only one decimal place. * Problem : 2.29
The result is 36.7. Find the product of 1.2, 2.54 and 3.257 with due regard
8 6 to significant figures.
ii) 3.0  10 + 4.5  10
= 0.03 ´ 10 - 6
+ 4.5 ´ 10- 6 = 4.53 × 10
-6 Sol. Out of the three numbers 1.2 has got the least number of
significant figures – two. We should round off the other
Here 4.5 × 10-6 has only one decimal place and 0.03 ×
10-6can have two decimal places. numbers to 2 + 1 = 3 significant figures and carry the
multiplication. 2.54 has three significant figures and
This result should be rounded off to one decimal place.
hence needs no rounding off. 3.257 is to be rounded off
 (3.0 × 10–8) + (4.5 × 10–6) = 4.5 × 10-6
to 3.26.
ii) Multiplication and division 1.2 × 2.54 × 3.26 = 9.93648. But the result should be
limited to the least number of significant digits – that is
In multiplication or division of numbers, two digits only.
before performing the operation we must identify the
The final answer should be written as 9.9 after rounding off.
number with the least number of significant figures
(say n) and round off other numbers to one extra * Problem : 2.30
digit (say n + 1). The final result is again rounded Find the value of  /53.2 with due regard to significant
off, such that it contains same number of significant figures.

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PHYSICS - I A MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Sol. Out of the two numbers 53.2 has three significant dig- * Problem : 2.32
its. So p should be written with 3 + 1 = 4 significantent
The mass of 1.2 cm3of a certain substance is 5.74g.
figures.
calculate its density with due regard to significant fig-
 = 3.1415 = 3.142 (as 1 is odd it is raised by one). ures.
3.142
Now = 0.0590601 Sol. Mass, m = 5.74 g, volume, v = 1.2 cm3
53.2
m 5.74 g
This is to be rounded off to three significant figures density, d = =
0.059060 = 0.0591
v 1.2 cm 3
5.74 has significant digits and 1.2 has two significant
* Problem : 2.31 digits.
no need for rounding off.
2.31 Find out the results of the following operations. 5.74
(i) 117.3 × 0.0024 (ii) 9.27 ¸ 41  d= = 4.783333.
1.2
(iii) 42 × 0.041 (iv) 124.2 + 52.487 This is to be rounded off to two significant digits.
(v) 124.2 – 52.487 (vi) 58.97 The density of the given substance is 4.783 = 4.8 g cm–3
(vii) (17.5)2
* Problem : 2.33
Sol. (i) 0.0024 has 2 significant figures. Hence 117.3 is
rounded off to have 2 + 1 = 3 significant figures. It If a circular piece of tin has a measured radius of 2.6
becomes 117 only. cm, then what is its circumference ?
Now 117 × 0.0024 = 0.2808 Sol. r = 2.6 cm
This is to be rounded off to have two significant figures Circumference of circular disc = 2r
only. The result is 0.28.
= 2 × 3.1428 × 2.6
(ii) 41 has only 2 significant digits. Hence 9.27 can
have 2 +1 = 3 significant digits. It has 3 significant Here 2.6 has onley 2 significant digits. Hence in the
digits only. No need for rounding off. abovemultiplication  value shoud be written with
9.27 2 +1 = 3 significant figures.
= 0.2260975 This is to be rounded off to two
41  = 3.1428 = 3.14
significant digits. The result is 0.23. Circumference = 2 × 3.14 × 2.6
(iii) Both number have two significant digits. = 16.328
42 × 0.041 = 1.722. This is to be rounded off to 2 sig-
This is to be rounded off to 2 significant digits. Cir-
nificant digits. The result is 1.7.
cumference is 16cm.
(iv) As this is a sum, we have to consider decimal
places. 124.2 has only one decimal place. Hence 52.487 * Problem : 2.34
is to be rounded off to 1 + 1 = 2 decimal places.
The diameter of a sphere is 4.24 m. Calculate its surface
It becomes as 52.487 = 52.49 area with due regard to significant figures.
Now 124.2 + 52.49 = 176.69. This is to be rounded off
Sol. Diameter d = 4. 24 m
to one decimal place. The result is as 176.69 = 176.7.
d 4.24
(v) Here again, we have Radius r = = = 2.12
2 2
124.2 – 52.487 = 124.52.49 = 71.71. This is to be
surface area of sphere = 4  r2
rounded off to one decimal place
The result is 71.7. = 4 × 3.1428 × 2.12 × 2.12
(vi) In the above multiplication 2.12 has 3 significant
58.97 = 7.679. This has got the same number
figures.
of significant digits (4) as 58.97. But for square roots
its is customary to have the number of significant fig- Hence 3.1428 is rounded off to have 3 + 1 = 4 significant
ures one less than the number that is, 7.68. figures. It becomes 3.143.
(vii) (17.5)2 = 306.25. The original number 17.5 has Surface area = 4 × 3.143 × 2.12 × 2.12 = 56.50
only 3 significant digits. And hence the result will be 56.50 this to be rounded off to have 3 significant figures.
306 (Here we have to consider the significant figures).  Area is 56.5m2

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MEASUREMENTS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES PHYSICS - I A

* Problem : 2.35 4) What are random errors? Distinguish between

Each side of a cube is measured to be 7.203m. What is radom errors and systematic errors
(i) the total surface area and (ii) the volume of the 5) What is meant by significant figures? How are
cube to appropriate significant figures ? these counted?
Sol. Length of a side = 7.203 m 6) State the different types of errors present in a
(i) Total surface area = 6a2 measurement.
= 6 × 7.203 × 7.203 = 311.29 7) Define the terms (i) mean absolute error
this to be rounded off to 4 significant figures as 7.203 (ii) relative error and (iii) percentage error. How
as 4 significant figures. are they calculated?
 Total surface area is 311.3 m2 8) Round off to 3 significant figures giving the
(ii) Volume of the cube = a3
rules followed (i) 25.87 (ii) 0.05134.
= 7.203 × 7.203 × 7.203 x Very Short Answer Questions
= 373.71 1) What is an error? What are constant errors?
This is to be rounded off to 4 significant figures as 2) Mention different kinds of errors.
7.203 as 4 significant figures. 3) Explain briefly what are systematic errors.
 The volume = 373.7 m3. 4) What are the causes for environmental errors?
* Problem :2.36 5) What type o f errors are met wit h in a
The length of a rod is 2.5 cm and diameter is 2.5 mm.
calorimetric experiment?
Find the volume of the rod with due consideration to 6) What are gross errors? Give an example.
significant figures.
7) What are random errors? Give an example
Sol. l = 2.5 cm,
8) Distiguish between accuracy and precision.
diameter = 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10–1 cm = 0.25 cm
9) What is mean absolute error? State its formula.
Radius, r = 0.125 cm
Volume of the rod = r 2 l
10) What is relative error? State its formula.
= 3.1428 × 0.125 × 0.125 × 2.5 11) What is absolute error? State its formula
Here 2.5 has two significant figures. Round off the re- 12) Are all the significant figures reliable? Give an
maining numbers to 2 + 1 = 3 significant figures. example.
 Volume of the rod = 3.14 × 0.125 × 0.125 × 2.5 13) What is rounding off a number?
= 0.1226. 14) What are significant figures ? Give an example.
This has to be rounded off to two significant figures.
Asseses Yourself
Volume of the rod0.12 cm3
1. By taking precautions, can we minimize the
x Short Answer Questions random errors ?
1) How do the random errors differ from systematic Ans. No
errors? 2. Why is that for both very small as well as very
large (in addition to ordinary) quantities, the
2) What is rounding off a number and what are
physical measurements are usually in scientific
the rules to be followed in it?
notation, with powers of ten ?
3) What are the rules for arithmetic operations with [Link] denote precesion and accuracy of the
significant figures? measurement.

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 54