0 Psychological Society of South Africa. All rights reserved. South African Journal of Psychology, 41(3), 201 I , pp.

373-385
ISSN 0081-2463

An investigation of the relationship between students’ motivation

and academic performance as mediated by effort
Suki Goodman
University of Cape Town, South Africa
Suki.goodman@uct.ac.za

Thania Jaffer
University of Cape Town

Mira Keresztesi
University of Cape Town

Fahrin Mamdani
University of Cape Town

Dolly Mokgatle
University of Cape Town

Mazvita Musariri
University of Cape Town

Joao Pires
University of Cape Town

Anton Schlechter
University of Cape Town

This study investigated the relationship between university students’ motivation and their academic
performance, with effort acting as a mediating variable. The study strives to add to the body of
knowledge on motivation, effort and academic performance, with specific reference to tertiary level
institutions in the South African context. Motivation is separated into intrinsic motivation and extrinsic
motivation, which were used as the independent variables. Academic performance is the dependent
variable, which was measured using the cumulative Grade Point Average (GPA). A quantitative
relational design was employed to investigate the degree to which motivation predicts a students’
academic Performance. The data were collected through an online questionnaire from a convenience
sample of 254 commerce faculty students within a university in the Western Cape, ranging from first
year to fifth year of study. The empirical results obtained from the data, using the Pearson correlation
coefficients, indicated significant relationships between intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and
academic performance. Evidence was further found that students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
influenced the amount of effort they exerted in trying to achieve their desired performance outcome.
Through the use of Baron and Kenny’s procedure to test mediation, effort was found to be a partial
mediator of the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and academic performance.
Furthermore, a multiple regression analysis of the data indicated that intrinsic motivation is the
strongest predictor of academic performance, followed by effort. In the regression model extrinsic
motivation could not explain unique variance in academic performance.

Keywords: achievement motivation; effort; grade point average; mediation; rewards; socialisation;
university students

The academic performance of students is an important determinant of any university’s success. Prior
research has indicated that multiple factors contribute to academic performance, such as students’
motivational levels (Fraser & Killen, 2005; Fraser & Nieman, 1995); students’ self-awareness
(Meltzer, Katzir-Cohen, Miller, & Roditi, 2001); students’ ability (Meltzer et al., 2001; Nicholls,
374 South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 41(3), September 201 1

1978); lecturers’ teaching competence (Fraser & Killen, 2005); level of difficulty of study material
(Sansgiry, Bhosle, & Sail, 2006); students’ self-efficacy (McKenzie & Schweitzer, 200 1); students’
effort (Fraser & Killen, 2005; Nicholls, 1978); lecture attendance (Thatcher, 2007); socio-
psychological factors (Malefo, 2000) and persistence needed to learn (Fraser & Nieman, 1995;
Meltzer et al., 2001). The most widely used measure of academic performance in an educational
setting is the Grade Point Average or GPA (Kuncel, Crede, & Thomas, 2005). GPA is the weighted
average of all the grades received by a student during hidher academic career (Nakanishi & Nishida,
1995).
The focus of this study was to investigate the relationship between motivational factors and
academic performance, as mediated by effort, among students in the commerce faculty at a university
in the Western Cape. Motivation is further explored along two dimensions, namely intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation.

Understanding motivation
Motivation is defined as a drive to fulfil a need (Aderman, 1999; Maslow, 1954; Murray, Poole, &
Jones, 2006). According to Vinacke (as cited in Landy & Conte, 2004), motivation entails the con-
ditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality and direction of ongoing behaviour. Motivation
may be driven by either intrinsic or extrinsic factors or the interplay of both (Maslow, 1954).
In the current study, achievement motivation is the selected factor representing intrinsic moti-
vation. Achievement motivation is measured along the dimensions of the will to succeed, mastery
need in relation to challenging tasks, and the meaningfulness of academic performance (Tella, 2007).
Extrinsic motivation refers to external sources of influence on a students’ motivation and is sub-
divided into socialisation (interactions with and support from parents, teachers and friends) and
rewards (tangible and intangible incentives). The indicators of effort are classroom attendance; and
the amount of time put into studying and completion of assignments. For the purposes of this study,
academic performance was measured through the use of the cumulative GPA score, a cumulative
variable that takes into account the results for all the years of study for each participant. The use of
the GPA score made it possible to compare the academic performance of students in different
academic year groups.

Relationship between intrinsic motivation and academic performance

Intrinsic motivation is the driving force that is fundamental to the active nature of human beings (Deci
& Ryan, 1985). Intrinsic motivators are characterised by a personality variable called achievement
motivation (Sturman, 1999). Achievement motivation can be understood as a disposition, which refers
to a continuous concern about excellence and meeting internalised performance standards (Sturman,
1999). McClelland’s (1 955) theory of achievement motivation postulates that intrinsically motivated
people are generally more productive and perform well. Task mastery tends to satisfy the individual
and hidher intrinsic need to achieve as it fosters a perception of a challenge, which encourages task
involvement and generates excitement (McClelland, 1965). In order to be intrinsically motivated, a
person must experience interest and enjoyment in hidher task, along with feelings of competency and
self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985). People with a high achievement motivation explore their
environment, take calculated risks, and look for concrete measures of their progress (Elliot &
Harackiewicz, 1996; McClelland, 1965).
In addition, confidence is considered to play an important role in the level of intrinsic motivation
of a student. This was illustrated in a quantitative study done by Sikhwari (2007), at the University
of Venda in South Africa, which suggested that confidence and a positive self-concept impact on
students’ motivation to achieve. Highly motivated students try to achieve academic success through
attending classes regularly and participating in class discussions, which results in their getting higher
marks in tests and examinations (Sikhwari, 2007).
 South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 41(3), September 201 1 375

Relationship between extrinsic motivation and academic performance

Extrinsic motivation is based on rewards and influences of external authorities or controls over
activities (Sturman, 1999). Extrinsic motivation is largely driven by socialisation within the family
and academic environment. Students’ development is affected by the social system ofwhich they are
a part (Piotrkowski & Katz, 1982). Parents are important role models in students’ social systems.
There is some evidence that parents’ level of education and perceptions about education play an
important role in the development of their children’s core beliefs and behavioural tendencies relating
to educational pursuit (Piotrkowski & Katz, 1982).
Apart from the role of parents in shaping students’ competence related beliefs, evidence also
suggests that students’ relations with teachers and fellow students has a strong link with academic
performance (Felner, Seitsinger, Brand, Burns, & Bolton, 2007). Felner et al. (2007) showed that the
teaching environment plays a major role in the academic performance of students. For example,
personalising the school environment through utilising small, interactive groups with students can
improve their motivation, which can lead to positive academic development (Felner et al., 2007).
Another key extrinsic motivator is rewards, which can either be tangible or intangible (Gest,
Rulison, Davidson, & Welsh, 2008). For example, if students excel, they will attain a good academic
reputation and receive praise and recognition from their significant others, which is regarded as an
intangible reward. Students who are perceived as having a good academic reputation may often be
asked for academic help and are associated with students who excel (Gest et al., 2008). Deci and
Ryan (1 985) found that using rewards in an academic setting resulted in a significant improvement
in students’ motivational levels. Moneta and Spada (2009) suggested that individuals who are ex-
trinsically motivated by an expected reward increase their effort to complete the task and earn an
incentive. A pilot programme was implemented in Atlanta, Georgia, in the United States, based on
the assumption that monetary reward will increase academic performance (Cushman, 2008).

Interplay between extrinsic and intrinsic motivators on academic performance

A study conducted amongst students in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, found that factors leading to
academic achievement occur interactively (Dass-Brailsford, 2005). For example, family pressure may
contribute to a decrease in students’ motivational levels; however, students who are highly intrin-
sically motivated may counteract these negative factors from their families (Dass-Brailsford, 2005).
Muller and Louw (2004) asserted that extrinsic factors, such as a supportive social environment can
foster intrinsic motivation. The individual’s perception of the reward and the task, however, is more
important in deciding the amount of effort put into achieving academic performance (Davis, Winder,
& Middleton, 2006). Intrinsic and extrinsic variables are likely to interact to strengthen the overall
motivational profile of an individual in reaching their desired performance target (Davis et al., 2006;
Muller & Louw, 2004). Furthermore, McClelland’s ( 1 955) theory asserts that intrinsic motivators are
more important than extrinsic motivators, such as material or financial rewards.

Effort as the mediator between motivation and academic performance

Mediation refers to an internal response in an individual to a stimulus that leads one to perform in a
certain way (Woodworth, as cited in Baron & Kenny, 1986). Several studies have found effort to be
a mediator between motivation and academic performance (Atkinson, as cited in Tella, 2007; Elliot,
McGregor, & Gable, 1999; Fraser & Killen, 2005; Grabe, 1979; Schwinger, Steinmayr, & Spinath,
2009; Stanca, 2006).
Research suggests that achievement motivation has an impact on academic Performance.
However, a certain amount of effort has to be exerted to reach the desired performance level (Atkin-
son, as cited in Tella, 2007; Elliot e t a / . , 1999; Grabe, 1979). Significant relationships have also been
found between extrinsic motivators and effort (Davis et al., 2006; Piotrkowski & Katz, 1982). Some
studies have shown that a positive relationship exists between effort and academic performance, yet
376 South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 41 (3), September 201 1

there have been mixed results with regard to this relationship (Natriello & McDill, 1986; Stanca,
2006; Zulauf & Gortner, 1999). A possible explanation for this variability in results could be a lack
of suitable measures for effort. One relatively good measure of student effort appears to be the
amount of time that is spent on assignments (Natriello & McDill, 1986). The amount of time spent
on homework and class attendance was found to have a positive effect on student learning and
academic performance (Natriello & McDill, 1986; Stanca, 2006).
A study conducted at two South African universities (University of South Africa and University
of Pretoria) indicated that students who lack motivation put in less effort, which subsequently leads
to poor academic performance (Fraser & Killen, 2005). Additional studies further substantiate this
assertion by finding that students who are highly motivated apply extra effort and exhibit high aca-
demic performance (Elliot et al., 1999; Schwinger et al., 2009).
Based on the various arguments described above, the following hypotheses were formulated:
HI: Intrinsic motivation has a positive relationship with academic performance.
H2: Extrinsic motivation has a positive relationship with academic performance.
H3: Intrinsic motivation has a positive relationship with academic performance as mediated by effort.
H,: Extrinsic motivation has a positive correlation with academic performance as mediated by effort.
Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual/theoretical model developed for this study from these hypo-
theses. The model shows the hypothesised relationships between intrinsic motivation, extrinsic moti-
vation (independent variables) and academic performance (dependent variable), both directly and
indirectly as mediated by effort.

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Achievement Motivation

Figure 1. Integrated model of Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation, Effort and Academic
Performance

Rationale of the study

A review of the literature reveals that there is an array of research studies in the field of motivation
as a determinant of academic performance (Aderman, 1999; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Elliot & Harac-
kiewicz, 1996; Felner et al., 2007; Maslow, 1954; McClelland, 1965; Meltzer etal., 2001); however,
there are limited studies that investigate this relationship with effort as a mediating variable (Elliot
et al., 1999; Fraser & Killen, 2005; Schwinger et al., 2009). The literature search yielded few studies
that focus on students within tertiary institutions in South Africa (Dass-Brailsford, 2005; Fraser &
Killen, 2005; Fraser & Nieman, 1995; Sikhwari, 2007). Furthermore, the studies that have been
conducted in the field of motivation focus on either intrinsic or extrinsic motivation independently,
while few studies consider both types of motivation simultaneously (Dass-Brailsford, 2005; Davis
et al., 2006; Muller & Louw, 2004; Schwinger et al., 2009). Therefore, there is a gap in the literature
on motivation and academic performance at tertiary level institutions in the South African context.
This study was conducted in an attempt to fill the identified gap.
 South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 41(3), September 201 I 377

METHOD
Design
This study employed a cross-sectional quantitative relational design. Relational research aims to
investigate the relationship between changes in one variable with another, whereby variables are not
manipulated and are measured unobtrusively (Terre Blanche, Durrheim, & Painter, 2006). The cur-
rent study examined the relationships between students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivational levels
(independent variables) and academic performance (dependent variable). Further investigation was
conducted to investigate the extent to which effort acts as a mediating variable between the indepen-
dent and dependent variables.

Materials
The research tool used in this study was an online questionnaire that consisted of the following sub-
scales: demographic information about the participants (e.g. age, gender identity, religion, home
language, race, citizenship, the year of study, class attendance and enrolled programme) and 15 items
that related to the three constructs under investigation: intrinsic motivation (5 items), extrinsic moti-
vation ( 5 items) and effort ( 5 items). These variables are referred to as IM, EM and EFF, respectively,
in the Method and Results sections. The items were adopted from different studies on motivation
(Moneta & Spada, 2009; Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1991; Ray, 1980) and effort
(Pintrich et al., 1991; Wolf & Smith, 1995). Four additional questions (Items 6, 7, 9, and 12) were
constructed by the researchers according to the operational definition of each variable. The responses
were measured along a five-point Likert-scale (5 = Strongly Agree; 4 = Agree; 3 = Neutral; 2 =
Disagree; and 1 = Strongly Disagree).
Academic performance was measured using the cumulative GPA score of each participant. GPA
has, in the past, been found to have a reliability ranging from .60 to .78 as a performance measuring
scale (Elliott & Strenta, 1988).

P ro ce d u re
Ethics clearance
The procedure entailed filling out an ethics clearance application form and sending the composite
questionnaire to the Commerce Faculty Ethics in Research Committee. The questionnaire was cleared
by the committee prior to its administration. Participants’ consent was obtained on the questionnaire
and confidentiality was guaranteed by removing the participants’ student numbers before the data
were analysed.

Data collection procedure

The online questionnaire was distributed via email to all the students currently registered in the
Commerce Faculty at a university in the Western Cape ( N = 4,142). As an incentive, participants were
offered an opportunity to win a shopping voucher worth R500 in a draw and 260 voluntarily comple-
ted questionnaires were returned. This represents a response rate of 6.3%.
From the 260 completed response data sets obtained, one participant was eliminated as s/he had
not entered any responses. A Box and Whisker plot analysis, conducted using the Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS), showed up an additional five participants that were identified as outliers
and were deleted from the data set. Cleaning the data increases the reliability of the data set (Terre
Blanche et al., 2006). Consequently, further analysis was conducted with a final sample of 254
participants.
The participants’ academic performance was determined by using their cumulative GPA at the
end of the first semester. The GPA scores were obtained from the Faculty of Commerce through the
Peoplesoft application, which automatically calculates the weighted average of the students’ grades
according to the units of each course.
378 South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 41(3), September 201 1

Participants
The final sample (n = 254) was obtained using a non-probability or convenience sampling method.
The sample consisted of a diverse group of participants ranging from 17 to 29 years of age and from
first to fifth year of study (26.4% first years, 21.7% second year, 24.2% third year, 19.3% fourth year
and 8.3% fifth year). In terms of gender, 61% of the sample was female and 39% male.

RESULTS
Descriptive and inferential statistics were utilised to analyse the collected data using SPSS. In the
current study, statistical decisions were based on an alpha level of .05.

Descriptive statistics
As illustrated in Table 1, the highest mean in this sample is that of IM ( M = 20.85), followed by EM
( M = 19.3 1) and EFF ( M = 18.35). The standard deviations of the scores for the three variables (IM,
EM and EFF) are similar.

Table 1. Descriative statistics of the variables in the studv

N Mean SD

Total IM 254 20.85 2.450

Total EM 254 19.31 2.816
Total EFF 254 18.35 2.988
GPA 254 62.176 11.559
Note: IM = Intrinsic Motivation; EM = Extrinsic Motivation; EFF = Effort;
GPA = Academic Performance

Reliability and validity of the subscales

Dimensionality analyses were conducted with the use of SPSS. Principle-Axis Factoring, using a
Direct Oblimin (i.e. Oblique) rotation was performed on all the items of the questionnaire with the
objective of confirming the unidimensionality of each ofthe sub-scales. An oblique rotation was used
as the factors were believed to be interrelated (Fabrigar, Wegner, MacCallum, & Strahan (1999);
Gorsuch, 1997). Item analysis was further performed by means of the SPSS Reliability Procedure to
identify and eliminate possible items that were not contributing to an internally consistent description
of the latent variables measured by the sub-scales.
All the items of the IM sub-scale had satisfactory factor loadings (0.89 < 1 < 0.35). The scale
therefore passed the unidimensionality test. In the case of the EM scale, all the items displayed
satisfactory factor loadings on the factor (0.56 < h < 0.48) and it was believed to have also passed the
unidimensionality test. The EFF subscale also passed the unidimensionality test and the items loaded
satisfactorily (0.73 < h < 0.34).
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the IM subscale was found to be .67, which indicated that the
scale had a satisfactory internal consistency. The EM and EFF subscales presented weaker levels of
internal consistency with Cronbach’s alphas being calculated at S O and .54, respectively. One possi-
ble explanation for the low Cronbach alpha coefficients is the shortness of the respective subscales.
Furthermore, using the SPSS item analysis technique the Cronbach alphas of the subscales could not
be increased by deleting any of the items.
Based on the Factor Analysis (FA) and Cronbach alpha results obtained it was believed that
construct validity and reliabilityiinternal consistency had been demonstrated and that it would be
appropriate to use the data for further statistical analyses.

Bivariate correlations between the variables

Table 2 illustrates the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients representing the relationships
 South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 41 (3), September 201 I 379

between the variables of the study. All the variables in the study co-vary with each other and the
relationships between the variables are statistically significant. IM, EM and EFF all have a weak
positive correlation with GPA, with r = ,281 (p < .Ol), r = ,205 (p < .Ol) and r = .276 (p < .01)
respectively. IM has a weak positive relationship with EFF ( r = ,244; p < .Ol); similar to the
relationship between EM and EFF ( r = .157;p < .Ol). Based on these results the first two hypotheses
(i.e. H I and H2) are believed to have been corroborated. A regression model consisting ofEM, IE and
EFF was found to significantly predict variance in academic performance ( F = 12.935, p < .01, RZ
=. 134). Both IM and EFF was found to predict unique variance in academic performance ( t = 3 .O 1 1,
p < .01; t = 3 . 4 8 6 , ~< .01, respectively). IM had a greater Beta value (.911 vs. ,821) and is therefore
the independent variable that makes the greatest unique contribution in explaining variance in the
academic performance.

Table 2 . Pearson’s r correlation for all the variables

Total IM Total EM Total EFF GPA

Total IM Pearson Correlation 1

Sig. (1-tailed)
N 254
Total EM Pearson Correlation .348** 1
Sig. (1-tailed) .ooo
N 254 254
Total EFF Pearson Correlation .244** .157** 1
Sig. (1 -tailed) ,000 .006
N 254 254 254
GPA Pearson Correlation .28 1** .205** .276** 1
Sig. (1-tailed) .ooo .ooo .ooo
N 254 254 254 254
Note: * * p < 0.01

Testing for mediation

To statistically assess the third and fourth hypotheses (i.e. to test for mediation), Baron and Kenny’s
(1986) three-step procedure was used. To establish that effort is a mediator in the relationship
between intrinsic/extrinsic motivation and academic performance, the three steps have to be fulfilled
successively (Baron & Kenny, 1986). A fourth step is proposed by Judd and Kenny (1981) to
determine if complete or partial mediation occurred.

H,: Intrinsic motivation has a positive relationship with academic performance as mediated
by effort
Step 1: As illustrated in Table 2, there is a significant positive relationship between IM and GPA ( r
= ,281,< ~ .01; R = ,281, F = 2 1 . 6 6 2 , ~< .01). The first step is, therefore, fulfilled.
Step 2: As illustrated in Table 2, there is a significant positive relationship between IM and EFF ( r
= .244,p < .01; R= .244, F = 1 5 . 9 4 7 , ~ < .Ol). The second step is, therefore, fulfilled.
Step 3: According to Baron and Kenny (1 996) the mediator must in the third equation affect the
dependent variable, whilst the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable must be
less in the third equation than in the second. In other words a meditational effect is demonstrated
when the mediator is controlled for (i.e. by entering it simultaneously with then independent variable
into the regression equation) and the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is
reduced. Using a hierarchical regression analysis, a predictive model was developed using IM (Block
1) and IM and EFF (Block 2) as the predictors and GPA as the outcome variable. Both the models
were found to be significant (Block 1: R = , 2 8 1 , < ~ .01, F = 2 1 . 6 6 2 , ~< .01; Block 2: R = .353, F
380 South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 41(3), September 201 I

= 17.891, p < .01). In Block 2, unique variance in academic performance is significantly predicted
by both intrinsic motivation ( B = .228; p < .Ol) and effort ( B = .220; p < .01). The effect of the
dependent variable (IM) is reduced from B = ,281 to B = .220. The third step is, therefore, fulfilled.
Step 4: When the effect of EFF was controlled for, the correlation coefficient is still significant ( r =
.230; p < .Ol), but has decreased from the correlation coefficient established in Step 1 ( r = .28 1 ; p
< .01). The correlation coefficient is not equal to zero and therefore, complete mediation cannot be
established. The strength of the relationship between IM and GPA decreased but remained statis-
tically significant, thus, partial mediation can be assumed.
From the above statistical tests, the null hypothesis (i.e. that the relationship between intrinsic
motivation and academic performance is not mediated by effort) can be rejected in favour of H,. The
possibility of complete mediation was further eliminated. In this sample, the relationship between
intrinsic motivation and GPA was therefore found to be partially mediated by EFF.

H4: Extrinsic motivation has a positive relationship with academic performance as mediated
by effort
Step 1: As illustrated in Table 2, there is a significant positive relationship between EM and GPA
( r = .205,p < .01; R = .205, F = 1 1 . 1 0 5 , <
~ .Ol). The first step is, therefore, fulfilled.
Step 2: As illustrated in Table 2 , there is a significant positive relationship between EM and EFF ( r
= .157,p < .01; R = .157, F = 6 . 4 0 1 , ~< 0.05). The second step is, therefore, fulfilled.
Step 3: Using a hierarchical regression analysis, a predictive model was developed using EM (Block
1) and EM and EFF (Block 2 ) as the predictors and GPA as the outcome variable. Both the models
were found to be significant (Block 1: R = .205, F = 1 1 . 1 0 5 , ~< .01; Block 2: R = .321, F = 14.407,
p < .01). In Block 2, unique variance in academic performance is significantly predicted by both
extrinsic motivation ( B = , 1 6 6 ; <~ .Ol) and effort ( B = .250;p < .Ol). The effect of the dependent
variable (EM) is reduced from B = .205 to B = .166. The third step is, therefore, fulfilled.
Step 4: When the effect of EFF was controlled for, the correlation coefficient remains significant ( r
= .171;p < .Ol) and has decreased from the correlation coefficient established in Step 1 ( r = .205;
p < .Ol). The correlation coefficient is not equal to zero and therefore, complete mediation cannot
be established. The strength of the relationship between EM and GPA decreased but remained
statistically significant, thus, partial mediation can be assumed.
From the above statistical tests, the null hypothesis (i.e. that the relationship between extrinsic
motivation and academic performance is not mediated by effort) can be rejected in favour o f H 4 The
possibility of complete mediation was further eliminated. In this sample, the relationship between
extrinsic motivation and GPA was found to be partially mediated by EFF.

Additional finding: year of study as a moderating variable

Table 2 illustrates that effort and academic performance have been found to be significantly corre-
lated; however, the strength ofthe relationship is weak ( Y = .276,p < .01). It was found, however, that
this relationship differs for the various year groups (1st years r = .027,p > .01; 2nd years r = .436,
p < .01; 3rd years r = .367,p < .01; 4th years r = 264,p < .01; 5thyears r = , 7 3 3 , < ~ .01). Figure 2
illustrates the linear relationships between effort and GPA for each year of study. The figure il-
lustrates that students in different years of study have different profiles on application of effort. The
relationship between effort and academic performance is not significant within first year students and
strongest within fifth year students. The year of study is, therefore, a potential moderator on the rela-
tionship between effort and academic performance.

DISCUSSION
The results of this study reveal that a relationship exists between motivation and academic perfor-
mance, which is mediated by effort. The findings of this study will be discussed according to the
hypotheses.
 South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 41 (3). September 201 I 381

H,: Intrinsic motivation, effort and academic performance

Using Judd and Kenny’s (198 1) and Baron and Kenny’s (1 986) steps to test mediation, the current
study found effort to partially mediate the relationship between intrinsic motivation and academic
performance. The results imply that students, who are generally intrinsically motivated, have an incli-
nation to apply effort and thus perform well academically. Literature supports the view that although
achievement motivation has an impact on academic performance, a certain amount of effort has to
be exerted in order to reach the desired outcome (Grabe, 1979; Sikhwari, 2007). Effort is perceived
to be an important factor for high academic performance by those who have strong achievement
motivation (Atkinson, as cited in Tella, 2007).
The results of the current study indicate that effort is a partial mediator. When partial mediation
is found in the relationship between the independent and dependent variable, a multitude of other
unidentified variables, such as gender, age, intelligence and year of study, could also be mediating
or even moderating the relationship (Baron & Kenny, 1986). From the multiple regression analysis,
academic performance is affected significantly and almost equally by both intrinsic motivation (p =
~ .Ol) and effort (p = .220;p < .01). It can be concluded that intrinsic motivation and effort,
, 2 2 8 ;<
in this sample, have an approximately equal predictive strength on academic performance. It is im-
portant to note that, in this sample, only 12.5% of the variation in GPA is explained by intrinsic
motivation and effort (RZ= ,125). Therefore, 87.5% of the variation remains unexplained and may
be due to factors such as students’ ability, level of difficulty of the study material or extrinsic moti-
vators.

HZ: Extrinsic motivation, effort and academic performance

In this study, a weak positive relationship was found between extrinsic motivation and effort ( r =
.157,p < .Ol), and between effort and academic performance ( r = , 2 7 6 , <~ .01). Extrinsic motivators
have a positive influence on students’ effort (Piotrkowski & Katz, 1982) which, in turn, has a positive
effect on academic performance (Natriello & McDill, 1986; Stanca, 2006).
In addition, this study found that effort partially mediates the relationship between extrinsic
motivation and academic performance. Students who feel extrinsically motivated may, therefore, be
inclined to exert effort and perform well. According to lecturers’ and students’ perceptions, students
who lack motivation apply less effort, which leads to their not performing well at university (Fraser
& Killen, 2005).
From the multiple regression analysis, academic performance is affected more by effort (p =
.25O;p < .01) than by extrinsic motivation (p = .166;p < .01). In this sample, effort is more important
in predicting academic performance than extrinsic motivation. It is important to note that only 10.3%
of the variation in GPA is explained by extrinsic motivation and effort (RZ= .103). In contrast,
intrinsic motivation and effort predict 12.5% variation in GPA, hence, intrinsic motivation is possibly
a stronger predictor of academic performance. This is supported by McClelland (1 955) who suggests
that intrinsic motivators are more important than extrinsic motivators. In addition, Davis et al. (2006)
state that the strength of the extrinsic motivator is affected by an individual’s internal perception of
the motivator. The students in this study who have a high level of intrinsic motivation therefore per-
form better in their academic work and attain better GPA scores than students exhibiting only ex-
trinsic motivation.

Year of study as a potential moderator

Figure 2 illustrates the variations in effort applied in relation to academic performance according to
the students’ year of study. In this sample, students in their first year apply less effort in comparison
to those in their fifth year, where a steeper linear relationship between effort and academic perfor-
mance is observed. Year of study is, therefore, a potential moderator of the relationship between
effort and academic performance. The literature suggests that level of difficulty is one of the key indi-
382 South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 41(3), September 201 I

cators of academic performance (Sansgiry et al., 2006). A s students progress through the university’s
academic system, the level of difficulty of learning materials increases. It is expected that the effort
applied to these academic courses will also increase.

0 0

BO.O(r

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StudyYr
40.00- 0 1st
2nd
0 3rd
0 4th
0 5th
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\ 3rd
20.00-
\ 4th
\ 5th
I I I I I I 1 I
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Total EFF

Figure 2. Linear relationships between Effort and GPA for each year of study

Limitations
The questionnaire used in this study was compiled from several studies (Moneta & Spada, 2009;
Pintrich et af., 199 1 ;Ray, 1980; Wolf & Smith, 1995) and four items were constructed by the resear-
chers of the current study. A pilot study which could have indicated areas for improvement, was not
conducted for the current study’s questionnaire. Therefore, the internal reliability of the measuring
instrument could have been stronger.
In this study, the sample size was 6.3% of the target population. Caution should therefore be
exercised when interpreting the results. The use of a non-probability sample makes it firther impos-
sible to generalise the results.
Due to the type of research design employed (relational), causality between the variables cannot
be inferred. Furthermore, the scope of the current study does not include additional variables, such
as ability, self-awareness and level o f difficulty o f study material, which may impact on students’
academic performance.
By Baron and Kenny’s (1986) own admission, their mediation test might lead to an under-
estimation of the mediator’s strength when all coefficients are positive. Therefore, effort may be a
stronger mediator than indicated by the results.
Finally, the study suffers from mono-method bias as the same person completed all the measures.

Recommendations for future research

A recommendation for future study is that effort be used as an independent variable. The results of
 South African Journal of Psychology, Volume 41(3), September 201 I 383

the current study found that both intrinsic motivation and effort affect academic performance almost
equally.
Factors other than the variables used in this study might have impacted on students’ perfor-
mance. By utilising homogeneous samples, future studies could control for extraneous variables such
as gender, year of study and socio-economic status.
In addition, a longitudinal study would be more appropriate as it would monitor the participants
over a longer period of time. Future studies can perform a data and methodological triangulation in
order to verify the results obtained. Triangulation may be accomplished using a combination of
quantitative and qualitative methods to measure variables in order to increase the reliability (Terre
Blanche et al., 2006). Researchers could also conduct a similar study in different faculties within
various universities.

CONCLUSION
The current study’s results indicate that there is both a direct relationship between students’ moti-
vation and academic performance, as well as an indirect relationship mediated by effort. Both
intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors were found to be triggers for students’ effort in the aim
of performing well academically. Intrinsic motivation was found to be the more important of the two
when it came to explaining variance in academic performance. The results of the current study
corroborate the findings of prior studies (Atkinson, as cited in Tella, 2007; Elliot et al., 1999; Fraser
& Killen, 2005; Grabe, 1979; Sikhwari, 2007; Stanca, 2006; Schwinger et al., 2009). They further
enhance the understanding of the relationship between motivation and academic performance by
including the role of effort as a mediator. This latter analysis has not been explored comprehensively
in previous studies and when it was investigated mixed results were obtained. The results obtained
are encouraging and open up a new avenue for further investigation.
In terms of the practical implications of the current study an increased focus on the enhancement
of students’ motivation and effort levels can possibly positively affect students’ academic perfor-
mance. Educational institutions would benefit by identifying the key contemporary motivational
drivers amongst their scholars and use this information to improve and augment their current edu-
cational contexts.

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