Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

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Facies analysis, palaeoenvironmental reconstruction and stratigraphic

development of the Early Cretaceous sediments (Lower Bima Member)
in the Yola Sub-basin, Northern Benue Trough, NE Nigeria
Babangida M. Sarki Yandoka a,b,⇑, M.B. Abubakar b, Wan Hasiah Abdullah a, M.H. Amir Hassan a,
Bappah U. Adamu b, John S. Jitong b, Abdulkarim H. Aliyu b, Adebanji Kayode Adegoke a,c
a
Department of Geology, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
National Centre for Petroleum Research and Development, A.T.B.U., P.M.B., 0248 Bauchi, Nigeria
c
Department of Geology, Ekiti State University, P.M.B., 5363 Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Benue Trough of Nigeria is a major rift basin formed from the tension generated by the separation of
Received 2 October 2013 African and South American plates in the Early Cretaceous. It is geographically sub-divided into Southern,
Received in revised form 9 April 2014 Central and Northern Benue portions. The Northern Benue Trough comprises two sub-basins; the N–S
Accepted 14 April 2014
trending Gongola Sub-basin and the E–W trending Yola Sub-basin. The Bima Formation is the oldest
Available online 24 April 2014
lithogenetic unit occupying the base of the Cretaceous successions in the Northern Benue Trough. It is
differentiated into three members; the Lower Bima (B1), the Middle Bima (B2) and the Upper Bima
Keywords:
(B3). Facies and their stratigraphical distribution analyses were conducted on the Lower Bima Member
Northern Benue Trough
Bima Formation
exposed mainly at the core of the NE–SW axially trending Lamurde Anticline in the Yola Sub-basin, with
Facies an objective to interpret the paleodepositional environments, and to reconstruct the depositional model
Paleocurrent and the stratigraphical architecture. Ten (10) lithofacies were identified on the basis of lithology, grain
Fluvial system size, sedimentary structures and paleocurrent analysis. The facies constitute three (3) major facies asso-
Lacustrine system ciations; the gravelly dominated, the sandy dominated and the fine grain dominated. These facies and
facies associations were interpreted and three facies successions were recognized; the alluvial–proximal
braided river, the braided river and the lacustrine–marginal lacustrine. The stratigraphic architecture
indicates a rifted (?pull-apart) origin as the facies distribution shows a progradational succession from
a shallow lacustrine/marginal lacustrine (at the axial part of the basin) to alluvial fan (sediment gravity
flow)–proximal braided river (gravel bed braided river) and braided river (channel and overbank) depo-
sitional systems. The facies stacking patterns depict sedimentation mainly controlled by allogenic factors
of climate and tectonism.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction the southwest to the Chad (Bornu) Basin in the northeast

The opening of the Atlantic Ocean which started at the begin-
ning of the Mesozoic triggered the crustal fragmentation of the
West and Central African craton into rift systems. The Benue
Trough is one of the major rift basins formed from the tension gen-
erated by the separation of the African and South American plates
(Fig. 1). It is a NE–SW trending, intra-continental, Cretaceous sed-
imentary basin in Nigeria that extends about 1000 km in length
and 50 km in width (Fig. 2). It extends from the Niger Delta in
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Geology, University of Malaya, 50603
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel.: +60 166737410.
E-mail addresses: bmsydgombe@yahoo.com, babangida@siswa.um.edu.my (B.M.
Sarki Yandoka).
(Maurin et al., 1985).
Several authors have presented tectonic models for the genesis
of the Benue Trough (Abubakar, 2014). King (1950) proposed ten-
sional movement resulting in a rift while Stoneley (1966) proposed
a graben-like structure. The RRF triple junction model leading to
plate dilation and opening of the Gulf of Guinea was proposed by
Grant (1971). Olade (1975) considered the Benue Trough as the
third failed arm or aulocogen of a three armed rift system related
to the development of hotspots. Benkhelil (1982, 1989) and
Guiraud and Maurin (1992) considered wrench faulting as the
dominant tectonic process during the Benue Trough evolution
and defined it as a set of juxtaposed pull-apart basins generated
along the pre-existing N60°E strike-slip faults.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2014.04.007
1464-343X/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 B.M. Sarki Yandoka et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179 169

Fig. 1. West and Central African Rift System showing the Nigerian Benue Trough modified (from United Reef Limited Report, 2004).

Fig. 2. Generalized geological map of Nigeria showing the study area represented as open square (from Abubakar et al., 2008).

The Benue Trough is geographically sub-divided into Southern,
Central and Northern portions (Nwajide, 2013). The Northern
Benue Trough is made up of two major sub-basins; the N–S trend-
ing Gongola Sub-basin and the E–W trending Yola Sub-basin.
Carter et al. (1963), Offodile (1976), Benkhelil (1989), Zaborski
et al. (1997), Obaje et al. (2000), and Abubakar (2006) have
described in detail the geology and stratigraphy of the Northern
Benue Trough. The stratigraphic succession in the Yola Sub-basin
of the Northern Benue Trough (Fig. 3) comprises the continental
Lower Cretaceous Bima Formation, the Cenomanian transitional
marine Yolde Formation and the marine late Cenomanian–Santo-
nian Dukul, Jessu, Sekuliye formations, Numanha Shales and Lamja
Sandstones (Carter et al., 1963; Abubakar, 2006).
This article describes and analyses the lithofacies of the Early
Cretaceous continental sediments of the Bima Formation (Lower
Bima Member) and their stratigraphical affinities with an objective
of identifying palaeodepositional environments, reconstruction of
stratigraphical architecture and depositional model so as to pro-
vide an impetus to research on the viability of Early Cretaceous
petroleum system in the Yola Sub-basin of the Northern Benue
Trough. This study is important for the tectonosedimentary under-
standing of Early Cretaceous sedimentation in the Bima Formation
in its relation to similar formations within the West and Central
African Rift System (WCARS) proven as good petroleum systems
in the Muglad Basin of Sudan and in the Termit Basin of Niger
and Chad Republics (Abubakar, 2006).
170 B.M. Sarki Yandoka et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic sequence of the Northern Benue Trough, Nigeria (from Abubakar, 2006).
The study area is located mainly at the Lamurde Anticline
(Fig. 4) in the Yola Sub-basin (Fig. 2). The Lamurde Anticline is an
impressive feature in the Northern Benue Trough of Nigeria. This
NE–SW axially trending anticline formed as a result of NW–SE
compression within the Benue Trough during the Santonian to
probably Maastrichian age (Fig. 5). It exposes in spectacular scen-
ery most features of the Lower Bima Formation that permits its
detailed outcrop study.
2. Geological setting
The Bima Formation is the oldest lithologic unit occupying the
base of the Cretaceous successions in the Northern Benue Trough
(Fig. 3). The sediments were mainly derived from juxtaposed base-
ment rocks of older granites and gneisses and were deposited in a
continental environment under widely varying conditions of allu-
vial – fluvial systems (Braide, 1990; Guiraud, 1990). The sedimen-
tary structures include large scale trough cross bedding, planar
cross bedding, groove marks and soft sediment deformation struc-
tures (Guiraud, 1990; Samaila et al., 2006; Braide, 1990). Carter
et al. (1963) and Guiraud (1990) differentiated the formation into
three members; the Lower Bima (B1), the Middle Bima (B2) and
the Upper Bima (B3). These three lithologic units were also identi-
fied in the seismic section of the Nigerian sector of the Chad Basin
(Avbovbo et al., 1986).
The Lower Bima (B1), the subject of this study, is the oldest
member (?Late Jurassic–Berremian–Aptian) and has been
described as consisting of fault controlled conglomerates, sands
and gravels with poorly defined internal structures characterized
by well-defined fining upward successions (Guiraud, 1990). Trough
cross beds are common in association with minor tabular units.
Red, gray and purple clays with fine–medium grained sandstones
were reported but controversy exists on their origin as lacustrine
(Kogbe, 1976; Allix et al., 1981) or river floodplain deposits
(Guiraud, 1990).
The Late Aptian–Albian Middle Bima (B2) unconformably over-
lies the Lower Bima Member. It is composed of medium to very
coarse grained feldspathic sandstones with trough and tabular
cross beddings interbedded with clays (Offodile, 1976; Zaborski
et al., 1997). It is considered to have been deposited in a deeply
entrenched braided river system (Carter et al., 1963; Abubakar,
2006). The Upper Bima (B3) conformably overlies the Middle Bima
(B2). It has a relatively homogeneous appearance consisting of pla-
nar crossbedded medium–coarse grained sandstone associated
with soft sediment deformation structures Samaila et al. (2006).
 B.M. Sarki Yandoka et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179 171

Fig. 4. Geological map of the study area showing the locations of sedimentology logs.

Fig. 5. Schematic outcrops photo of the asymmetric Lamurde Anticline with older beds exposed to the surface.
172 B.M. Sarki Yandoka et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179

Volcanic plugs of Tertiary age have being reported as intrusions in 4.1.1. Association I: gravelly-dominated
some of the Cretaceous formations in the Northern Benue Trough The gravelly dominated facies association consists of the two
(Carter et al., 1963; Wright, 1976, 1989). lithofacies (Gmm and Gcm) (Table 1) as described below. These
facies contain gravels that are matrix to clast supported with var-
ious sizes and nature (granite, gneiss, quartz, clay and feldspars).
3. Data sets and methods
4.1.1.1. Facies Gcm: Massive clast-supported conglomerates (Fig. 6i
Traverses were made mainly on the exposed core of the Lam-
and ii). This is characterized by massive clast-supported conglom-
urde Anticline around Lafia-Lamurde and Maitunku areas in the
erates that range in thickness from 1.5 to 4 m. Clasts range from
Yola Sub-basin. Additional study was done at the foot of the
4 mm to 8.5 cm in diameter composed of quartz, (Fig. 6) feldspars
Burashika fault located some few kilometers toward the northeast
and rock fragments with very minor coarse to very coarse-grained
of the Lamurde Anticline. Measurements and description of the
sand matrix (15–20% of the total). The clasts are angular to
Lower Bima outcrops, documenting thicknesses, lithology, bed,
rounded, poorly sorted and rarely imbricated. This facies is
attitudes and contact relationship were carried out. The best
ungraded and its basal boundary may be sharp or erosional. It
exposed stratigraphic sections (ten in total) were studied for facies
resembles the lithofacies Gcm of Miall (1977) and interpreted as
and stratigraphical distribution. Paleocurrent measurements were
pseudoplastic debris flow deposit based on its clast-supported
also done and corrected for tilt effects based on the method of
framework and lack of internal organization (Rust, 1978; Miall,
Tucker (1996). This provides inference to provenance.
1978, 1996).

4. Facies, facies associations and successions
4.1. Facies and facies associations
The outcrops of the Lower Bima Member around the Lamurde
Anticline in the Yola Sub-basin contain conglomerates to very
coarse grained, medium grained and fine grained sandstones con-
taining cobbles and pebbles of mainly rock-fragments (gneissose,
granitic, volcanic and occasionally sedimentary), quartz and feld-
spars. The color of the sandstones and siltstones is white, buff,
brown and milky to gray. Shales are dark gray, green, red, purple
to black in color.
The sediments in the study area are grouped into three facies
associations; the gravelly-dominated, the sandy-dominated and
the fine grain-dominated. These associations constitute two or
more facies identified on the basis sedimentary structures and tex-
tures. The facies provide an insight into depositional processes and
were interpreted following Simon et al. (1965), Postma (1990),
Miall (1977, 1978, 1996, 2010), Bohacs et al. (2000), Nichols
(2009) amongst many others. Table 1 provides a summary on the
description, classification and interpretation of the facies.
4.1.1.2. Facies Gmm: Massive matrix-supported conglomerates (Fig. 6i
and ii). This is characterized by massive matrix-supported con-
glomerates that are poorly sorted with sub-angular clasts that vary
in size from granules to cobbles. The clasts occur within medium to
coarse grained sand matrix which comprises between 20% and 40%
of the total. It may reach up to 3 m and is mostly overlain by very
large scale trough cross beds of gravelly to coarse grained sand-
stone. The facies corresponds to the Gmm lithofacies of Miall
(1977) and interpreted as plastic debris flow (high strength vis-
cous) deposits (Rust, 1978; Miall, 1977). Blair and McPherson
(1994) described similar facies as alluvial fan sheetflood deposits.
4.1.2. Association II: sandy-dominated
This facies association is composed of fine to medium and
coarse to very coarse grained sandstones containing pebbles and
rare cobbles. Maximum size of the pebbles is 1 cm. It consist of five
lithofacies described as: the trough cross bedded sandstone (St),
the planar cross bedded sandstone (Sp), the horizontally bedded
sandstone (Sh), the ripple cross to parallel laminated sandstone
(Sr) and the convoluted sandstone (Sc) facies (Table 1). These are
further described below.

Table 1
Summary of facies description and interpretation.

Lithofacies Description Interpretation

Massive matrix Massive matrix supported gravels, poorly to moderately sorted, sub-angular clasts of various Plastic debris flow (high strength viscous)
supported gravel sizes, units up to 3 m thick or sheetflood deposits
(Gmm)
Massive clast supported Massive clast supported gravels, angular to sub-rounded clasts, ungraded, poorly sorted, Pseudoplastic debris flow or longitudinal
gravel (Gcm) rarely imbricated, gravels upto 8.5 diameter, erosive base bars, sheet flood to channel deposits
Trough cross bedded Medium to coarse grained sandstone, moderately to well sorted, sub-angular to sub-rounded Linguoid and lobate bars (High flow
sandstone (St) clast, beds may reach up to 4 m thick, basal contacts are sharp or erosional regime), 3-D dunes
Planar cross bedded Medium to fine grained sandstone, moderately sorted, buff colored, planar beds form in Transverse bars and sand waves (Lower
sandstone (Sp) coarse to medium sands, thickness of beds up to 2 m thick flow regime), 2-D dunes
Horizontally bedded Medium to fine grained sandstone, moderately to moderately well sorted, buff colored, beds Planar bed flow (sheet flood to channel
sandstone (Sh) up to 2 m, display horizontal bedding and occasionally low angle cross beds deposits) (Upper flow regime)
Ripple cross–parallel Medium to fine grained sandstone, moderately to moderately well sorted, beds thickness up Ripples (Lower flow regime)
laminated sandstone to 1 m, rippled cross laminated, parallel laminations present
(Sr)
Convoluted sandstone Medium to fine grained sandstone, convolute bedded, thickness of beds up to 0.5 to 1 m Post-depositional soft sediment
(Sc) deformation deposit
Mud and silts (Fm) Mud drapes occurred between gravel and sandstone beds, thickness of beds occasionally up Overbank or drape deposits
to 1 m
Shale/mudstone (Fl1) Laminated dark to gray shale, thickness of beds up to 15 m, absence of bioturbations, trace Suspension settling from standing waters
and body fossils or shallow lacustrine deposits
Ripple laminated Fine grained sandstone and siltstone, rippled, up to 1.5 m thick Suspension settling from weak currents or
sandstone (Fl2) shallow lacustrine deposits

Facies codes are slightly modified from Miall (1978, 1996, 2010).
 B.M. Sarki Yandoka et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179
Fig. 6. (i–ii) Clast and matrix supported gravels facies (Gcm and Gmm), (iii and iv) trough cross bedded sandstone facies (St), (v) planar and trough cross bedded sandstone
(Sp, St) facies, (vi) planar cross bedded sandstones facies (Sp).
4.1.2.1. Facies St: trough crossbedded sandstone (Fig. 6iii and iv). The
trough crossbedded sandstone facies comprises medium to very
coarse grained sandstone, moderately sorted with scattered sub-
angular to sub-rounded pebbles. Beds may reach up to 4 m in
thickness. Large scale trough cross beds are well developed in some
measured sections (thickness ranges from 2 to 3 m). This facies is
associated with planar cross bedded sandstone (Sp), horizontally
bedded sandstone (Sh) and mud and silts facies (Fm). The large
scale trough cross beds may overlie the clast and matrix supported
conglomerates facies. Basal boundaries are mostly sharp or ero-
sional and occasionally with pebble lag. Similar lithofacies were
interpreted as migrating sinuous 3-D dunes that stack up to gener-
ate bar forms in a channel (Miall, 1978, 1996, 2010; Plint, 1983).
4.1.2.2. Facies Sp: Planar crossbedded sandstone (Figs. 6v and vi and 7i
and ii). This facies is characterized by planar crossbedded coarse to
medium grained, moderate to moderately well sorted sandstones
with thicknesses of up to 4 m (Fig. 7). This facies is associated with
convulated sandstone (Sc), trough cross bedded sandstone (St) and
ripple laminated sandstone (Sr). Crossbedded foresets vary in
thickness from 0.30 to 2 m. Individual beds have been traced for
tens of meters parallel to the bedding plane. This facies corre-
sponds to Sp lithofacies of Miall (1977), produced by migration
of 2-D dunes or sheetflooding (Feary, 1984). Similar facies are
interpreted as transverse bars under lower flow regime (Miall,
1978, 1996, 2010).
173
4.1.2.3. Facies Sh: horizontally bedded sandstone (Fig. 7i, ii, iv and
v). This facies is composed of medium to fine grained, moderately
sorted to moderately well sorted, predominantly buff colored
sandstones. Thickness of beds may be up to 2 m. Some beds have
combination of horizontal lamination and low angle cross-beds.
The bed contacts are mostly sharp. This facies is interpreted as
plane bed sand of upper flow regime deposited in section of river
valley as channel fill developed on top of sand bars (Miall, 1978;
Harms et al., 1995).
4.1.2.4. Facies (Sr): rippled cross to parallel laminated sandstone. This
facies is characterized by fine to medium grained, moderate to
moderately well-sorted sandstone with current ripples. It may be
parallel laminated occasionally. Thickness of bed may be up to
1 m. This facies is overlain by the mud and silts (Fm) facies and
underlain by planar cross bedded sandstone (Sp), trough cross bed-
ded sandstone (St) and horizontally stratified sandstone (Sh) facies.
It is interpreted as migrating currents ripple deposits under lower
flow regime (Miall, 1978). Similar beds were also interpreted as
waning flow sheetflood deposits (Handford, 1982; Rust, 1984).
4.1.2.5. Facies Sc: convulated sandstone facies (Fig. 7vi). This facies is
characterized by convulated medium to fine grained, moderately
sorted sandstones with thickness of about 0.5–2 m. Similar facies
from the Upper Bima Member were interpreted as post deposi-
tional fluidization structure triggered by seismic shocks (Samaila
174 B.M. Sarki Yandoka et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179
Fig. 7. (i–ii) Relationship between horizontally bedded sandstone facies (Sh) and St and Sp, (iii) planar cross bedded sandstone facies (Sp), (iv and v) horizontally bedded
sandstone facies (Sh), (vi) convolute bedded sandstone facies (Sc).
et al., 2006). Soft sediments deformation structures formed due to
disturbance of sediments during or after deposition, consolidation
and burial (Boggs, 1987; Owen, 1995, 1996) are common in sand-
stones that are loosely packed and rapidly deposited (related for
example to braided river deposits – Bristow, 1983).
4.1.3. Association III: fine grain dominated
The fine grain dominated facies association is composed of
three lithofacies; the mud and silts (Fm), the shale/mudstone
(Fl1) and the rippled laminated sandstone (Fl2) facies (Table 1)
as described below.
4.1.3.1. Facies (Fm): Mud and silts. This facies is characterized by
laminated mud and silts. The mudstone occurs in between gravels
and sandstone of St, Sp or Sr facies with thickness of about 0.4–
1 m. Miall (1977) proposed this lithofacies for mud drapes that
occur within gravelly and sandy braided sediments, representing
deposits from standing pools of water during low stage of channel
abandonment. It is interpreted as overbank or drape deposits, thus
it may represent the most distal floodplain (Miall, 1977, 1978;
Rust, 1978).
4.1.3.2. Facies (Fl1): shale/mudstone (Fig. 8). This facies is character-
ized by dark gray shale with thin beds of silts. The facies lack mar-
ine shells, body and trace fossils (Fig. 8). Beds range in thickness
from 5 to 15 m. The facies is interbedded with rippled sand and
silts (Fl2) facies. It is interpreted as suspension settling deposits
from standing waters (Miall, 1977, 1978; Friend, 1966). Similar
facies were interpreted as deposition in poorly drained (water-
logged) floodplain and ponded waters (shallow lacustrine) of low
energy (Retallack, 1997; Mark and James, 1992). A shallow lacus-
trine environment was suggested for similar facies (Ntamak-Nida
et al., 2008; Nichols, 2009).
4.1.3.3. Facies (Fl2): Rippled laminated sandstone (Fig. 8). This is
characterized by rippled laminated fine grained sand and siltstone.
Small amount of mud is associated with the silts. This facies is int-
erbedded with the shale/mudstone (Fl1) facies. Individual beds
range in thickness from 1 to 3 m. It is interpreted as suspension
deposit settling from weak currents (Miall, 1977) and representing
sand sheets or distal splays formed by supply of sand on flood-
plains (Retallack, 1997) or shallow lacustrine deposits (lake delta
sandstones, Nichols, 2009).
4.2. Facies successions
Facies successions represent genetically related lithofacies
that occur in combination and typically represent individual
 B.M. Sarki Yandoka et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179
Fig. 8. (i–vi) Shale/mudstone facies (Fl1) and ripple laminated sandstone facies (Fl2).
depositional environments (Dalrymple, 2010). From the descrip-
tions and associations of facies (Fig. 9) of the Lower Bima Member
exposed at the core of the Lamurde Anticline in the Yola Sub-basin,
three types of facies successions are identified; alluvial fan to prox-
imal braided river, braided river and lacustrine to marginal lacus-
trine facies successions.
4.2.1. Alluvial fan to proximal braided river facies succession
This facies succession consists of the gravelly dominated facies
association (Section 4.1.1), Gcm and Gmm facies, with a thickness
of about 5–8 m (Fig. 9). The poorly sorted nature of this facies with
outsized clasts, fining upward packages and rarity of sedimentary
structures suggest that sediment gravity flow mainly associated
with alluvial fans and proximal part of braided river played a sig-
nificant role in their deposition (Miall, 1977, 1978; Rust, 1978).
The gravelly dominated facies association exhibit vertical and lat-
eral evolution toward the sandy dominated facies association.
4.2.2. Braided river facies succession
This facies succession is made up of sandy dominated (Sec-
tion 4.1.2) facies association (St, Sp, Sh, Sr and Sc) composed of
pebbly very coarse grained, coarse to medium grained and medium
to fine grained sandstones and the mud and silts (Fm) facies from
the fine grain dominated facies association with thickness of about
30–40 m (Fig. 9). Fining upward packages of this facies succession
may represent waning flow in braided river system. The sandy
dominated facies association is interpreted as braided river chan-
175
nel deposits while the mud and silts facies represent overbank
(floodplain) deposits (Fig. 9). It is inferred that the convolute bed-
ded sandstones are indication of rapid deposition under water sat-
urated condition probably triggered by seismicity.
4.2.3. Lacustrine to marginal lacustrine facies succession
This succession is composed of fine grain dominated facies
association (Fl1 and Fl2). It is represented by coarsening upward
motifs (mostly 20–25 m thick). The facies succession is interpreted
to represent shallow lacustrine to lacustrine delta depositional sys-
tem (Fig. 9) based on its coarsening upward nature and earlier
interpretation (Section 4.1.3) of its associated facies.
5. Paleocurrent analysis
About sixty seven palaeocurrent readings were recorded from
the Lower Bima Member, determined mainly from sedimentary
structures that include crossbeds, current ripples and local occur-
rence of imbrications that indicate direction of transport. The
paleocurrent and paleoslope trends in the outcrops are generally
from NNW but with significant number of readings also toward
SW direction (Fig. 10).
6. Stratigraphic development
The outcrops of the Lower Bima Member exposed at the
Lamurde Anticline comprise more than 500 m of conglomerates,
176 B.M. Sarki Yandoka et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179

Fig. 9. Lithologic logs of the Lower Bima Member outcropped at the core of Lamurde Anticline showing the identified lithofacies.

Fig. 10. Paleocurrent flow direction at different localities in the Lower Bima Member exposed at the Lamurde Anticline.
 B.M. Sarki Yandoka et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179
pebbly coarse, medium and fine grained sandstones with mud-
stone, shale and siltstones. The three facies associations described
above are closely related and their inter-relationship supports their
spatial and temporal evolution from a lacustrine to marginal lacus-
trine (at the axial region of the basin) overlain progradationally by
proximal braided river/alluvial fans and subsequently braided river
deposits (Fig. 11).
7. Depositional model
Several depositional models have been proposed to account for
the larger scale architecture of the Bima Formation. Most workers
(Carter et al., 1963; Guiraud, 1990; Offodile, 1976; Zaborski et al.,
1997; Abubakar, 2006) agreed that the Lower Bima may be alluvial
fan-braided river (Scott type), the Middle Bima may be braided
river dominated by linguoid dunes associated with deeply
entrenched braided river channels and the Upper Bima may be
braided river (Platte type) related to channel aggradations and
sand flat formation.
However, the controversial issue alluded to on the lacustrine
deposits in the Lower Bima Member (Section 2) still persist. The
present study therefore developed a depositional model of the
Lower Bima Member of the Bima Formation in the Yola Sub-basin
of the Northern Benue Trough (Fig. 12). This model was developed
from the lithofacies, lithofacies association studies and facies suc-
cession stratigraphic relationships. The model involves three major
depositional systems of lacustrine to marginal lacustrine (deltaic),
alluvial fan and braided river. The alluvial fan and braided river
systems are inferred to have fed the lacustrine to marginal lacus-
trine system with sediment.
The lacustrine facies assemblage shows a large terrigenous
influence. It is constituted mainly by massive and finely laminated
to thinly stratified shales with rhythmic couplets and parallel to
ripple laminated sandstones. This assemblage might have been
deposited in shallow littoral to sub-littoral lacustrine environment
Fig. 11. Summarized composite lithologic logs from the studied area showing facies, facies successions and their inferred depositional environments.
177
(Fig. 12). Strata sets are hierarchically organized within alluvial
and braided river systems such that; conglomerates and pebbly
very coarse sandstones make up the alluvial fan–proximal braided
river deposits. Pebbly coarse, coarse to medium trough crossbeds
(from dunes), planar crossbeds (from bed load sheets) and small-
scale cross strata (from ripples) make up channel-belt deposits of
braided river systems.
8. Discussion
Based on the lithofacies, paleocurrent and stratigraphical stud-
ies, a generalized depositional model of the Lower Bima Member of
the Bima Formation in the Yola Sub-basin is proposed (Fig. 12). The
stratigraphical analysis has permitted the generalized determina-
tion of depositional patterns as progradational successions. Conti-
nental depositional processes of alluvial, braided and lacustrine
environments were responsible for the deposition of the Lower
Bima Member. Deposition started with gravity driven and mud
flow sedimentation considered as syn-rift at locations closer to
faulted basement margins. Toward the basin axis, textural changes
occur from coarse–medium grained sandstone to very fine grained
sandstone and shale at the central part of the basin. The fine
grained facies formed the lacustrine deposit, the gravel facies con-
stitute typical alluvial fan trending into braided river deposits
while the sandstone facies are channel bar deposits marked by lon-
gitudinal (trough cross-bedded sandstone) and transverse (planar
cross-bedded sandstones) inferred as braided stream sediments
whose high discharge was by lateral and vertical accretion. The
various channels sandstones were occasionally deformed from
seismic shocks generated by rapid sedimentation occasioned by
hydrodynamic pressures. A similar depositional system was ana-
lyzed in South Korea for the pull-apart Cretaceous Eumsung Basin
(Ryang and Chough, 1999), Kribo – Campo Sub-basin in the south-
ern Cameroun (Ntamak-Nida et al., 2010) and in the Muglad Basin
of Sudan (Schull, 1988).
178 B.M. Sarki Yandoka et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 96 (2014) 168–179
Fig. 12. Generalized depositional model of the Lower Bima Member in the Yola Sub-basin showing the inferred relationship with the facies successions.
9. Conclusions
Facies analysis of the Lower Bima Member of the Bima Forma-
tion in the Yola Sub-basin outcropping at the core of Lamurde Anti-
cline allows identification of depositional environments and made
possible proposal on the depositional model for the successions.
The Early Cretaceous (pre-Aptian to Aptian) exhibits vertical and
lateral facies transition from alluvial fan at the faulted basin mar-
gin to lacustrine environment along the basin axis. Stratigraphical
study indicated progradation of the alluvial and braided river
depositional systems on to the lacustrine caused most probably
by active faulting along the basin margin, climatic changes or com-
bination of both. Mass flow processes dominated the deposition of
the alluvial fan facies suggesting that tectonic activities continued
throughout the period of deposition of most of the Lower Bima
Member. The abundance of debris flow deposits in the alluvial
fan association, the poor sorting and the sub-angularity of most
of the clasts indicate source from nearby area and a significant
slope on the fan. The palaeocurrent measurements indicate that
the sediment gravity flows were generally toward the NW. This
suggests that the paleoreliefs were in the S and SE and perhaps
with NE–SW orientation trend.
The proposed depositional model of the Lower Bima Member is
similar to that of the Abu Gabra Formation in the Muglad Basin of
Sudan and other Lower Cretaceous formations in the Termit, Doba
and Doseo Basins of the WCARS. Barremian to Aptian lacustrine
sediments are proven source rocks for the Early Cretaceous petro-
leum system in these basins. Therefore, the presence of the lacus-
trine sediments in the Lower Bima Member may also suggest the
presence of the Early Cretaceous petroleum system in the Yola
Sub-basin.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the National Centre for Petroleum
Research and Development, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University
Bauchi, Nigeria for funding the field trip and data collection. The
study was also supported by IPPP Postgraduate Research Fund
(No: PG140-2012B) of the University Malaya. Special thanks go
to Dr. Ahmed Isa Haruna, Dr. Abubakar Sadik Maigari and Dr. Nuhu
Kadai Samaila for their assistance and inputs. We appreciate most
gratefully the constructive criticism of the anonymous reviewers of
the manuscript.
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