Grammar - Reading - Writing - Prepositions - Phrasal - Verbs - Trial

The Heart
of the
English Language
~Grammar~
International Edition
A revolutionary grammar teaching book that
9 reveals the mysteries of the English language
9 discloses the secrets of little-known learning skills
9 systematically teaches the essence of English
9 teaches the correct ways to understand English usage
9 visualizes important concepts for easy understanding
T. To
The Heart
of the
English Language
Grammar
A revolutionary grammar teaching book that
9 reveals the mysteries of the English language
9 discloses the secrets of little-known learning skills
9 systematically teaches the essence of English
9 teaches the correct ways to understand English usage
9 visualizes important concepts for easy understanding
A breakthrough for learners of English!
T. To
The Heart of the English Language - Grammar
Copyright © 2005 by Taren To

All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, or
transmitted in any form, or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN 1-4116-5840-X
Published by: SKY PRESS

www.sky-press.com
First Edition
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What is a verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.1
Chapter 2: Types of verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.3

2.1 Transitive and intransitive verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.3
2.2 Dynamic, static and linking verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.5
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.6
Chapter 3: Verb Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.8

Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.9
Chapter 4: Verb Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.10

4.1 What is a “tense” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.10
4.2 How to use a tense (Structure) . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.11
4.2.1 Structures of the active verbs . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.12
4.2.2 Structures of the passive verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.15
4.3 When to use a tense (Usage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.20
4.3.1 The use of the simple past tense . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.20
4.3.2 The use of the past continuous tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.21
4.3.3 The use of the past perfect tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.22
4.3.4 The use of the simple present tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.22
4.3.5 The use of the present continuous tense . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . P.24
4.3.5.1 Non-continuous verbs . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.26
4.3.6 The use of the present perfect tense . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . P.28
4.3.7 The use of the present perfect continuous tense . . . . . . . . . . . P.29
4.3.8 The use of the simple future tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.31
4.3.9 The use of the future continuous tense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.33
4.3.10 The use of the future perfect tense . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . P.34
Exercise 1: (Structure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.35
I
Exercise 2: (Usage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.37
Chapter 5: Voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.40

5.1 What is a “voice” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.40
5.2 How and when to use the passive voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.41
5.3 Verbs not used in the passive voice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.44
Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.45
Chapter 6: Conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.47

6.1 What is a “conditional” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.47
6.2 Four basic conditionals (Structure and Usage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.47
6.2.1 Basic structures of conditional sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.47
6.2.2 The first conditional: Real and possible conditions . . . . . . . . . P.48
6.2.3 The second conditional: Unreal or hypothetical conditions . . . P.49
6.2.4 The third conditional: No possibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.51
6.2.5 The fourth conditional: Fact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.52
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.54
Chapter 7: Modal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.55

7.1 What is a “modal verb” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.55
7.2 Basic structures of modal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.55
7.3 The use of modal verbs in different moods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.56
7.4 Modal forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.61
Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.62
Chapter 8: Infinitives and Gerunds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.65

8.1 What are “infinitives” and “gerunds”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.65
8.2 When to use infinitives and gerunds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.67
8.2.1 The use of gerunds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.67
8.2.1.1 Gerunds after certain verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.67
II
8.2.1.2 Gerunds after Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.71

8.2.1.3 Gerunds as Subjects or Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.72
8.2.2 The use of Infinitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.73
8.2.2.1 To-infinitives after certain verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.73
8.2.2.2 To-infinitives after certain verbs followed by objects . P.75
8.2.2.3 To-infinitives after Adjectives and Nouns . . . . . . . . . . P.76
8.2.3.4 To-infinitive as Subjects or Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.78
8.2.3 The use of Gerunds, to-infinitives or infinitives without to . . . P.79
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.85
Chapter 9: Participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.88

9.1 What is a “participle”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.88
9.2 Participle adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.88
9.2.1 What is a participle adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.88
9.2.2 How and when to use participle adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.88
9.3 Participle Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.92
9.3.1 What is a participle phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.92
9.3.2 How do participle phrases form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.92
9.3.3 How and when to use participle phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.95
9.3.3.1 How and when to use present participle phrases . . . . . P.95
9.3.3.2 How and when to use past participle phrases . . . . . . . P.97
9.4 Participles of feeling verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.104
9.4.1 What are participles of feeling verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.104
9.4.2 How and when to use participles of feeling verbs . . . . . . . . . . P.104
9.4.3 A different perspective on past participle feeling adjectives . . P.106
Exercise 1: (Participle Adjectives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.107
Exercise 2: (Participle Phrases) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.108
Exercise 3: (Participle Adjectives of feeling verbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.110
III
Chapter 10: Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.111

10.1 What is a “question”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.111
10.2 How and when to use questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.111
10.2.1 How do question form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.111
10.2.2 Basic Question Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.117
10.2.3 Six W 1 H Question Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.122
10.3 Question Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.124
10.3.1 What is a question tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.124
10.3.2 Question tag formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.125
Exercise 1: (Question Formations) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.129
Exercise 2: (Question Words) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.130
Chapter 11: Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.132

11.1 Two main types of nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.132
11.1.1 Common nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.132
11.1.2 Proper nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.133
11.2 Sub-categorization of common nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.134
11.2.1 Concrete nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.134
11.2.2 Abstract nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.135
11.2.3 Collective nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.135
11.2.4 Mass nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.136
11.3 Countable and Uncountable nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.137
11.3.1 The comparison between countable and uncountable nouns . P.137
11.3.2 Ways of judging the countability of a noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.139
11.4 More about uncountable nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.141
11.4.1 Other types of nouns treated as uncountable nouns . . . . . . . . P.141
11.4.2 Ways of counting uncountable nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.142
11.5 More about countable nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.143
11.5.1 Plural forms of countable nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.143
11.5.1.1 Regular plural nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.143
IV
11.5.1.2 Irregular plural nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.146

11.5.2 Plural-only nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.147
11.5.3 Binary nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.148
Exercise 1: (Types of nouns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.149
Exercise 2: (Countability of nouns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.151
Exercise 3: (Plural forms of countable nouns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.153
Chapter 12: Noun clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.154

12.1 What is a “noun clause” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.154
12.2 The illustration of noun clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.154
12.2.1 As the subject of a verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.154
12.2.2 As the object of a verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.155
12.2.3 As the object of a preposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.155
12.3 How and when to use noun clauses (Structures and Usage) . . . . . . . . P.156
12.3.1 Five basic structures of noun clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.156
12.3.2 The usage of noun clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.157
12.3.2.1 Noun clauses as subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.157
12.3.2.2 Noun clauses as objects of verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.162
12.3.2.3 Noun clauses as objects of prepositions . . . . . . . . . . P.166
12.3.2.4 Noun clauses as subject complements . . . . . . . . . . . . P.169
12.3.2.5 Noun clauses as adjective complements . . . . . . . . . . P.173
12.3.2.6 Noun clauses as appositives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.174
12.3.3 The omission of “that” from noun clauses structure 4 . . . . . . P.175
Exercise 1: (Identifying noun clauses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.177
Exercise 2: (Choosing the correct answer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.179
Exercise 3: (Choosing the correct word) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.182
Chapter 13: Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.183

13.1 Seven types of pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.183
13.1.1 Personal pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.184
V
13.1.1.1 Subjective personal pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.185

13.1.1.2 Objective personal pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.185
13.1.1.3 Possessive personal pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.186
13.1.2 Reflexive pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.187
13.1.3 Intensive pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.188
13.1.4 Demonstrative pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.189
13.1.5 Relative pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.190
13.1.6 Interrogative pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.190
13.1.7 Indefinite pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.193
Exercise 1: (Types of pronouns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.195
Exercise 2: (Personal pronouns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.196
Exercise 3: (Pronoun cases) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.197
Exercise 4: (Reflexive and intensive pronouns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.198
Chapter 14: Adjectives (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.199

14.1 What is an “adjective” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.199
14.2 Identification of adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.199
14.3 Types of adjectives . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.200
14.3.1 Determiners as adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.200
14.3.2 General descriptive adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.201
14.3.3 Nouns as adjectives (Noun adjectives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.202
14.3.3.1 Alternatives to “noun adjectives” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.203
14.3.3.2 Denominal adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.203
14.3.3.3 Capitalization of “proper adjectives” . . . . . . . . . . . . P.204
14.3.3.4 The unique form of adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.205
14.3.4 Participial adjectives (Verbal adjectives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.205
14.4 Grades of adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.205
14.4.1 Three grades of adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.205
14.4.2 The forms of comparative and superlative adjectives . . . . . . P.207
14.4.2.1 Regular comparative and superlative forms . . . . . . . P.207
VI
14.4.2.2 Irregular comparative and superlative forms . . . . . . . P.208

14.4.3 The gradability of different types of adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . P.208
14.4.3.1 The gradability of general descriptive adjectives . . . P.208
14.4.3.2 The gradability of “noun adjectives” . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.209
14.5 Positions of adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.209
14.5.1 Attributive and Predicative adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.210
14.5.2 Attributive-only adjectives (Before nouns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.210
14.5.3 Predicative-only adjectives (Indirectly after nouns) . . . . . . . P.211
14.5.4 Postpositive adjectives (Directly after nouns) . . . . . . . . . . . . P.211
14.5.4.1 Adjectives describing size or age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.211
14.5.4.2 Adjectives describing indefinite pronouns . . . . . . . . P.212
14.5.4.3 Adjectives used as postpositive adjectives . . . . . . . . P.213
14.6 Adjective order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.213
14.6.1 Determiner order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.213
14.6.2 The order of general descriptive adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.214
14.6.3 The order of noun adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.214
Exercise 1: (Identifying adjectives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.215
Exercise 2: (Identifying types of adjectives) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.216
Exercise 3: (Adjective order) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.217
Chapter 15: Adjectives (2) - Determiners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.218

15.1 What is a “determiner” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . P.218
15.2 Types of determiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.218
15.2.1 Definite determiners - The specific sense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.218
15.2.1.1 The definite article (the) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.219
15.2.1.2 Demonstrative adjective (this/these/that/those) . . . . . P.219
15.2.1.3 Possessive adjective (my/his/her/their/cat’s/cats’) . . P.220
15.2.2 Indefinite determiners - The nonspecific sense . . . . . . .. . . . . P.221
15.2.2.1 Indefinite article (a/an) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.222
15.2.2.2 Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.222
VII
15.2.2.3 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.223

15.3 Zero determiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.226
15.4 The gradability of determiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . P.227
15.5 Determiner order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.227
15.5.1 Predeterminers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.228
15.5.2 Central determiners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.228
15.5.3 Postdeterminers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.229
Exercise 1: (a,an,the) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.230
Exercise 2: (Demonstrative adjectives – this/these/that/those) . . . . . . . . . . P.232
Exercise 3: (Possessive adjectives - my/her/his/their…) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.233
Exercise 4: (Quantifiers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.234
Chapter 16: Adjective clauses (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.235

16.1 What is an “adjective clause” . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.235
16.2 The differences between adjectives and adjective clauses . . . . . . . . P.235
16.2.1 The structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.235
16.2.2 The position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.235
16.3 An introduction to adjective clauses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.236
16.4 How to form an adjective clause. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.237
16.4.1 Five types of adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.237
16.4.1.1 Subject adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.237
16.4.1.2 Object adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . P.240
16.4.1.2.1 Object adjective clauses of verbs . . . . . . . . . P.240
16.4.1.2.2 Object adjective clauses of prepositions . . . P.243
16.4.1.3 Location adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.248
16.4.1.4 Time adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.249
16.4.1.5 Possessive adjective clauses (Subject or Object) . . . P.251
Exercise: (Combining sentences) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.254
VIII
Chapter 17: Adjective clauses (2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.256

17.1 Defining and Non-defining adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.256
17.1.1 Defining adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.256
17.1.2 Non-defining adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.260
17.1.2.1 Sentential adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.264
17.2 The differences between defining and non-defining adjective clauses P.265
17.3 When should not use adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.266
Exercise 1: (Relative pronouns) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . P.268
Exercise 2: (Not using adjective clauses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.270
Chapter 18: Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.271

18.1 What is an “adverb”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.271
18.1.1 How adverbs tell us more about verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.271
18.1.2 How adverbs tell us more about adjectives and adverbs . . . . P.272
18.2 Identification of adverbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.273
18.2.1 Ending in “-ly” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.273
18.2.2 Adverbs exactly the same as adjectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.274
18.3 Different types of adverbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.276
18.3.1 Adverbs of manner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.276
18.3.2 Adverbs of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.278
18.3.2.1 “When” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.278
18.3.2.2 Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.280
18.3.2.3 Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.281
18.3.3 Adverbs of place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.284
18.3.4 Adverbs of certainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.285
18.3.5 Adverbs of degree . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.287
18.3.5.1 Adverbs of degree “enough” and “too” . . . . . . . . . . . P.289
18.3.6 Adverbs of opinion . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.290
18.4 Gradability of adverbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.290
18.4.1 Five grades of adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.290
IX
18.4.2 The form of comparative and superlative adverbs . . . . . . . . . P.291

18.4.2.1 Regular comparative and superlative forms of adverbs P.291
18.4.2.2 Irregular comparative and superlative forms of adverbs P.292
Exercise 1: (Adverb formation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.293
Exercise 2: (Identifying adverbs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . P.294
Chapter 19: Adverb clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.297

19.1 What is an “adverb clause” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.297
19.2 The nature of adverb clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.297
19.2.1 Subordinate conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . P.297
19.2.2 The subordinate nature of adverb clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.298
19.2.3 The punctuation of adverb clauses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.299
19.3 Different types of adverb clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.299
19.3.1 Adverb clauses of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.301
19.3.2 Adverb clauses of reason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . P.302
19.3.3 Adverb clauses of purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.302
19.3.4 Adverb clauses of result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.303
19.3.5 Adverb clauses of contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.303
19.3.6 Adverb clauses of condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . P.304
19.3.7 Adverb clauses of place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.304
19.4 Reduction of adverb clauses to adverb participle phrases . . . . . . . . . . P.305
Exercise: (Identifying adverb clauses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.308
Answer Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.310
X
Types of verbs
Chapter 2: Types of Verbs
2.1 Transitive verbs (V.T) and Intransitive verbs (V.I)

Question (1): Why is the verb “listen” always followed by “to”?
Transitive verbs (V.T) take direct objects
Subject > Verb (V.T) > Direct Object
1. Tom loves Mary.

The verb “loves” takes the object “Mary” directly.
2. I am reading the newspaper.

The verb “am reading” takes the object “the newspaper” directly.
3. I opened the door.

The verb “opened” takes the object “the door” directly.
The definition of a “transitive verb”:

A transitive verb needs a direct object to complete its meaning as shown in the above
examples. In other words, the action of the transitive verb is transferred to its object
directly.
Intransitive verbs (V.I) take no objects or indirect objects
Subject > Verb (V.I)

Or
Subject > Verb (V.I) > Indirect Object
-3-
They arrived. √
Or
They arrived at the airport. √ Indirect with a preposition “at”
But Not
They arrived the airport. X
I am talking. √
Or
I am talking to my son. √ Indirect with a preposition “to”
But Not
I am talking my son. X
She is waiting. √
Or
She is waiting for me. √ Indirect with a preposition “for”
But Not
She is waiting me. X
The definition of an “intransitive verb”:

An intransitive verb does not require a direct object to complete its meaning. The
action ends in itself rather than being transferred to some persons or objects. Run,
sleep, walk, and die are all intransitive verbs.
An answer to question (1): The reason is that the verb “listen” is an intransitive verb
(V.I) which should be followed by an indirect object with a preposition “to” in
between. That’s why we say “listen to music” instead of “listen music”.
-4-
Chapter 4: Verb Tenses
4.1 What is a “tense”?
The definition of “verb tenses”:

“Tense” is a method that we use in English to indicate the time of an action or state
by using different combinations of verb forms — past, present and future.
An Overview of the English Tense System
12 Tenses Past Present Future
Simple Simple Simple
Active Continuous Continuous Continuous
Or
Perfect Perfect Perfect
Passive
Perfect Perfect Perfect

continuous continuous continuous
There are a total of 24 tenses in the English language.

- 12 tenses in the active voice and 12 tenses in the passive voice
To learn the English tense system, there are 2 basic things you
need to know:
1) How to use a tense (Structure)
2) When to use a tense (Usage)
- 10 -
Verb tenses
4.2 How to use a tense (Structure)
＊＊＊ 4 simple formulas for tense structures ＊＊＊
1. (Future Rule)
Will + Base (Verb)
2. (Perfect Rule)
Verb to Have (has/have/had) + Past Participle (verb)
3. (Continuous Rule)
Verb to Be (is/am/are/was/were) + _________ing (verb)
4. (Passive Rule)
Verb to Be (is/am/are/was/were) + Past Participle (verb)
Where Base = Simplest verb form
The skill: If two or more formulas are to be used in a tense, simply combine the two
formulas by merging the last component of the first formula with the first component
of the second formula and so on.
- 11 -
4.2.1 Structures of the active verbs
(Past >> Present >> Future)

Demonstration (Active voice): “do” – do, did, done
Past
Simple (did)
(Use the simple past form)
Continuous (was/were) + (doing)
(Use formula 3 where be=was/were in a past state)
Perfect (had) + (done)
(Use formula 2 where have=had in a past state)
Perfect (had) + (been) + (doing)
Continuous
(Combine formulas 2 & 3: the last component of formula 2 merged

with the first component of formula 3 where have=had in a past state)
Present
Simple (do/does)
(Use the present form)
Continuous (is/am/are) + (doing)
(Use formula 3 where be=is/am/are in a present state)
Perfect (has/have) + (done)
(Use formula 2 where have=has/have in a present state)
- 12 -
Verb tenses
Perfect (has/have) + (been) + (doing)

Continuous

with the first component of formula 3 where have=has/have in a
present state)
Future
Simple (will) +(do)
(Use formula 1)
Continuous (will) + (be) + (doing)

with the first component of formula 3)
Perfect (will) + (have) + (done)

with the first component of formula 2)
- 13 -
4.3 When to use a tense (Usage)
(Past >> Present >> Future)
4.3.1 The use of the simple past tense

To express actions, activities or events that started in the past and completely
ended before now
Remark: The event can be short or long.
Examples:
1. The train departed at 9.30am yesterday. (Short event)
2. Sandra lived in Hong Kong for 10 years until yesterday. (Long event)
Other examples:
1. Teresa played jigsaw puzzle when she was young.
2. Thomas visited China two years ago.
3. William drove to London last Monday.
4. James did not go home yesterday.
5. Did you play tennis last week?
Remark: The underlined time indicators, which are normally used in the past
simple tense, clarify when exactly the past events happened.
- 20 -
Verb tenses
4.3.2 The use of the past continuous tense

To express an action that was in progress at a particular moment in the past
(be + ___ing – Continuous rule where be = was/were)
For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished
at 9pm.
At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV.
Other examples:
1. I was studying at 10pm last night.
2. Jane and James were sleeping together at 6am this morning.
3. What was Jennifer doing at 10pm last night?
4. Joe was preparing the dinner when his mother arrived.
5. Jim was smoking when I telephoned him.
6. We were walking down the street when it started raining.
Remark: The underlined time indicators show particular moments in the past. The
use of past continuous tense is normally accompanied with this kind of indicators.
Remark: The time indicators can be other past actions used to show particular
moments in the past. In this case, the other past actions used simple past tenses.
- 21 -
4.3.3 The use of the past perfect tense

To express a past action or event which happened before another past action
(Verb to have + P.P. – Perfect rule where have = had)
Examples:
1. My father had slept before I went home.
2. The thieves had left when police arrived.
3. When we arrived, the train had departed.
4. Before I knew Richard, I had heard a lot about him.
Compare: We had discussed the movie. I went to see the movie.

with I had gone to see the movie. We discussed the movie.
The past perfect continuous tense – Not commonly used
4.3.4 The use of the simple present tense

To express 1) factual actions or states
2) actions that happen all the time, or habitual actions
Examples:
1. Karen is a girl. (A factual state)
2. Hong Kong is a big city. (A factual state)
- 22 -
Chapter 5: Voices
5.1 What is a “voice”?

Sentences can be active or passive. As a result, verbs can also be in the active or
passive voice.
Active Sentence
[Thing(s) doing the action] + [Verb] + [Thing(s) receiving the

action] = Active Sentence
In active sentences, the subject is the doer of an action and the object is the
receiver of an action.
- 40 -
Voices
Passive Sentence
[Thing(s) receiving the action] + [Passive verb] + [by] + [Thing(s)

doing the action] = Passive Sentence
In passive sentences, the subject is the receiver of an action and the object is the
doer of an action.
5.2 How and when to use the passive voice
Passive sentences are formed from active sentences by
1. interchanging the positions of subjects and objects, and
2. turning the verbs into passive form (Be + P.P)
3. inserting “by” before the objects if necessary.
- 41 -
Conditionals
Chapter 6: Conditionals
6.1 What is a “conditional”?
Conditionals are used to talk about possible, imaginary or impossible conditions.
A "Condition" is a "situation or circumstance". Conditional sentences make use of

different combinations of verb forms to express different conditionals or
possibilities.
Remark: Conditional sentences make use of different verb forms to express the
different possibilities of actions or states. However, tenses make use of different
verb forms to describe the time difference of actions or states.
6.2 Four basic conditionals (Structure and Usage)
6.2.1 Basic structures of conditional sentences:

There are only two basic structures:
IF CONDITION RESULT
If y = 10 2y = 20
Or
RESULT IF CONDITION
2y = 20 If y = 10
Remark: In addition to "if", other conjunctions such as as long as, on the condition
that, providing that, provided that, supposing, unless may also be used in
conditionals.
- 47 -
6.2.2 The first conditional: Real and possible conditions

(Present or Future)
It refers to possible conditions and their probable results in the present or future.
IF Possible Condition Probable Result
Present simple tense Modal (will) + Base (verb)

,
If it rains I will stay at home.
If you don’t hurry you will miss the flight.
Remark: You can also use other modals in their present forms such as can, may,
must, should, ought to instead of “will” for other meanings in the probable result.
Examples:
IF Condition Result
Present simple tense Modal + Base (verb)
If you don’t leave now , I must call the police.
If the enemies don’t surrender they may be killed.
If we study harder we can pass the examination.
Or
- 48 -
Conditionals
Result IF Condition
Modal + Base (verb) Present simple tense
I must call the police if you don’t leave now.
The enemies may be killed if they don’t surrender.
We can pass the examination if we study harder.
6.2.3 The second conditional: Unreal or hypothetical conditions

(Present or Future)
It refers to unreal or hypothetical conditions and their hypothetical results at

present or in the future.
The real situation is that it is raining heavily outside.
IF Unreal Condition Hypothetical Result
Modal (Past form-would)

Past simple tense
, + Base (verb)
we would play basketball this

If the rain stopped
afternoon.
The condition is unreal and the result is hypothetical.
Remark: The use of past tense does not necessarily indicate past time.
Remark: You can use other modals in their past forms such as could, might instead
of would for other meanings in the hypothetical result.
- 49 -
Modal verbs
Chapter 7: Modal Verbs
7.1 What is a “modal verb”?

Modal verbs, which are sometimes called auxiliary verbs or helping verbs, are used
to help verbs to express their different moods such as possibility, intention,
obligation, necessity, recommendation, suggestion and ability.
Commonly used modal verbs

Can Could
Shall Should
Will Would
May Might
Must Ought to
For the purpose of completeness, some other expressions that are not modal verbs
but closely related to modals in meaning have been included.
These expressions include: Have to, Have got to, Had better, Get to, Be able to,
Need not…
7.2 Basic structures of modal verbs:
Modal + Base (The simplest form of verbs)

Modals never take -s, past tense or past participle of the main verb; it is followed by
the simplest form of verbs (base).
Examples: will do, should know, must lose, can go

“Not” is used to after modals to make modal verbs negative –ve.
Examples: will not do, should not know, must not lose, cannot go
Remark: The negative form of “can” is “cannot” not “can not”.
- 55 -
7.3 The use of modal verbs in different moods
Remark: It is unwise to learn modals one by one. They should be categorized into
different moods so that they can be absorbed easily.
1. Ability or capacity
2. Permission or concession
3. Suggestion
4. Recommendation or advice
5. Expectation
6. Obligation
7. Prediction
8. Conclusion
9. Probability or possibility
10. Request
1. The mood of ability or capacity

Modals Examples
Helen can sing and Henry can dance, but They can’t
Can (Present)
play piano well!
Could (Past) I could jump over the fence when I was 20.
I am able to speak English well ...(Present)

Be able to
I was able to speak English well….(Past)
(Any time)
I will be able to speak English well...(Future)
I am capable of speaking English well ... (Present)

Be capable of
I was capable of speaking English well…. (Past)
(Any time)
I will be capable of speaking English well... (Future)
- 56 -
Modal verbs
2. The mood of permission or concession

Modals Example
Can (Present) I'm sorry, only staff can use the lift.
Could (Past) Mom said we could play outside after dinner.
May The host said we may take pictures in the museum.

(Any time) (Lighter tone than the use of “Can”)
I am allowed to leave…(Present)
Be allowed to
I was allowed to leave…(Past)
(Any time)
I will be allowed to leave…(Future)
3. The mood of suggestion

Modals Example
Shall
Shall we take some cash? (For only “I” or “We”)
(For questions)
Might To find information fast, you might go to the internet

(Any time) and do some research.
Could You could ask your teacher when you have any more
(Any time) questions.
4. The mood of recommendation or advice

Modals Example
To learn English well, you should study the book

Should
named “The heart of the English Language”.
- 57 -
Infinitives and Gerunds
Chapter 8: Infinitives and Gerunds
8.1 What are “infinitives” and “gerunds”?
Concept 1:
Each simple sentence has only one verb.
The only verb in the above sentence is “advised”.

Then, what are the roles of “to avoid” and “eating”?
Sometimes we need to express more actions or states in a sentence.

How can we do this? We make use of infinitives or gerunds.
- 65 -
The definition of “infinitives”

The simplest form of verbs
The definition of “gerunds”

A word that ends with “-ing” which is derived from a verb
Remark: A “gerund” can be concluded as a noun formed from a verb.
Concept 2:
An infinitive or gerund is just one of the verb forms and not a verb.
They have nothing to do with the tense system.
In other words, they exist only in one form and their forms will not change
irrespective of the time of the actions of the infinitives or gerunds.
- 66 -
Infinitives and Gerunds
8.2 When to use infinitives and gerunds
8.2.1 The use of gerunds
8.2.1.1 Gerunds after certain verbs: (As objects)
Verb + ___ing
A list of common verbs followed by gerunds

Verbs related to feeling
Enjoy We enjoy meeting new friends and seeing new things.
Mind I don't mind having dinner with the husband of my
ex-girlfriend.
Dislike I dislike reading comic books.
Dread I am dreading taking the final exam next week.
Detest I detest teaching students who behave badly or are not
obedient.
Verbs related to memory

Acknowledge Anna acknowledged making a huge mistake.
Report A witness reported seeing a serious car accident.
Recall Anthony recalled hearing some strange noise on the night of
the robbery.
Recollect I recollect vomiting at the party when I was drunk.
Remember I don't remember making a promise to marry Annie.
Regret I regret wasting a lot of money on that sport car.
Miss Bob is late. He missed attending the new class.
- 67 -
Chapter 9: Participles
9.1 What is a “participle”?

A “participle” is a verb form that can function as an adjective to modify nouns.
(Verbal adjectives)
9.2 Participle adjectives
9.2.1 What is a “participle adjective”?

A “participle adjective” is used to describe a noun and it gives a sense of action.
9.2.2 How and when to use participle adjectives
Present participles (- ing form) for adjectives of active or continuous actions
- 88 -
Participles
Examples: (Adjectives of active or continuous actions or both)
1. No one was aware of the crying baby.
2. He had an increasing desire to get rich.
3. The moving car is heading towards you.
4. The dying innocent Iraq people in hospital told the journalist about the war.
5. Twinkling stars smile on you.
6. Work in progress! Walking pedestrians should be cautious.
7. We are walking through the running water.
8. We have a talking machine.
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Past participles (- ed form) for adjectives of passive or completed actions
Remark: The term “_ed form” is generally used to describe past participles even
though the past participles do not necessarily end in “–ed”.
Examples: (Adjectives of passive or completed actions or both)

1. She left the city with a broken heart.
2. I want to buy a used car at a cheap price.
3. The US-led coalition force announced that the battle was over.
4. The injured victims with broken legs and burnt skin during the war in Iraq were
sent to hospitals.
5. I can see the meeting through the opened door.
- 90 -
Participles
6. Spoilt children behave badly.
7. The new building is equipped with a fully computerized security system.
A comparison between present and past participle adjectives
1. Be careful of the boiling water.

(An adjective with a continuous meaning)
VS
We should always drink boiled water, not tap water.

(An adjective with a passive and completed meaning)
2. I saw a burning house with lots of smoke.

VS
I saw the remnants of a burnt house.

3. China is a developing country.

VS
The United States is a developed country.

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Questions
Chapter 10: Questions
10.1 What is a “question”?
I like the English language.

Statements:
(Give information)
Do you like the English language?
Questions:
(Ask for information)
A statement is a sentence that gives information.

A question is a sentence that asks for information.
A written question in English always ends with a question mark (?).
10.2 How and when to use questions
10.2.1 How do questions form?
There are three conditions to form a question.
Condition 1: The verb is a linking verb (be – is/am/are/was/were)
Only one word constitutes the verb (1 Word)
Examples:
1. I am a boy.
2. William and Judy are my best friends.
3. Jane is pretty.
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The question of this type of statements is formed by just locating the verb (be)
before the subject.
Examples:
1. I am a boy. (A statement)
>>>
Am I a boy? (A question)
2. Hong Kong is a big city. (A statement)

>>>
Is Hong Kong a big city? (A question)
3. William and Judy were my best friends before. (A statement)

>>>
Were William and Judy my best friends before? (A question)
4. Jane was pretty in the past. (A statement)

>>>
Was Jane pretty in the past? (A question)
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Questions
Condition 2: The verb is in a simple form.

(Under the simple present or simple past tense)
Only one word constitutes the verb (1 word)
Examples:
1. I go swimming every day.
2. She goes to school every morning.
3. She went to Tokyo last month.
4. Albert passed the final exam.
The question of this type of statements is formed by just locating the “helping
verb” (do/did/does) before the subject.
Remark: The “helping verbs” (do/did/does) are not normally shown in positive
statements. They should only appear when we want to emphasize the verb in a
statement.
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Chapter 11: Nouns
The definition of a “noun”

A noun is a word used as the name of a person, animal, thing, place or abstract idea.
11.1 Two main types of nouns
11.1.1 Common nouns

Common nouns are names for anything in a general sense. They are not capitalized
unless they begin a sentence.
Categories Examples
Things Book, Table, Chair, Door, Window, Coffee, Food, House, Car,
Lamp, Pen, Ship, Train, Plane, Hand, Finger, Head, Heart, Leg,
Cup, Fork, Spoon …
Places Hospital, School, Park, Airport, Beach, Supermarket,
Restaurant, Office, Shop, Cinema, Court, …
People Salesman, Child, Adult, Prison, Policeman, Manager, Clerk,
Chairman, Officer, Typist, Teacher, Cook, Chef, Pilot,
Author…
Abstract ideas Happiness, Anger, Sadness, Boredom, Satisfaction, Pride,
Kindness, Optimism, Efficiency, Usefulness, Sweetness,
Bitterness, Responsibility, Honesty, Courage, Bravery……
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Nouns
11.1.2 Proper nouns

Proper nouns are names for things, places and people in a specific sense.
They are capitalized no matter where they appear in a sentence.
Categories Examples
Names and titles of people George Bush, Mona Lisa, Bruce Lee, Stallion, Bill
Gate, Mrs Chan, Sir Ronald, Lady Karen, Uncle
Kenneth, Doctor Jimmy, Professor Taren…
Corporations/brands Microsoft, Sony, Levi's, Coca Cola, Canon…
Countries China, Singapore, The United State, Asia, Africa,
Europe…
Cities/towns Hong Kong, London, Rome, Vancouver,
Manchester, Peking, Shanghai …
Streets/ buildings/parks Park Lane, Nathan Road, Pacific Plaza, Temple
Street, Sydney Opera House, Ocean Park…
Rivers/oceans/seas/lakes the Atlantic, the Dead Sea, the Pacific, Lake
Victoria, Lake Michigan, the Rhine, the Thames,
the Nile…
Geographical formations the Himalayas, the Alps, the Sahara
Remark: Names of weekdays, months and holidays are also treated as proper
nouns.
Weekdays Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday,
Saturday, Sunday
Months January, February, March, April, May...
Holidays Easter, Christmas, Thanksgiving Day, New Year's
Day, Halloween...
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The comparison between common nouns and proper nouns
Common nouns Proper nouns

Names in a general sense Names in a specific sense
Not capitalized Capitalized
unless they begin a sentence wherever they appear in a sentence.
11.2 Sub-categorization of common nouns
Common nouns can be subcategorized into different types
11.2.1 Concrete nouns

Concrete nouns are names for things that can be touched, seen, or heard. Most
nouns are concrete nouns.
Examples:
Apple, Baby, Car, Dog, Egg, Moon, Newspaper, Tree, Song, Noise…
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Nouns
11.2.2 Abstract nouns

Abstract nouns are names for things such as ideas, characteristics, concepts, or
qualities that cannot be touched, seen, or heard.
Examples:
Confidence, Sadness, Optimism, Pessimism, Terrorism, Courage, Honesty, Pride,
Goodness, Kindness, Success, Failure, Efficiency, Usefulness, Knowledge,
Reliability . . .
Remark: A noun is usually abstract if it ends in one of the followings:

-tion -ism -ity -ment -ness -age -ance/-ence -ship -ability -acy
The comparison between concrete nouns and abstract nouns
Concrete nouns Abstract nouns

Can be perceived through physical Cannot be perceived through physical
senses: touch, sight, or hearing senses: touch, sight, or hearing
Physically existent Physically nonexistent
11.2.3 Collective nouns

Collective nouns are names for a group of same things, animals, or persons regarded
as a unit.
Examples:
Army, Committee, Family, Herd, Audience, Navy, Crew, Public, Class, Group, Staff,
Gang, Jury, Choir, Troop . . .
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Chapter 12: Noun Clauses
The definition of a “clause”

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb of its own.
12.1 What is a “noun clause”?

A noun clause is a group of words that functions as a noun and serves mainly as a
subject or an object in a sentence.
12.2 The illustration of noun clauses
Symbols: S = Subject V = Verb O = Object

P = Preposition PO = Prepositional Object
12.2.1 As the subject of a verb
Noun:
[The job] is challenging.
S V
Noun clause:
[What they do] is challenging.
S V
Explanation: The idea “What they do” cannot be expressed with a single
noun, so a noun clause is needed. The clause is still doing the
work of a noun as “job” in the sentence “The job is challenging”.
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Noun clauses
12.2.2 As the object of a verb
Noun:
I know [English].
S V O
Noun clause:
I know [that English is an international language].
S V O
Explanation: The idea “English is an international language” cannot be

expressed with a single noun, so a noun clause is needed. The
clause is still doing the work of a noun as “English” in the
sentence “I know English”.
12.2.3 As the object of a preposition
Noun:
Tom is interested in [this book].
S V P PO
Noun
Tom is interested in [why this book became popular].
clause :
S V P PO
Explanation: The idea “why this book became popular” cannot be expressed
with a single noun, so a noun clause is needed. The clause is still
doing the work of a noun as “book” in the sentence “Tom is
interested in this book”.
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12.3 How and when to use noun clauses (Structures and Usage)
12.3.1 Five basic structures of noun clauses
Structure 1:
Start with a “question word” (who/whoever/what/whatever) followed by a verb

directly.
Structure 2:
Start with a “question word” (Wh-word*) followed by a subject and then a verb
Structure 3:
Start with “whether” or “if” followed by a subject and then a verb
Structure 4:
Start with “that” followed by a subject and then a verb
Structure 5:
Start with a question word (Wh-word*) followed by a To-infinitive
- 156 -
Pronouns
Chapter 13: Pronouns
The definition of a “pronoun”

A pronoun is a substitute for a noun. Pronouns make sentences less repetitive.
13.1 Seven types of pronouns
Pronouns Usage Examples

1. Personal Specific person(s) I, you, me, he…
2. Reflexive Objects the same as subjects myself, herself,
themselves…
3. Intensive Emphasis on subjects itself, himself,
themselves…
4. Demonstrative Pointers for definite person(s), this, these,
place(s), thing(s) that, those
5. Relative Introductory words of adjective who, which, where,
clauses when, that…
6. Interrogative Introductory words of questions what, which, who,
whom..
7. Indefinite Unspecified person(s) or thing(s) anybody, everyone,
both, all, much…
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13.1.1 Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to specific persons.
Three different cases of personal pronouns
Remark: Cases refer to the function of a personal pronoun in a sentence.
The three different cases of personal pronouns
Subjective Objective Possessive

Singular
1st person I me mine
2nd person you you yours
3rd person he him his
she her hers
it it its
Plural
1st persons we us ours
2nd persons you you yours
3rd persons they them theirs
Remark: 1st person means the speaker – “I” or “We”. 2nd person means the person
to whom the speaker or writer is speaking – “You”. 3rd person means the person
besides 1st person and 2nd person – “He”, “She”, “It” or “They”.
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Pronouns
13.1.1.1 Subjective personal pronouns

Subjective personal pronouns act as subjects or subject complements in sentences.
As subjects:
S V O
I/You/He/She/It/ We/They love(s) animals.
As subject complements (Uncommon):
S LV* SC
The winner(s) is/are I/you/he/she/it/we/they.
Compare to the (common ones)
S LV* SC
I/You/He/She/It/We/They is/am/are the winner(s).
* The linking verb (LV) shows equality (=) and the subject complement is treated
the same as the subject. Thus, subjective pronouns are used as subject complements.
Remark: Pronouns are not commonly used as subject complements.
13.1.1.2 Objective personal pronoun

Objective personal pronouns act as objects of verbs or prepositions.
As objects of verbs:
S V O
Susan likes me/you/him/her/it/us/them.
- 185 -
Adjectives (1)
Chapter 14: Adjectives (1)
14.1 What is an “adjective”?

Adjectives are words that are used to modify or describe nouns. Adjectives give
more information about nouns.
14.2 Identification of adjectives
Typical endings of adjectives
Endings Examples
- ant distant, important, relevant, significant
- ent dependent, different, existent, persistent
- al accidental, educational, national, original
- able acceptable, enjoyable, comfortable, profitable
- ible flexible, possible, sensible, responsible
- ary auxiliary, monetary, imaginary, temporary
- ful beautiful, helpful, peaceful, useful
- ic acidic, cubic, enthusiastic, photographic
- ical musical, magical, logical, political
- ous ambitious, continuous, nervous, dangerous
- ive active, attractive, creative, protective
- less endless, harmless, hopeless, meaningless
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14.3 Types of adjectives
Four main types of adjectives
Types of adjective (adj.) Examples

Determiners as adj. a chance, my book, this store…
General descriptive adj. horrible stories, Italian pizza…
Nouns as adj. book stores, massage chairs
Participle adjectives developing countries, broken windows
14.3.1 Determiners as adjectives

A determiner is a word which is placed before a noun to give information that help to
limit the noun. A determiner can be treated as an adjective as it gives more
information about the noun – determiners modify nouns.
* Please refer to chapter 15 Determiners for the details of determiners.
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Adjectives (1)
14.3.2 General descriptive adjectives

Sub-categorization of general descriptive adjectives
The six types of general descriptive adjectives

Types Explanation Examples
Opinion adj. Express what speakers think 1. a beautiful woman
about the nouns 2. a horrible story
* The opinion(s) may not be 3. a difficult question
supported by other people. 4. an useful course
5. a delicious meal
6. a comfortable tour
Size adj. Express how big or small the 1. a large ship
nouns are 2. a small baby
3. a huge wave
4. a tiny grain of rice
Age adj. Express how young or old the 1. a new car
nouns are 2. a young lady
3. an old man
4. an ancient story
Shape adj. Express the shapes of the nouns 1. a round table
2. a spherical building
3. a rectangular room
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Chapter 15: Adjectives (2) - Determiners
15.1 What is a “determiner”?

A determiner is a word which is placed before a noun to give information that limits
the noun.
*A determiner can be treated as an adjective as it gives more

information about a noun.
15.2 Types of determiners
15.2.1 Definite determiners – The specific sense

A definite determiner limits a noun to being (a) specific thing(s) or person(s) that
is/are known by both the speaker and the listener.
Sub-categorization of definite determiners
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Adjectives (2) – Determiners
15.2.1.1 The definite article (the)

When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the definite article “the”.
The definite article “the” limits a noun to being known to both the speaker and the
listener.
Example:
1. I fell in love with the girl.
(“The girl” refers to a particular girl. The listener knows which girl.)
2. I love the songs.

(“The songs” refers to particular songs. The listener knows which songs.)
2. I stole the money.

(“The money” refers to particular money. The listener knows which money.)
15.2.1.2 Demonstrative adjective (this/these/that/those)

Demonstrative adjectives (this/that/these/those) limit nouns to being either singular
or plural and either near to or far from the speaker.
Singular Plural
Nearby this these
Far that those
Examples:
1. This person is my father.

(“This” limits the noun (person) to being singular and near to the speaker.)
2. These people are my brothers.

(“These” limits the noun (people) to being plural and near to the speaker.)
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Adjective clauses (1)
Chapter 16: Adjective Clauses (1)
16.1 What is an “adjective clause”?

Functionally, “adjective clauses” are the same as adjectives; both adjectives and
adjective clauses give more information about nouns.
16.2 The differences between “adjectives” and “adjective clauses”
16.2.1 The structure

An adjective is a single word, but an adjective clause is a group of words consisting
of a subject and a verb. Moreover, an adjective clause is introduced by a relative
pronoun “which”, “that”, “who”, “whom”, “whose”, “where”, “when”.
16.2.2 The position

An adjective can be placed before or after the noun being modified, but an adjective
clause must be placed after the noun being modified.
- 235 -
16.3 An introduction to adjective clauses

The use of adjective clauses allows us to pack additional information about a noun
into a sentence without having to start another sentence. Adjective clauses make
sentences less repetitive.
Repetitive sentences Sentences with adjective clauses

1. The man is my father. He wears a The man who wears a blue shirt is
blue shirt. my father.
2. The girl is a famous singer. I met her The girl whom I met yesterday is a
yesterday. famous singer.
3. I witnessed an accident. It killed I witnessed the accident that killed
hundreds of people. hundreds of people.
4. My father wears a blue shirt. I My father wears the blue shirt which
bought it last week. I bought last week.
5 The man lives next door. His son The man whose son won a lottery
won a lottery last week. last week lives next door.
6. The disco is so crowded. We had a The disco where we had a party is so
party in the disco. crowded. Or
The disco in which we had a party is
so crowded.
7. I still remember the day. I had my I still remember the day when I had
first date with a girl on the day. my first date with a girl.Or
I still remember the day on which I
had my first date with a girl.
- 236 -
16.4 How to form an adjective clause

You should have a concept that there are different types of adjective clauses before
you know how they are formed.
16.4.1 Five types of adjective clauses
16.4.1.1 Subject adjective clauses

The noun being modified acts as the subject of an adjective clause.
Example 1: The man is my father. He wears a blue shirt.
Step1: Packing additional information about a noun into a sentence
Two sentences
The man is my father. He wears a blue shirt.
The man he wears a blue shirt is my father. One incorrect sentence
Step2: Replacing the pronoun “he” with a relative pronoun “who”

The man he wears a blue shirt is my father. One incorrect sentence
The man who wears a blue shirt is my father. One correct sentence
- 237 -
Chapter 17: Adjective Clauses (2)
The functions of adjective clauses

Adjective clauses are used to give more information about nouns. But, how adjective
clauses give information about nouns is what you have to know. First of all, you
must know that there are two categories for all types of adjective clauses.
17.1 Defining and Non-defining adjective clauses
17.1.1 Defining adjective clauses

A defining adjective clause gives essential information to define or identify the
person(s) or thing(s) we are talking about. They are often used to tell the reader or
listener “which one(s)”.
(We need this essential information to understand the noun. Without the defining
adjective clause, we don't know which one(s) is/are being referred to.
Punctuation: No commas are used in defining adjective clauses.
- 256 -
The correct use of relative pronouns in defining adjective clauses
Subject adj. cls. Object adj. cls. Possessive adj. cls

Person(s) who/that who/whom/that/ø whose
Thing(s) which/that which/that/ø whose
Location NA where NA
Time NA when NA
Example 1: For person(s) - Subject adjective clause
A sentence with a defining adj. clause A sentence without a defining adj.

clause
The man who wears a blue cap is The man is John’s brother.
John’s brother.
The defining clause “who wears a blue Without the defining adjective clause,
cap” defines or identifies “The man”. we don't know which man John’s
brother is.
Example 2: For person(s) - Object adjective clause
A sentence with a defining adj. clause A sentence without a defining adj.

clause
The wallet (that) you lost was found. The wallet was found.
The defining clause “(that) you lost” Without the defining adjective clause,
defines or identifies “The wallet”. we don't know which wallet it is.
- 257 -
Adverbs
Chapter 18: Adverbs
18.1 What is an “adverb”?

As we know, adjectives are words that tell us more about nouns. Adverbs are words
that tell us more about verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
18.1.1 How adverbs tell us more about verbs

Adverbs modify verbs from different aspects.
Aspects Examples Tells us

1. Manner The police officer questioned me how the police
politely. officer questioned me
2. When when I had a

I had a nightmare last night. nightmare
3. Duration how long I have

I have known Susan for 5 years. known Susan
4. Frequency how often I read

I sometimes read newspaper. newspaper
- 271 -
5. Place where I teach

I teach English in Hong Kong. English
6. Probability how likely I will

I will certainly attend the meeting. attend the meeting
7. Degree to what degree I

I nearly forget your name. forget your name
18.1.2 How adverbs tell us more about adjectives and adverbs

Degree of adj. the degree of how
The toxic gas is extremely dangerous. dangerous the toxic
gas is
Degree of adj. the degree of how
The result is quite good. good the result is
Degree of adv. the degree of how
The man finished the job very quickly. quickly the man
finished the job
Degree of adv. the degree of how
Buses move fairly slowly. slowly buses move
- 272 -
18.3 Different types of adverbs
18.3.1 Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner tell us how an action is performed (the way or style). Many of
these adverbs are formed by adding “–ly” to the ends of adjectives.
Examples:
1. The sport car runs swiftly.

(The adverb “swiftly” tells us how the sport car runs.)
2. My baby will grow healthily.

(The adverb “healthily” tells us how my baby will grow.)
3. I am writing my book enthusiastically.

(The adverb “enthusiastically” tells us how I am writing my book.)
4. The man speaks English fluently.

(The adverb “fluently” tells us how the man speaks English.)
5. He speaks to his students patiently.

(The adverb “patiently” tells us how he speaks to his students.)
- 276 -
Adverb clauses
Chapter 19: Adverb Clauses
19.1 What is an “adverb clause”?

Functionally, adverb clauses are the same as adverbs; both adverbs and adverb
clauses give more information about verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Adverb clauses,
like adverbs, tell us when, where, why, for what purposes, and under what
conditions things happen.
An adverb clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. Moreover, an

adverb clause is introduced by an introductory word (conjunction) such as “after”,
“before”, “when”, “while”, “since”, “until”, “because”, “although”, “if”.
19.2 The nature of adverb clauses

As mentioned before, adverb clauses are introduced by some introductory words
(conjunctions) that clarify the circumstances (when, where, reason, purpose…) of the
adverb clauses. These introductory words are called “subordinate conjunctions”.
19.2.1 Subordinate conjunctions

“Subordinate conjunctions” are words that introduce adverb clauses and clarify the
circumstances (when, where, reason, purpose…) of the adverb clauses.
- 297 -
Examples of subordinate conjunctions
Subordinate
Circumstances Examples
conj.
before Time You should leave before they come.
since Time We have been taught English since we
were students.
when Time I was cooking when my father arrived.
because Reason Tom can’t drink because he is underage.
so that Purpose I take two jobs so that I can earn more.
So….that Result He studied so hard that he passed the
exam.
although Contrast You cannot buy everything although you
are very rich.
if Condition I would buy that house if I had enough
money.
where Place You should stay where someone will take
care of you.
19.2.2 The subordinate nature of adverb clauses

An adverb clause can never stand alone as a complete sentence. It has to express its
meaning through another clause (main clause). In other words, it depends on the
main clause to give information.
An incomplete idea – readers may ask

After they had lunch. X
what happened after that.
After they had lunch, they went A complete idea – readers now know
√
out for a walk. what happened after that.
Remark: The clause “they went out for a walk” is the main clause.
- 298 -
Adverb clauses
An incomplete idea – readers may ask

Because they had lunch. X
the result.
Because they had lunch, they are A complete idea – readers now know
√
not feeling hungry. the result.
Remark: The clause “they are not feeling hungry” is the main clause.
19.2.3 The punctuation of adverb clauses

On condition that an adverb clause comes before a main clause, a comma is needed
to separate the adverb clause from the main clause. When an adverb clause comes
after a main clause, no comma is needed.
19.3 Different types of adverb clauses

Adverb clauses clarify different circumstances, so they can be categorized into
different types for better understanding.
- 299 -
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The Heart
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T. To
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of the
English Language
~Reading & Writing~
A highly demanded English language teaching book that
9 teaches English sentence structures once and for all
9 teaches the building units of sentences
9 provides in-depth analysis of sentences in written English
T. To
The Heart of the English Language – Reading & Writing
Copyright © 2005, 2006 by Taren To


www.sky-press.com
First Edition
Table of Contents
Section 1: Sentence structures

Chapter 1: An introduction to sentence types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.2
1.1 What is a sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.2
1.2 Four types of sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.2
Chapter 2: Simple sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.4

2.1 What is a simple sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.4
2.2 The five structures of the simple sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.4
2.2.1 Structure 1: S + V.I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.4
2.2.2 Structure 2: S + V.T + DO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.6
2.2.3 Structure 3: S + V.T + IO + DO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.7
2.2.4 Structure 4: S + V.T + DO + OC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.8
2.2.5 Structure 5: S + LV + SC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.10
2.3 In-depth analysis of simple sentences in written English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.12
Exercise: Simple sentence structures P.23
Chapter 3: Compound sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.27

3.1 What is a compound sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.27
3.2 Formation of compound sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.27
3.2.1 Formation of compound sentences by coordinating conjunctions . . . . . . P.27
3.2.1.1 Coordinating conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.28
3.2.1.2 More about coordinating conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.32
3.2.1.3 Correlative conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.35
3.2.2 Formation of compound sentences by conjunctive adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . P.39
3.2.3 Formation of compound sentences by semicolons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.41
Exercise: Identification of compound units in sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.42
I
Chapter 4: Complex sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.46

4.1 What is a complex sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.46
4.2 The definition of independent clauses and subordinate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . P.46
4.3 Three types of subordinate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.49
4.3.1 Adverb clauses as subordinate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.49
4.3.1.1 The role of subordinate adverb clauses in complex sentences . . . P.50
4.3.1.2 The different types of subordinate adverb clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . P.51
4.3.1.2.1 Subordinate adverb clauses of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.51
4.3.1.2.2 Subordinate adverb clauses of reason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.53
4.3.1.2.3 Subordinate adverb clauses of purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.53
4.3.1.2.4 Subordinate adverb clauses of result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.54
4.3.1.2.5 Subordinate adverb clauses of contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.54
4.3.1.2.6 Subordinate adverb clauses of condition . . . . . . . . . . . . P.55
4.3.1.3 Subordinate conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.56
4.3.1.4 The punctuation of complex sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.57
4.3.2 Noun clauses as subordinate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.58
4.3.2.1 The role of subordinate noun clauses in complex sentences . . . . P.60
4.3.2.2 Noun clauses as appositives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.61
4.3.3 Adjective clauses as subordinate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.61
4.3.3.1 The role of subordinate adj. clauses in complex sentences . . . . . P.62
4.4 In-depth analysis of complex sentences in written English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.64
Exercise: Identification of independent clauses and subordinate clauses . . . . . . . . P.71
Chapter 5: Compound-complex sentences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.74

5.1 What is a compound-complex sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . P.74
5.2 The position of subordinate adverb clauses in compound-complex sentences P.74
5.3 The position of subordinate noun clauses in compound-complex sentences . . P.78
5.4 The position of subordinate adj. clauses in compound-complex sentences . . . . P.78
Exercise: Identification of sentence types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.79
II
Chapter 6: Expletive Constructions

“It + is…” and “There +is/are” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.84
6.1 What is an expletive construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.84
6.2 The expletive “it” as preparatory subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.84
6.2.1 As a preparatory subject for that-clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.84
6.2.2 As a preparatory subject for to-infinitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.86
6.2.3 As a preparatory subject for gerunds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.87
6.3 The use of “it” in “cleft sentences” for emphasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.88
6.4 “There + be” construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.89
Section 2: The building units of sentences

Chapter 7: The basic parts of sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.91
7.1 Subjects . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.91
7.1.1 What a subject can be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.92
7.2 Verbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.93
7.2.1 Functions of verbs in sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.93
7.2.2 Types of verbs . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.93
7.2.2.1 Dynamic verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.93
7.2.2.2 Static verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.94
7.2.2.3 Linking verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.94
7.2.3 Transitive or intransitive verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.96
7.2.4 Verb tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.97
7.2.5 Voices of verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.97
7.2.5.1 Active voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.97
7.2.5.2 Passive voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.97
7.3 Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.99
7.3.1 Direct objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.99
7.3.2 Indirect objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.99
7.4 Complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.101
7.4.1 Subject complements ....................................... P.101
III
7.4.2 Object complements ........................................ P.101
Chapter 8: Grammatical structures of basic sentence parts . . . . . P.103

8.1 Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.104
8.2 Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.105
8.3 Noun clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.106
8.4 Gerunds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.107
8.5 To-infinitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.108
8.6 Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.109
8.7 Prepositional phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.109
Chapter 9: Modifying units in sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.110

9.1 Modifying units in sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.110
9.1.1 Adjectival modifying units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.111
9.1.1.1 An overview of adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.111
9.1.1.1.1 Determiners as adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.112
9.1.1.1.1.1 Definite determiners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.112
9.1.1.1.1.2 Indefinite determiners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.114
9.1.1.1.2 General descriptive adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.116
9.1.1.1.3 Nouns as adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.118
9.1.1.1.4 Participles as adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.119
9.1.1.2 Adjective clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.119
9.1.1.3 Participle phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.121
9.1.1.3.1 Present participle phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.121
9.1.1.3.2 Past participle phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.122
9.1.1.4 Prepositional phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.123
9.1.1.5 Infinitive phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.124
9.1.2 Adverbial modifying units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.126
9.1.2.1 Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.126
9.1.2.2 Prepositional phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.127
IV
9.1.2.3 Infinitive phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.129

9.2 In-depth analysis of modifying units in written English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.131
Exercise: Modifying units in sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.157
Chapter 10: Punctuation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.161

10.1 What is punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.161
10.2 Punctuation marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.161
10.2.1 Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.161
10.2.2 Comma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.163
10.2.3 Semicolon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.165
10.2.4 Colon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.166
10.2.5 Apostrophe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.168
10.2.6 Question mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.170
10.2.7 Exclamation mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.171
10.2.8 Quotation mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.172
10.2.9 Ellipsis mark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.173
10.2.10 Parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.174
10.2.11 Hyphen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.175
10.2.12 Dash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.177
Exercise: Punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.178
Answer Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.181
V
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VI
An introduction to sentence types
Section 1: Sentence Structures
In this section, we are going to look at:
1. The different structures of simple sentences - how English

sentences are constructed
2. Compound or combined sentences - how sentences are joined

together
3. Complex sentences - the combination of independent clauses

and subordinate clauses
4. Expletive constructions “It + is . . .” and “There + is/are . . .”
-1-
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Sentence Types
1.1 What is a sentence?

A sentence is a group of words which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full
stop.
1.2 Four types of sentences

Basically, there are four types of sentences in English.
1. Simple sentence
2. Compound sentence
3. Complex sentence
4. Compound-complex sentence
Remark: A compound-complex sentence is actually a compound sentence plus a

subordinate clause.
-2-
An introduction to sentence types
Almost all the English sentences you read in the newspaper are made of these four
sentence types.
-3-
Chapter 2: Simple Sentences
2.1 What is a simple sentence?

The simplest type of sentences is the simple sentence, which contains only one idea.
As its name implies, simple sentences are simply built by the basic structural
elements.
Simple sentences can be further subdivided into five different structures by their
different structural elements.
2.2 The five structures of the simple sentence
2.2.1 Structure 1: S + V.I
Subject (S): Person(s) or thing(s) performing an action
Intransitive Verb (V.I): Intransitive action
-4-
Simple sentences
Examples of the simple sentence structure 1

(S + V.I):
Subject Intransitive verb
(S) (V.I)
1. An accident happened.
2. A baby was crying.
3. Susan has left.
4. Your children have been studying.
5. My father laughs.
6. The sun shines.
7. The man is speaking.
8. I am working.
9. The show will begin.
10. She will be sleeping.
Where is the object?

Whether there is an object following a verb depends on the types of the verb
– Transitive verbs (V.T) or Intransitive verbs (V.I).
Remark: The action of an intransitive verb (V.I) ends in itself rather than being
transferred to a person or an object. Thus, there will be no object after the intransitive
verb.
For more information about transitive verbs (V.T) and intransitive verbs (V.I), please
refer to the book “The Heart of the English Language - Grammar”.
-5-
2.2.2 Structure 2: S + V.T + DO
Subject (S): Person(s) or thing(s) performing an action
Transitive Verb (V.T): Transitive action
Direct Object (DO): Person(s) or thing(s) directly receiving the action
Remark: For a transitive verb (V.T) that needs something to complete its meaning,
there will be an object following the verb, but for an intransitive verb (V.I), the
action ends in itself and there will be no object following the verb.
Examples of the simple sentence structure 2

(S + V.T + DO):
Subject Transitive verb Direct object
(S) (V.T) (DO)
1. The accident destroyed a family.
2. A baby was holding a toy.
3. Susan has locked the door.
4. Your children have been watching TV.
5. My father prepares breakfast.
6. A doctor is examining a patient.
7. The nail hurt my finger.
-6-
2.3 In-depth analysis of simple sentences in written English

Now it’s time to see how the five structures of simple sentences are practically used
in everyday written English.
In this part, the basic structural elements of simple sentences will be extracted
so that the skeletons or the most basic forms of sentences can be clearly shown.
Symbolic explanation:
Subject (S) Transitive Verb (V.T) Intransitive Verb (V.I)
Linking Verb (LV) Direct Object (DO) Indirect Object (IO)
Subject Complement (SC) Object Complement (OC) Adjective (adj.)
Structure 1: S + V.I
1. The daily life in Hong Kong has not changed dramatically since the handover.
S V (V.I)
life has not changed
Skeleton: The daily life in Hong Kong has not changed dramatically since the
handover.
2. With the nation's fast economic growth, more and more people in China leave
each year to seek better opportunities abroad.
S V (V.I)
people leave
Skeleton: With the nation's fast economic growth, more and more people in
China leave each year to seek better opportunities abroad.
- 12 -
Simple sentences
3. The talks to extend the agreement with Walt Disney Company failed.
S V (V.I)
talks failed
Skeleton: The talks to extend the agreement with Walt Disney Company failed.
4. Traditionally, people in China live with their parents until marriage.
S V (V.I)
people live
Skeleton: Traditionally, people in China live with their parents until marriage.
Structure 2: S + V.T + DO
5. The new arrangements of the public housing policy affect mainly the
grassroots.
S V (V.T) O (DO)
arrangements affect the grassroots
Skeleton: The new arrangements of the public housing policy affect mainly the
grassroots.
- 13 -
Compound sentences
Chapter 3: Compound Sentences
3.1 What is a compound sentence?

A compound sentence is just the combination of two or more simple sentences joined
together.
3.2 Formation of compound sentences

Simple sentences are joined by 1) one(s) of the seven coordinating conjunctions (for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so - fanboys), 2) by a semicolon (;) and a conjunctive adverb
(moreover, furthermore, however, thus, therefore…) or 3) by just a semicolon (;).
Remark: The word “compound” can be interpreted as “combined”, and you can
think that compound sentences are combined simple sentences indeed.
3.2.1 Formation of compound sentences by coordinating

conjunctions
If two simple sentences are connected with a coordinating conjunction, use a comma
after the first simple sentence.
- 27 -
Coordinating
Simple Sentence , Conjunction Simple Sentence.
(fanboys)
The inflation is rising, and the value of money is falling.

China’s economy has been but the average personal incomes
growing rapidly, are still at very low level.
You help me with the math, or I hire a tutor.
John missed the train, so He arrived late.

Susan knows business for she holds a master degree in
management well, business administration.
Remark: If the two simple sentences are short, the comma between them could be
left out. For example, the comma in the compound sentence “Jacky is rich but
Jessie is poor.” is left out.
3.2.1.1 Coordinating conjunctions

There are seven coordinating conjunctions: (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so - fanboys).
Remark: The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions are “and” and “but”.
- 28 -
Compound sentences
Coordinating conjunction:
and
Use: Join two similar or related ideas (Sequential or cause-result ideas)
Examples (Sequential ideas joined together):
1. Oil prices are going up and the inflation is rising.
2. The ticket will go on sales tomorrow, and the show will take place on the 1st of
May.
3. The police have charged a number of high-level executives with fraud, and some
have pleaded guilty.
4. The new online game is being run with developers in Japan and Korea, and more
Asian countries could participate next year.
- 29 -
Chapter 4: Complex Sentences
4.1 What is a complex sentence?

A complex sentence is also the combination of two or more simple sentences. They
are joined together in a way that one of the simple sentences carries the main idea
(independent main clause), but the other simple sentence (subordinate clause) plays a
subordinate role.
4.2 The definition of independent clauses and subordinate clauses
An independent clause:
An independent clause can be regarded as a sentence that can stand alone to express
a complete thought.
A subordinate clause:
A subordinate clause can be regarded as a sentence that cannot stand alone to
express a complete thought. In other words, it must depend on something else for its
meaning.
Example 1: Helen fell on the floor when she was running upstairs.
Helen fell on the floor [when she was running upstairs].

The first clause can stand
Independent Helen fell on the
√ independently and give a complete
main clause floor.
thought.
The second clause cannot stand
independently as the sense is
Subordinate When she was
X unfinished without the first clause. It
clause running upstairs.
depends on the first clause for its
meaning.
- 46 -
Complex sentences
Example 2: Because I stayed up late last night, I couldn’t wake up this morning.
[Because I stayed up late last night], I couldn’t wake up this morning.

The first clause cannot stand
independently as the sense is
Subordinate Because I stayed up
X unfinished without the second clause. It
clause late last night.
depends on the second clause for its
meaning.
The second clause can stand
Independent I couldn’t wake up
√ independently and give a complete
main clause this morning
thought.
Example 3: She still remembers what you promised her before.
She still remembers [what you promised her before].
She still remembers This clause can stand independently
Independent [object]. and give a complete thought.

√
main clause e.g. She still
remembers you.
This clause cannot stand

Subordinate What you promised
X independently as the sense is
clause her before.
unfinished.
- 47 -
Chapter 6: Expletive Constructions
6.1 What is an expletive construction?

Expletive constructions begin with “it + be” or “there + be”. They are placed at the
beginning of sentences.
Expletive constructions like:
It + is . . .
There + is/are . . .
6.2 The expletive “it” as preparatory subjects

The expletive “it” can act as a preparatory subject for noun clauses, to-infinitives or
gerunds.
6.2.1 As a preparatory subject for that-clauses
It + be + adjective/noun + that-clause
The formation of “It + be + adjective/noun + that-clause” construction

1 Students should read more. Combine the two sentences
This is important.
2 That students should read This construction is correct, but not frequently
more is important. used. Rather, we prefer to begin with “It” followed
by “be”.
3 It is important that The expletive “it” actually acts as a preparatory
students should read subject for the noun clause “that students should
more. read more”.
- 84 -
Expletive constructions
More examples:
1. The man killed his parents. It was so horrible.
> That the man killed his parents was so horrible.
>> It was so horrible (that) the man killed his parents.
2. Oil price has increased drastically over the past few months. This is alarming.
> That oil price has increased drastically over the past few months is alarming.
>> It is alarming (that) oil price has increased drastically over the past few
months.
3. All the animals are running towards the mountain. This is strange.
> That all the animals are running towards the mountain is strange.
>> It is strange (that) all the animals are running towards the mountain.
4. Henry has committed rape. It is a shame.

> That Henry has committed rape is a shame.
>> It is a shame (that) Henry has committed rape.
5. Gary became infected with AIDS. It was a tragedy.

> That Gary became infected with AIDS was a tragedy.
>> It was a tragedy (that) Gary became infected with AIDS.
- 85 -
The basic parts of sentences
Chapter 7: The Basic Parts of Sentences
7.1 Subjects
A sentence is a thought about someone or something. When the thought is expressed
in speech or writing, that someone or something is the subject of the speech or
writing.
- 91 -
7.1.1 What a subject can be

The subject of a sentence can be a person, a thing, a place or an idea.
1. John bought an IBM computer.

2. An officer will handle the case.
Person 3. Adults should look after their children.
4. We won the match.
5. She is sleeping.
1. The car broke down on the highway.
2. The sun rises in the east.
Thing 3. Money can’t buy everything.
4. Knowledge means power.
5. The class is taking an exam.
1. Hong Kong is an international city.
2. England is famous for its football.
Place 3. The hotel is too far from the airport.
4. A beach is in front of my house.
5. The playground was empty.
1. Writing good teaching books is my job.
2. To smoke in a gas station can cause a fire.
3. Who will be the next US president remains a question.
Idea
4. That I become a successful person is my father’s wish.
5. Learning language knowledge should be the first step in
studying a language.
- 92 -
Grammatical structures of basic sentence parts
Chapter 8: Grammatical Structures of Basic Sentence Parts
Grammatical structures that basic sentence parts can be

Direct Indirect Subject Object
Subject
object object comp. Comp.
Noun √ √ √ √ √
NounClause √ √ √ √ √
Pronoun √ √ √
Gerund √ √ √
To-infinitive √ √ √ √
Adjective √ √
Prep. phrase √ √
- 103 -
8.1 Nouns
A noun is the name of a person, a thing, a place or an idea. It can act as a subject, a
direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement or an object complement in a
sentence.
Nouns act as:

1. A doctor is examining the injured patient.
3. My dream comes true.
Subject
4. New York has been attacked by terrorists.
5. Failure is a great opportunity to learn.
1. The police have arrested several protesters.

2. Scientists discovered a new drug for treating cancer.
Direct object
3. I have visited England twice.
4. Coal provides energy.
1. This lesson taught students the fundamentals of English.

2. I told a reporter an insider secret.
Indirect object
3. The publisher has sent schools the samples of a new book.
4. The organization issues every employee a staff card.
1. The nuclear reaction is a complicated process.

Subject 2. Failure is the mother of success.
complement 3. J.K Rowling became a famous novelist.
4. The sentence is an example.
1. The committee appointed me chairman this year.
Object complement 2. They called the soldiers heroes.
3. The film company made the story a film.
For more information about nouns, please refer to the book “The Heart of the
English Language - Grammar”.
- 104 -
Chapter 9: Modifying Units in Sentences
How is an informative sentence constructed?

When you are reading, you need to get the necessary information. But how is
information given in sentences?
Each simple sentence has such basic elements as subjects, objects or verbs that
convey the basic meaning of the sentence. Besides the basic elements, there are
modifying units providing information about the basic elements, so the sentence
becomes more informative.
9.1 Modifying units in sentences

In order to make sentences more informative, writers need to provide more
information about the basic elements such as subjects, verbs or objects. They would
use a variety of modifying units to do so.
A modifying unit modifies either a thing or an action; thus, they can then be
subdivided into two groups: Adjectivals and Adverbials.
- 110 -
Modifying units in sentences
9.1.1 Adjectival modifying units

Adjectival modifying units are used to give more information about nouns (things).
Adjectival modifying units include adjectives, adjective clauses, participle phrases,
prepositional phrases and infinitive phrases.
9.1.1.1 Adjectives
Broadly speaking, adjectives are words that are used to modify or describe nouns.
They give more information about nouns in sentences.
- 111 -
9.1.2 Adverbial modifying units

Adverbial modifying units are used to give more information about actions or
adjectives.
9.1.2.1 Adverbs
Adverbs are words that tell us more about actions.

1. Manner The police officer questioned me how the police officer
politely. questioned me
2. When when I had a nightmare
I had a nightmare last night.
3. Duration how long I have known
I have known Susan for 5 years. Susan
- 126 -
4. Frequency how often I read

I sometimes read newspaper. newspaper
5. Place where I teach English
I teach English in Hong Kong.
6. Probability how likely I will attend
I will certainly attend the meeting. the meeting
7. Degree to what degree I forget
I nearly forget your name. your name
Adverbs also tell us more about adjectives and adverbs itself.

Degree of the degree of how
adj. The toxic gas is extremely dangerous. dangerous the toxic gas is
Degree of the degree of how good
adj. The result is quite good. the result is
Degree of the degree of how
adv. The man finished the job very quickly. quickly the man finished
the job
Degree of the degree of how slowly
adv. Buses move fairly slowly. buses move
9.1.2.2 Prepositional phrases

A preposition together with its object is termed “prepositional phrase”.
Examples Prepositional phrases

1 A security guard is standing at the entrance. at the entrance
2 Don’t point the knife at me. at me
3 It tells you the secret of learning English. of learning English
- 127 -
9.2 In-depth analysis of modifying units in written English

Now, let’s go through the examples given in chapter 2.3 (In-depth analysis of simple
sentences in written English) and figure out the modifying units in those sentences.
1. The daily life in Hong Kong has not changed dramatically since the handover.
S V (V.I)
life has not changed
Skeleton: The daily life in Hong Kong has not changed dramatically since the
handover.
Modifying units (4) Tell us more about Role

1 The daily
the noun (life) Adjectival
(Adjective group)
2 in Hong Kong
the noun (life) - where Adjectival
(Prepositional phrase)
3 dramatically (adverb) the verb (changed) Adverbial
4 since the handover
the verb (changed) - when Adverbial
2. With the nation's fast economic growth, more and more people in China leave
each year to seek better opportunities abroad.
- 131 -
S V (V.I)
people leave
Skeleton: With the nation's fast economic growth, more and more people in China
leave each year to seek better opportunities abroad.
Modifying units (6) Tell us more about Role

1 With the nation's fast
the background or reason of
economic growth Adverbial
the event (people leave)
2 more and more
the noun (people) Adjectival
(Adjective group)
3 in China
the noun (people) - where Adjectival
4 each year
the verb (leave) - how often Adverbial
(Noun phrase as adverb)
5 to seek better
opportunities the verb (leave) - why Adverbial
(To-infinitive phrase)
6 the action in the to-infinitive
abroad
phrase (to seek better Adverbial
(Adverb)
opportunities) - where
- 132 -
Punctuation
Chapter 10: Punctuation
10.1 What is punctuation?

Punctuation is the use of various symbols in writing to give readers different
indications.
10.2 Punctuation marks

There are 12 punctuation marks in English you have to know.
10.2.1 Period
The period (.) is used to:

a) indicate the end of a 1. I like watching football.
sentence
2. Turn off the radio and go to sleep now.
3. I can tell what kind the song is.
- 161 -
b) indicate 1. Prof. To has been teaching English for 15 years.

abbreviations
2. I have a pen friend in U.K.
3. Mrs. Chan will have a meeting at 5 P.M.
4. The book teaches adjectives, adverbs, nouns, etc.
Examples of abbreviations
Titles Mrs. (Missus) / Mr. (Mister) / Ms. (Miss) / Prof.
(Professor) / Dr. (Doctor) / Rep. (Representative)
Words used with A.M. / a.m. / P.M. / p.m. / B.C. / A.D.
numbers
Latin terms etc. (and so forth) / i.e. (that is) / e.g. (for example)
Remark: When the abbreviation comes at the end of a sentence, do not follow it
with another period.
- 162 -
Order Information


resource now at:
The Heart
of the
English Language
~Prepositions~
A complete and exclusive preposition teaching book that
9 clearly defines the role of prepositions in English
9 teaches the best ways to learn and use prepositions
T. To
The Heart
of the
English Language
~Prepositions~
A complete and exclusive preposition teaching book that
9 clearly defines the role of prepositions in English
9 teaches the best ways to learn and use prepositions
T. To
The Heart of the English Language – Prepositions
Copyright © 2004, 2005, 2006 by Taren To


www.sky-press.com
First Edition
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What is a preposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.1

1.1 What is a preposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.1
1.2 The rule for prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.2
Exercise: (Identifying prepositions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.4
Chapter 2: Prepositional phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.5

2.1 The adjectival or adverbial role of prepositional phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . P.5
2.1.1 A prepositional phrase functions as an adverb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.5
2.1.2 A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . P.7
2.2 Prepositional phrases as building blocks in sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.8
Exercise: (Prepositional phrases and their roles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.10
Chapter 3: Different relationships prepositions indicate . . . . . . . . P.12

3.1 Position in space – “Where” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.12
3.1.1 Fixed standard expressions of “at”, “on” and “in” . . . . . . . . . . . P.17
3.2 Movement or direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.18
3.3 Time – “When” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.21
3.3.1 Fixed standard expressions of “at”, “on” and “in” . . . . . . . . . . . P.24
3.3.2 Omission of time prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.25
3.4 Manner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.26
3.4.1 Tool – “Using what” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.26
3.4.2 Means – “How” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.26
3.4.3 Company. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.27
3.4.4 Ways of talking or writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.27
3.5 Possession or belongings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.27
3.5.1 Possession (For description) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.27
3.5.2 Belongings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.28
3.5.3 Wearing (For description) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.28
I
3.5.4 Belongings (Pockets or bags) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.28

3.6 Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.29
3.6.1 Concerning someone or something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.29
3.6.2 Subjects or activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.29
3.6.3 Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.30
3.7 Other relationships that prepositions indicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.30
3.7.1 Reason – “Why” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.30
3.7.2 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.30
3.7.3 Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.31
3.7.4 Exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.31
3.7.5 Representing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.32
3.7.6 Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.32
3.7.7 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.32
3.7.8 Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.33
3.7.9 Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.33
3.7.10 Contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.33
3.7.11 Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.34
3.7.12 Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.34
3.7.13 Support/Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.34
3.7.14 Intended recipient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.34
3.7.15 Actor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.35
3.7.16 Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.35
3.7.17 Containing or covering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.35
3.7.18 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.35
3.7.19 Spending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.36
3.7.20 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.36
3.7.21 Amount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.36
3.7.22 Age or temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.37
3.7.23 Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.37
3.7.24 Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.37
II
Exercise 1: (Preposition of position in space) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.38

Exercise 2: (Preposition of movement or direction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.40
Exercise 3: (Preposition of time) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.42
Exercise 4: (Preposition of manner) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.45
Exercise 5: (Preposition of possession or belongings) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.47
Exercise 6: (Preposition of connection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.49
Chapter 4: Combinations with verbs, adjectives and nouns . . . . . P.50

4.1 Verb + Preposition Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.50
4.2 Adjective + Preposition Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.64
4.3 Noun + Preposition Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.77
Answer Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.85
III
[Blank Page]
IV
What is a preposition
Chapter 1: What is a preposition
1.1 What is a “preposition”?

Grammatically, a preposition is a word that indicates a "relationship" between some
part of the sentence and its object. A preposition itself like “at”, “on” or “in” is rather
meaningless.
Example 1: She works in a library.
The preposition “in” indicates a (location) relationship between “works” and its
object “library”.
Example 2: I had dinner with my parents.
The preposition “with” indicates a (companion) relationship between “had dinner”

and its object “my parents”.
Example 3: I had dinner at 8 pm.
The preposition “at” indicates a (time) relationship between “had dinner” and its
object “8 pm”.
By comparing example 2 to example 3 above, you would realize that you could use a
different preposition to indicate a different relationship between some part of the
sentence and its object.
-1-
1.2 The rule for prepositions

Every preposition must be followed by an object (a noun, a pronoun or a gerund) to
complete its meaning. If there is no object (nothing follows the preposition), then the
word in question is not a preposition.
Object of the
Examples Preposition
Preposition
the entrance
1 A security guard is standing at the entrance. at
(Noun)
Remark: The preposition “at” indicates a (position) relationship between the verb
(action) “is standing” of the sentence and its object “the entrance”.
me
2 Don’t point the knife at me. at
(Pronoun)
Remark: The preposition “at” indicates a (direction) relationship between the verb
(action) “point” of the sentence and its object “me”.
in England
3 The most famous footballer in England is
(Noun)
Beckham.
Remark: The preposition “in” indicates a (location) relationship between the noun
(thing) “footballer” of the sentence and its object “England”.
-2-
What is a preposition
a birthday gift
4 I went shopping for a birthday gift. for
(Noun)
Remark: The preposition “for” indicates a (purpose) relationship between the verb
(action) “went shopping” of the sentence and its object “a birthday gift”.
learning
5 It tells you the secret of learning English. of English
(Gerund)
Remark: The preposition “of” indicates a (belonging) relationship between the noun
(thing) “secret” of the sentence and its object “learning English”.
-3-
Exercise : (Identifying prepositions)
Circle the preposition you found in each of the following sentences,

underline its object and the part of the sentence it indicates a
relationship. The first one has been done for you.
1. Sam and Mary play volleyball at the beach every Sunday morning.
2. Nancy lives on the third floor.
3. The clock on the wall ran out of batteries.
4. All my friends and relatives live in Hong Kong.
5. The man has a gun in his pocket.
6. Lily is having dinner by the sea.
7. I am sitting between two old women.
8. Those picnickers sat around the fire and sang songs.
9. Daisy walked into the meeting room ten minutes ago.
10. A rock went down the hill and injured several pedestrians.
-4-
Prepositional phrases and their roles
Chapter 2: Prepositional phrases
A preposition together with its object is termed “prepositional phrase”.
Examples Prepositional phrases

1 A security guard is standing at the entrance. at the entrance
2 Don’t point the knife at me. at me
3 The most famous footballer in England is Beckham. in England
4 I went shopping for a birthday gift. for a birthday gift
5 It tells you the secret of learning English. of learning English
2.1 The adjectival or adverbial role of prepositional phrases

Prepositional phrases function as adjectives (for nouns) or adverbs (for verbs), telling
“where”, “when”, “how”, “with whom” and “what kind”, etc. Prepositional
phrases can also express a sense of “why” or “who”.
2.1.1 A prepositional phrase functions as an adverb (adv.)

when it modifies a verb (an action).
Examples showing the adverbial role of prepositional phrases:
1. The man is standing at the beach. (adv.)

The prepositional phrase “at the beach” tells us where the action (standing) happens.
2. I am running towards the finishing line. (adv.)

The prepositional phrase “towards the finishing line” tells us the direction of the
action (running).
-5-
3. We usually sleep at midnight. (adv.)

The prepositional phrase “at midnight” tells us when the action (sleep) happens.
4. I will have published three books by 2005. (adv.)

The prepositional phrase “by 2005” tells us when the action (published) will have been
done.
5. My maid cleaned the toilet with bleach water. (adv.)

The prepositional phrase “with bleach water” tells us how (using what) the action
(cleaned) was done.
6. I go to school by bus. (adv.)

The prepositional phrase “by bus” tells us how (means of transportation) the action
(go) is done.
7. I am having dinner with my friends. (adv.)

The prepositional phrase “with my friends” tells us who is/are in the company of
the action (having dinner).
8. I went out shopping for my father’s birthday gift. (adv.)

The prepositional phrase “for my father’s birthday gift” tells us the purpose of the
action (went out shopping).
-6-
Prepositional phrases and their roles
2.1.2 A prepositional phrase functions as an adjective (adj.)

when it modifies a noun (a thing/person).
Examples showing the adjectival role of prepositional phrases:
1. The book on the floor is mine. (adj.)

The prepositional phrase “on the floor” tells us where the thing (book) is.
2. The government of Hong Kong is undergoing political reform. (adj.)

The prepositional phrase “of Hong Kong” tells us to which the thing (government)
belongs.
3. Tourists from China contributed to the improved economy of Hong Kong. (adj.)
The prepositional phrase “from China” tells us where the persons (tourists) come
from.
4. I am currently writing a book on English prepositions. (adj.)

The prepositional phrase “on English prepositions” tells us what the thing (book) is
about.
5. The data on the floppy disk should not have been erased. (adj.)
The prepositional phrase “on the floppy disk” tells us where the things (data) were
stored.
-7-
Chapter 3: Different relationships prepositions indicate
3.1 Position in space – “Where”

It tells us the position of a thing or a *static action that reflects no movement.
*Static actions (e.g. be, live, work, wait, stay, stand, sit, sleep …) are actions that do
not involve movement.
Commonly used prepositions of position in space
at, on, in, inside, outside above/over, under/underneath, below,

beneath, in front of, in back of/behind, beside/next to, near/by,
between, opposite, amid/among, around
Top 3 prepositions of position in space:
“at”, “on”, “in”
- 12 -
Different relationships prepositions indicate
Prepositions of position in space Visualized description
at
at the general vicinity of a point in space
E.g. He is standing at the house.

(The house is treated as a point of place in space.
More examples:
1. A child is crying at the corner.
2. There is a long queue at the entrance of the cinema.
3. I lost my wallet at the bus stop this morning.
4. All the parking spaces have been occupied at the beach.
5. My boss told me to pick up a client at the reception.
on
on the surface
E.g. He is standing on the house.

(The house is treated as a surface.
More examples:
1. You can see a few beggars sleeping on the street.
2. I was lying on a sofa when my wife phoned me.
3. The police are looking for a prisoner with a scar on his face.
4. Have you ever seen any cockroaches on the floor?
5. The picture on the wall has been stolen.
6. The answer keys can be found on page 200.
- 13 -
3.2 Movement or direction

It tells us how something moves or the direction of a *dynamic action that reflects
movement.
*Dynamic actions (e.g. move, walk, fly, drive, jump, step, ran…) involve movement.
Commonly used prepositions of movement or direction
into, out (of), onto, off, up, down, across, along, toward(s), to,
through, by, with, at
into,
out (of)
The ball moves into/out the box.
onto,
off
She steps onto/off the platform.
up,
down
A ball moved up/down the slope.
- 18 -
Different relationships prepositions indicate
3.3 Time – “When”

It tells us when something happens.
Commonly used prepositions of time
at, on, in, since, for, from, by, beyond, with, within, till, until, up to,
during, throughout, between, before, after
Top 3 prepositions of time:
“at”, “on”, “in”
Prepositions of time Examples

1. The plane arrived in Hong Kong at 7:15 PM.
at
2. She always goes online at noon/night/midnight.
at a point of time/part in a day
3. The fast food shop must be crowded at lunchtime.
More examples:
1. I have made an appointment with Mr. Robinson at 12:30 AM.
2. The news roundup is delivered at dinnertime.
3. A traffic accident happened at sunrise yesterday.
4. Mr. Robinson is speaking to another person at the moment.
- 21 -
3.4 Manner
It tells us how something happens.
3.4.1 Tool - “Using what”

It tells us what is/are used to do an action.
Examples
I killed the dog a knife.
My maid cleans the floor a wet towel.
with
I paid the bills my savings.
Denny bought a new car a bank loan.
3.4.2 Means - “How ”

It tells us how an action happens (means).
Examples
I became famous writing a few good books.
You can lose weight by doing physical exercise.
I sent a letter to my friend airmail.
3.4.3 Company
It tells us who/what is/are in the company or presence of an action.
Examples
I live with my father.
I went out for a walk my daughter.
He traveled to China a couple of friends.
You should be waiting for your parents patience.
- 26 -
Chapter 4: Combinations of prepositions with verbs,

adjectives and nouns
Prepositions are normally used with other words to form combinations. They form
combinations with verbs, adjectives and nouns.
Remark: There are no rules for the combinations. Therefore, you have to memorize
the most common ones.
Symbols:
sb = somebody sth = something sw = somewhere
4.1 Verb + Preposition Combinations

Many of the verbs are normally followed by particular prepositions. Listed below are
the most common verb + preposition combinations.
Verb + Preposition Combinations

(A)
Verb Preposition
Accuse sb of (doing) sth
Example: The relatives of the victim accused the hospital of negligence.
Adapt to sth
Example: Exchange students need to adapt to the new study environment.
Add sth to sth

Example: I have added some sugar to your coffee?
Admire sb for sth
Example: People admire John for his contribution on education.
- 50 -
Combinations with verbs, adjectives and nouns
Appoint sb as sth
Example: The Hong Kong government appointed Henry as the financial secretary.
Arrange sth for sb
Example: I arranged a birthday party for my father.
Agree with sb
Example: I can’t agree with you on this.
Agree on sth
Example: We all agreed on the new arrangements.
Aim at (doing) sth

Example: The TV program aimed at enhancing the public awareness of hygiene.
Apologize to sb for sth

Example: Japan should have apologized to China for its invasion during World
War II.
Appeal to sb/sth
Example: His sense of humor appeals to lots of girls.
Appeal to sb for sth

Example: The charity organization is appealing to the public for clothes and food.
Apply to sb for sth

Example: I applied to a bank for a credit card a month ago.
- 51 -
4.2 Adjective + Preposition Combinations

Certain prepositions usually follow certain adjectives. For example, “a person is
different from someone, keen on something, polite to someone, expert in
something.”
Adjective + Preposition Combinations

(A)
Adjective Preposition
Absent from sth
Example: Danny has been absent from school for a week.
Absorbed in sth
Example: The audience was so absorbed in my speech.
Accustomed to (doing) sth

Example: I am accustomed to staying up until midnight.
Addicted to sth
Example: Teenagers are addicted to online games these days.
Adjacent to sth
Example: The post office is located adjacent to the park.
Afraid of (doing) sth

Example: Most children are afraid of ghosts.
Angry at/with sb
Example: It’s not my fault. Why are you angry at me?
- 64 -
Appropriate for sth

Example: This book is appropriate for all English learners.
Ashamed of (doing) sth/sb

Example: I am ashamed of your irresponsible act.
Associated with sth

Example: The popularity of a film is associated with its publicity.
Aware of sth
Example: People are now aware of the importance of hygiene.
Bad at (doing) sth

Example: My maid is bad at cooking.
Blind to sth
Example: Americans are blind to the importance of a balanced healthy diet.
Capable of (doing) sth

Example: I am capable of speaking five languages.
Careful with sth

Example: Please be careful with the hot water.
Cautious about sth

Example: Pregnant women should be more cautious about food they eat.
- 65 -
4.3 Noun + Preposition Combinations

Certain prepositions usually follow certain nouns.
Noun + Preposition Combinations

(A)
Noun Preposition
Access to sw
Example: We tried to find the access to the exit.
Admiration for sb/sth

Example: Your admiration for my works is highly appreciated.
Advice on sth
Example: You should value advice on your performance.
Alternative to sth
Example: Can you find an alternative to smoking?
Application for sth

Example: I have submitted an application for a credit card.
Appreciation of sth
Example: Mary has no appreciation of her mother’s love.
Attitude to/towards sth

Example: You should have a good attitude to/towards your homework.
- 77 -
Attempt at (doing) sth

Example: All of my attempts at recovering the data on the hard disk were failed.
(Pay) attention to sb/sth

Example: Pregnant women have to pay more attention to what they eat.
Authority over sb/sth

Example: The president of the United States has authority over its army.
(B)
Basis for sth
Example: The basis for learning English is language knowledge.
Belief in sth
Example: My belief in becoming a successful person has never been shaken.
(C)
Cheque for how much money
Example: I have issued a cheque for two thousand dollars.
Confidence in sth
Example: I have confidence in the future of Hong Kong.
Consideration for sb
Example: Be quiet! You should show a little consideration for your neighbours.
Contribution to sth
Example: Bill Gate’s contribution to the world is great.
- 78 -
Order Information


resource now at:
The Heart
of the
English Language
~Phrasal Verbs~
An innovative and effective phrasal verb teaching book that
9 teaches the correct usage of phrasal verbs
9 teaches the most effective way to learn phrasal verbs
9 covers all of the most commonly used phrasal verbs
T. To
The Heart
of the
English Language
~Phrasal Verbs~
An innovative and effective phrasal verb teaching book that
9 teaches the correct usage of phrasal verbs
9 teaches the most effective way to learn phrasal verbs
9 covers all of the most commonly used phrasal verbs
T. To
The Heart of the English Language – Phrasal Verbs
Copyright © 2005, 2006 by Taren To


www.sky-press.com
First Edition
The Heart of the English Language – Phrasal verbs
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: What is a phrasal verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.1

1.1 Types of phrasal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.2
1.1.1 Intransitive phrasal verbs (P.V.I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.2
1.1.2 Transitive phrasal verbs (P.V.T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.3
1.1.2.1 Separable or Non-separable transitive phrasal verbs. . P.4
1.1.2.1.1 Separable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.4
1.1.2.1.2 Non-separable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.5
1.2 How to learn phrasal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.6
Chapter 2: Common phrasal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.7
2.1 Up: An upward movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.7

2.1.1 Figurative meaning 1: Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.7
2.1.2 Figurative meaning 2: Improved positions or states . . . . . . . . . . P.13
2.1.3 Figurative meaning 3: Being brought into existence . . . . . . . . . . P.25
2.1.4 Figurative meaning 4: Being together with similar things . . . . . P.31
2.1.5 Figurative meaning 5: Keeping a safe, tight or firm position . . . P.36
2.1.6 Figurative meaning 6: Being equal in quality, knowledge . . . . . P.39
2.1.7 Figurative meaning 7: Becoming older or at a later stage . . . . . P.40
2.1.8 Figurative meaning 8: Being smaller parts, pieces or being
made into smaller areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.41
2.1.9 Figurative meaning 9: Vertical positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.43
Phrasal verb exercise 1: (~up) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.45
2.2 Down: A downward movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.47

2.2.1 Figurative meaning 1: Lower level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.47
2.2.3 Figurative meaning 3: Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.57
I
2.2.4 Figurative meaning 4: Falling to the ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.60

2.2.5 Figurative meaning 5: Keeping a firm state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.63
2.2.6 Figurative meaning 6: Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.64
Phrasal verb exercise 2: (~down) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.66
2.3 In/Into: An inward movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.67

2.3.1 Figurative meaning 1: Moving towards the inside . . . . . . . . . . . P.67
2.3.2 Figurative meaning 2: Being involved in or connected with a
situation or activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.74
2.3.3 Figurative meaning 3: Entering new conditions or states . . . . . . P.82
2.3.4 Figurative meaning 4: Forming part of something . . . . . . . . . . . P.87
Phrasal verb exercise 3: (~in/into) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.90
2.4 Out: An outward movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.93

2.4.1 Figurative meaning 1: Moving outside or being outside . . . . . . . P.93
2.4.2 Figurative meaning 2: Ending or disappearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.101
2.4.4 Figurative meaning 4: Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.117
2.4.5 Figurative meaning 5: Extending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.120
Phrasal verb exercise 4: (~out) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.122
2.5 On: In a position above something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.125

2.5.1 Figurative meaning 1: Continuation (time or position) . . . . . . . . P.125
2.5.3 Figurative meaning 3: Attached or connected ............. P.132
2.5.4 Figurative meaning 4: Wearing clothes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.141
Phrasal verb exercise 5: (~on) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.142
II
2.6 Off: Leaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.144

2.6.1 Figurative meaning 1: Being away from somewhere, something
or some situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.144
2.6.2 Figurative meaning 2: Being separated, removed . . . . . . . . . . . . P.149
2.6.4 Figurative meaning 4: Finishing or stopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.158
Phrasal verb exercise 6: (~off) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.166
2.7 Over: Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.168

2.7.2 Figurative meaning 2: Across from one side to the other . . . . . . P.171
Phrasal verb exercise 7: (~over) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.173
2.8 Around/Round/About: Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.174

2.8.1 Figurative meaning 1: Visiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.174
2.8.2 Figurative meaning 2: Wasting time doing nothing . . . . . . . . . . . P.175
2.9 Others – Along/Back/Across/Through/Away/After/For/With/By . . . . . P.176

2.9.1 Along . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.176
2.9.2 Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.177
2.9.3 Across . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.178
2.9.4 Through . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.178
2.9.5 Away . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.179
2.9.6 After . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.180
2.9.7 For . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.181
2.9.8 With . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.182
2.9.9 By . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.182
Final Test: (Identifying phrasal verbs in real English) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.185
III
Answer Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.193
IV
What is a phrasal verb
Chapter 1: What is a phrasal verb
What is a “phrasal verb”?

A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb that creates a meaning
different from the original verb that stands alone.
Example: I ran into my old friend David last Saturday.
Remark: I didn't physically run into David, but I met him unexpectedly.
Phrasal verbs are used all the time in everyday English, especially spoken English.
To understand and speak natural English, you have to be familiar with the commonly
used phrasal verbs.
Remark: The term “preposition” will be used throughout this book although phrasal
verbs can be formed with adverbs.
-1-
1.1 Types of phrasal verbs

Intransitive or Transitive phrasal verbs
1.1.1 Intransitive phrasal verbs (P.V.I)

An intransitive phrasal verb is not followed by an object.
The definition of an “intransitive phrasal verb”:

An intransitive phrasal verb does not require a direct object to complete its
meaning as shown in the following examples. The action ends in itself rather than
being transferred to some persons or objects. Carry on, Come back, Dress up, Get
up, Give up and Take off are all intransitive verbs.
Examples:
1. A movie star suddenly showed up.
2. My computer broke down.
3. The plane bound to Taiwan has already taken off.
4. The test is too difficult for me, so I gave up at last.
-2-
What is a phrasal verb
5. The trial will carry on next Monday.
6. The robber who killed two innocents ran away.
1.1.2 Transitive phrasal verbs (P.V.T)

A transitive phrasal verb is followed by an object.
The definition of a “transitive phrasal verb”:

A transitive phrasal verb does require a direct object to complete its meaning as
shown in the following examples. In other words, the action of the transitive verb is
transferred to its object directly.
Examples:
1. I chopped down the tree.
2. You have to slow down your pace.
3. The statistics pointed out your weakness in grammar.
4. “NW” stands for North West.
5. Barry takes after his father.
6. Jack is looking for his lost wallet.
-3-
Common phrasal verbs (~up)
Chapter 2: Common phrasal verbs
The phrasal verbs taught in this book are categorized into different figurative
meanings for easy understanding and memorizing.
Symbolic Explanations
sth = Something sb = Somebody sw = Somewhere
(i) = Intransitive phrasal verbs ( ) = Optional
Frequency of Use
= High frequency
= Moderate frequency
= Low frequency
2.1 “Up”
The basic meaning of “Up”: An upward movement ↑
2.1.1 The figurative meaning 1: Completion
-7-
Phrasal verbs Meanings

Break up (i) (with sb) Marriage or relationship ends
Examples:
1. I really want to know why Mary broke up with her husband.
The noun formed from this phrasal verb
break-up, breakup
The killing is in connection with the breakup of the killer’s marriage.
Block up sth | Block sth up Fill a narrow space with something
1. Striking workers are blocking up the roads to the factory.
Blow up (i) Destroy something by an explosion

Blow up sth | Blow sth up
1. The car crashed and blew up.

2. A terrorist threatened to blow up the building.
Break up (i) Party, school, meeting, etc. ends

Break up sth | Break sth up
1. The meeting had broken up before you arrived.

2. I have to break up the party because it is already late.
break-up, breakup
The deteriorated weather led to the early breakup of the class.
-8-
Common phrasal verbs (~up)
2.1.2 The figurative meaning 2: Improved positions or states
Back up sb | Back sb up (in) Support or help someone
1. My family backed me up in my decision to study abroad.
Back up (i) Make a copy of computer information

Back up sth | Back sth up
1. My computer was scheduled to back up every week.

2. You need to back up important files on you computer periodically.
back-up
Please store the back-up of your files in another computer.
Beat up sb | Beat sb up Hurt someone badly by hitting repeatedly
1. The police arrested the cold-blooded killer and beat him up.
- 13 -
Brush up (on) sth Practice and improve something
subject, skill, technique

1. You need to brush up on your French before you go to France.
Build up (i) Increase or make something increase

Build up sth | Build sth up
muscles, strength, stamina,

reputation, speed, , profits
1. My reputation built up a lot after I published a series of popular books.
2. I need to do more physical exercise to build up my stamina.
build-up, buildup
There has been a prominent debt build-up as a result of the stagnant economy.
Cheer up (i) Start to feel happier

Cheer up sb | Cheer sb up
1. I cheer up whenever I see my lovely daughter.

2. My lovely daughter cheers me up whenever I see her.
Clear up (i) Improve
weather
1. I hope the weather clears up before we set off.
- 14 -
Common phrasal verbs (~down)
2.2 “Down”
The basic meaning of “Down”: A downward movement ↓
2.2.1 The figurative meaning 1: Lower level

Break down sth | Break sth down Turn something into smaller parts
(into sth)
information, work, substance

Examples:
1. Can you break down your article into sections so that I can understand more
easily?
2. The institute broke down the English exam results by writing, speaking and
reading.
3. Rice will be eventually broken down into glucose inside your body.
breakdown
1. The breakdown of the total price will let me know how much money goes to tax.
2. The digestive system is responsible for the breakdown of food you take in.
- 47 -
Bring down sth | Bring sth down Reduce the amount, rate or level of
something
1. The government has proposed several measurements to bring down the crime
rate.
2. Suntan lotion can bring down the harmful effect of sunlight.
Bring down sb | Bring sb down Cause people in high positions to lose their
positions
1. Bill Clinton’s sex scandal nearly brought him down.
2. The opposition leader threatened to bring down the government.
Come down (i) Become lower
price, rate, level

1. The prices of personal computers (PCs) have come down dramatically over the
past two decades.
2. The unemployment rate in Hong Kong has come down a lot since 2003.
Cool down (i) Become cooler or make something become

Cool down sth | Cool sth down cooler
1. Don’t drink the tea until it cools down a bit.

2. The mini-fan inside your computer is used to cool down the central processing
unit.
- 48 -
Common phrasal verbs (~down)
Turn down sth | Turn sth down Reduce the amount of sound or heat
1. I can’t hear you. Could you please turn down the TV a bit?
Break down (i) Stop working or fail
car, system, machine, talks,

negotiations, marriage, argument,
plan
1. My car broke down on my way home last night.
2. The talk between the United nations and North Korea broke down.
Break down (i) Become mentally ill
persons’ mind
1. Mandy broke down after her boy friend had left with another woman.
breakdown
Her breakdown was mainly due to financial problems.
- 53 -
Burn down (i) Destroy something by fire

Burn down sth | Burn sth down
1. A museum had burned down before the firemen arrived.

2. Sam burned down his house accidentally.
Calm down (i) Stop feeling upset, angry or excited

Calm down sb | Calm sb down
1. Calm down and tell the police what you saw when the plane crashed.
2. The protesters were so excited. Nobody could calm them down.
Close down (i) Stop doing business

Close down sth | Close sth down
1. A few restaurants closed down after the Chinese new year.
Pull down sth | Pull sth down Destroy something that is no longer in use or
wanted
1. The U.S soldiers pulled down the statue of Iraq’s former president Saddam
Hussein.
Pull down sb | Pull sb down Make someone feel unhappy or physically

weak
th
1. The terror attack on 11 September 2001 really pulled Americans down.
- 54 -
Common phrasal verbs (~in/into)
2.3 “In/Into”
The basic meaning of “In/Into”: An inward movement →□
2.3.1 The figurative meaning 1: Moving towards the inside

Ask sb in | Ask in sb Invite someone to enter a building or room
Examples 例子:
1. John’s mother asked me in for a cup of tea.
Barge in (i) Enter a room quickly without being asked

Barge into sw to do so
1. We found the room empty when we barged in.

2. You can’t barge into your sister’s bedroom without knocking.
Break in (i) Get into a building or car by using force to

Break into sw steal something
1. The burglar broke in through the rear door.

2. He tried to break into a private car, but was stopped by a passerby.
- 67 -
Burst in (i) Enter a room suddenly and interrupt the

Burst into sw people inside
1. The door was unlocked and a man suddenly burst in.

2. Two furious men burst into the shop and asked to see the manager.
Bump into sb Meet someone unexpectedly
1. I bumped into my nephew on my way home last week.
Check in (i) Go to the desk at a hotel or airport and

report that you have arrived
1. Since it is high season, you‘d better arrive at the airport early to check in.
2. My wife booked the hotel room by her name, so I couldn’t check in.
Come in (i) Enter a room or building
1. Susan knocked at the door and came in.
Crowd into sth Move in a particular direction in large

numbers
1. Thousands of the Vietnam refugees crowded into Hong Kong in the 1980s.
Drown sth in sth Cover something with a lot of liquid
1. I’d like to drown my noodles in ketchup.
- 68 -
2.3.2 The figurative meaning 2: Being involved in or connected

with a situation or activity
Believe in sth Be sure that something exists
1. Do you believe in ghosts?
Believe in sth Support or approve of something
1. They don’t believe in having sex before marriage.
Believe in sb Trust someone
1. It is important for a married couple to believe in each other.

2. My father is the only one I believe in.
Bite into sth Reduce something valuable
1. The inflation will eventually bite into the public’s wealth.
- 74 -
Common phrasal verbs (~in/into)
Break in (i) Interrupt someone who is talking
1. A man broke in while the president was addressing a conference.
Bring in sth | Bring sth in Make a particular amount of money
1. The Harry Potter book series brings in billions of dollars.

2. The film “Kung Fu” from Stephen Chow brought in a great deal of money.
Buy into sth Believe completely in something
1. Traditional people of the last generation don’t really buy into Hi-Tech products.
Call in (i) (on sth/sb) Visit a place or person for a short time
1. I will call in on you next time I go to England.

2. I called in at a gas station while I was driving home.
Call in (i) Telephone a radio or television program to

give opinion or advice
1. The public can call in to voice out their views in this programme.
call-in
1. I will take part in a call-in programme on the radio tomorrow.
- 75 -
Common phrasal verbs (~out)
2.4 “Out”
The basic meaning of “Out”: An outward movement □→
2.4.1 The figurative meaning 1: Moving outside or being outside

Ask sb out Invite someone to come with you to a place
Examples 例子:
1. Will you ask Susan out this coming Saturday?
Break out (i) Escape from a place
prison
1. A prisoner broke out last night.
Check out (i) Leave a place
hotel
1. A criminal was arrested when he checked out of the hotel.
- 93 -
Come out (i) Go somewhere with someone
1. You look bored. Would you like to come out for a drink?
Contract sth out | Contract out sth Have a job done by someone else
1. The government has contracted out the cleaning of all the city’s toilets.
Cry out (i) Shout or make a loud noise
1. The little boy cried out when he fell down.
Cut out (i) Move suddenly to a traffic line’s sideway
1. A motorbike cut out and crashed into railings on the highway yesterday.
Dig sth/sb out | Dig out sth/sb Get someone or something out of
somewhere by digging
1. The rescue team tried to dig out people trapped inside the collapsed building.
Dine out (i) Go out and have dinner in a restaurant
1. I am accustomed to dinning out every Saturday night.
- 94 -
Common phrasal verbs (~out)
2.4.2 The figurative meaning 2: Ending or disappearing
Average out (i) Become equal in amount or number
1. The pros and cons of building a casino in Hong Kong seem to average out.
Back out (i) Decide not to do something that you

promised to do
1. He agreed to marry Helen, but then he backed out.
Black sth out | Black out sth Cover something so that it cannot be seen
1. Police blacked out the suspect’s face when he was being taken to the court.
Blank sth out | Blank out sth Cover something intentionally so that it
cannot be read
1. The TV news report blanked out the victim’s name.
- 101 -
Block sth out | Block out sth Stop light or noise from passing through
something
1. Suntan lotion can effectively block out UV light from the sun.
Blow out (i) Stop burning or stop something from

Blow sth out | Blow sth out burning
1. My daughter blew out the candles after we had sung a birthday song for her.
Bottom out (i) Reach the worst situation and begin to

improve
1. Figures show that the economy is bottoming out rapidly.
Burn out (i) Stop working because of damage from heat
engine, motor
1. The car engine burned out after long hours of running.
Cancel sth out | Cancel out sth Have an equal but opposite effect on
something
1. The profits gained in the stock market cancelled out the losses from business.
Clear out sth | Clear sth out Tidy a place by getting rid of things that you
do not want
1. The campaign aimed to clear out all of the beaches in Hong Kong.
clear-out
1. They are planning to give the village a clear-out.
- 102 -
Common phrasal verbs (~on)
2.5 “On”
The basic meaning of “On”: In a position above something °
2.5.1 The figurative meaning 1: Continuation (time or position)

Carry on (i) Continue doing something
Carry on doing sth
Carry on with sth
Examples:
1. No one knows whether the negotiation will carry on.
2. We carried on having dinner although there was a sudden blackout.
3. She will carry on with her study while she is on a plane.
Go on (i) Continue without stopping

Go on doing sth
Go on with sth
1. You will be fired if your performance goes on like this.

2. She goes on making the same mistake in her writing.
3. I couldn’t go on with my work until the Internet connection recovered.
- 125 -
Go on to (do) sth Do something after you have finished doing

something else
1. He talked about the history of India and then went on to the recent development
of China.
Hang on (i) Wait for a short time
1. The person to whom you want to speak is on the phone now. Could you hang on a
minute, please?
Hold on (i) Wait for a short time
1. Mr. Brown is still on the phone. Could you hold on for another few minutes?
Keep on doing sth Continue to do something
1. My grandfather keeps on talking about his past.
Move on (i) Change from one subject to another
1. We have talked a lot about this topic. Shall we move on?
Move on (i) Leave the place where you have been

staying and go somewhere else
1. We have been having a rest here long enough, so we should move on.
- 126 -
2.6 “Off”
The basic meaning of “Off”: Leaving
2.6.1 The figurative meaning 1: Being away from somewhere,

something or some situations

Back off (i) Move backwards away from something
Examples:
1. I saw a fight between two gangs and backed off.
Beat off sb | Beat sb off Defeat someone who is trying to attack you,
harm you, or compete against you
1. We managed to beat off our business rival and won the contract.
Close off sth | Close sth off Stop people from entering a place
1. The Lands Department has closed off the highway for maintenance.
- 144 -
Common phrasal verbs (~off)
Fend off sth | Fend sth off Avoid dealing with difficult questions
1. The divorced woman would definitely fend off sensitive questions about
remarriage.
Fight off sth | Fight sth off Try hard to get rid of something
1. China has been trying hard to fight off poverty.
Get off (i) Start a journey
1., We will be late if we don’t get off early.
Head off (i) Leave to go somewhere else
1. It’s already late. We need to head off now.
Keep off sth Not go onto an area, or to prevent someone

Keep sb/sth off sth or something from going onto an area
1. We are told to keep off the grassland.

2. Police are keeping vehicles off the road where a woman was run down by a truck.
Keep sth off Prevent something touching or affecting

something else
1. She always wears a mask to keep the dust in the air off.
- 145 -
2.7 “Over”
The basic meaning of “Over”: Completion

Blow over (i) Become less important or is forgotten
Examples:
1. The argument between China and Japan over blew over after a few weeks.
Fall over (i) Fall to the ground
1. The drunken man fell over and fainted.
Go over sth Examine or study something carefully
1. The jury went over all the evidence from the police and statements from
witnesses.
2. Did you go over your answers before you hand in at the end of the exam?
3. Have you gone over my business proposal?
Go over to sth Change to something new
1. I don’t think David Beckham will go over to a new football club next year.
Look over sth | Look sth over Examine something or someone quickly
1. Could you look over my essay and see if I write something wrong?
- 168 -
2.8 “Around/Round/About”
The basic meaning of “Around/Round/About”: Movement
2.8.1 The figurative meaning 1: Visiting

Ask around (i) (for sth) Ask a lot of people for information
Examples:
1. If you lose you way in the city, you can ask around for the direction.
Bring about sth | Bring sth about Make something happen
1. The Internet has brought about many business opportunities.

2. Julie brought about her divorce by having an affair with her boss.
Come round/around (i) Visit someone at home
1. Can I come around and show you something?
Get around/about (i) Travel to different places
1. Tom is so rich that he can get around by his private plane.
Shop around (i) Compare the price and quality of similar

things before you decide which to buy
1. I usually shop around for the best deal whenever I buy a car.
- 174 -
Common phrasal verbs (~around/round/about)
Show sb round/around (i) (sth) Go with someone to a place they have not
visited before
1. I will show you around the campus tomorrow.
2.8.2 The figurative meaning 2: Wasting time doing nothing
Fool around (i) Waste time doing nothing useful
1. You can’t just fool around at home.
Hang around (sw) Spend time somewhere for no reason
1. He spent a lot of time hanging around the bar with his friends.
Mess around (i) Spend time somewhere for no particular

reason
1. Henry enjoys messing around on the Internet.
Sit around/about (i) Spend time sitting down and doing nothing
1. The new receptionist sits around every day.
Stand around/about (i) Spend time standing somewhere and doing

nothing
1. Hundreds of people stood around at the entrance of the court for a glance at
Michael Jackson.
- 175 -
2.9 Others - “Along”, “Back”, “Across”, “Through”, “Away”,

“After”, “For”, “With”, “By”
2.9.1 “Along”
The figurative meaning: With somebody

Bring sb/sth along Take someone or something with you
Examples 例子:
1. Can I bring my parents along to your wedding?
Come along (i) (with sb) Go somewhere with someone
1. We are eating out tonight. Will you come along?

2. Should he come along with us?
Get along (i) (with sb) Have a friendly relationship
1. Susan doesn’t really get along with her mother-in-law.
Go along with sb Agree with someone's opinion
1. Bob is a stubborn person. I don’t think he will go along with us.
- 176 -
Common phrasal verbs (others)
2.9.2 “Back”
The figurative meaning: Towards a previous place, time or
condition
Bounce back (i) Become successful again after a difficult

period
1. The majority of Asia countries have bounced back after Asian financial crisis of
1997.
2. Hong Kong’s property industry bounced back more quickly than expected.
Date back to time Have existed since a particular time in the

past
1. This building dates back to 18th century.
Take sth back Admit that you were wrong to say

something
1. It’s my fault. I’ll take it all back.
Talk back (i) Reply rudely to someone
1. You mustn’t talk back to your parents like this.
Set back sth | set sth back Delay an event, process
1. A series of civil wars set back the modernization in China.
- 177 -
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The Heart

A revolutionary grammar teaching book that

9 reveals the mysteries of the English language

9 discloses the secrets of little-known learning skills

9 systematically teaches the essence of English

9 teaches the correct ways to understand English usage

9 visualizes important concepts for easy understanding

9 reveals the mysteries of the English language

9 discloses the secrets of little-known learning skills

9 systematically teaches the essence of English

9 teaches the correct ways to understand English usage

9 visualizes important concepts for easy understanding

A breakthrough for learners of English!

Copyright © 2005 by Taren To

Published by: SKY PRESS

Chapter 1: What is a verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.1

Chapter 2: Types of verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.3

Chapter 3: Verb Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.8

Chapter 4: Verb Tenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.10

Exercise 2: (Usage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.37

Chapter 5: Voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.40

Chapter 6: Conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.47

Chapter 7: Modal verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.55

Chapter 8: Infinitives and Gerunds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.65

8.2.1.2 Gerunds after Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.71

Chapter 9: Participles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.88

Chapter 10: Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.111

Chapter 11: Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.132

11.5.1.2 Irregular plural nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.146

Chapter 12: Noun clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.154

Chapter 13: Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.183

13.1.1.1 Subjective personal pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.185

Chapter 14: Adjectives (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.199

14.4.2.2 Irregular comparative and superlative forms . . . . . . . P.208

Chapter 15: Adjectives (2) - Determiners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.218

15.2.2.3 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.223

Chapter 16: Adjective clauses (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.235

Chapter 17: Adjective clauses (2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.256

Chapter 18: Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.271

18.4.2 The form of comparative and superlative adverbs . . . . . . . . . P.291

Chapter 19: Adverb clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.297

Answer Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P.310

Chapter 2: Types of Verbs

2.1 Transitive verbs (V.T) and Intransitive verbs (V.I)

Transitive verbs (V.T) take direct objects

Subject > Verb (V.T) > Direct Object

1. Tom loves Mary.

2. I am reading the newspaper.

3. I opened the door.

The definition of a “transitive verb”:

Intransitive verbs (V.I) take no objects or indirect objects

Subject > Verb (V.I)

The definition of an “intransitive verb”:

Chapter 4: Verb Tenses

4.1 What is a “tense”?

The definition of “verb tenses”:

An Overview of the English Tense System

12 Tenses Past Present Future

Simple Simple Simple

Active Continuous Continuous Continuous

Perfect Perfect Perfect

There are a total of 24 tenses in the English language.

1) How to use a tense (Structure)