A Comprehensive Guide of Functional Grammar - Group 8

COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE OF FUNCTIONAL
GRAMMAR
Author by :
1. Yurida Ma’rifatul Trisna
2. Vira Eka Wahyuni
3. Anik Vera Setyawati
4. Nafi’atul Mukhtaroh
MILIK MAHASISWA UIN KHAS JEMBER

TIDAK DIPERDAGANGKAN
A Comprehensive Guide of Functional Grammar 2

INTRODUCTION
Welcome to "A Comprehensive Guide of Functional

Grammar," a comprehensive textbook designed to be your
compass through the intricate world of functional
grammar. In the ever-evolving landscape of linguistics,
understanding how language functions is key to unlocking
its nuanced expressions. This textbook serves as your
trusted companion in exploring the principles and
applications of functional grammar, providing a roadmap
to unravel the structural intricacies of language use. Join
us on this educational journey as we delve into the
fundamental concepts and practical insights that will
empower you to analyze and appreciate the functional
aspects of grammar in diverse linguistic contexts. Whether
you are a student, educator, or language enthusiast,
embark on this exploration with us and enhance your grasp
of the dynamic interplay between form and function in the
realm of language.

Tabel of Content
CHAPTER I ................................................................................10
NOUN .........................................................................................10
1. Proper Noun ..................................................................10
2. Collective Noun.............................................................11
3. Common Noun ..............................................................11
4. Material Noun...............................................................12
5. Concrete Noun ..............................................................13
6. Abstract Noun...............................................................14
7. Countable Noun ............................................................14
8. Uncountable Noun ........................................................15
EXERCISE ............................................................................16
CHAPTER II...............................................................................20
PRONOUN .................................................................................20
1. Personal Pronoun .........................................................20
2. Possessive Pronoun .......................................................21
3. Demonstrative Pronoun................................................22
4. Relative Pronoun ..........................................................23
5. Reflexive Pronoun .........................................................24

6. Indefinite Pronoun ........................................................25
EXERCISE ............................................................................26
CHAPTER III .............................................................................30
VERB ..........................................................................................30
1. Action Verbs ..................................................................30
2. Linking Verbs................................................................31
3. Auxiliary Verbs .............................................................31
a. Primary auxialary verbs .............................................32
b. Modal auxialary verbs ................................................35
4. Main Verbs ....................................................................41
a. Transitive verbs ..........................................................42
b. Intransitive verbs ........................................................43
c. Infinitive verbs ...........................................................44
d. To Infinitive verbs ......................................................47
EXERCISE ............................................................................49
CHAPTER IV .............................................................................52
ADVERB ....................................................................................52
1. Adverbs of Manner ......................................................53
2. Adverbs of Time ...........................................................53
3. Adverbs of Place ...........................................................54

4. Adverbs of Frequency ..................................................55
5. Adverbs of Degree ........................................................56
6. Adverbs of Certainty ....................................................56
7. Adverbs of Negation .....................................................57
8. Adverbs of Purpose ......................................................58
EXERCISE ............................................................................59
CHAPTER V ..............................................................................62
ADJECTIVE ...............................................................................62
1. Descriptive Adjective ....................................................62
2. Numeral Adjective ........................................................63
3. Quantitative Adjective..................................................64
4. Demonstrative Adjective ..............................................64
5. Interrogative Adjective .................................................66
6. Possessive Adjective ......................................................67
7. Proper Adjective ...........................................................68
8. Exclamatory Adjective .................................................68
EXERCISE ............................................................................69
CHAPTER VI .............................................................................72
PREPOSITION ...........................................................................72
1. Preposition of direction ................................................73

2. Preposition of place ......................................................75
3. Preposition of time........................................................77
EXERCISE ............................................................................79
CHAPTER VII ............................................................................82
CONJUNCTION ........................................................................82
1. Coordinating Conjunctions .........................................82
2. Subordinating Conjunctions .......................................84
3. Correlative Conjunctions .............................................86
EXERCISE ............................................................................88
CHAPTER VIII ..........................................................................91
INTERJECTION ........................................................................91
1. Primary interjections ...................................................91
2. Volitive interjections .....................................................92
3. Motive interjections......................................................92
EXERCISE ............................................................................93
EXTRA CHAPTER ....................................................................97
PHRASE .....................................................................................97
1. Noun phrases ................................................................97
2. Verb phrases .................................................................98
3. Gerund phrases ............................................................98

4. Infinitive phrases ..........................................................99
5. Appositive phrases........................................................99
6. Participial phrases ..................................................... 100
7. Prepositional phrases ................................................ 100
8. Absolute phrases. ....................................................... 101
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 101
SENTENCE ............................................................................. 105
1. Simple Sentence ......................................................... 105
2. Complex Sentence ..................................................... 105
3. Compound Sentence .................................................. 106
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 107
CLAUSE .................................................................................. 111
1. Dependent clause ....................................................... 111
2. Independent clause .................................................... 111
3. Definite clause ............................................................ 112
4. Indefinite clause ......................................................... 112
5. Adjective clause ......................................................... 113
6. Adverbial clause ........................................................ 113
7. Noun clause ................................................................ 114
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 114

ANALYSIS SENTENCE WITH SVOC .................................. 117
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 120
ANALYSIS SENTENCE WITH TREE DIAGRAM ............... 126
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 128
METAFUNCTION................................................................... 129
a. Ideational function ....................................................... 130
b. Experiential function.................................................... 130
c. Logical function ........................................................... 132
d. Interpersonal function .................................................. 133
e. Textual function ........................................................... 135
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 136
EXERCISE ......................................................................... 138
APPENDIX .............................................................................. 140
KATA MUTIARA .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................... 142

CHAPTER I
NOUN
A noun is a part of speech that is used to name or identify

a person, place, thing, or idea. A noun is a word that
represents a person, place, thing, or idea. They can also
be used in a variety of ways in a sentence, such as the
subject, direct object, indirect object, subject
complement, object complement, appositive, or
modifier.
Here are some examples of nouns:
 Person: Vira, Yuri, Cousin, Lawyer, Teacher
 Place: Jember, Garden, School, Factory,
Shelter.
 Thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love,
dog, monkey.
 Idea: confusion, kindness, faith, Theory of
Relativity, joy.
1. Proper Noun
A proper noun is a noun that serves as the name
for a specific place, person, or thing. To distinguish

them from common nouns, proper nouns are always
capitalized in English. Proper nouns include personal
names, place names, names of companies and
organizations, and the titles of books, films, songs, and
other media.
Example :
- I’ve never been to Egypt.
2. Collective Noun
A collective noun is a noun that refers to some sort
of group or collective - of people, animals, things, etc.
Collective nouns are normally not treated as plural,
even though they refer to a group of something.
Example :
- BTS broke up when Seokjin quit the band.
3. Common Noun
Common noun is a noun that may occur with
limiting modifiers (a or an, some, every, and my) and
that designates any one of a class of beings or things.
According to the Cambridge Dictionary, a common
noun is defined as a noun that is the name of a group

of similar things (table or book, and not of a single
person, place, or thing).
Example :
- When can I find a restaurant ?
- Your hair looks really good.
4. Material Noun
Material Noun is one of those which addresses
such a Noun that can only be measured or weighed but
cannot be counted at all. A Material Noun is a special
name given to things made of substance, which
addresses the type of substance rather than the
individual particles of the substance. This Material
Noun is not countable because, it is in the form of
liquid, semi-liquid or solid. As; air, metal, gold, salt,
iron, silver, steel, etc. Using substances with Material
Noun, it can be converted into other colors, forms,
shapes, etc. They remain Material Nouns even after
changing into other forms.
Example :
- Diamond is the hardest
substance in the world.

- Calcium is essential for our
bones.
- Cotton is the best material to
use in summer.
- Milk contains lactic acid.
- Tea is served to welcome guests
into our home.
- Honey is a natural sweetener.
5. Concrete Noun
A concrete noun is a noun that refers to a physical
thing, person, or place - something or someone that
can be perceived with the five senses (touch, hearing,
sight, smell, and taste). Examples include pencil, dog,
and Patricia.
Example :
- A cat ran across the garden and
climbed the fence.
- My house is made of brick and
mortar.

6. Abstract Noun
Abstract nouns represent intangible ideas—things
you can’t perceive with the five main senses. Words
like love, time, beauty, and science are all abstract
nouns because you can’t touch them or see them.
Without a tangible frame of reference, abstract nouns
can be hard to pin down with grammar rules. In this
quick guide, we explain the basics so you can use
abstract nouns with confidence!
Example :
- Islam is my religion.
- Keep our friendship.
7. Countable Noun
Used for things that we can count using numbers.
This noun has singular and plural forms. The singular
form can use the articles "a" or "an". If you want to
ask for the number of countable nouns, you ask How
many followed by a plural countable noun. Such as
one dog, two dogs, one man, two men.

Example :
- I would like two books please.
- She has three dogs.
- I have a boyfriend.
8. Uncountable Noun
Used for things that we cannot count using
numbers. These words include names for abstract
ideas or properties or physical objects that are too
small to count or have no form (liquids, powders,
gases, etc.). Uncountable nouns are used with
singular verbs. These nouns usually do not have a
plural form. Such as : tea, sugar, water, air, etc.
Example :
- He did not have much sugar
left.
- I have some milk.

EXERCISE
1. We must call the __ to catch the robber.

a. Hospital
b. Post office
c. Police
d. Ambulance
Answer : C
2. My father is reading __ in the office now.

a. A newspaper
b. A television
c. A speaker
d. A radio
Answer : A
3. My grandmother always tell me to wash my ___ before

eating something.
a. Teeth
b. Face
c. Feet
d. Hands
Answer : A

4. My father is reading __ in the office now.
a. A newspaper
b. A television
c. A speaker
d. A radio
Answer : A
5. My grandmother always tell me to wash my ___ before

eating something.
a. Teeth
b. Face
c. Feet
d. Hands
Answer : A
6. We need ___ to bring our school books.

a. Uniform
b. Bag
c. Pencil case
d. Wallet
Answer : B

7. Before entering someone’s house, we must ___ on the
door.
a. Cry
b. Scream
c. Hit
d. Knock
Answer : D
8. Will you go with me to the ___ to watch a movie?

a. Stadium
b. Cinema
c. Hospital
d. Theater
Answer : B
9. We buy a book in a ___ .

a. Supermarket
b. Fruitstall
c. Bookstore
d. Music studio
Answer : C

10. ___ is the place for students to study.
a. Library
b. Classroom
c. Teacher’s office
d. School canteen
Answer : B

CHAPTER II
PRONOUN
Pronouns are words that are used in place of nouns or
noun phrases. There are six types of pronouns in English
grammar, which are :
1. Personal Pronoun
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or
thing and can be subjective (used as the subject of a
sentence), objective (used as the object of a sentence),
or possessive (used to show ownership). Personal
Pronoun is a pronoun typically used to refer to a
speaker or to the people or things that a speaker is
referring to. Often, personal pronouns are used to
replace proper names as in Olivia went to bed early
because she (Olivia) worked hard today.
Example :
- She is my friend. (The pronoun
"she" is a personal pronoun

used as the subject of the
sentence).
- It is a black cat.
2. Possessive Pronoun
The possesive pronoun is a type of pronoun that
originates from personal pronoun types and indicates
possession quality for any comparable relationship.
A possessive pronoun are pronoun that are used to
show your possesion or ownership of someone or
something (a noun or pronoun). They indicate that
they belong to that particular person and no one else.
Possessive pronouns can be used instead of a noun
phrase to avoid any repetition.
Example :
- This is my book, not yours
(The pronoun "yours" is a
possessive pronoun showing
ownership).
- That blue car is mine.
- The project that won the first
prize was ours.

3. Demonstrative Pronoun
A demonstrative pronoun points to or identifies
a specific noun or pronoun. Demonstrative pronouns
are a type of pronoun used to represent something so
you don’t have to repeat words. Because of this, they
help make your communication more efficient.
Demonstrative pronouns are very important in every
language, including English. The demonstrative
pronouns this, that, these, and those are used to
represent an already mentioned or implied word or
phrase, helping make communication faster and
easier, demonstrative pronouns can refer to anything.
Example:
- This is my car. (The pronoun
"this" points to the car).
- The movie last night was
awful. This is the last time you
recommend one.
- Don’t touch the chocolate
cookies. Those are mine.

4. Relative Pronoun
A relative pronoun introduces a relative clause
and connects it to an antecedent. A relative pronoun
is one which is used to refer to nouns mentioned
previously, whether they are people, places, things,
animals, or ideas. Relative pronouns can be used to
join two sentences.
There are only a few relative pronouns in the
English language. The most common are which, that,
whose, whoever, whomever, who, and whom. In
some situations, the words what, when, and where
can also function as relative pronouns. Because there
are only a few of them, there are also just a few rules
for using relative pronouns.
Example:
- The man who is wearing a hat
is my uncle. (The pronoun
"who" introduces the relative
clause, "who is wearing a hat"
and connects it to the
antecedent "man").

- The pants that I bought
yesterday are already stained.
- The cyclist who won the race
trained hard.
5. Reflexive Pronoun
A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of
a sentence and is used to show that the subject is also
the object of the sentence. Reflexive pronoun is a
pronoun that refers to another noun or pronoun
within the same sentence. In the English language
specifically, a reflexive pronoun will end in -self or -
selves, and refer to a previously named noun or
pronoun.
Example :
- I hurt myself. (The pronoun
"myself" is a reflexive pronoun
referring back to the subject
"I")
- He wants to pass his driving
test so that he can drive
himself to work.

- She broke her arm, so she
couldn’t was herself very
easily.
6. Indefinite Pronoun
An indefinite pronoun refers to a person, place,
thing, or idea that is not specifically identified. An
indefinite pronoun is a pronoun which does not have
a specific, familiar referent. Indefinite pronouns are
in contrast to definite pronouns. Indefinite pronouns
can represent either count nouns or noncount nouns.
We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or
things without saying exactly who or what they are.
Example:
- Someone left their phone her.
(The pronoun "someone" is an
indefinite pronoun referring to
an unidentified person).
- Everybody enjoy the concert.
- It was a very clear day. We
could see everything.

EXERCISE
1. He should control _ words so that he wouldn’t say
something bad.
A. he
B. his
C. their
D. our
Jawaban: B
2. I don’t know how to say it to _ that I love him. It is so

difficult to say. Any idea?
A. it
B. him
C. his
D. its
Jawaban: B
3. They ate many foods at my birthday party. I feel happy

that _ like what I cooked.
A. them
B. they
C. me

D. I
Jawaban: B
4. Please tell __ that __ will be late.

A. (her, I)
B. (them, him)
C. (we, I)
D. (him, her)
Jawaban: A
5. My brother works in a big factory. __ says that __ is a

nice place.
A. (she, it)
B. (he, it)
C. (it, it)
D. (he, there)
Jawaban: B
6. My father has a dog. __ likes play with __.

A. (him, it)
B. (he, it)
C. (he, him)
D. (he, her)

Jawaban: B
7. When my boss promoted me, __ was so proud and __

gave me so many advices.
A. (he, him)
B. (he, she)
C. (he, he)
D. (them, he)
Jawaban: C
8. What’s wrong with __ ? You look pale. Are you sick ?

A. She
B. Her
C. His
D. You
Jawaban: D
9. My brother is invited to their wedding party. ___ are our

friends.
A. their
B. they
C. them

D. we
Jawaban: B
10. I can’t read the map. Would ___ help me please?

A. you
B. he
C. me
D. your
Jawaban: A

CHAPTER III
VERB
In the English language or any language for that matter,

verbs happen to be an essential part of speech, without
which it would be impossible to indicate what the subject
is doing. It refers to all actions, including those related to
feelings and emotions. Verbs come in different types and
forms so that they can perform differently in order to
provide complete meaning. Before we look into the types
of verbs and the verb forms, let us look at how various
dictionaries define the term ‘verb’. A verb is a part of
speech that describes an action, occurrence, or state of
being. It is the grammatical center of a predicate and is
inflected for agreement with the subject, tense, voice,
mood, or aspect in various languages. Verbs are essential
in almost every sentence, and they come in different types
and forms.
1. Action Verbs
These are used to refer to physical or mental

actions that are performed with bodies or objects, such
as jump, hit, think, or memorize.
Example:
- He jump every afternoon.
- She think very hard.
2. Linking Verbs
These are used to link a subject with a subject
complement, which describes or identifies the subject
of the sentence or clause. Linking verb connects the
subject of a sentence to an adjective, noun, or pronoun
that completes the meaning of the verb. Common
linking verbs are the forms of the verb to be; verbs
relating to the five senses, and the verbs become,
appear, and seem.
Example :
- She seems sad today.
- This place looks like a mess!
3. Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs are verbs that help other verbs
show meaning. An auxiliary verb, or helping verb, is
used alongside the main verb in a sentence to add

functional or grammatical meaning. These verbs
contribute to the formation of various tenses, moods,
voices, and aspects. There are two types of auxilliary
verbs, namely primary and modal auxilliaries.
a. Primary auxialary verbs
Primary auxiliary verbs, also known as
primary auxiliaries or simply auxiliaries. They
serve as the building blocks for creating various
verb tenses, forming questions and negatives, and
expressing aspects in English. Primary auxiliary
verbs include “be” (am, is, are, was, were), “have”
(has, have, had), and “do” (do, does, did). These
verbs play a foundational role in forming tenses,
asking questions, creating negatives, and
expressing certain aspects. Here’s an explanation
of each:
1) Be (am, is, are, was, were):
- Used for forming continuous tenses:
“She is reading a book.”
- Forms passive voice: “The letter was
written by John.”
- Indicates a state of being: “They are
happy.”

2) Have (has, have, had):
- Used to form perfect tenses: “I have
finished my work.”
- Indicates possession: “She has a new
car.”
- Forms the present perfect: “They
have lived here for years.”
3) Do (do, does, did):
- Used to form negatives and questions
in the present simple: “He doesn’t
like coffee.” “Do you have a pen?”
- Emphasizes the main verb: “She does
love to travel.
- Forms negatives and questions in the
past simple: “They didn’t go to the
party.”
Here are more examples of sentences with

auxiliary verbs:
1) Be:
- They are studying for their
exams.”
- “She was cooking dinner when

the phone rang.”
- “It is raining outside.”
2) Have:
- “He has visited that museum
before.”
- “We have seen this movie
already.”
- “She had finished her book by
the time I arrived.”
3) Do:
- They do their homework every
evening.”
- “Does he like chocolate ice
cream?”
- “She did complete the
assignment on time.”
Key functions of auxiliary verbs:

a. Tense formation: Auxiliary verbs help
indicate the time of an action, such as
past, present, or future. For example, “He
is running” uses the auxiliary verb “is” to

show the present tense.
b. Question and negative formation: In
questions and negatives, auxiliary verbs
play a crucial role. For instance, “Did you
eat?” or “She hasn’t arrived yet.”
c. Voice and mood: Auxiliary verbs
contribute to expressing passive voice
(e.g., “The cake was baked”) and certain
moods (e.g., “I can swim”).
b. Modal auxialary verbs

Modal auxiliary verbs, commonly known as
modal verbs or modals, are a special category of
auxiliary verbs that express a speaker’s attitude,
necessity, ability, or possibility regarding the
action or state of being in the main verb. Modal
auxiliaries, on the other hand, are used to express
necessity, possibility, ability, permission, and
obligation. Modal auxiliaries add nuance to the
meaning of a sentence, helping convey the
speaker’s attitude, certainty, or expectation
regarding the action or situation described by the

main verb. The common modal auxiliary verbs are
“can,” “could,” “will,” “would,” “shall,” “should,”
“may,” “might,” and “must.” Below are the
explanation of each:
Modal auxiliary verbs, commonly known as
modal verbs or modals, are a special category of
auxiliary verbs that express a speaker’s attitude,
necessity, ability, or possibility regarding the
action or state of being in the main verb. Here are
some common modal auxiliaries.
1) Can:
- Expresses ability: “She can
swim.”
- Indicates possibility: “It can
rain later.”
2) Could:
- Past tense of “can”: “When I
was younger, I could run
faster.”
- Suggests a possibility: “You
could try calling again.”
3) Will:
- Expresses future intention or

prediction: “I will help you
with your project.”
- Offers a request or invitation:
“Will you pass the salt?”
4) Would:
- Often used in hypothetical or
polite situations: “If I had more
time, I would visit.”
- Polite requests: “Would you
please pass me the menu?”
5) Shall:
- Formal or old-fashioned
expression of future intention:
“We shall meet again.”
- Suggests an offer or
suggestion: “Shall we go for a
walk?”
6) Should:
- Indicates advice or
recommendation: “You should
finish your homework.”
- Expresses obligation:
“Students should attend classes

regularly.”
7) Must:
- Implies necessity or obligation:
“I must finish this report by
tomorrow.”
- Stronger than “should” in
expressing obligation.
8) May:
- Indicates permission or
possibility: “You may leave the
room.”
- Expresses uncertainty: “It may
rain later.”
9) Might:
- Similar to “may” but often
suggests a lower probability: “I
might come to the party.”
Below are further examples for each modal auxiliary:
1) Can:
- “She canplay the piano
beautifully.”
- “The computer can process
large amounts of data quickly.”

- “They can join us for dinner if
they want.”
2) Could:
- “I could run five miles when I
was younger.”
- “If you had asked, I could have
helped you with the project.”
- “She could be at the café
already.”
3) Will:
- “I will finish the work by the
end of the day.”
- “The sun will rise in the east.”
- “She will bring the dessert to
the party.”
4) Would:
- “He said he would come to the
meeting.”
- “If I won the lottery, I would
travel the world.”
- “She asked if I would mind
helping her move.”
5) Shall:

- “We shall meet at the usual
spot.”
- “Shall we start the presentation
now?”
- “I shall inform you of any
changes.”
6) Should:
- “You should consult a doctor if
the pain persists.”
- “Students should submit their
assignments on time.”
- “He should know better than to
do that.”
7) Must:
- “I must finish this report before
the deadline.”
- “Everyone must wear a helmet
while riding a bike.”
- “We must respect each other’s
opinions.”
8) May:
- “You may use my car for the
weekend.”

- “It may rain later, so bring an
umbrella.”
- “She may not be able to attend
the event.”
9) Might:
- “I might go to the movies
tonight.”
- “It might snow tomorrow,
according to the forecast.”
- “He might be at home; let’s call
and check.”
4. Main Verbs
Main verbs, or lexical verbs, serve as the linchpin
of a sentence, carrying the fundamental semantic
weight by expressing actions, states, or occurrences.
They are distinguished by their capacity to function
independently or combine with auxiliary verbs to
create nuanced verb phrases. These verbs encapsulate
the core meaning of a sentence and are pivotal in
conveying the primary action or state. In essence, they
constitute the backbone of sentence structure,

providing the essential framework upon which the
narrative or statement hinges, shaping the overall
linguistic expression. Main verbs are verbs that
express the main action or state of being in a sentence.
They can be either transitive or intransitive.
a. Transitive verbs
Transitive verbs require an object to receive
the action, while intransitive verbs do not need an
object to complete their meaning. Transitive verbs
are verbs that require a direct object to complete
their meaning in a sentence. A direct object is the
receiver of the action expressed by the verb. In
other words, transitive verbs act on something or
someone. Understanding transitive verbs is crucial
for constructing grammatically complete
sentences and comprehending the relationships
between the subject, verb, and the direct object in
a sentence. For example :
- She bought a new laptop
(In this sentence, “bought”
is a transitive verb. The
action of buying is directed
toward the direct object “a

new laptop”).
- They built a bridge over the
river (“Built” is a transitive
verb here. The action of
building is performed on
the direct object “a
bridge”).
- They discussed
the plan for the
project.
b. Intransitive verbs
Intransitive verbs are verbs that
do not require a direct object to
complete their meaning in a sentence.
Unlike transitive verbs, intransitive
verbs express an action, state, or
occurrence without acting on a
specific object. Here’s an explanation
with examples: Intransitive verb
examples:
- She laughed at the joke (The

intransitive verb “laughed”

describes the action of
laughing without the need
for a direct object. The
sentence is complete with
just the subject “She”).
- He sings beautifully (The
intransitive verb “sings”
conveys the action of
singing, and “beautifully”
adds detail to how he sings.
No direct object is required
for the verb).
- The river flows swiftly (The
intransitive verb “flows”
describes the continuous
action of the river moving,
and “swiftly” provides an
adverbial detail. There’s no
direct object needed for the
verb).
c. Infinitive verbs
Infinitives are a special form of verbs that can

be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb. Infinitives,
in the linguistic realm, epitomize the base form of
a verb, encapsulating the fundamental essence of
an action or state. Manifested by the addition of the
preposition ”to” before the verb, such as “to run”
or “to dream,” infinitives transcend mere verbhood.
They exhibit a chameleon-like versatility,
seamlessly donning various grammatical roles
within sentences, whether as substantive entities,
descriptive modifiers, or adverbial elucidators.
This inherent adaptability renders infinitives
indispensable in constructing nuanced and
multifaceted linguistic structures across diverse
communicative contexts.
Here are some examples of infinitives and to-
infinitives in different sentence constructions:
1) Infinitives as nouns:
- To learn a new language requires
dedication (In this sentence, “to
learn a new language” functions as
the subject of the sentence, acting as
a noun phrase representing the

action requiring dedication).
- Her goal is to travel the world
(Here, “to travel the world” serves
as a noun phrase, specifically as the
predicate nominative, explaining
her goal).
2) Infinitives as adjectives:
- She needs a tool to fix the broken
chair (“To fix the broken chair”
modifies the noun “tool,” specifying
the purpose of the tool).
- The decision to postpone the meeting
was wise (In this sentence, “to
postpone the meeting” acts as an
adjective, providing more
information about the noun
“decision”).
3) Infinitives as adverb:
- He works hard to support his family
(“To support his family” functions as
an adverbial phrase, explaining the
purpose or goal behind the action of
working hard).

- She ran fast to catch the bus (Here,
“to catch the bus” acts as an adverbial
infinitive, describing why she ran
fast).
- I woke up early to finish my
homework (“To finish my
homework” functions as an adverbial
phrase, indicating the reason or
purpose for waking up early).
d. To Infinitive verbs
The to-infinitive is a grammatical construction
in English that consists of the base form of a verb
preceded by the word “to.” It serves various
functions within a sentence, functioning as a
verbal complement and expressing a range of
meanings.This multifaceted structure, recognized
as a verbal complement, transcends conventional
verb usage, assuming roles akin to nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs within the syntactical
framework of sentences. Below are examples
along with the explanations:
1) Noun Function:

- To learn a new language requires
dedication (Here, “to learn a new
language” acts as a noun phrase,
functioning as the subject of the
sentence. It represents the action that
requires dedication).
- Her ambition is to travel the world
(In this sentence, “to travel the
world” serves as a noun phrase,
acting as the predicate nominative
and explaining her ambition).
2) Adjective Function:
- She needs a tool to fix the broken
chair (The to-infinitive “to fix the
broken chair” acts as an adjective,
specifying the purpose of the tool and
describing the type of tool needed).
- The decision to postpone the meeting
was wise (Here, “to postpone the
meeting” functions as an adjective,
providing more information about
the noun “decision” and explaining
its wisdom).

3) Adverb Function:
- He works hard to support his family
(“To support his family” functions as
an adverbial phrase, explaining the
purpose or goal behind the action of
working hard).
- She ran fast to catch the bus (Here,
“to catch the bus” acts as an adverbial
infinitive, describing why she ran
fast, providing the purpose for the
action).
EXERCISE
1. What is the primary auxiliary verb in the sentence: "She
is reading a book"?
A) is
B) reading
C) she
D) a
Answer: A
2. Identify the modal auxiliary verb in the sentence: "You

should complete your assignment."
A) complete
B) your
C) should
D) assignment
Answer: C
3. In the sentence "He ate the delicious cake," which word

is a transitive verb?
- A) He
- B) delicious
- C) ate
- D) cake
Answer: C
4. Choose the intransitive verb in the following sentence:

"The sun sets in the west."
- A) The
- B) west
- C) sets
- D) sun
Answer: C

5. What is the infinitive form of the verb in the sentence:
"I want to learn new skills"?
- A) learn
- B) skills
- C) want
- D) to
Answer: D
6. Identify the infinitive in the sentence: "She decided to

travel around the world."
- A) decided
- B) she
- C) to travel
- D) world
Answer: C
7. Which modal auxiliary verb is used to express ability in

the sentence: "He can speak three languages"?
- A) speak
- B) he
- C) three
- D) can
Answer: D

CHAPTER IV
ADVERB
Adverbs are a versatile category of words in language

that modify or describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
They provide additional information about how, when,
where, or to what degree an action or quality occurs.
Adverbs contribute to the overall clarity and specificity of
a sentence by adding details that go beyond the basic
meaning of verbs or adjectives. In essence, adverbs serve
as linguistic catalysts, enriching the fabric of expression
by providing indispensable context, temporal markers,
spatial orientation, or evaluative dimensions to the
unfolding narrative of language. Their inherent
adaptability and subtle influence make them indispensable
contributors to the precision and vividness of
communication. There are different types of adverbs,
including:

1. Adverbs of Manner
An adverb of manner is a word that provides
insight into how an action is performed or the manner
in which it occurs. It adds detail to the verb by
describing the style, method, or attitude associated
with the action. Adverbs of manner contribute to the
richness of language by conveying nuances related to
the execution or demeanor of an activity. Example:
quickly, softly.
Example :
- She danced gracefully. (showcasing
elegance in her movements).
- He spoke loudly. (indicating the manner in
which he expressed himself).
- They worked diligently. (emphasizing the
focused and conscientious approach to
their tasks).
2. Adverbs of Time
An adverb of time is a word that provides
information about when an action takes place. It adds
a temporal dimension to a sentence, answering

questions like “when,” “how often,” or “for how long.”
Adverbs of time help to establish the temporal context
of an action, allowing for a clearer understanding of
the timeline in a given sentence or statement. Example:
yesterday, now.
Example:
- She will arrive tomorrow. (specifying the
time of her arrival).
- We met recently. (giving a temporal
context to the meeting).
- They exercise daily. (indicating the
frequency with which the action occurs).
3. Adverbs of Place
An adverb of place is a word that offers
information about the location or position of an action.
It helps answer questions like “where” or “to what
extent.” Adverbs of place contribute spatial context to
sentences, enriching the description of actions by
specifying the setting or direction in which they unfold.
Example: here, there.
Example :

- He looked everywhere. (conveying a broad
scope in the search).
- They traveled abroad. (specifying the
location of their journey).
- The book is placed here, providing a clear
indication of the location.
4. Adverbs of Frequency
An adverb of frequency is a word that indicates
how often an action occurs. It provides information
about the repetition or regularity of an activity.
Adverbs of frequency help convey the regularity or
infrequency of actions in a sentence. Example: always,
rarely.
Example :
- She always finishes her work on time.
(denoting a consistent occurrence).
- They occasionally go out for dinner.
(expressing infrequent events).
- He rarely complains. (indicating a low
frequency of the action).

5. Adverbs of Degree
An adverb of degree is a word that modifies an
adjective or another adverb to indicate the intensity,
extent, or degree of the action. Adverbs of degree add
precision to language by specifying the level or extent
of a quality or action. Example: very, too.
Example :
- The water was very cold. (intensifying the
degree of coldness).
- She sings too loudly. (suggesting an
excessive level of volume).
- The movie was quite interesting.
(emphasizing a moderate level of interest).
6. Adverbs of Certainty
Adverbs of certainty express the degree of
confidence or assurance in the statement they modify.
Adverbs of certainty help convey the speaker’s belief
or conviction regarding the likelihood or inevitability
of a particular event. Example: definitely, probably.
Example :

- He will definitely attend the meeting.
(expressing a high level of assurance).
- They are probably coming. (indicating a
degree of uncertainty).
- She is undoubtedly the best candidate.
(emphasizing absolute certainty).
7. Adverbs of Negation
Adverbs of negation are words that express the
absence or denial of an action. These adverbs play a
crucial role in altering the meaning of a statement by
expressing the negative aspect of an action. Example:
not, never.
Example :
- They did not agree on the proposal.
(denying consensus).
- He never forgets your birthday, expressing
the absence of forgetfulness).
- She rarely makes mistakes. (indicating a
low frequency of errors).

8. Adverbs of Purpose
Adverbs of purpose convey the reason or intent
behind an action. Adverbs of purpose help elucidate
the motive or goal associated with a particular activity
in a sentence. Example: to, so.
Example:
- She studies hard to succeed. (specifying
the goal behind her studying).
- They work diligently so that they can
achieve their dreams. (indicating the
purpose of their efforts).
- He exercises regularly to maintain good
health. (expressing the intention behind the
physical activity).

EXERCISE
1. How does an adverb of manner contribute to a sentence?
A) Indicates time
B) Specifies place
C) Describes how an action is performed
D) Expresses frequency
Key Answer: C) Describes how an action is performed
2. What does an adverb of time primarily indicate in a

sentence?
A) Location
B) Frequency
C) Time of action
D) Manner of action
Key Answer: C) Time of action
3. In which way does an adverb of place modify a sentence?

A) Describes intensity
B) Indicates frequency
C) Specifies location
D) Expresses purpose
Key Answer: C) Specifies location

4. What aspect of an action does an adverb of frequency
address?
A) How an action is performed
B) Where an action occurs
C) How often an action happens
D) The reason behind an action
Key Answer: C) How often an action happens
5. What does an adverb of degree modify in a sentence?

A) Frequency
B) Intensity or extent
C) Time
D) Location
Key Answer: B) Intensity or extent
6. What does an adverb of certainty convey in a statement?

A) Frequency
B) Location
C) Level of confidence or assurance
D) Intensity
Key Answer: C) Level of confidence or assurance

7. What is the primary function of an adverb of negation
in a sentence?
A) Describing how an action is performed
B) Expressing denial or contradiction
C) Indicating time
D) Modifying place
Key Answer: B) Expressing denial or contradiction
8. What does an adverb of purpose specify in a sentence?

A) Frequency
B) Time
C) Reason or intention behind an action
D) Manner of action
Key Answer: C) Reason or intention behind an action

CHAPTER V
ADJECTIVE
An Adjectives is words that modifies a nouns or
pronouns to make the sentence clearer and more specific.
Adjectives can be used to describe the qualities of
someone or something independently or in comparison
to something else. Its semantic role is to change
information given by the noun. Traditionally, adjectives
were considered one of the main parts of speech of the
English language, although historically they were classed
together with nouns. There are eight types of adjectives
in English grammar, which are:
1. Descriptive Adjective
A descriptive adjective describes the quality or
characteristic of a noun or pronoun. Descriptive
adjectives form one of the main groups of adjectives
and have a specific definition. Descriptive adjectives
are used to describe features of people, animals, or
things.
Example:
- "The beautiful sunset" ( T he

adjective "beautiful" describes
the quality of the sunset).
- The pink flower.
- The film was interesting.
2. Numeral Adjective
A numeral adjective indicates the number or
quantity of a noun or pronoun. A numeral adjective
is an adjective that tells us about how many or how
much or in what order the noun is in. There are three
kinds of numeral adjectives: Definite numeral
adjectives use cardinal (numbers used in an amount)
and ordinals (numbers used as an order).
Example :
- "I have three cats" (the
adjective "three" indicates the
number of cats)
- A few cats ran up the stairs
- Each cat that ran up the stairs
had blue eyes.

3. Quantitative Adjective
A quantitative adjective describes the amount or
quantity of a noun or pronoun. A word that modifies
a noun by indicating a number/quantity is called a
quantitative adjective. It can be either cardinal or
ordinal number. Quantitative Adjective is also used
for conveying the details and information about the
object of a sentence in various categories. A few
examples of Quantitative Adjectives are more, much,
first, one, small, few, some, any, whole, little, all,
several, two, ten, twenty, seventh, etc.
Example:
- "I have some money" (The
adjective "some" describes the
quantity of money).
- I have been standing here for
three hours.
- I am not a single.
4. Demonstrative Adjective
A demonstrative adjective points out or
identifies a noun or pronoun. According to the
Collins Dictionary, the word ‘demonstrative’

is defined as a word or morpheme pointing out
the one referred to and distinguishing it from
others of the same class. A demonstrative
adjective, according to the Oxford Learner’s
Dictionary, is defined as a word that is used to
identify the person or thing that is being
referred to.
Demonstrative adjectives are special
adjectives or determiners used to identify or
express the relative position of a noun in time
or space. A demonstrative adjective comes
before all other adjectives in the noun phrase.
Some common demonstrative adjectives are
this, that, these, and those.
Example:
- "This book is mine" (The
adjective "this" identifies
the book).
- That boy was the one
who won the first prize in
the inter state singing
compettition.

- I am not in a situation to
lend you money at this
moment.
5. Interrogative Adjective
An interrogative adjective is used to ask a
question about a noun or pronoun. An interrogative
adjective is a word like 'whose', 'what' and 'which'
that is employed in order to modify the noun or the
pronoun by asking a question.
Example :
- "Which car is yours?" (the
adjective "which" asks a
question about the car).
- Which color is your favourite
?
Explanation : In the above
sentence, the adjective which
modifies the noun color to ask
someone what their favorite
color is. If you know your
adjectives, you’ll see that the

word which is an adjective
because it is modifying a noun.
- What is your name ?
6. Possessive Adjective
A possessive adjective shows ownership or
possession of a noun or pronoun. The most
commonly used possessive adjectives are my, your,
his, her, its, our, their, and whose. In order, these
adjectives correspond to the pronouns I, you, he, she,
it, we, they, and who. Possessive adjectives are also
used to refer to people who have a relation to
someone or something.
Example :
- "My phone is ringing" (the
adjective "my" shows
ownership of the phone).
- How old is your sister ?
- He’s broken his arm.
- I need to clean my teeth.

7. Proper Adjective
A proper adjective is derived from a proper noun
and describes a specific person, place, or thing.
Proper adjectives" also describe people, places and
things, but they are based on names and therefore
need to be capitalized, like the names. Proper nouns
are nouns that refer to unique places, people or
organizations. The word "country" is a common noun
because there are many countries.
Example :
- "I love Italian food" (The
adjective "Italian" is derived
from the proper noun Italy).
- I live in Banyuwangi.
- I was born in Korean.
8. Exclamatory Adjective
An exclamatory adjective expresses strong
emotion or feeling about a noun or pronoun.
Example :
- "What a beautiful day!" (The
adjective "beautiful" expresses
strong emotion about the day).

- What a delicious meatball!
- What an amazing
performance!
- What a great day!
- What a cute baby!
It is important to note that some adjectives can

belong to more than one category. For example,
"three" can be both a numeral and a quantitative
adjective.
EXERCISE
Correctly match and sort the following adjectives!
1. Do you want me to tell you about my home?

Ok, I’ll explain it. So, I love my home so
much because it is neat and “homey”. It is a
green peaceful colour (1), is full of old tall
(2) trees and there are lots of white lovely (3)
puppies and kittens. It makes me comfortable
staying at home all day!
2. My daughter has blue pretty (4) eyes! She

stays with her uncle who likes to collect
wooden old (5) furniture, such as tables and
chairs. His wife is addicted to glass beautiful
(6) goods. They are such a cute couple!
3. When I visited Yogyakarta last year, a seller

offered me a soft long silk (7) fabric with
amazing prints and he said that the pattern is
typical Javanese. Without any hesitation, I
bought three as souvenirs for my family.
4. February 14th is Valentine’s Day! My

husband took me to a romantic dinner, and I
was overwhelmed by the décor. The round
large dining table (8) with white candles and
beautiful white roses. It was fully white,
which is my favorite color. The food was
amazing. It was tender delicious (9) beef with
various fresh vegetables. Also, the drink was
perfect!
5. One day, I will visit a old beautiful little (10)

village in Indonesia with my friends!
Answer:

1. peaceful green (opinion – color)
2. tall old (size – age)
3. lovely white (opinion – color)
4. pretty blue (opinion – color)
5. old wooden (Age – material)
6. beautiful glass (opinion – material)
7. long soft silk (size – physical quality -

material)
8. large round dining (size – shape –

purpose)
9. delicious tender (opinion – physical

quality)
10. beautiful little old (opinion – size – age)

CHAPTER VI
PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word or group of words used before
a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, time,
place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an
object. Prepositions are essential for expressing spatial or
temporal relations or marking various semantic roles in a
sentence.
Prepositions typically combine with a noun phrase,
which is called its complement or sometimes object. They
can be used to indicate direction, time, location, spatial
relationships, and other abstract types of relationships.
There are no strict rules for using prepositions, as their
usage is often dictated by fixed expressions. The best way
to learn which prepositions go with which words is to read
high-quality writing and pay attention to which
combinations sound right.

Here is a detailed explanation of the three main types
of prepositions:
1. Preposition of direction
These prepositions help us describe the movement
or orientation of an object or individual. Common
prepositions of direction include "to," "in," "on,"
"above," "under," "from," "behind," "among," and
others.
Example:
- "The cat and dogs chased each other."
Prepositions: "at" (place) and "of"
(direction)
Explanation: The cat and dogs chased each
other at a specific location, and the
sentence indicates that the action was
happening in a particular direction.
- "The kids were playing around the table."
Prepositions: "around" (direction) and
"on" (place)
Explanation: The kids were playing

around the table, which is a specific
location, and the sentence indicates that
the action was happening in a circular
manner around the table.
- "Her gift was inside the box."
Prepositions: "in" (place)
Explanation: Her gift was inside the box,
which is a specific location where the gift
was positioned.
- "They reached up the hills."
Prepositions: "up" (direction) and "the"
(place)
Explanation: They reached up the hills,
which is a specific location, and the
sentence indicates that the action was
happening in an upward direction.
- "We like to collect seashells along the
riverbed."
Prepositions: "along" (direction) and "the"
(place)
Explanation: We like to collect seashells
along the riverbed, which is a specific
location, and the sentence indicates that

the action was happening in a linear
manner along the riverbed.
2. Preposition of place
These prepositions indicate the location or
position of an object or individual with respect to
another object or place. Common prepositions of place
include "in," "at," "on," "above," "under," "from,"
"behind," "among," and others.
Example:
- "Children were playing at the school."
Prepositions: "at" (place) and "in" (time)
Explanation: The children were playing at
the school, which is a specific location,
and the sentence indicates that the action
was happening during a particular time.
- "The cat is hidden in the room."
Explanation: The cat is hidden in the
room, which is a specific location where
the cat is concealed.

- "The guard was standing at the entrance."
Prepositions: "at" (place)
Explanation: The guard was standing at
the entrance, which is a specific location
where the guard was positioned.
- "The cap fell down under the table."
Prepositions: "under" (place)
Explanation: The cap fell down under the
table, which is a specific location where
the cap ended up.
- "The parade was on the way."
Prepositions: "on" (place) and "in" (time)
Explanation: The parade was on the way,
which is a specific location where the
parade was taking place, and the sentence
indicates that the action was happening
during a particular time.
- "We met them in Italy."
Explanation: We met them in Italy, which
is a specific location where the meeting
took place.

3. Preposition of time
These prepositions help us express relationships
between events or situations and their duration.
Common prepositions of time include "in," "at," "on,"
"since," "until," "while," and others.
Example:
- "The movie showed from August to/until
October."
Prepositions: "from" (direction) and
"until" (direction)
Explanation: The movie showed from
August to October, which indicates the
beginning and end of the time period
during which the movie was shown.
- "I watch TV during the evening."
Prepositions: "during" (time)
Explanation: I watch TV during the
evening, which indicates the specific time
period when the action is happening.
- "We must finish the project within a
year."
Prepositions: "within" (time)
Explanation: We must finish the project

within a year, which indicates the
maximum amount of time allowed to
complete the project.
- "The plane flew above the cloud, behind
the cloud, around the cloud, below the
cloud, beneath the cloud, beside the
cloud, beyond the cloud, into the cloud,
near the cloud, outside the cloud, over the
cloud, past the cloud, through the cloud,
toward the cloud, under the cloud, and
finally dived underneath the cloud."
Prepositions: "above," "behind,"
"around," "below," "beneath," "beside,"
"beyond," "into," "near," "outside,"
"over," "past," "through," "toward,"
"under," and "finally"
Explanation: This sentence describes the
plane's movement in relation to the cloud,
using various prepositions to indicate
direction and position.
Prepositions often tell us where something is or

when something happened, and most prepositions

have several definitions, so it's essential to understand
their usage in various contexts. The best way to learn
which prepositions go with which words is to read
high-quality writing and pay attention to which
combinations sound right.
EXERCISE
A. Pick out the preposition in each sentence and state
whether it shows a relationship of place, time, or
manner!
1. You may leave at five o'clock.
(__________)
2. The passenger jumped off the bus.
(__________)
3. She answered him without thinking.
(__________)
4. Return me the book by this afternoon.
(__________)
5. Please do the work in the correct way.
(__________)
6. You must complete the project in two
weeks. (__________)

7. Keep the canned food in the refrigerator.
(__________)
8. She works with diligence.
(__________)
9. We placed the books on the shelf.
(__________)
10. He is always on time.
(__________)
B. Fill in the blank in each sentence with the

correct prepositionbfrom the bracket!
1. He has not written to me ________ (at,
for, with) many months.
2. We got this ________ (from, under, over)
the bookshop.
3. Ali is good ________ (in, at)
Mathematics.
4. Turn left ________ (with, in, at) the
junction.
5. He is interested ________ (at, in, by)
stamp collecting.
6. Many travelers go ________ (across,
inside, behind) the causeway

7. The ship will sail for India________ (on,
from, in) Tuesday.
8. They learnt to cook ________ (at, by,
from) their mothers.
9. The planes flew in formation ________
(after, over, upon) the field.
10. You must be alert ________ (during, to,
about) the examination.

CHAPTER VII
CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words,

phrases, and clauses together. It allows you to form
complex, elegant sentences and avoid the choppiness of
multiple short sentences. There are three types of
conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, and correlative.
Here are some examples of each type of conjunction:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
These conjunctions are used to connect two
elements of the same kind, such as two nouns, two
phrases, or two clauses. They do not show a
relationship of superiority or inferiority between
the connected elements. Coordinating
conjunctions include "and," "but," "or," "nor,"
"for," "so," and "yet".
Example:
- For: "I need to buy some groceries, for I
am running low on food."
The coordinating conjunction "for" is used
to connect two independent clauses,

indicating that the speaker needs to buy
groceries because they are running low on
food.
- And: "I went to the store and bought some
milk."
The coordinating conjunction "and" is
used to connect two independent clauses,
indicating that the speaker went to the
store and bought milk.
- Nor: "Neither the teacher nor the students
knew the answer."
The coordinating conjunction "nor" is
used to connect two noun phrases,
indicating that neither the teacher nor the
students knew the answer.
- But: "I wanted to go to the party, but I had
to study for my exam."
The coordinating conjunction "but" is
indicating that the speaker wanted to go to
the party but had to study for their exam.
- Or: "Do you want to go to the beach or the
park?"

The coordinating conjunction "or" is used
to connect two options, indicating that the
listener can choose between going to the
beach or the park.
- Yet: "I studied hard, yet I still failed the
test."
The coordinating conjunction "yet" is used
to connect two independent clauses,
indicating that the speaker studied hard
but still failed the test.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
These conjunctions are used to connect a complete
idea (independent clause) and an incomplete idea
(dependent or subordinate clause). They show a
relationship of superiority or inferiority between
the connected elements, with the independent
clause being the main idea and the subordinate
clause providing additional information or context.
Subordinating conjunctions include "although,"
"because," "since," "If," "while," and "until".
- Because: "I stayed home because I was
sick."

The subordinating conjunction "because"
is used to connect an independent clause
and a dependent clause, indicating that
the speaker stayed home due to being sick.
- If: "If it rains, we will stay inside."
The subordinating conjunction "if" is used
to connect an independent clause and a
dependent clause, indicating that the
speaker will stay inside if it rains.
- Although: "Although it was raining, we
still went for a walk."
The subordinating conjunction "although"
is used to connect an independent clause
and a dependent clause, indicating that
the speaker went for a walk despite the fact
that it was raining.
- Since: "Since I have a lot of work to do, I
can't go out tonight."
The subordinating conjunction "since" is
used to connect an independent clause and
a dependent clause, indicating that the
speaker cannot go out tonight because
they have a lot of work to do.

- Until: "I will wait here until you come
back."
The subordinating conjunction "until" is
speaker will wait until the other person
comes back.
- While: "I read a book while I was waiting
for the bus."
The subordinating conjunction "while" is
speaker read a book during the time they
were waiting for the bus.
3. Correlative Conjunctions
These conjunctions are always used in pairs and
are similar to coordinating conjunctions. They are
used to connect similar words, phrases, or clauses,
and require a conjunction from the same category
to form a complete sentence. Correlative
conjunctions include " Not…only/but…also,"
"neither…not," "either…or," "not only…but also,"

and "whether…or".
- Either/or: "You can either come with me
or stay here."
The coordinating conjunction "either" is
indicating that the speaker can either
come with them or stay where they are.
- Neither/nor: "Neither the teacher nor the
students knew the answer."
The coordinating conjunction "neither" is
indicating that neither the teacher nor the
students knew the answer.
- Not only/but also: "She is not only smart
but also beautiful."
The coordinating conjunction "not only" is
indicating that the speaker is not only
smart but also beautiful.
In summary, coordinating conjunctions connect

elements of the same kind, subordinating conjunctions
connect a main idea with a subordinate idea, and

correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to connect
similar elements. Each type of conjunction plays a
crucial role in connecting ideas and providing
structure in a sentence or paragraph.
EXERCISE
A. Pick out the conjunctions in each sentence and state
whether it is a coordinating, subordinating or
correlative conjunction
1. The children play outside when it is fine.
2. We had an early breakfast and set out
before eight.
3. If you wish, you may join us.
4. Either behave yourself or leave the room.
5. We expected her but she did not turn up.
6. They are not only proud but also selfish.
7. Although he has been warned, he does not
care.
8. She was busy, so she did not help them.
9. We have neither the time nor the money to
go for a holiday.
10. Since we must return early, let us leave
now.

B. Join the two sentences in each pair, using the
conjunction given in brackets!
1. We must hold sentences on to the buoy. We
shall drown. (or)
2. She heard the news. She jumped for joy.
(when)
3. Listen carefully. I will not repeat what I
say. (for)
4. He was not invited. He returned up. (but)
5. He will not help us. She will not helps us.
(neither.....nor)
6. She won the prize. She was not excited.
(although)
7. There is a vacancy. You will be offered the
job. (if)
8. Work hard. You will succeed.(and)
9. He had talked to her. He telephoned me.
(after)
10. We cannot wait for him. We shall start
without him. (since)
C. Fill in the blank with a suitable conjuction!

1. We hurried ________ darkness was
approaching.
2. ________ you ________ he will be the
chairman.
3. He is not angry ________ they have
cheated him.
4. She knows ________ French ________
German.
5. I cannot decide whether to take up
Accountancy ________ Law.
6. Hand in your work ________ the bell rings
7. Think carefully ________ you speak.
8. He has been warned several times
________ he still makes careless mistake.
9. You may pay now ________ you wish.
10. ________ you try, you will not succeed.

CHAPTER VIII
INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word or phrase that is grammatically
independent from the words around it and mainly
expresses feeling rather than meaning. It is a part of
speech used to convey or express sudden feelings and
emotions. Interjections can be either a single word or a
phrase, and they can be used on their own or as part of a
sentence. As interjections are a grammatically
independent part of speech, they can often be excluded
from a sentence without impacting its meaning.
Examples of interjections include "wow," "ouch," "oh,"
"ah," "oops," "yikes," "hey," "hurray," "alas," and
"phew".Interjections can be categorized into different
types, including primary interjections, volitive
interjections, and emotive interjections.
1. Primary interjections
These are words or sounds that can only be used

as interjections. They do not have alternative
meanings and cannot function as another part of
speech (noun, verb, or adjective)

2. Volitive interjections
These are used to give a command or make a
request. For example, the volitive interjection
"shh" or "shush" is used to command someone to
be quiet.
3. Motive interjections
These are used to express an emotion or to
indicate a reaction to something. For example,
the emotive interjection "ew" is used to express
disgust. Curse words, also called expletives, are
commonly used (in informal contexts) as
emotive interjections to express frustration or
anger. Interjections are often followed by
exclamation points to emphasize the intensity of
an emotion, thought, or demand. They are not
considered to be complete sentences and often
lack any major parts of speech.
Here are some examples of interjections and how
they can be used in writing: "Wow! That alligator
is huge!"
"Uh-oh! A storm is coming!"
"Did you see the acrobats? Amazing!
They were incredible!" "When did I

want the work done? Today! Get
moving!"
"Wow, that was amazing!"
"Ouch, that hurt!"
"Oh, I didn't expect that!"
"Ah, I see what you mean."
Interjections are used to convey emotions like
surprise, excitement, pain, or understanding in
a sentence. In general, there are two main ways
that we use interjections in sentences. We can
use them by themselves with an exclamation
point or we can separate them from a sentence
using a comma or commas.
EXERCISE
1.What did you say when you found out you won the
lottery?
a. Excitement
b. Surprise
c. Joy
d. Disbelief
2. The student shouted, "Oh no! I forgot to study for the

test."
a. Regretfully
b. Happily
c. Indifferently
d. Angrily
3. "Wow! That movie was amazing."

a. Disappointment
b. Astonishment
c. Frustration
d. Boredom
4. The teacher exclaimed, "Bravo! You all did

exceptionally well on the project."
a. Approval
b. Disapproval
c. Confusion
d. Irritation
5. "Yikes! I didn't realize the deadline was today."

a. Preparedness
b. Shock
c. Apathy

d. Anticipation
6. The child shouted, "Yippee! It's finally snowing!"

a. Happiness
b. Sadness
c. Anger
d. Fear
7. "Ugh! This traffic is unbearable."

a. Delight
b. Frustration
c. Contentment
d. Surprise
8. "Hooray! We reached a million subscribers on our

YouTube channel."
a. Celebration
b. Disappointment
c. Resignation
d. Disinterest
9. "Oops! I didn't mean to spill the paint."

a. Regret

b. Satisfaction
c. Indifference
d. Anticipation
10. "Gee! That was a close call."

a. Relief
b. Displeasure
c. Boredom
d. Curiosity

EXTRA CHAPTER
PHRASE
A phrase is a group of words that work together in a
sentence but do not contain a subject or a verb. It can be
used to describe people, things, or events, or to describe
verbs or adverbs by explaining how or why something
happened. A phrase can be short or long, and it can be
used to make a sentence more complex. There are
different types of phrases, including noun phrases, verb
phrases, gerund phrases, infinitive phrases, appositive
phrases, participial phrases, prepositional phrases,
and absolute phrases.
1. Noun phrases
A noun phrase is a group of words centered on a noun.
It typically includes modifiers (adjectives or other
descriptive words)
Example:
- "The man with the red jacket is my father."
(The noun phrase "The man with the red
jacket" is used to modify the subject "my
father" by providing additional

information about his appearance).
2. Verb phrases
A verb phrase consists of the main verb and its
accompanying auxiliary (helping) verbs. It may also
include other elements like adverbs or objects.
Example:
- "She continued to run while silently
humming a tune." ( The verb phrase
"while silently humming a tune" is used to
modify the verb "continued" by indicating
the action that was happening
simultaneously).
-
3. Gerund phrases
A gerund phrase is built around a gerund, which is the
-ing form of a verb functioning as a noun.
Example:
- "Taking my dog for a walk is fun." (The
gerund phrase "Taking my dog for a walk"
is used to modify the verb "is" by
indicating the action that is being
performed).

4. Infinitive phrases
An infinitive phrase contains an infinitive verb (to +
base form of the verb) along with any modifiers or
objects.
Example:
- "To be or not to be, that is the question."
(The infinitive phrase "To be or not to be"
is used to modify the verb "is" by
indicating the action that is being
questioned).
5. Appositive phrases
An appositive phrase renames or explains a noun. It
usually consists of the appositive (the renaming word
or phrase) and its modifiers.
Example:
- "My friend, the doctor, is coming over
tonight." (The appositive phrase "My
friend, the doctor" is used to modify the
noun "my friend" by providing additional
information about the person's
profession).

6. Participial phrases
A participial phrase includes a participle (usually an -
ing or -ed verb form) along with its modifiers and any
accompanying objects or complements.
Example:
- "The girl, filled with joy, jumped up and
down." (The participial phrase "filled with
joy" is used to modify the noun "girl" by
indicating the girl's emotional state).
7. Prepositional phrases
A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and
includes the preposition's object, along with any
modifiers. It functions as an adjectival or adverbial
phrase.
Example:
- "He performed the song with a smile on
his face." (The prepositional phrase "with
a smile on his face" is used to modify the
verb "performed" by indicating the
manner in which the action was
performed).

8. Absolute phrases.
An absolute phrase contains a noun or pronoun and a
participle, along with any accompanying modifiers. It
adds extra information to a sentence but is not directly
connected to the main clause.
Example:
- "The game over, we all went home." (The
absolute phrase "The game over" is used
to modify the entire sentence by indicating
the context or situation in which the action
is happening).
It's important to note that phrases cannot stand alone
as a sentence because they do not contain a subject
and a verb. Instead, they are used to add more detail
to a sentence and make it more interesting and
complex.
EXERCISE
A. Complete each sentence by choosing the correct word
to complete the phrasal verb shown in CAPITALS.
1. The newspaper was FLOODED (in / with / to)

letters from angry readers.

2. I was trying to hear their conversation but I
could not MAKE (out / off / with) what they
were saying.
3. We have done well in the competition so far
and we need to BUILD (into / in / on) that
success.
4. The children are always ANSWERING him
(down / up / back).
5. Jean TURNED (down / off / in) the offer of a
place at university and went travelling round
the world instead.
6. I FELL (down / over / out) with my neighbour
because he would not stop playing loud music.
7. I wonder whether this new fashion will
CATCH (over / on / in) with older people.
8. Andy was running to CATCH (up / on / out)
with the others.
9. They SHUT (with / down / out) the factory
because dangerous chemicals were getting
into the river.
10. He plans to join the golf club and TAKE (up /
with / to) golf.

B. Put the adjective(s) in brackets into the correct
position as the examples below.
Examples:
• An old chair (wooden round) = an old round wooden
chair
• A beautiful dress (Italian) = a beautiful Italian dress
1. A rare ring (silver) =
…………………………………….
2. A young lady (beautiful) =
…………………………………….
3. A good-looking lady (young) =
…………………………………….
4. A classic house (wonderful) =
…………………………………….
5. A brown jacket (leather) =
…………………………………….
6. An Indian song (new) =
…………………………………….
7. Curly hair (blonde) =
…………………………………….
8. A cloudy day (gloomy) =
…………………………………….

9. A cold bath (unusual) =
…………………………………….
10. An ugly shirt (green) =
…………………………………….
11. A black car (new / big) =
…………………………………….
12. A big box (metal / silver) =
…………………………………….
13. A round face (chubby) =
…………………………………….
14. A narrow avenue (long) =
…………………………………….

SENTENCE
1. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence is a sentence that consists of
just one independent clause. An independent
clause has a subject and a verb and expresses a
complete thought.
Example:
- "Some students like to study in the
morning,"
S V
- "The green dish broke,"
S V
2. Complex Sentence
A complex sentence is made up of an independent
clause and one or more dependent clauses
connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to
an independent clause, or complete sentence, but
it lacks one of the elements that would make it a
complete sentence.
Examples of dependent clauses include:
- "because Mary and Samantha arrived at

the bus station before noon,"
- "when I go to college," and
- "if you don't stop yelling, I am going to
leave."
Complex sentences are often more effective than
compound sentences because a complex sentence
indicates clearer and more specific relationships
between the main parts of the sentence.
Examples of complex sentences include:

- "Because he organized his sources by
theme, it was easier for his readers to
follow,"
- "All of the kids are ready, but they don't
know where we're going," and
- "My sister made arrangements to get me a
new phone when my old one broke after I
dropped it on the floor"
3. Compound Sentence
A compound sentence refers to a sentence made
up of two independent clauses (or complete
sentences) connected to one another with a

coordinating conjunction. Coordinating
conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of
the words "FAN BOYS":
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Example:
- "Joe waited for the train, but the train was
late,"
- "She completed her literature review, and
she created her reference list," and
- "I went to the store, and I bought all the
Cheetos they had”
EXERCISE
Determine the type of sentence below based on its
structure, whether it is a simple, compound,
complex, or compound-complex sentence by
circling a, b, c, or d.

1. Eggs turn hard if you boil them.
a. simple sentence
b. compound sentence
c. complex sentence
d. compound-complex sentence
2. He becomes excellent at managing money and
analyzing trends.
a. simple sentence
c. complex sentence
3. Some common minerals are easily dissolved, and

they have a distinctive taste.
a. simple sentence
c. complex sentence
4. The role of race in intelligence is still the subject

of controversy.
a. simple sentence

c. complex sentence
5. I told her I wanted to be more than just her best

friend, but she didn't say anything.
a. simple sentence
c. complex sentence
6. She stepped on a nail while walking around the

construction site.
a. simple sentence
c. complex sentence
7. Antony loves swimming after work; He feels at

peace in the water.
a. simple sentence
c. complex sentence

8. Yulia's brother works at a laboratory located in
downtown Chicago.
a. simple sentence
c. complex sentence
9. My friends assume that marriage has changed me

so much, and I think they're absolutelly right.
a. simple sentence
c. complex sentence
10. It was many years ago when my grandfather

owned and operated a creamery, a place where
butter and cheese are produced.
a. simple sentence
c. complex sentence

CLAUSE
1. Dependent clause
A dependent clause is a clause that cannot stand
alone as a sentence because it does not express a
complete thought. It is also known as a subordinate
clause. Dependent clauses can be one of three types:
noun clause, adjective clause, and adverbial clause.
Example:
- "when I go to college,"
- "which used to be my mom's," and
- "if you don't stop yelling, I am going to
leave"
2. Independent clause
An independent clause is a clause that can stand
alone as a sentence because it expresses a complete
thought. It is also known as a main clause.
Example:
- "I am going to the store,"
- "She is reading a book," and
- "The dog barked loudly"

3. Definite clause
A definite clause is a type of noun clause that
defines or identifies a specific person, place, or thing.
It is also known as a defining relative clause. Definite
clauses provide essential information about the noun
they modify and cannot be removed from the sentence
without changing its meaning.
Example:
- "The book that I borrowed from the
library is due tomorrow"
The definite clause "that I borrowed
from the library" defines which book is
being referred to
.
4. Indefinite clause
An indefinite clause is a type of noun clause that
does not define or identify a specific person, place, or
thing. It is also known as a non-defining relative clause.
Indefinite clauses provide additional information
about the noun they modify, but the sentence would
still make sense without them.
Example:
- "My sister, who lives in Paris, is coming

to visit me"
The indefinite clause "who lives in
Paris" provides additional information
about the sister, but the sentence would
still make sense without it.
5. Adjective clause
An adjective clause, also known as a relative
clause, is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or
pronoun. It tells which one or what kind. Adjective
clauses almost always come right after the nouns they
modify.
Example:
- "There is the mountain that we are going
to climb,"
- "My blue tennis shoes, which used to be
my mom's, were under the bed," and
- "Daniel, who was late again today, sits
next to me in English"
6. Adverbial clause
An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that
functions as an adverb. It modifies the verb of the

independent clause to give information on when,
where, why, how, how long, or how far. It is also used
to show contrast or concession (unexpected result).
Example:
- "When will the flowers bloom? Answer:
when spring arrives,"
- "I will go if you go as well," and
- "He's upset he failed the test even
though it's his own fault"
7. Noun clause
A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions
as a noun. It can be one of three types: that-clauses,
wh-word clauses, and if/whether clauses.
Example:
- "That he is guilty is obvious,"
- "What she said was true," and
- "Whether he will come is uncertain"
EXERCISE
A. What type of clause does the underlined clause in
the following sentence belong to? Choose your
answer between a, b or c!

1. You can live your life how you want.
a. noun clause
b. adverbial clause
c. adjective clause
2. Yogyakarta is a city where I was born.

a. noun clause
b. adjective clause
c. adverbial clause
3. What he cooked was delicious.

a. adverbial clause
b. adjective clause
c. noun clause
4. He was 54 years of age when he wrote her first poem.

a. adjective clause
b. noun clause
c. adverbial clause
5. Emily, who did a lot of exercises, has a good mark.

a. noun clause
b. adverbial clause
c. adjective clause
6. That today is my sister’s birthday is not right.

a. adverbial clause
b. noun clause
c. adjective clause
7. They were sleeping when you arrived.

a. noun clause
b. adjective clause
c. adverbial clause
8. I forgot where I put my glasses.

a. adverbial clause
b. adjective clause
c. noun clause
9. I listened to what she said.

a. adjective clause
b. adverbial clause
c. noun clause

10. She likes the skirt that I wear.
a. adverbial clause
b. adjective clause
c. noun clause
ANALYSIS SENTENCE WITH SVOC
In English grammar, there are a number of sentence

structures that you can use to make your speech or
writing sound or look a lot more organised, interesting
and professional. Some of the commonly used
sentence structures are as follows.
a. Subject + Verb (SV)

Example:
- "She sings."
- “I read”
b. Subject + Verb + Object (SVO)

Example:
- "He ate an apple."

- “I have a pencil”.
c. Subject + Verb + Complement (SVC)

Example:
- "The soup smells delicious."
- “My name is Ayda”.
d. Subject + Verb + Adjunct (SVA)

Example:
- "They ran quickly."
- “He went upstairs”.
e. Subject + Verb + Object + Complement

(SVOC)
Example:
- "She painted the wall blue."
- “My friends make/ me happy”.
f. Subject + Verb + Object + Adjunct (SVOA)

Example:
- "He wrote a letter in the morning."
- “Nana reached school after 10 a.m”.

g. Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct
Object (SVIODO)
Example:
- "She gave him a book."
- “Arman gave Agis his favourite book”.
h. Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Complement

(ASVC)
Example:
- "In the morning, he feels energized."
- “Normally, the weather is good”.
i. Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Object (ASVO)
Example:
- "On the table, she placed the vase."
- “Every year, we visit the orphanage”.
j. Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Indirect Object

+ Direct Object (ASVIODO)
Example:
- "In the park, she gave her friend a gift."
- “Yesterday, my mom bought me a bicycle”.

k. Subject + Verb + Adjunct + Adjunct (SVAA)
Example:
- "He spoke confidently and clearly."
- “They go to work by bus”.
l. Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Adjunct +

Adjunct (ASVAA)
Example:
- "In the morning, he woke up early and went
for a run."
- “Last year, my friends and I went to
Meghalaya for a month.
EXERCISE
Choose the correct sentence structure below by circling a,
b, c or d.
Example:
Most of the women read novels
A. SV
B. SVO
C. SVC
D. SVA

The answer is B. (S = Most of the women) (V = read) (O
= novels)
1. Boys are playing in the ground

A. SVO
B. SVC
C. SVA
D. SVOO
2. Kalpana cooks very well

A. SVA
B. SVO
C. SVC
D. SVOC
3. They made her my secretary

A. SVOO
B. SVOC
C. SVCA
D. SVO
4. Sentries have been posted all round the building

A. SVO

B. SVAA
C. SVA
D. SVC
5. He is sleeping
A. SV
B. SVO
C. SVC
D. SVA
6. I teach him English

A. SVA
B. SVOO
C. SVOC
D. SVO
7. India become independent in 1947

A. SVOA
B. SVA
C. SVOO
D. SVAC
8. She was a friendly person

A. SVA
B. SVO
C. SVOO
D. SVC
9. Tell me your name

A. SVO
B. SV
C. VOO
D. SOC
10. The boys are playing foot ball now

A. SVOA
B. SVC
C. SVA
D. SVOC
11. I smell something burning

A. SV
B. SVOC
C. SVO
D. SVOO

12. She seems haughty
A. SVC
B. SVO
C. SVA
D. SVOA
13. The Doctor gave him a shot

A. SVOO
B. SVOC
C. SVA
D. SVOA
14. All women love jewels and silk saris

A. VS
B. SVO
C. SVAC
D. SVA
15. My sister speaks English very well

A. SOA
B. SVO
C. SV
D. SVOA

16. The doctor advised him complete rest
A. SVOC
B. SVCC
C. SVOA
D. SVOO

ANALYSIS SENTENCE WITH TREE DIAGRAM
Sentence analysis with tree diagrams is a method of

visually representing the structure of a sentence. It
involves breaking down a sentence into its constituent
parts and showing how they relate to each other. Tree
diagrams are used to illustrate the hierarchical structure of
a sentence, with the main clause at the top and the
subordinate clauses branching out below it.
Here are the steps to analyze a sentence and draw a tree
diagram:
a. Identify the subject and the verb in the sentence.
b. Determine the object, complement, or adjunct, if
present.
c. Use phrase structure rules to identify the
constituents of the sentence.
d. Draw a tree diagram starting with the S node at
the top
e. Add branches for the subject, verb, and any other
constituents.
f. Continue adding branches for any subordinate
clauses or phrases.
g. Label each node with the appropriate part of

speech or phrase type.
h. Double-check your diagram to ensure that it
accurately represents the structure of the
sentence.
Example: "The cat sat on the mat."

a. Subject: The cat
b. Verb: sat
c. Object: the mat
d. Phrase structure: S -> NP VP
e. Tree diagram:
Example : The little bear saw the fine fat trout

in the brook
NP VP
The cat sat
on The mat

EXERCISE
"She eats pizza with a fork."
1. Determine the sentence structure using a tree diagram.

2. Identify the types of words and phrases used in the
sentence.
3. Mark the main clause and additional clauses in the tree
diagram.

METAFUNCTION
The term metafunction originates in systemic functional
linguistics and is considered to be a property of all
languages. Systemic functional linguistics is functional
and semantic rather than formal and syntactic in its
orientation. As a functional linguistic theory, it claims that
both the emergence of grammar and the particular forms
that grammars take should be explained "in terms of the
functions that language evolved to serve". While
languages vary in how and what they do, and what humans
do with them in the contexts of human cultural practice,
all languages are considered to be shaped and organised in
relation to three functions, or metafunctions. Michael
Halliday, the founder of systemic functional linguistics,
calls these three functions the ideational, interpersonal,
and textual. The ideational function is further divided into
the experiential and logical.
Metafunctions are systemic clusters that is, they are
groups of semantic systems that make meanings of a
related kind. The three metafunctions are mapped onto the
structure of the clause. For this reason, systemic linguists
analyse a clause from three perspectives. Halliday argues
that the concept of metafunction is one of a small set of

principles that are necessary to explain how language
works: this concept of function in language is necessary to
explain the organisation of the semantic system of
language. Function is considered to be "a fundamental
property of language itself".
a. Ideational function
The ideational function is language concerned
with building and maintaining a theory of experience.
It includes the experiential function and the logical
function.
Example of Ideational Metafunction:
- He gave her a book. (Actor Process
Beneficiary Goal)
- He bought a present for her. (Actor
Process Goal Beneficiary)
b. Experiential function
The experiential function refers to the
grammatical choices that enable speakers to make
meanings about the world around us and inside us:
"Most obviously, perhaps, when we watch small
children interacting with the objects around them we

can see that they are using language to construe a
theoretical model of their experience.
This is language in the experiential, Function:
the patterns of meaning are installed in the brain and
continue to expand on a vast scale as each child, in
cahoots with all those around, builds up, renovates
and keeps in good repair the semiotic "reality" that
provides the framework of day-to-day existency and
is manifested in every moment of discourse, spoken or
listened to. We should stress, I think, that the
grammar is not merely annotating experience; it is
construing experience."
Halliday argues that it was through this process
of humans making meaning from experience that
language evolved. Thus, the human species had to
"make sense of the complex world in which it
evolved: to classify, or group into categories, the
objects and events within its awareness". These
categories are not given to us through our senses: they
have to be "construed". In taking this position on the
active role of grammar in construing "reality",
Halliday was influenced by Whorf.
Example of Experiental Metafunction:

- "The cat chased the mouse".
Explanation: This sentence has a
material process (chased) and two
participants (cat and mouse),
which represent the experience of
an action taking place in the world.
- "The sun is shining".
Explanation : This sentence has an
attributive process (is shining) and
one participant (sun), which
represents the experience of a state
of being in the world.
c. Logical function
Halliday describes the logical function as those
systems "which set up logical– semantic relationships
between one clausal unit and another". The systems
which come under the logical function are taxic and
logico semantic relationship. When two clauses are
combined, a speaker chooses whether to give both
clauses equal status or to make one dependent on the
other. In addition, a speaker chooses some meaning
relation in the process of joining or binding clauses

together. Halliday argues that the meanings we make
in such processes are most closely related to the
experiential function. For this reason, he puts the
experiential and logical functions together into the
ideational function.
Example of Logical Metafunction :
- "If it rains, then the ground will be
wet."
Explanation : This sentence uses
the logical relation of
conditionality to connect the two
clauses.
- "She is not only intelligent but also
hardworking."
Explanation : This sentence uses
the logical relation of
coordination to connect the two
clauses.
d. Interpersonal function
The interpersonal function refers to the
grammatical choices that enable speakers to enact

their complex and diverse interpersonal relations.
This tenet of systemic functional linguistics is based
on the claim that a speaker not only talks about
something, but is always talking to and with others.
Language not only construes experience, but
simultaneously acts out "the interpersonal encounters
that are essential to our survival". Halliday argues
that these encounters: "range all the way from the
rapidly changing microencounters of daily life – most
centrally, semiotic encounters where we set up and
maintain complex patterns of dialogue – to the more
permanent institutionalized relationships that
collectively constitute the social bond." The
grammatical systems that relate to the interpersonal
function include Mood, Modality, and Polarity.
Example of Interpersonal Metafunction :
- "Could you please pass me the
salt?"
Explanation : This sentence shows
a request being made, which is an
interpersonal function.
- "I'm sorry for being late."

Explanation : This sentence shows
an apology being made, which is
also an interpersonal function.
e. Textual function
Halliday argues that both experiential and
interpersonal functions are intricately organized, but
that between the two "there is comparatively very
little constraint". This means that "by and large, you
can put any interactional 'spin' on any
representational content". What allows meanings
from these two modes to freely combine is the
intercession of a third, distinct mode of meaning that
Halliday refers to as the textual function. The term
encompasses all of the grammatical systems
responsible for managing the flow of discourse.
These systems "create coherent text – text that
coheres within itself and with the context of
situation" They are both structural (involving choices
relating to the ordering of elements in the clause), and
non-structural (involving choices that create cohesive
ties between units that have no structural bond). The
relevant grammatical systems include Theme, Given

and New, as well as the systems of cohesion, such as
Reference, Substitution, and Ellipsis. Halliday argues
that the textual function is distinct from both the
experiential and interpersonal because its object is
language itself. Through the textual function,
language "creates a semiotic world of its own: a
parallel universe, or 'virtual reality' in modern terms".
Example of Textual Metafunction :
- The chef is preparing dinner in the
kitchen.
- Dinner is being prepared in the
kitchen.
- In The kitchen the chef preparing
dinner.
EXERCISE
1. In systemic functional linguistics, the realization of
experiential meaning, such as actions, processes, and
participants, falls under:
A. Ideational metafunction
B. Interpersonal metafunction
C. Textual metafunction

D. Structural metafunction
Answer : A
2. Which metafunction is concerned with the organization

and sequencing of information in a text?
A. Ideational metafunction
B. Interpersonal metafunction
C. Textual metafunction
D. Structural metafunction
Answer : C
3. Which metafunction is concerned with the structure and

organization of clauses within a text?
A.Strucrural metafunction
B. Ideational metafunction
C. Interpersonal metafunction
D. Textual Metafunction
Answer : A

EXERCISE
Analysis Sentences with metafunction questions
1. In systemic functional linguistics, which metafunction

focuses on the exchange of information and the
representation of experience?
A) Ideational metafunction
B) Interpersonal metafunction
C) Textual metafunction
D) Structural metafunction
Key Answer: A) Ideational metafunction
2. Which metafunction is concerned with the organization

and sequencing of information in a text?
Key Answer: C) Textual metafunction
3. The metafunction that deals with the expression of

social relations and mood is known as:

Key Answer: B) Interpersonal metafunction
4. Which metafunction is concerned with the structure and

organization of clauses within a text?
Key Answer: D) Structural metafunction
5. In systemic functional linguistics, the realization of

experiential meaning, such as actions, processes, and
participants, falls under:
Key Answer: A) Ideational metafunction

APPENDIX
 Yurida Ma’rifatul Trisna contributed in working

on this book : NOUN, PRONOUN,
ADJECTIVE, METAFUNCTION, and EDITOR
 Vira Eka Wahyuni contributed in working on this
book : VERB, ADVERB, ANALYSIS
SENTENCE WITH METAFUNCTION, COVER
 Anik Vera Setyawati contributed in working on
this book : PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION,
PHRASE, SENTENCE, CLAUSE, ANALYSIS
SENTENCE WITH SVOC
 Nafi’atul Mukhtaroh contributed in working on
this book : INTERJECTION and ANALYSIS
SENTENCE WITH TREE DIAGRAM

"Believe in yourself and all that you are. Know
that there is something inside you that is greater
than any obstacle."
"Success is not final, failure is not fatal: It is the
courage to continue that counts." - Winston
Churchill
"The only way to do great work is to love what
you do." - Steve Jobs

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Halliday, M.A.K. and Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. Matthiessen.

2004. An Introduction to Functional Grammar
(https://books.google.com/books?id=JM 3KAgAAQBAJ)
Arnold
Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English.

London: Longman
Halliday, M.A.K. 2003. On the "architecture" of human

language. In On Language and Linguistics. Volume 3 in the
Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday. London and New York:
Equinox.
pp. 15–16
Halliday, M.A.K. 1999. Grammar and the construction of

educational knowledge. In The Language of Early Childhood.
Volume 4 in the Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday. London
and New York: Equinox. p. 355.
Halliday, M.A.K. 1994. "Systemic Theory". In R.E. Asher (ed)

Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol 8. Pergamon

Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. Language, context and text: Aspects of
language as social semiotic. Geelong: Deakin University Press.
Chapter 2.
Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. Language, context and text: Aspects of

language as social semiotic. Geelong: Deakin University Press.
Chapter 2. p. 17.
https://youtube.com/watch?v=0ChxR8zum-I
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/auxiliary-verbs/
https://www.studyandexam.com/verb2.html
https://prowritingaid.com/Infinitives
https://www.scribbr.com/parts-of-speech/adverbs/
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1167263.pdf
https://journals.openedition.org/asp/1584?lang=en
https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/formandstyle/writing/gra
mmarmechanics/prepositions
Press. Reprinted in full in Halliday, M.A.K. 2003. On Language

and Linguistics: Volume 3 in the Collected Works of M.A.K.
Halliday. London: Continuum p. 436.
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COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE OF FUNCTIONAL

MILIK MAHASISWA UIN KHAS JEMBER

A Comprehensive Guide of Functional Grammar 2

Welcome to "A Comprehensive Guide of Functional

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A Comprehensive Guide of Functional Grammar 6

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A noun is a part of speech that is used to name or identify

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1. We must call the __ to catch the robber.

2. My father is reading __ in the office now.

3. My grandmother always tell me to wash my ___ before

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5. My grandmother always tell me to wash my ___ before

6. We need ___ to bring our school books.

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8. Will you go with me to the ___ to watch a movie?

9. We buy a book in a ___ .

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2. I don’t know how to say it to _ that I love him. It is so

3. They ate many foods at my birthday party. I feel happy

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4. Please tell __ that __ will be late.

5. My brother works in a big factory. __ says that __ is a

6. My father has a dog. __ likes play with __.

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7. When my boss promoted me, __ was so proud and __

8. What’s wrong with __ ? You look pale. Are you sick ?

9. My brother is invited to their wedding party. ___ are our

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10. I can’t read the map. Would ___ help me please?

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In the English language or any language for that matter,

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Here are more examples of sentences with

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Key functions of auxiliary verbs:

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b. Modal auxialary verbs

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4. Please tell that will be late.

5. My brother works in a big factory. says that is a

6. My father has a dog. likes play with .

7. When my boss promoted me, was so proud and