SPECIALIZED 423 – Earthquake Engineering

Module 1: Introduction to Earthquakes and Seismology

The introduction to earthquakes and seismology (Module 1) is about earthquakes – its

origin, how it propagate (seismic waves), how it is describe and how it can be located. Before
designing structures against earthquake, understanding the physical nature of earthquake and
plate tectonics is important.

I. Course Objectives:
1. Be able to understand the physical nature of earthquakes; how and why earthquakes
occur and how earthquakes propagate.
2. Differentiate between magnitude and intensity.
3. Be able to locate the epicentre of an earthquake and obtain its magnitude.

II. Course Outline:

Introduction to Earthquakes and Seismology

1. Earthquakes and Urbanization

2. Elements of Seismology
3. Earthquake Instruments
4. Seismic Propagation
5. Earthquake Descriptors
6. How to Locate the Epicenter of an Earthquake

III. Learning Content:

EARTHQUAKES AND URBANIZATION

INTRODUCTION

Earthquakes have been an integral component of the geologic evolution of planet earth. Since
the dawn of history, mankind has been continually reminded of their ruinous power, usually
without warning. Although the first attempt to fully document a seismic event and its effects
probably occurred in 1755 following the great earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal, scientific
earthquake research is mainly a product of the 20th century. Because of the complex nature of
earthquake effects, current investigations encompass many disciplines, including those of both
the physical and social sciences. Research activities center on such diversified topics as
earthquake mechanics, earthquake prediction and control, the prompt and accurate detection of
tsunamis (seismic sea waves), earthquake-resistant construction, seismic building code
improvements, land use zoning, earthquake risk and hazard perception, disaster preparedness,
plus the study of the concerns and fears of people who have experienced the effects of an
earthquake.

Data from these investigations help to form an integrated picture of a most complex field of study
termed urban seismology. This chapter attempts to amalgamate recent research input comprising
the vivifying components or urban seismology at a level useful to those having an interest in the
earthquake and its effects upon an urban environment. However, because some of those
interested in the earthquake-urban problem may not have a strong background in the physical
sciences, the succeeding chapters will be devoted to an examination of major earthquake
parameters.

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 SEVERITY OF THE PROBLEM

There are several dreaded characteristics of an earthquake. Unlike other rapidly occurring natural
hazards, earthquakes usually strike without warning or regard to time of day or season of the
year and are characterized by numerous direct effects that is, ground shaking and permanent
crustal movements and induced effects, such as landslides, avalanches, ground subsidence,
liquefaction, ground fissuring, tsunamis, seiches, and fire. Earthquakes can kill, injure, and cause
property damage thousands of kilometers from their point of origin. Earthquakes are often
perceived, although incorrectly, as a force capable of destroying the very foundation of the planet,
which helps to explain the feeling of fear and helplessness that transgresses all elements of
society.

The 1991 Luzon earthquake is a typical in the respect that it did not result in the unusually high
death count that can result from seismic events.

Other areas have not been as fortunate as Luzon. Recorded history has repeatedly been witness
to the devastation of cities and the killing of millions. As a conservative estimate, the death count
for all seismic events most probably exceeds 5,000,000 and injuries would be in the tens of
millions. China has lost more than 2,100,000 of its citizens; Japan more than 500,000; Italy more
than 370,000; and India more than 350,000.

Table 1 lists major earthquakes and death counts from 526 through 2003. The largest loss of life
was associated with the Shaanxi, China (now People’s Republic of China) earthquake of 1556, in
which approximately 830,000 lives were lost. This count compares to some 600,000 American
deaths incurred in all wars and rank as the third worst natural disaster in the history of humanity.
It is preceded only by the 1931 Yellow River, China flood (3,700,00 deaths) and the 1970 Ganges
Delta and Bangladesh cyclonic storm (more than 1,000,000 deaths). The second most disastrous
earthquake also occurred in the People’s Republic of China. The July 27, 1976 Hopei Province
events reportedly killed approximately 655,000 people and injured more than 700,000. The third
most catastrophic seismic event was the 1737 Calcutta, India earthquake that killed more than
300,000 people. Several earthquakes have been responsible for 100,000 or more deaths.

TABLE 1: RECORDED INTERNATIONAL MAJOR EARTHQUAKES

1811-12 New Madrid, MO N.A. 8.7*
DEATH MAGNITUD
DATE LOCATION
S E September 5, 1822
Aleppo, Asia
22,000 N.A.
May 20, 526 Antioch, Syria 250,000 N.A. Minor

856 Corinth, Greece 45,000 N.A. December 28, 1828 Echigo, Japan 30,000 N.A.

1057 Chihli, China 25,000 N.A. August 13-15, 1868 Peru, Ecuador 40,000 N.A.

Near Mt. Etna, Venezuela,

February 11, 1169 15,0001 N.A. May 16, 1875 16,000 N.A.
Sicily Colombia

1268 Cilicia, Asia Minor 60,000 N.A. Charleston, SC,

August 31, 1886 60 6.6
September 27, USA
Chilhli, China 100,000 N.A.
1290 June 15, 1896 Japan, (sea wave) 27,120 N.A.

May 20, 1293 Kamakura, Japan 30,000 N.A. April 4, 1905 Kangra, India 19,000 8.6

January 26, 1531 Lisbon, Portugal 30,000 N.A. San Francisco,

April 18-19, 1906 5032 8.3
January 24, 1556 Shaanxi, China 830,000 N.A. USA

November, 1667 Shemaka, Cucasia 80,000 N.A. August 17, 1906 Valparaiso, Chile 20,000 8.6

January 11, 1693 Catania, Italy 60,000 N.A. October 21, 1907 Central Asia 12,000 8.1

December 30, 1730 Hokkaido, Japan 137,000 N.A. December 28, 1908 Messina, Italy 83,000 7.5

October 1, 1737 Calcutta, India 300,000 N.A. January 13, 1915 Avezzano, Italy 29,980 7.5

June 7, 1755 Northern Persia 40,000 N.A. Mona Passage, P.

October, 11, 1918 116 7.5
November 1, 1755 Lisbon, Portugal 60,000 8.75* Rico

February 4, 1783 Calabria, Italy 30,000 N.A. December 16, 1920 Gansu, China 200,000 8.6

February 4, 1797 Quito, Ecuador 41,000 N.A. September 1, 1923 Yokohama, Japan 143,000 8.3

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T

March 16, 1925 Yunnan, China 5,000 7.1 October 10, 1980 Northwest Algeria 3,500 7.7
May 22, 1927 Nan-Shan, China 200,000 8.3 November 23, 1980 South Italy 3,000 7.2

December 25, 1932 Gansu, China 70,000 7.6 June 11, 1981 South Iran 3,000 6.9

March 2, 1933 Japan 2,990 8.9 July 28,1981 South Iran 1,500 7.3

March 10, 1933 Long Beach, USA 115 6.2 West Arabian
December 13, 1982 2,800 6.0
January 15, 1934 Bihar-Nepal, India 10,700 8.4 Peninsula

April 21, 1935 Taiwan (Formosa) 3,276 7.4 North Honshu,

May 26, 1983 81 7.7
My 30, 1935 Quetta, India 50,000 7.5 Japan

January 25, 1939 Chillan, Chile 28,000 8.3 October 30, 1983 East Turkey 1,342 6.9

December 26, 1939 Erzincan, Turkey 30,000 8.0 March 3, 1985 Chile 146 7.8

December 20, 1946 Honshu, Japan 1,330 8.4 Michoacan,

September 19,1985 9,500 8.1
June 28, 1948 Fukui, Japan 5,390 7.3 Mexico

August 5, 1949 Pelileo, Ecuador 6,000 6.8 October 10, 1986 El Salvador 1,000+ 5.5

August 15, 1950 Assam, India 1,530 8.7 Colombia-

March 6, 1987 4,000+ 7.0
March 18, 1953 Northwest Turkey 1,200 7.2 Ecuador

June 10-17, 1956 North Afghanistan 2,000 7.7 India-Nepal

August 20, 1988 1,450 6.6
July 2, 1957 North Iran 1,200 7.4 border

December 13, 1957 West Iran 1,300 7.3 China-Burma

November 6, 1988 1,000 7.3
May 21-30, 1960 South Chile 5,000 9.5 border

September 1, 1962 Northwest Iran 12,230 7.3 December 7, 1988 Soviet Armenia 55,000 7.0

July 26, 1963 Skopje, Yugoslavia 1,100 6.0 San Francisco Bay
October 17, 1989 62 7.1
Area
March 27, 1964 Alaska 131 9.2
August 19, 1966 East Turkey 2,520 7.1 May 30, 1990 North Peru 115 6.3

August 31, 1968 Northeast Iran 12,000 7.3 June 20, 1990 West Iran 40,000+ 7.7

Yunnan Prov., July 16, 1990 Luzon, Philippines 1,621 7.8

January 4, 1970 10,000 7.5
China Pakistan, Afgh,
February 1, 1991 1,200 6.8
border
March 28, 1970 West Turkey 1,100 7.3
May 31, 1970 North Peru 66,000 7.8 October 19, 1991 North India 2,000 7.0

San Fernando March 13, 15, 1992 East Turkey 4,000 6.2/6.0
February 9, 1971 65 6.6
Val., CA June 28, 1992 South California 1 7.5/6.6

April 10, 1972 South Iran 5,054 7.1 Flores, Isl.,

December 12, 1992 2,500 7.5
Indonesia
Managua,
December 23, 1972 5,000 6.2
Nicaragua Off Hokkaido,
July 12, 1993 200+ 7.7
Japan
Pakistan (9
December 28, 1974 5,200 6.3
Towns) Southwest
September 1, 1992 116 7.0
Nicaragua
September 6, 1975 Turkey (Lice, etc) 2,300 6.7
February 4, 1976 Guatemala 23,000 7.5 October 12, 1992 Cairo, Egypt 450 5.9

May 6, 1976 Northeast Italy 1,000 6.5 September 29, Maharashtra

9,7483 6.3
1993 South India
Irian Jaya, New
June 25, 1976 422 7.1
Guinea January 17, 1994 Northridge, CA 61 6.8

July 27,1976 Tangshan, China 655,000 8.0 South Sumatra,

February 15, 1994 215 7.0
Indon
Mindanao,
August 16, 1976 8,000 7.8
Philippines Cauca, Southwest
June 6, 1994 1,000 6.8
Colombia
Northwest Iran-
November 24, 1976 5,000 7.3
USSR border August 19, 1994 North Algeria 164 6.0

March 4, 1977 Romania 1,500 7.2 January 16, 1995 Kobe, Japan 5,502 6.9

August 19, 1977 Indonesia 200 8.0 Sakhalin Isl.

May 27, 1995 1,989 7.5
Russian
Northwest
November 23, 1977 100 8.2
Argentina October 1, 1995 Southwest Turkey 73 6.0

September 16, West coast

Northeast Iran 15,000 7.8 October 9, 1995 40+ 7.6
1978 Mexico

September 12, February 3, 1996 Southwest China 200+ 7.0

Indonesia 100 8.1
1979 Iran Jaya,
February 17, 1996 53 7.5
Indonesia
Colombia,
December 12, 1979 800 7.9
Ecuador February 4, 1997 Turkmen-Iran 79 6.9

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T

border August 17, 1999 Western Turkey 16,965+4 7.4

February 27, 1997 West Pakistan 100+ 7.3 September 7, 1999 Athens, Greece 143 5.9

February 28, 1997 Northwest Iran 1,000+ 6.1 September 21,

Taichung, Taiwan 2,321 7.6
May 10, 1997 North Iran 1,560 7.5 1999

Madhya Pradesh, November 12, 1999 Duzce, Turkey 675+ 7.2

May 21, 1997 40+ 6.1
India Sumatra,
June 4, 2000 103 7.9
Northeast Indonesia
July 9, 1997 82 6.9
Venezuela San Vicente, El
January 13, 2001 800+ 7.6
September 26, Salvador
Central Italy 11 5.5/5.7
1997 January 26, 2001 Gujarat, India 20,000+ 7.9

September 28, Sulawesi, May 21, 2003 N. Algeria 2,200+ 6.8

17+ 5.9
1997 Indonesia December 26, 2003 Bam. SE Iran 26,271 6.6

October 15, 1997 Illapel, Chile 8.12 6.8

Source: World Almanac 2005
January 10, 1998 Zhangbel, China 50 6.2
Takhar, Northeast
February 4,8, 1998 2,323 6.1
Afghanistan

March 25, 1998 BallenyIsalnds --- 8.2

Sumatra,
April 1, 1998 --- 7.0
Indonesia

Irian Jaya,
April 27, 1998 --- 7.4
Indonesia

Ryukyu Is.,
May 3, 1998 --- 7.4
Taiwan

May 22, 1998 Central Bolivia 105 6.5

Northeast
May 30, 1998 4,700+ 6.9
Afghanistan

Kamchatka,
June 1, 1998 --- 6.5
Russia

June 27, 1998 Adana, Turkey 144 6.3

July 9, 1998 Azores, Portugal 10 5.8
November 9, 1998 Banda Sea --- 6.6/7.0
November 29,
1998
East Indonesia 34 7.8 Source: World Almanac 2020
December 29,
Fiji Islands --- 6.9
1998

Papua New
January 19, 1999 --- 7.0
Guinea

Armenia,
January 25, 1999 1,185+ 6.0
Colombia

January 28, 1999 Aleutan Islands --- 6.6

February 6, 1999 Sta. Cruz Islands --- 7.3

Central
February 11, 1999 60 6.0
Afghanistan

Uttar Pradesh,
March 28, 1999 87 6.8
India

New Britain,
April 5, 1999 Papua New --- 7.4
Guinea

East Rusia,
April 8, 1999 --- 7.1
Northeast China

May 7, 1999 Southern Iran 26+ 6.2

New Britain,
May 10, 16, 1999 Papua New --- 7.1
Guinea

June 16, 1999 Puebia Mexico 16 6.7

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The Philippines has been very fortunate in terms of lives lost as compared to other countries with
an earthquake hazard. Our worst seismic disaster was the 1991 Luzon earthquake through which
at least 1,600 lives were lost. The death count for all destructive Philippine earthquake hazards
with property damage total of about 509 billion pesos. It is probable, however, that out worst
seismic disasters are ahead of us.

In certain years, the greatest loss of life from natural hazards is attributable to the earthquake.
However, on the average, approximately 10,000 lives are lost each year to this hazard. For the
period from 1974 to 1999, earthquake casualties ranked third behind flood and hurricane deaths.
Approximately 56,000 people were killed by earthquakes during this 20-year period.

The urban development of the Philippines is a very recent phenomenon when compared to other
countries, which have seismic risks; this helps explain why so many countries have a long history
of great loss of life caused by devastating earthquakes. Countless cities in these countries have
occupied unsafe sites for centuries, and periodically they have been partially or totally. For
example, Managua, Nicaragua was hit by destructive earthquakes in 1844, 1858, 1881, 1898,
1913, 1918, 1928, 1931, 1968, and 1972. The site of the city has never been abandoned, and
after each quake, a great number of seismically unsafe structures rise from the ruins to await a
similar fate sometimes in the future.

The situation in the Philippines, as well as in other countries, is rapidly changing, as the earth
becomes an overpopulated and urban planet. As these urban areas rapidly expand, a greater
percentage of the world’s population encroaches upon active seismic zone, and earthquakes are
becoming one of the most awesome geologic hazards to life and property.

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 ELEMENTS OF SEISMOLOGY

The word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event—whether a natural phenomenon
or an event caused by humans—that generates seismic waves.
Earthquake – is a series of elastic wave in the earth’s crust caused by sudden relaxation of
strains accumulated by along geologic faults and volcanic actions and resulting in movements of
the earth’s surface. It consists of ground vibration principally the horizontal and vertical vibration,
although the ground motion is in any considerable direction. The acceleration, which goes with
the vibration, is the one that induces the earthquake force.
Earthquake – a vibratory shaking of the ground caused by some sudden disturbance of natural
origin within the earth. The vibrations are elastic waves traveling at high speed through the earth.
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release
of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.
An earthquake originates at a considerable depth below the surface of the earth at a point on
the fault plane where the stress that produces the slippage is a maximum. This point is called the
focus or hypocenter. While the point on the earth’s surface directly above it is called the epicenter.
Faults – fracture on the earth’s crust or breaks in rocks along which there is displacement of
rocks on one side relative to the other.
Focus/ hypocenter – the point on a fault at which the first movement or break occurs during
an earthquake.

Figure 1: Earthquake Fault

Seismology -The study of causes, propagation and affects of the movements of the earth’s crust
that result from an earthquake is known as seismology.

A. Types of Earthquakes
I. Types of earthquakes as to its origin (natural):
1. Tectonic earthquakes – are caused by the sudden slippage along a fault or line of
dislocation in the outer part of the earth; are earthquakes or waves of distortion resulting from
ruptures or a sudden movement along existing fault in the earth’s crust.

An intraplate earthquake is an earthquake that occurs in the interior of a tectonic plate, whereas
an interplate earthquake is one that occurs at a plate boundary. Intraplate earthquakes are rare
compared to earthquakes at plate boundaries. Nonetheless, very large intraplate earthquakes can
inflict heavy damage. Notable examples of damaging intraplate earthquake are the 1811-1812
earthquakes in New Madrid, Missouri, and the 1886 earthquake in Charleston, South Carolina.

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 2. Volcanic earthquakes – are associated with volcanic eruption or subterranean movement
of magma; result from sudden movements of liquid lava below the surface or from fracturing of
the rocks as a result of lava movement. Ex. Mount St. Helens eruption of 1980

II. Types of earthquakes as to focal depth:

1. Shallow earthquakes – earthquakes with focal depths from the surface to about 70 km.
Majority of the earthquakes are of shallow origin. Most of the tectonic earthquakes detected thus
far have originated at depths of no more than sixty (60) kilometers. They are considered as surface
earthquakes. Their origin is associated with deformations of the Earth’s crust, which is in a state
of constant deformations owing to the convection currents in the plastic zones of the mantle.
2. Intermediate earthquakes - earthquakes with focal depths from 70 km – 300 km. (12%)
3. Deep earthquakes - earthquakes with focal depths greater than 300 km. (depths ranging
300-700 km). They commonly occur in patterns called Benioff zones like Japan, Vanuatu, Tonga
and Alaska, and are normally associated with deep ocean trenches. (6%)

III. Artificially induced earthquakes (human activity):

1. collapse of caverns or mine workings
2. injection of fluids into deep wells
3. detonation of large underground nuclear explosions
4. excavations of mines
5. quarry blasting
6. filling of large reservoirs

B. THEORIES RELATED TO EARTHQUAKES

1. Theory of Plate Tectonics. According to this

theory, the earth’s outer shell consists of huge
plates up to 60 miles in thickness that floats on
a partially plastic layer of the upper mantle
(asthenosphere). These plates are assumed to
move laterally and grind together of their
margins, thus producing earthquake faults.

The theory states that Earth's outermost layer,

the lithosphere, is broken into 7 large, rigid
pieces called plates: The African, North
American, South American, Eurasian,
Australian, Antarctic, and Pacific plates. Several
minor plates (about 14) also exist, including the Arabian, Nazca, and Philippines plates.

2. Continental Drift Theory. The theory, first advanced by Alfred Wegener, that the earth's
continents were originally one land mass called Pangaea. About 200 million years ago Pangaea
split off and the pieces migrated (drifted) to form the present-day continents. The predecessor of
plate tectonics.

3. Elastic Rebound Theory. When friction between rocks on either side of a fault is such as to
prevent the rocks from slipping easily, or when the rock under stress is not already fractured,
some elastic deformation occurs before failure. When the stress at last exceeds the rupture
strength of the rock (or friction between rocks along an existing fault), sudden movement occurs
along the fault: an earthquake. The stressed rocks, released by the rupture, snap back elastically
to their previous dimensions, a phenomenon known as elastic rebound.
As formulated by the American geologists Harry Fielding Reid, the theory explains that a
tectonic earthquake occurs when stresses in rock masses have accumulated to a point where they
exceed the strength of the rocks, leading to rapid fracture. These rock fractures usually tend in
the same direction and may extend over many kilometers along the zone of weakness.

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PLATE BOUNDARIES

o At the boundaries between these huge

plates of rock and soil, the plates
sometimes move apart, and magma, or
molten rock, comes to the surface, where
it's called lava. It cools and forms new
parts of the crust. The line where this
happens is called a divergent plate
boundary.

o The plates also can push against each

other. Sometimes, one of the plates will
sink underneath the other into the hot
layer of magma beneath it and partially
melt. Other times, the edges of the two
plates will push against each other and rise
upward, forming mountains. This area is
called a convergent plate boundary.

o But in other instances, plates will slide by

and brush against each other -- a little like
drivers on the highway sideswiping each
other, but very, very slowly. At the region
between the two plates, called a transform
boundary, pent-up energy builds in the
rock. A fault line, a break in the Earth's crust
where blocks of crust are moving in
different directions, will form. Most,
though not all, earthquakes happen along
transform boundary fault lines.

Megathrust earthquakes occur at subduction zones at destructive plate boundaries (convergent

boundaries), where one tectonic plate is forced (or subducts) under another. Due to the shallow
dip of the plate boundary, which causes large sections to get stuck, these earthquakes are among
the world's largest, with moment magnitudes (Mw) that can exceed 9.0. Since 1900, all five
earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater have been megathrust earthquakes; in fact, no other
type of known tectonic activity can produce earthquakes of this scale.

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Examples of megathrust earthquakes are listed in the following table.

Estimated
Moment
Event Tectonic Plates Involved Other Details/Notes
Magnitude
(Mw)
• The quake generated a large tsunami in
African Platesubducting the eastern Mediterranean Sea and
365 Crete
8.0+ beneath the Eurasian caused significant vertical displacement in
earthquake
Plate the island of Crete.[4]

1575 Nazca Platesubducting

Valdivia 8.5 beneath the South
earthquake American Plate
Juan de Fuca
1700
Platesubducting • Slip length: 1000 km (625 mi)
Cascadia 8.7–9.2
beneath the North
earthquake
American Plate
1737 Pacific Platesubducting • Duration: 15 minutes
Kamchatka 9.0–9.3 beneath the Okhotsk • Depth: 40 km
earthquake Plate
Hypothesized to be part
1755 Lisbon of a young subduction
9.0
earthquake zone but origin still
debated
Nazca Platesubducting
1868 Arica
9.0 beneath the South
earthquake
American Plate
1877
Antofagasta Nazca Platesubducting
(Northern 8.8 beneath the South
Chile) American Plate
earthquake
Philippine Sea
1946
Platesubducting
Nankaidō 8.1
beneath the Eurasian
earthquake
Plate
1950
Nicoya Cocos Platesubducting
Peninsula 7.7 beneath the Caribbean
(Costa Rica) Plate[5]
earthquake
1952 Pacific Platesubducting
• Depth: 30 km
Kamchatka 9.0 beneath the Okhotsk
earthquake Plate
1957
Pacific Plate subducting
Andreanof
8.6–9.1 beneath the North
Islands
American Plate
earthquake
1960 Great Nazca Plate subducting • Depth: 33 km
Chilean 9.5 beneath the South • Slip length: 1000 km (625 mi)
Earthquake American Plate • Slip width: 200 km (125 mi)

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 • Slip motion: 20 m (60 ft)

1964 Alaska • Duration: 4–5 minutes

earthquake Pacific Plate subducting • Depth: 25 km
("Good 9.2 beneath the North • Slip length: 800 km (500 mi)
Friday" American Plate • Slip motion: 23 m (69 ft)
earthquake)
• The total vertical displacement measured
by sonar survey is about 40 m in the
vicinity of the epicenter and occurred as
two separate movements which created
2004 Indian India Platesubducting two large, steep, almost vertical cliffs, one
Ocean 9.3 beneath the Burma above the other.
earthquake Plate • Duration: 8–10 minutes
• Depth: 30 km
• Slip length: 1300 km (1000 mi)
• Slip motion: 33 m

Nazca Platesubducting
2010 Chile beneath the South
8.8
earthquake American Plate

C. TYPES OF FAULTS

The two sides of a fault are called the hanging wall and footwall.

➢ Strike-Slip Fault: This occurs on an approximate vertical fault plane as the rock on one side
of the fault slides horizontally past the other. Two types of a strike-slip fault are the left
lateral faults and the right lateral faults as shown in Figure 2a.
If the block on the far side of the fault moves to the left, the fault is called left- lateral. If
the block on the far side moves to the right, the fault is called right-lateral. The fault
motion is caused by shearing forces; occurs along transform plate boundaries. Examples
of right lateral/slip fault are the San Andreas Fault in California and the North Anatolian
Fault.

➢ Dip-Slip Fault: This occurs when the fault is at an angle to the surface of the Earth and the
movement of the rock is up or down. (Figure 2b) The types of faults on this category are:

1. Normal Fault – the hanging wall moves down and the foot wall up; when the relative
movement is in an upward and downward direction on a nearly vertical fault plane.
The block above the fault moves down relative to the block below the fault. It is
caused by tensional forces and results in extension; also called normal-slip fault,
tensional fault or gravity fault. This type of faulting is often observed in the Western
United States Basin and Range Province and along oceanic ridge systems along
divergent plate boundaries.

2. Reverse Fault – the reverse happen; the hanging wall moves up and the foot wall
moves down; occurs along convergent boundaries.
Thrust Fault – This is a special category of the reverse fault. The fault plane lies at a
low angle to the Earth’s surface; when the earth is under compressive stress across
the fault and slippage is in an upward and downward direction along an inclined

P a g e 10 | 34
 fault plane; or when the block above the fault moves up relative to the block below
the fault. This fault is caused by compressional forces and results in shortening.
Blind Thrust – the thrust fault that does not extend all the way the Earth’s surface.
The ground above the blind thrust bends instead of breaking so that the surface has
only rolling hills.

➢ Oblique Slip Fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have
components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip. Oblique slip fault
is caused by a combination of shearing and tension or compressional forces.

EARTHQUAKE RECORDS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

SEISMOGRAPHS

Special instruments known as seismometers or seismographs can measure ground movements

during an earthquake. They can measure the epicenters, focal depths, and magnitudes, and are
used to measure and record seismic trains. The ground movements are graphically recorded in a
seismogram. By an analysis of seismograms, it is possible to determine the velocity of propagation
of the various types of seismic waves for each particular earthquake, and a systematic study of
such records has made possible a fairly exact analysis of the physical characteristics of the earth.
Seismographs also make it possible to locate the focus of the earthquake by determining the
difference between the times of arrival of the seismic waves at different seismological stations.

Seismographs were first installed at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1887. At present,
many types of seismographs are currently available, and most incorporate similar principles.
Unless otherwise indicated, the following descriptions summarizes a typical seismograph:

1. Use is made of a pendulum (free mass) attached to a rigid frame, which in a permanent
seismological station is anchored to a concrete platform. When the ground vibrates during
an earthquake, the pendulum’s inertia tends to delay its motion. This results in a measure
of differential motion. A seismometer pendulum can be designed to have a high or low
period sensitivity. Many seismograph pendulums take 10 or even 20 seconds to make a
complete swing. The reason for this is that most waves from distant earthquakes have
long periods and long wavelengths. It requires a long period pendulum to obtain a
measurable distance between the moving pendulum and the

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 moving ground. In nearby earthquakes, the ground vibrations are of short period, and
almost any simple short period pendulum would suffice.
2. Seismological stations often house six seismometers for obtaining a complete description
of ground motion as shown in Figure 4:

Figure 4: Typical Seismological Station

➢ Short-period (wave periods in the 0.05- to 0.20-second range), north-south (N)

motion.
➢ Short-period, east-west (E) motion.
➢ Short-period, vertical (Z) motion.
➢ Long-period (wave periods in the 15- to 100-second range), N motion.
➢ Long-period, E motion.
➢ Long-period, Z motion.

3. A braking device to prevent its own free-period swinging and to show the arrival
separation of various wave phases must damp the pendulum. Free—period swaying can
be especially pronounced for long-period seismometers if not properly damped. A
pendulum damped to best reflect ground motion is termed critical.
4. The motion of a seismograph pendulum must be magnified relative to the ground motion,
allowing very small wave amplitudes as small as 10-10 centimeters. Magnification is
accomplished by mechanical,
optical, or electromagnetic procedures.

Figure 5: Simple Pendulum Seismographs

Figure 5 shows simple pendulum seismographs recording three directions of ground

motion. If three instruments are arrayed at right angles to each other (horizontal vectors
do not have north-south, east-west) the system is called a triaxial seismograph.

P a g e 12 | 34
 Figure 6: Recorded Microseisms.
Seismic background noises recorded on seismograms as shown in Figure 6 are termed
microseisms. The most prominent microseisms have wave periods ranging from 4 – 7
seconds.

ACCELEROGRAPHS

Since the vibratory motion of the ground is manifested in structures in the form of inertial forces
directly related to the acceleration of the ground, scientists have designed instruments called
“strong-motion seismographs” which make it possible to record in a graph called an accelerogram
the motions of the ground during an earthquake. Unlike seismographs, these instruments do not
operate continuously but have a special actuator that turns them on when the acceleration of the
ground exceeds a certain threshold, so that they can record the most important portion for the
accelerogram. Accelerographs do not run continuously but is activated only by strong earth
motions. A typical example of an acceleroghraph is shown in Figure 7.

Kinemetrics FBA-23 accelerograph.

Figure 7: Accelerograph

Accelerographs are placed in buildings at various heights and on different ground types. The
instruments are powered by solar cells. Accelerograms provide important data on the responses
of different structures and geologic units to near-field strong earthquake motions (see Figure 8).
Through mathematical integration procedures, acceleration curves can be processed to produce
ground velocity (first integration) and ground displacement (second integration) curves. Such data
are extremely valuable in earthquake engineering and hazard reduction programs.

P a g e 13 | 34
 Figure 8: Accelerograms.

EPISENSOR – new version of FBA 23, it records ground acceleration much more accurately and
with greater sensitivity.

SEISMOSCOPES

The Chinese philosopher Chang Hêng [Chang Hêng is also referred to

as Choko and Tyoko, modifications of the Japanese form of his name.]
invented the earliest known seismoscope in 132 A.D. The instrument
was said to resemble a wine jar of diameter six feet. On the outside of
the vessel there were eight dragonheads, facing the eight principal
directions of the compass. Below each of the dragonheads was a toad,
with its mouth opened toward the dragon. The mouth of each dragon
held a ball. At the occurrence of an earthquake, one of the eight
dragon-mouths would release a ball into the open mouth of the toad
situated below. The direction of the
shaking determined which of the dragons released its ball. The instrument is reported to have
detected a four-hundred-mile distant earthquake that was not felt at the location of the
seismoscope

Seismoscopescomplement accelerographs for obtaining strong-motion data near epicenters.

These are magnetically damped conical pendulum devices that are free to move in any horizontal
direction. Unlike seismographs, they have no timing capability. A metal stylus writes a record of
ground motions, via angular deflections of the pendulum on a smoked glassplate.Figure 10 shows
some samples of the responses of three standardized seismoscopes.

Figure 9: Mallet's seismoscope Figure 10: Sample Responses from a

Seismoscope.
P a g e 14 | 34
The image of a cross-hairs in C is reflected from the surface of mercury in the basin B and viewed
through a magnifier, D.

CREEPMETERS
Creepmeters measures fault slip by recording the
displacement between 2 piers or monuments located on
opposite sides of the fault. Typically, an invar wire is
anchored to one pier and is stretched across the fault. Its
displacement relative to the second pier is measured
electronically and checked periodically with a mechanical
measurement. Using the angle of the wire from the strike
of the fault, the change in distance between the two piers
is directly proportionally to fault slip.

Because the piers are anchored to about 2 meters depth,

they are subject to the influence of seasonal (winter)
rainfall. Many of the creepmeters show an annual cycle due
to the wetting and drying of the near-surface materials
within the fault zone. In addition, creep is
influenced by large rainfall events and nearby earthquakes.

MAGNETOMETERS

Magnetometers measure
changes in local magnetic fields
resulting from a combination of
mean crustal stress change, fluid
flow associated with
earthquakes, fault slip, and a
number of processes related to
volcanic activity. To isolate
these local magnetic fields, the
magnetic data must be
corrected for normal
geomagnetic field variations,
magnetic storms and other disturbances including those generated by cultural activity. Ultra-
precise, absolute instruments with a precision of 0.2 nanotesla are used. Higher frequency
disturbances are monitored using fluxgate or coil magnetometers. The monitoring sensors are
carefully located in regions where the local magnetic field gradient is less than 1 nanotesla/meter
to avoid spurious signals being generated during ground movement generated by earthquake
shaking and volcanic eruptions. Because proton magnetometer measurements are absolute, data
from any particular year can be compared with that from yesterday or 20 years ago or longer.

PORE PRESSURE MONITORS

Pore Pressure Monitor is an

instrument record fluid
pressure changes in deep
boreholes that may be driven
by fault activity.
Measurements can be made
to better than 0.1 millibar.

P a g e 15 | 34
STRAINMETERS

Strainmeters for continuous crustal strain monitoring are

highly sensitive instruments with precision of less than 1
part per billion (i.e. less than 1 inch in 16,000 miles). They
are usually installed in boreholes where surface noise is
greatly reduced. These instruments monitor the change in
crustal strain near active faults and volcanoes associated
with fault slip, earthquakes, and volcanic activity. Currently,
numerous instruments have been installed by the USGS
along the San Andreas fault, in the Long Valley Caldera, and
by other institutions near active faults and volcanoes in the
US, Japan, China, Iceland, Italy, and Taiwan.

TILTMETERS

Tiltmeters are highly sensitive instruments used to

measure ground tilt (rotation) near faults and volcanoes
caused by fault slip and volcanic uplift. The precision to
which tilt can be measured is less than 1 part per billion
(i.e. less than 1 inch in 16,000 miles). For crustal
monitoring applications, these instruments are mostly
installed in boreholes to avoid spurious ground tilts
produced by differential thermal expansion in near-
surface materials, rainfall and pumping effects.

HYDROPHONE is a microphone designed to be used underwater for recording or listening

to underwater sound. Most hydrophones are based on a piezoelectric transducer that generates
electricity when subjected to a pressure change. Such piezoelectric materials or transducers can
convert a sound signal into an electrical signal since sound is a pressure wave. Some transducers
can also serve as a projector, but not all have this capability, and may be destroyed if used in such
a manner.

GALVANOMETER – use for detecting/measuring a small electric current by movements of a

magnetic needle or of a coil in magnetic field.

EARTHQUAKE NETWORKS

Obtaining systematic earthquake data from different stations is a prime requisite for various types
of seismological research and for surveillance activity programs. To accomplish this, identical
instruments or instruments from which the data can be reduced to standard formats must be
used. When this is accomplished, the resulting seismograph array is often called as a network.
Seismic networks can be worldwide, regional, or local, and permanent or temporary, examples
are: Global Seismographic Network, Pacific Northwest Seismic Network (PNSN), International
Federation of Digital Seismograph Networks (FDSN) and Lamont-Doherty Cooperative
Seismographic Network (LCSN).

P a g e 16 | 34
 PROPAGATION OF SEISMIC DISTURBANCES

SEISMIC WAVES

Seismic waves are the vibrations from earthquakes that travel through the earth. They are the
waves of energy suddenly created by rock fracture within the earth or an explosion. The
propagation velocity of the waves depends on density and elasticity of the medium. Seismic
wave fields are recorded by a seismometer, hydrophone (in water), or accelerometer.

Earthquakes generate two general classes of elastic waves. They are termed as elastic in the sense
that rock units return to their original positions or shapes once the seismic waves have passed.

1. Body waves – waves that travel through the earth’s interior. They follow raypaths
refracted by the varying density and modulus (stiffness) of the Earth's interior. The density and
modulus, in turn, vary according to temperature, composition, and phase. This effect is similar to
the refraction of light waves. S. D. Poisson discovered these waves in 1830 while investigating
wave propagation through elastic media.
2. Surface waves – waves that travel along outer layer of the earth along the surface.

Body waves are further divided into two types:

1. The P (or pressure/ primary) waves travel through the body of the earth at the highest
speeds. They are longitudinal or compressional waves that can be transmitted by both solid and
liquid materials in the earth’s interior. With P waves, the particles of the medium vibrate in a
manner similar to sound waves, and the transmitting rocks are alternately compressed and
expanded; push (compress) and pull (expand) with rocks in the direction the wave is traveling.
A P wave moves between 4 – 7 km/sec depending on the density of the rock it’s moving
through. In P wave, rocky material on its direction of travel compresses then expand at the way it
passes. A P wave is similar to a wave traveling through a spring. The coil compresses and expands
in the direction the wave it’s traveling.

2. The S (or secondary/shear) wave travels only through solid material within the earth. With
s waves, the particle motion is traverse to the direction of travel and involves the shearing of the
transmitting rock. S waves produced an up-and-down and side-to-side motion of the earth that
shakes the ground both vertically and horizontally at right angles to the direction of wave travel
and produces the major damage to the structures.
S wave travel at about 2 – 4 km/sec through the rock about 60% of the speed of the P wave.
It is similar to wave traveling along a piece of rope; the wave move along the rope by moving a
section of the rope up and down.

In solid rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7 km per second; the velocity increases within the deep
mantle to ~13 km/s. The velocity of S-waves ranges from 2–3 km/s in light sediments and

P a g e 17 | 34
4–5 km/s in the Earth's crust up to 7 km/s in the deep mantle. As a consequence, the first waves
of a distant earth quake arrive at an observatory via the Earth's mantle.

Surface waves are analogous to water waves and travel along the Earth's surface. They travel
slower than body waves. Because of their low frequency, long duration, and large amplitude, they
can be the most destructive type of seismic wave. Two types of surface waves:

a. Love wave – produces horizontal earth movement similar to that produced by S waves. It
causes side to side motion perpendicular for it’s direction of travel. It can cause damage
by breaking roads as well as pipes; surface waves that cause circular shearing of the
ground. They are named after A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who created a
mathematical model of the waves in 1911. They usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh
waves, about 90% of the S wave velocity. They are the slowest and have the largest
amplitude.

b. Rayleigh wave – produces vertical earth movement. It moves at the surface of the earth
up, forward, down and back in a circle. It can cause damage by knocking buildings off their
foundations. Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, are surface waves that travel as
ripples with motions that are similar to those of waves on the surface of water (note,
however, that the associated particle motion at shallow depths is retrograde, and that
the restoring force in Rayleigh and in other seismic waves is elastic, not gravitational as
for water waves). The existence of these waves was predicted by John William Strutt, Lord
Rayleigh, in 1885. They are slower than body waves, roughly 90% of the velocity of S
waves for typical homogeneous elastic media.

When earthquake waves arrive at a surface of discontinuity either in the interior of the earth or
at its surface, they undergo multiple reflection and refraction, giving rise to new types of waves.
Figure 1 is a magnitude trace of a seismogram showing the arrival of P, S, and L waves from a
seismic event. The total sequence of seismic waves is termed the wave train. The beginning of
each new burst of energy is called a phase, but note the amplitude (one-half the trace height)
differences each phase. Total elapsed time between the first wave arrival and the drop-off to
background noise is referred to as the earthquake duration or coda length.

Figure 1: P-, S-, L Waves

The trajectories of seismic waves in the interior of the earth are not straight lines but curves that
are concave on the side towards the surface. Owing to the fact that the medium through which
the waves are propagated is heterogeneous and increases in density towards the center of the
planet.

The following is a listing of major distinguishing parameters for each wave type.

P waves:

1. Possess longitudinal motion analogous to sound waves.

2. Propagate through all material types (solid, liquid, gas).
3. Are the first types in the total wave train to arrive at a seismological station.
4. Velocity is determined by

P a g e 18 | 34
 4
𝑣1 = √( + 𝜇)/𝜌 3

Where:
 = velocity

 = bulk modulus (resistance to volume changes)

 = rigidity modulus (resistance to change in shape)
 = density

5. Create a push (compressional) – pull (dilatation or relaxation) effect on materials, which

they pass in a vector parallel to the wave path. (see Figure 2).
6. Can be perceived, if the earthquake is large enough, as a sudden shock emanating from
blow the surface.
7. Characterized by longitudinal motion. They should be able to produce audible sounds
upon passing from the solid earth to the atmosphere if they possess the correct
frequency.

Figure 2: Seismic Wave Motions

S waves:

1. Are similar to electromagnetic waves (light, heat, radio waves) in that there are vertical
(SV) and horizontal (SH) components, each at right angles to the direction of wave
propagation (the vertical component is somewhat weakened by the opposing
gravitational force).
2. Propagate only through solid substances because gases and liquids cannot be sheared.
Since  = 0 in liquids and gases,  = 0.
3. Are usually the second wave types in the total seismic wave train to arrive at a recording
station (see Figure 1).
4. Velocity is determined by
𝒗𝟐 = √𝝁/𝝆
5. Shear and twist crustal material as they move through it (Figurer 2); if unconsolidated,
particle motion is at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.
6. Begin a new series of vibrations, often more damaging to the works of construction than
the P phase.

P a g e 19 | 34
Figure 3 demonstrates the motion characteristics of P and S waves with a Slinky toy, which has a
high visual impact. Stages include

A – Stationary.
B – Sharp slap to the top initiates P waves.
C – Compressed and dilated coil zones move up and don the Slinky.
D – Sharp sideways slap generates S waves.
E – Transverse motion of S waves.

Figure 3: Slinky Toy Characteristics of P- and S-waves

Surface (L) waves:

1. Originate at the epicenter, moving outward in all directions. Surface waves can circle the
earth several times and generate one-millimeter ground amplitudes over the earth’s
entire surface in large earthquakes. However, such ground motions are not perceived by
humans because of low L wave accelerations and long wavelengths (tens of kilometers).
2. Are generally characterized by 10- to 20-second wave periods, 20- to 80-km wavelengths,
and 3 km/sec velocities. Extremely long period surface waves (8- to 10- minute periods,
wavelengths exceeding 2,000 km) are termed as mantle waves.
3. Even though L waves contain substantial amounts of energy, their long periods smooth
their imparted ground motion, thereby greatly reducing their damage potential.
4. Wave amplitudes are largest at the surface, decreasing with depth, and the largest
amplitudes are associated with shallow-focus earthquakes. When the focus is shallow, L
wave amplitudes are the largest for the wave train (see Figure 1).
5. Are reflected or refracted from the original wave paths when geological contacts are
encountered.

Long waves:

1. Are generated from “trapped” S waves. They are similar to SH waves. (see Figure 2).
2. Are usually faster than Rayleigh waves, with velocity Ldetermined by the relation
1 L2
Rayleigh waves:

1. Introduce a retrograde elliptical motion similar to ocean waves (see Figure 2).
2. Have a velocity Rdetermined by the relation
R 0.92

Although body and surface waves lose energy by geometrical spreading, significant differences
exist between them because of their different propagation patterns. Body waves are

P a g e 20 | 34
propagated in approximately spherical wave forms with amplitudes diminishing as a function of
distance traveled. Surface waves travel outward in the form of expanding cylinderswherein the
amplitudes decline as the square root of the distance traveled. Furthermore, internal damping in
rocks and surficial materials absorbs wave energy.

Rule of thumb: On the average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of
seconds between the P and S wave times 8. Slight deviations are caused by inhomogenities of
subsurface structure. By such analyses of seismograms the Earth's core was located in 1913 by
Beno Gutenberg.

Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude but also by the place where they occur.
The world is divided into 754 Flinn-Engdahl regions (F-E regions), which are based on political and
geographical boundaries as well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided into smaller F-
E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger F-E regions.

EARTHQUAKE DESCRIPTORS

Earthquakes are described in terms of magnitude and intensity. Magnitude is a quantitative,

based on an instrument. It is the energy released at the source of an earthquake, while intensity
describes an earthquake in qualitative terms, based upon personal observations. It is defined as
the strength ofseismic shaking at a given location. Magnitude is expressed in Arabic numbers and
intensity in Roman numerals.

A. Magnitude – a measure of the total energy released during an earthquake; determine from
the amount of materials, which slides along the fault and the distance it is displaced.

Types of Magnitude Scales

1. Richter Magnitude Scale or Local Magnitude Scale. Earthquake magnitude is reported using the
Richter scale from the motions measured by seismic instruments. The Richter scale/ Richter
magnitude scale (ML)was named after Charles Francis Richter who developed it in 1935. Richter
showed that, the larger the intrinsic energy of the earthquake, the larger the amplitude of ground
motion at a given distance. He calibrated his scale of magnitudes using measured maximum
amplitudes of shear waves on seismometers particularly sensitive to shear waves with periods
of about one second. The records had to be obtained from a specific kind of instrument, called a
Wood-Anderson seismograph.

Table 1 Earthquake magnitudes and expected world incidence

Richter Earthquake Estimated Number per
Magnitudes Effects/ Description Year
2.0 – 2.9 Generally not felt, but recorded. 300,000
3.0 – 3.9 Smallest usually felt 49,000
4.0 – 4.9 Minor earthquake; minor damage 6,200
detected
5.0 – 5.9 Damaging earthquake; slight 800
damage to structures
6.0 – 6.9 Destructive earthquake; can be 120
destructive in populous regions
7.0 – 7.9 Major earthquake; inflict serious 18
damage
>8.0 Great earthquakes. Produce total 1 to 2
destruction to communities near
epicenter.

P a g e 21 | 34
It is a base-10logarithmic scale obtained by calculating the logarithm of the combined horizontal
amplitude (shaking amplitude) of the largest displacement from zero on a particular type of
seismometer (Wood–Anderson torsion). So, for example, an earthquake that measures 5.0 on the
Richter scale has a shaking amplitude 10 times larger than one that measures 4.0. The effective
limit of measurement for local magnitude ML is about 6.8.

2. Moment Magnitude Scale.The moment magnitude scale (MW) was introduced in 1979 by
Thomas C. Hanks and Hiroo Kanamori as a successor to the Richter scale, and it comes from the
seismic moment.

To get an idea of the seismic moment, we go back to the elementary physics concept of torque.
A torque is a force that changes the angular momentum of a system. It is defined as the force
times the distance from the center of rotation. Earthquakes are caused by internal torques,from
the interactions of different blocks of the earth on opposite sides of faults. After some rather
complicated mathematics, it can be shown that the moment of an earthquake is simply expressed
by
𝑴𝒐 = 𝝁𝑨𝒅

where
Mo = seismic moment or moment of an earthquake, dyne-cm.
 = rock rigidity = 3 * 1011 dyne/cm2 or 30 GPa
A = fault area, cm2.
d = slip distance, cm.

A standard relation to convert a seismic moment to a moment magnitude is

Mw = 2/3[log10 Mo – 16.0] (Mo in dyne-cm)

Mw = 2/3[log10 Mo– 9.81] (Mo in N-m)

One advantage of the moment magnitude scale is that unlike other magnitude scales, it does not
saturate at the upper end. There is no particular value beyond which all large earthquakes have
about the same magnitude. For this reason, moment magnitude is now most often used estimate
of large earthquake magnitudes. The subscript w in the moment magnitude scale M w means
mechanical work accomplished.

3. Surface wave magnitude (Ms) – is based on surface waves which primarily travel along the
uppermost layers of the earth and is defined in terms of the logarithm of the maximum amplitude
of the ground motion for the surface waves with a wave period of 20 seconds.

4. P-wave magnitude (Mb) is defined in terms of the amplitude of the P wave recorded on a
standard seismograph. This scale is intended for deep focus earthquakes.

5. Duration magnitude – The concept of Earthquake Duration Magnitude - originally proposed by

Bisztricsanyin 1958 using surface waves only - is based on the realization that on a recorded
earthquake seismogram the total length of the seismic wavetrain - sometimes referred to as the
CODA - reflects its size. Thus larger earthquakes give longer seismograms [as well as stronger
seismic waves] than small ones. The seismic wave interval measured on the time axis of an
earthquake record - starting with the first seismic wave onset until the wavetrainamplitude
diminishes to at least 10% of its maximum recorded value - is referred to as "earthquake
duration". It is this concept that Bisztricsany first used to develop his Earthquake Duration
Magnitude Scale employing surface wave durations.

P a g e 22 | 34
Magnitude Summary

The symbols used to represent the different magnitudes are

Magnitude Symbol Wave Period

Local (Richter) ML S or Surface Wave* 0.8 s
Body-Wave mb P 1s
Surface-Wave Ms Rayleigh 20 s
Moment Mw Rupture Area, Slip > 100 s
Duration Md Surface wave duration (CODA)
*at the distances appropriate for local magnitude, either the S-wave or the surface waves
generally produce the largest vibrations.

SEISMIC ENERGY

Empirical studies using available data on a number of recorded earthquakes have made it possible
to devise a formula that establishes the relation between the energy released by an earthquake
and its magnitude. The equations and the years in which they were introduced are presented in
Table 2.

The energy released by an earthquake activity is not the total ``intrinsic'' energy of the
earthquake, transferred from sources such as gravitational energy or to sinks such as heat energy.
It is only the amount radiated from the earthquake as seismic waves, which ought to be a small
fraction of the total energy transferred during the earthquake process.

Energy Equation Year of Introduction Energy Increase for One Unit of

(log10 E) Magnitude Change
8.0 + 2.0 ML 1936 100.00 *
11.3 + 1.8 ML 1942 63.12 *
12.0 + 1.8 ML 1949 63.11 *
11.0 + 1.6 ML 1954 39.94 *
11.8 + 1.5 ML 1956 31.62 *
Table 2: Relation Between Historical Equations and Energy Release for One Unit of Magnitude
Change

From Table 2, the equation devised by Gutenberg-Richter is thought to be the most accurate,
and is used widely.
log10 E = 11.80 + 1.50ML
where
ML= magnitude measured on the Richter scale.
E = the energy released, ergs.
erg = unit of work equal to 1 dyne acting through a distance of 1 cm.
erg = 1 dyne-cm.
erg = 3.722 * 10-4 horsepower – hrs.
erg = 1 * 10-7 joules.
joule = 1 Nm.
dyne = force needed to accelerate a freestanding mass 1 cm/sec.
dyne = 1 gm-cm/sec2
dyne = 10-5 N.
1 horsepower = 746 watts.

P a g e 23 | 34
More recently, Dr. HirooKanamori(1993) came up with a relationship between seismic moment
and seismic wave energy.
E = Mo/20,000
Table 3 shows the relation of an earthquake magnitude and its corresponding energy released.

Richter Magnitude TNT for Seismic Energy Yield Example

(kN) (Approximate)
-1.5 0.00164 Breaking rock on table
1.0 0.13 Large blast on construction site
1.5 1.40
2.0 9.810.00 Large quarry or mine blast
2.5 45.13
3.0 284.49
3.5 716.13
4.0 9,810.00 Small nuclear weapon
4.5 50,031.00 Average tornado
5.0 313,920.00
5.5 784,800.00
6.0 9,810,000.00
6.5 49,050,000.00
7.0 3.14392 * 108 Largest thermonuclear weapon
7.5 1.5696 * 109
8.0 9.8100 * 109
8.5 4.9050 * 1010
9.0 3.1392 * 1011
10.0 9.810 * 1012 San Andreas-type fault circling Earth
12.0 1.5696 * 1015 Fault Earth in half through center
or Earth’s daily receipt of solar energy
Table 3: Relationship Between Magnitude and Energy Released

Two general statements can be made reference to faults and magnitude.

1. As the length of the fault trace increases, the potential for larger magnitude earthquakes
increases.
2. If the depth is held constant for shocks of shallow foci, the length of surface rupturing and
crustal offset increases with magnitude.

B. Intensity– is a measure of the degree of shaking at a specific place; it is a measure of the

earthquake’s effects on humans and on surface features. It is measured in terms of the damage
done to man-made structures and the changes done to man-made structures and the changes
wrought in the earth’s surface.

Seismic intensity represents the direct or macroseismic effects of an earthquake on humans, their
products, and the features of the earth’s surface at some locale as determined by direct
observation. It is, therefore, an attempt to assess the severity of a seismic activity. Earthquake
intensity is highly variable due to many factors including magnitude, epicentral distance, focal
depth, geologic/soil conditions, type of construction (including age and workmanship), and the
expertise of the observer. Intensity varies over the geographic region, whereas the magnitude for
the same earthquake would ideally be the same, regardless of locale.

While scales of seismic intensity are coming into general use, they relate, for the most part, to the
effects of earthquakes on structures typical of certain specific locations. It is, therefore, very
difficult to make a comparative evaluation of earthquakes occurring in different places.

The Rossi-Forel Scale

In 1878, Michele Stefano De Rossi and Francois-Alphonse Forel introduced the first scale to gain
wide acceptance. It is still used in some parts of Europe. The Rossi-Forel scale is comprised of ten
effect descriptions, each designated by a Roman numeral as shown in Table 5.

P a g e 24 | 34
 Intensity Description
Microseismic shock. Recorded by a single seismograph or by seismographs of the
I same model, but not by several seismographs of different kinds; the shock felt by
an experienced observer.
Extremely feeble shock. Recorded by several seismographs of different kinds; felt
II
by small number of persons at rest.
Very feeble shock. Felt by several persons at rest; strong enough for the direction
III
or duration to be appreciable.
Feeble shock. Felt by several persons in motion; disturbance of movable objects,
IV
doors windows, cracking ceilings.
Shock of moderate intensity. Felt generally by everyone; disturbance of furniture,
V
beds, etc.; ringing of some bells.
Fairly strong shock. General awakening of those asleep; general ringing of bells;
VI oscillation of chandeliers; stopping of pendulum clocks; visible agitation of tree
and shrubs; some startled persons leaving their dwellings.
Strong Shock. Overthrow of movable objects; fall of plaster; ringing of church of
VII
bells; general panic, without damage to buildings.
VIII Very strong shock. Fall of chimneys; cracks in the walls or ceilings.
IX Extremely strong shock. Partial or total destruction of some buildings.
Shock of extreme intensity. Great disaster; ruins; disturbances
X
of the strata; fissures in the ground; rock falls from mountains.
Table 5: Rossi-Forel Intensity Scale of 1883

The Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale

The seismic intensity scale most widely used today is the Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale
(1931), as modified in 1956. The abridged version is presented in Table 6.

The Mercalli Scale was devised by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902 and was modified by Harry O. wood
and frank Neumann in 1931, in which intensity is considered to be more uniformly graded. The
1931 MM scale was revised in 1965 to conform to construction and cultural practices in New
Zealand. Four categories of masonry construction are defined, with effects included at
appropriate levels. Regarding to cultural practices, an item receiving special attention is the
domestic water tank (cylindrical corrugated iron, soldered, or riveted seams), which is compliance
in rural areas.

Intensity Description
I Not felt. Marginal and long-period effects of large earthquakes.
II Felt by persons at rest, on upper floors, or favorably placed.
Felt indoors. Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of light trucks. Duration
III estimated. May not be recognized as an earthquake.

Hanging objects swing. Vibrations like passing of heavy trucks; or sensation of a

jolt like a heavy ball striking the walls. Standing motor cars rock. Windows, dishes,
IV
doors rattle. Glasses clink. Crockery slashes. In the upper range of IV, wooden
walls and frame crack.
Felt outdoors; direction estimated. Sleepers awakened. Liquids disturbed, some
spilled. Small unstable objects displaced or upset. Doors swing, close, open.
V
Shutters, pictures move. Pendulum clocks stop, start, change rate.

Felt by all. Many frightened and run outdoors. Persons walk unsteadily. Windows,
dishes, glassware broken. Knickknacks, books, etc., off shelves. Pictures off walls.
VI
Furniture moved or overturned. Weak plaster and masonry D cracked. Small bells
ring (church, school). Trees, bushes shaken (visibly, or heard to rustle).

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 Difficult to stand. Noticed by drivers of motor cars. Hanging objects quiver.
Furniture broken. Damage to masonry D, including cracks. Weak chimneys broken
at roof line. Fall of plaster, loose bricks, stones, tiles, cornices (also unbraced
VII
parapets and architectural ornaments—CFR). Some cracks in masonry C. Waves
on ponds; water turbid with mud. Small slides and caving in along sand or gravel
banks. Large bells ring. Concrete irrigation ditches damaged.
Steering of motor vehicles affected. Damage to masonry C; partial collapse. Some
damage to masonry B; none to masonry A. Fall of stucco and some masonry walls.
Twisting, fall of chimneys, factory stacks, monuments, towers, elevated tanks.
VIII Frame houses moved on foundations if not bolted down; loose panel walls
thrown out. Decayed piling broken off. Branches broken from trees. Changes in
flow or temperature of springs and wells. Cracks in wet ground and on steep
slopes.
General panic. Masonry D destroyed; masonry heavily damaged, sometimes with
complete collapse; masonry B seriously damaged. (General damage to
foundations-CFR). Frame structures, if not bolted, shifted off foundations. Frames
IX
cracked. Serious damage to reservoirs. Underground pipes broken. Conspicuous
cracks in the ground. In alleviated areas sand and mud ejected, earthquake
fountains, sand craters.
Most masonry structures destroyed with their foundations. Some well-built
wooden structures and bridges destroyed. Serious damage to dams, dikes,
X embankments. Large landslides. Water thrown on banks of canals, rivers, lakes,
etc. Sand and mud shifted horizontally on beaches and flat land. Rails bent
slightly.
XI Rails bent greatly. Underground pipelines completely out of service.
Damage nearby total. Large rock masses displaced. Lines of sight and level
XII
distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
Table 6: The Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale of 1931 (1956 Version)

CFR – Charles F. Richter additions to the 1931 scale.

Masonry A = good workmanship, mortar, and design, reinforced, especially laterally,
and bound together by using steel, concrete, etc.; designed to resist lateral forces.
Masonry B = good workmanship and mortar; reinforced, but not designed in detail
to resist lateral forces.
Masonry C = ordinary workmanship and mortar; no extreme weaknesses like failing
to tie in at corners, but neither reinforced nor designed against horizontal forces.
Masonry D = weak materials, such as adobe; poor mortar; low standards of
workmanship; weak horizontally.

The GEOFAN Scale

The former Soviet Union used a slightly modified version of the MM scale called the GEOFAN
(Geophysics Institute of the Academy of Sciences). It included a qualitative evaluation of ground
motion versus intensity. Intensity was determined by the distance (in millimeters) a seismometer
pendulum was displaced during an earthquake (see Table 7).

Intensity Xo (mm)* Description

I -- Oscillations of the ground are detected with instruments.
II -- Individual cases felt by very sensitive persons at rest.
III -- Oscillations felt by few persons.
IV  0.5 Noted by many persons. Windows and doors rattle.
Objects swing, floors squeak, glasses jar, outer plaster
V 0.5 – 1.0
crumbles.

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 Light damage to buildings: thin cracks in plaster, cracks in
VI 1.1 – 2.0
furnaces.
Considerable damage to buildings: thin cracks in plaster and
VII 2.1 – 4.0
stripping of individual pieces, thin cracks in walls.
Destruction in buildings: large cracks in walls, falling of
VIII 4.1 – 8.0
cornices or chimneys.
IX 8.1 – 16.0 Collapse in some buildings; destruction of walls, roofs, floors.
Collapse in many buildings; fissures in ground about 1 meter
X 16.1 – 32.0
wide.
Numerous fissures on the surface of the earth, large landslides
XI  32.0
in mountains.
XII -- Large-scale change in the relief.
Table 7: The USSR GEOFAN Intensity Scale

* Intensity representing earthquake force determined by Xo, which represents the

maximum displacement of a spherical pendulum of a seismometer with a natural period
of 0.25 sec., log damping decrement of 0.50, and static magnification of 1.0.

The MSK-64 Scale

One of the most important revisions of the Modified Mercalli Scale (MM) is that carried out in
1964 by Medvedev, Sponheuer and Karnik, better known as the MSK-64 scale, the adoption of
which has been recommended by UNESCO.

The scale retains the twelve grades of the Mercalli scale (MM) but endeavors to define the
phenomena corresponding to each grade in a more systematic and quantitative form. For this
purpose, non-earthquake resistant structures are first classified into three types, then the
phenomena are defined in percentage terms and finally, the intensity of damage to building is
classified into five categories. The appropriate combination of these elements gives a scale that
can be used to obtain a more objective classification of earthquake intensity. In view of the
importance of this scale because of its recommendation by UNESCO, it is set out in detail below.

I. Type of structures (buildings not anti-seismic)

Structure A: Buildings in fieldstones, rural structure, and adobe houses.
B: Ordinary brick building, buildings of the large block and prefabricated type,
half-timbered structures, buildings in natural hewn stone.
II. Definition of quantity
Single, few: about 5 per cent
Many: about 50 per cent
Most: about 75 per cent
III. Classifications of damage to buildings
Grade 1: Slight damage: fine cracks in plaster; fall of small pieces of plaster.
Grade 2: Moderate damage: small cracks in walls; fall of fairly large pieces of
plaster; pan tiles slip off; cracks in chimneys; parts of chimneys fall
down.
Grade 3: Heavy damage; large and deep cracks in walls; fall of chimneys.
Grade 4: Destruction: gaps in walls; parts of the buildings may collapse; separate
parts of the building lose their cohesion; inner walls and filled-on walls
of the frame collapse.
Grade 5: Total damage: total collapse of buildings.
IV. Arrangements of the scale
(a) Persons and surroundings
(b) Structures, all kinds
(c) Nature

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Table 8 depicts the stature of the MSK-64 scale.

Intensity Description
Not noticeable.
I (a) The intensity of the vibration is below the limit of sensibility; the tremor is
detected and recorded by seismographs only.
Scarcely noticeable (very slight).
II (a) Vibration is felt only by individual people at rest in houses, especially on upper
floors of buildings.
Weak, partially observed only.
(a) A few people feel the earthquake indoor, outdoors only in favorable
III circumstances. The vibration is like that due to the passing of light truck.
Attentive observers notice a slight swinging of hanging objects, somewhat more
heavily upper floors.

Largely observed.
(a) The earthquake is felt indoor by many people, outdoors by few people
awaken, but no one is frightened. The vibration is like that due to the passing of
IV heavily loaded truck. Windows, doors, and dishes rattle. Floors and walls crack.
Furniture begins to shake. Hanging objects swing slightly, liquids in open vessels
are slightly disturbed in standing motorcars the shock is noticeable.

Awakening.
(a) The earthquake is felt indoors by all, outdoors by many. Many sleeping people
awaken. A few run outdoors. Animals become uneasy. Buildings tremble
throughout. Hanging objects swing considerably. Pictures knock against walls or
swing out of place. Occasionally pendulum clocks stop. Few unstable objects
V may be overturned or shifted. Open doors and windows are thrust open and
slam back again. Liquids spill in small amounts from well-filled open containers.
The sensation of vibration is like that due to a heavy object falling inside the
building.
(b) Slight damages of grade 1 in buildings of type A are possible.
(c) Sometimes changes in flow of spring water.
Frightening.
(a) Felt by indoors and outdoors. Many people in building are frightened and run
outdoors. A few people lose their balance. Domestic animals run out of their
stalls. In few instances dishes and glassware may break, books fall down. Heavy
furniture may move and small steeple bells my ring.
VI
(b) Damage of grade 1 is sustained in single building of type B and in many types.
Damage in few buildings of type A is of grade 2.
(c) In few cases cracks up to widths of one centimeter (1.00 cm) possible in wet
ground; in mountains occasional landslips; changes in flow of spring water and in
level of well-water are observed.
Damage to buildings.
(a) Most people are frightened and run outdoors. Many find it difficult to stand.
The vibration is notice by persons driving motorcars. Large bells ring.
(b) In many buildings to type C damage of grade 1 is caused; in many buildings of
type B damage is of grade 2. Many buildings of type A suffer damage of grade 3,
VII few of grade 4. In single instances, landslips of roadway on steep slopes; cracks in
road; joints of pipelines damaged; cracks in stones walls.
(c) Waves are formed on water, and water is made turbid by mud stirred up.
Water levels in walls, and the flow of spring changes. In few cases, dry springs
have their flow restored and existing springs stop flowing. In isolated instances
part of sand or gravel banks slip off.
VIII Destruction of buildings.

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 (a) Fright and panic; even persons driving motorcars are disturbed. Branches of
trees break off. Even heavy furniture moves and partly overturns. Hanging lamps
are partly damaged.
(b) Many buildings of type C suffer damage of grade 2, few of grade 3. Many
buildings of type B suffer damage of grade 3 and few of grade 4, and many
buildings of type A suffer damage of grade 4 and a few of grade 5. Occasional
breakage of pipe seams. Memorials and monuments move and twist. Tombstone
overturns. Stone walls collapse.
(c) Small landslips in hollows and on banked roads on steep slopes; cracks in
ground up to widths of several centimeters. Water in lakes becomes turbid. Dry
springs have their flow restored and existing springs stop flowing. In many cases
change in flow and level of water.

General damage to buildings.

(a) General panic; considerable damage to furniture. Animals run to and fro in
confusion and scream.
(b) Many buildings of type C suffer damage of grade 4. Many buildings of type B
show damage of grade 4; a few of grade 5. Many buildings of type A suffer
damage of grade 5. Monuments and columns fall. Considerable damage to
IX
reservoirs, underground pipes partly broken. In individual cases railway lines are
bent and roadways damaged.
(c) On flat overflow of water, sand and mud is often observed. Ground cracks to
width up to ten centimeters (10 cm) , furthermore a large number of light crack in
ground; falls of rock, many landslides and earth flows; large waves on water. Dry
spring renews their flow and existing springs dry up.
General destruction of buildings.
(a) Many buildings of type C suffer damage of grade 4, a few of grade 5. Many
buildings of type B show damage of grade 5; most of type A have destruction of
grade 5; critical damage to dams and dikes and severe damage to bridges.
Railways lines are bent. Road paving and asphalt show waves.
X (b) On the ground, cracks up to widths of several decimeters, sometimes up to
one meter. Broad fissures occur parallel to watercourses. Loose ground slides
from steep slopes.
(c) From riverbanks and steep coast considerable landslides are possible. In
coastal areas displacements of sand and mud; change of water level in well; water
from canals, lakes, rivers, etc. thrown on land. New lakes appear.
Catastrophe.
(a) Severe damage even to well-built buildings, bridges, water dams and railway
lines; highways become useless; underground pipes destroyed.
XI (b) Ground considerably distorted by broad cracks and fissures, as well as by
movement in horizontal and vertical directions; numerous landslips and falls of
rocks.
(c) The intensity of the earthquake must be investigated.
Landscape Changes.
(a) Practically all structures above and below the ground are greatly damaged or
destroyed.
(b) The surface of the ground is radically changed. Considerable ground cracks
XII
with extensive vertical and horizontal movement are observed. Falls of rock and
slumping of river banks over wide areas; lakes are dammed; waterfalls appear,
and river deflected.
(c) The intensity of the earthquake must be investigated.
Table 8: The MSK-64 Intensity Scale

The first simple classification of earthquake intensity was devised by DomenicoPignataro in the
1780s. However, the first recognisable intensity scale in the modern sense of the word was drawn
up by P.N.G. Egen in 1828; it was ahead of its time. The first widely adopted intensity

P a g e 29 | 34
scale, the Rossi-Forel scale, was introduced in the late 19th century. Since then numerous
intensity scales have been developed and are used in different parts of the world: the scale
currently used in the United States is the Modified Mercalli scale (MM), while the European
Macroseismic Scale (EMS-98) is used in Europe, the Shindo scale is used in Japan, the MSK-64
scale is used in India, Israel, Russia and throughout the CIS, and the Liedu scale (GB/T 17742- 1999)
is used in mainland China; Hong Kong, on the other hand, uses the MM scale,[1] and Taiwan uses
the Shindo scale. Most of these scales have twelve degrees of intensity, which are roughly
equivalent to one another in values but vary in the degree of sophistication employed in their
formulation.

MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY

The magnitude of an earthquake is usually measured on the Richter scale. This is of the
quantitative type. On the other hand, the intensity of an earthquake is of the qualitative type.
These two parameters are related by the equation
M = log10 (I/Io)
where:
M = magnitude
I = intensity in question.
Io = intensity of an arbitrary chosen earthquake.

Table 9 gives intensities that are typically observed at locations near the epicenter of earthquakes
of different magnitudes.

Richter’s Magnitude Modified Mercalli Scale Intensity

1.0 – 3.0 I
3.0 – 3.9 II - III
4.0 – 4.9 IV - V
5.0 –5.9 VI - VII
6.0 – 6.9 VIII - IX
7.0 + VIII +
Table 9: Magnitude-Intensity Comparison

Charles Richter, the creator of the Richter magnitude scale, distinguished intensity and magnitude
as follows: "I like to use the analogy with radio transmissions. It applies in seismology because
seismographs, or the receivers, record the waves of elastic disturbance, or radio waves, that are
radiated from the earthquake source, or the broadcasting station. Magnitude can be compared
to the power output in kilowatts of a broadcasting station. Local intensity on the Mercalli scale is
then comparable to the signal strength on a receiver at a given locality; in effect, the quality of
the signal. Intensity, like signal strength, will generally fall off with distance from the source,
although it also depends on the local conditions and the pathway from the source to the point.

PHIVOLCS EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY SCALE

Intensity Scale Description

Scarcely Perceptible - Perceptible to people under favorable

I circumstances. Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still
Water in containers oscillates slowly.

II Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects

P a g e 30 | 34
 swing slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates noticeably.

Weak - Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of

buildings. Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck. Dizziness
III
and nausea are experienced by some people. Hanging objects swing
moderately. Still water in containers oscillates moderately.

Moderately Strong - Felt generally by people indoors and by some

people outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a
passing of heavy truck. Hanging objectsswing considerably. Dinner,
IV plates, glasses, windows and doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood
framed buildings creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids
in containers are slightly disturbed. Water in containers oscillate
strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.

Strong - Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many

sleeping people are awakened. Some are frightened, some run
outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking felt throughout building. Hanging
V objects swing violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink; some are
broken. Small, light and unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids
spill from filled open containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably.
Shaking of leaves and twigs of trees are noticeable.

Very Strong - Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some
people lose their balance. motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy
objects or furniture move or may be shifted. Small church bells may
VI ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very old or poorly built houses and man-
made structures are slightly damaged though well-built structures are
not affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly to
mountainous areas and escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.

Destructive - Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People

find it difficult to stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture
overturn or topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or poorly-built
structures suffer considerably damage. Some well-built structures are
VII slightly damaged. Some cracks may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road
surface, or concrete hollow block walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral
spreading and landslides are observed. Trees are shaken strongly.
(Liquefaction is a process by which loose saturated sand lose strength
during an earthquake and behave like liquid).

Very Destructive - People panicky. People find it difficult to stand even

outdoors. Many well-built buildings are considerably damaged.
Concrete dikes and foundation of bridges are destroyed by ground
settling or toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken. Tombstones
may be displaced, twisted or overturned. Utility posts, towers and
monuments mat tilt or topple. Water and sewer pipes may be bent,
VIII
twisted or broken. Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause man- made
structure to sink, tilt or topple. Numerous landslides and rockfalls
occur in mountainous and hilly areas. Boulders are thrown out from
their positions particularly near the epicenter. Fissures and faults
rapture may be observed. Trees are violently shaken. Water splash or
stop over dikes or banks of rivers.

IX Devastating - People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and

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 shake with fear. Most buildings are totally damaged. bridges and
elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Numerous
utility posts, towers and monument are tilted, toppled or broken.
Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or broken. Landslides and
liquefaction with lateral spreadings and sandboils are widespread. the
ground is distorted into undulations. Trees are shaken very violently
with some toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly thrown out.
River water splashes violently on slops over dikes and banks.

Completely Devastating - Practically all man-made structures are

destroyed. Massive landslides and liquefaction, large scale subsidence
X and uplifting of land forms and many ground fissures are observed.
Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in large lakes occur.
Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.

HOW TO LOCATE AN EARTHQUAKE'S EPICENTER?

To figure out just where that earthquake happened, you need to look at your seismogram and
you need to know what at least two other seismographs recorded for the same earthquake. You
will also need a map of the world, a ruler, a pencil, and a compass for drawing circles on the map.

Here's an example of a seismogram:

Figure 1: Sample Seismogram

One-minute intervals are marked by the small lines printed just above the squiggles made by the
seismic waves (the time may be marked differently on some seismographs). The distance between
the beginning of the first P wave and the first S wave tells you how many seconds the waves are
apart. This number will be used to tell you how far your seismograph is from the epicenter of the
earthquake.

FINDING THE DISTANCE TO THE EPICENTER AND THE EARTHQUAKE'S MAGNITUDE

Although the relationship between Richter magnitude and the measured amplitude and S-P
interval is complex, a graphical device, known as the Richter Nomogram can be used to simplify
the process and to estimate magnitude from distance and amplitude.

In the diagram below the dotted line represents the "standard" Richter earthquake. This standard
earthquake is 100 km away and produces 1 mm of amplitude on the seismogram. It is assigned a
magnitude of 3. Other earthquakes can then be referenced to this standard.

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NOTE: A 100 km-away earthquake of magnitude 4 would produce 10 mm of amplitude and a
magnitude 5 would produce 100 mm of amplitude: 1, 10 and 100 are all powers of 10 and this is
why the Richter Scale is said to be "exponential." A change of one unit in magnitude (say from 4
to 5) increases the maximum amplitude by a factor of 10.

The following steps typify the distance from the seismograph and magnitude of an earthquake
activity:

1. Measure the distance between the first P wave and the first S wave. In this case, the first P
and S waves are 24 seconds apart.
2. Find the point for 24 seconds on the left side of the chart below (Figure 3) and mark that point.
According to the chart, this earthquake's epicenter was 215 kilometers away.
3. Measure the amplitude of the strongest wave. The amplitude is the height (on paper) of the
strongest wave. On this seismogram, the amplitude is 23 millimeters. Find 23 millimeters on
the right side of the chart and mark that point.
4. Place a ruler (or straight edge) on the chart between the points you marked for the distance
to the epicenter and the amplitude. The point where your ruler crosses the middle line on the
chart marks the magnitude (strength) of the earthquake. This earthquake had a magnitude
of 5.

Figure 2: The Richter Nomogram Figure 3: Earthquake Magnitude Measurement

FINDING THE EPICENTER

The distance from the seismograph to the epicenter and the strength of the earthquake was
already determined. Nevertheless, the exact location where the earthquake occurred was not
established. This is where the compass, the map, and the other seismograph records come in.

P a g e 33 | 34
The following steps typify the location of the epicenter of an earthquake activity.

1. Check the scale on your map. It should look something like a piece of a ruler. All maps are
different. On your map, one centimeter could be equal to 100 kilometers or something like
that.
2. Figure out how long the distance to the epicenter (in centimeters) is on your map. For
example, say your map has a scale where one centimeter is equal to 100 kilometers. If the
epicenter of the earthquake is 215 kilometers away, that equals 2.15 centimeters on the map.
3. Using your compass, draw a circle with a radius equal to the number you came up with in Step
#2 (the radius is the distance from the center of a circle to its edge). The center of the circle
will be the location of your seismograph. The epicenter of the earthquake is somewhere on
the edge of that circle.
4. Do the same thing for the distance to the epicenter that the other seismograms recorded
(with the location of those seismographs at the center of their circles).
5. All of the circles should overlap. The point of intersection of all circles is the approximate
epicenter of the earthquake.

V. REFERENCES:

1. Encyc. Brit. – Encyclopedia Britannica

2. Earthquake Engineering Application to Design by Charles K.Erdy
3. Basic Earthquake Engineering by Haluk Sucuoglu & Sinan Akkar

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