Chapter 8

College of Education
CHAPTER 8
Energy Expenditure During Rest and Physical Activity
Chapter Objectives:
 Define basal metabolic rate and indicate factors that affect it.
 Explain the effect of body weight on the energy of different forms of physical
activity.
 Identify factors that contribute to the total daily energy expenditure.
 Outline different classification systems for rating the intensity of physical activity.
 Describe two ways to predict resting daily energy expenditure.
 Explain the concepts of exercise efficiency and exercise economy.
 List three factor that affect the energy cost of and running.
 Identify factors that contribute to the lower exercise economy of swimming compared
with running.
Energy Expenditure During Rest

Three factors shown in Figure 8.1
determinate the total daily energy expenditure
(TDEE).
1. Resting metabolic rate, which includes
basal and sleeping conditions plus the
added cost of arousal.
2. Thermogenic influence of consumed food
3. Energy expanded during physical activity
and recovery.
Basal (Resting) Metabolic Rate

For each individual, a minimum energy requirement sustains the body’s functions in
the waking rate. Measuring oxygen uptake under the following three standardized conditions
quantifies this requirement called the basal metabolic rate (BMR).
1. No food consumed for a minimum of 12 hours before measurement; the post
absorptive state describes this condition.
2. No undue muscular exertion for at least 12 hours before measurement.
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Member: Philippine Association of State Universities and Colleges (PASUC)
Agricultural Colleges Association of the Philippines (ACAP)
3. Measure after the person has been lying quietly for 30 to 60 minutes in a dimply lit,
temperature-controlled (thermoneutral) room.
Influence of body size on resting metabolism

Body surface area frequently provides a common denominator for expressing basal
metabolism. Figure 8.2 shows BMR (expressed as kCal per body surface area (BSA) per
hour, or kCal .m-2 .h -1) averages 5% to 10% lower in females compared with males at all
ages. A female’s larger percentage
body fat and smaller muscle mass in
relation to body size helps explain her
lower metabolic rate per unit surface
area. From ages 20 to 40 years,
average values for BMR equal 38
kCal .m-2 .h -1 for men and 36 kCal .m-
2
.h -1 for women. For a more precise
BMR estimate, the actual average
value for a specific age should be read
directly from the curves. A person’
resting metabolic rate in kCal .min -1
can be estimated and converted to a total daily resting requirement with the value for heat
production (BMR) in Figure 8.2 combined with the appropriate surface area value.
Factors Affecting Total Daily Energy Expenditure

The three most important factors that affects total daily energy expenditure (TDEE)
include:
1. Physical Activity- Physical activity profoundly affects human energy expenditure.
2. Dietary-induced Thermogenesis- Consuming food increases energy metabolism
from the energy-requiring processes of digesting, absorbing, and assimilating
nutrients.
3. Climate- Environmental factors influence the resting metabolic rate. The resting
metabolism of people living in the tropical climates.
4. Pregnancy (also one the important that affects TDEE)- Maternal cardiovascular
dynamics follow normal response patterns. Moderate exercise presents no greater
physiologic stress to the mother than that imposed by the additional weight gain and
possible encumbrance of fetal tissue.
SUMMARY
1. BMR reflects the minimum energy required for vital functions in the waking state. BMR
relates inversely to age and gender, averaging 5% to 10% lower in women the men. FFM
and the percentage of body fat largely account for the age and gender differences in
BMR.
2. TDEE represents the sum of energy required in basal and resting metabolism, the thermic
effect of food and energy generated in physical activity.
3. Body mass, stature, age and FFM provide for accurate estimates of resting daily energy
expenditure.
4. Physical activity, dietary-induced thermogenesis, environmental factors, and pregnancy
significand impact TDEE.
5. Dietary-Induced thermogenesis refers to the increase in energy metabolism attributable
to digestion, absorption, and assimilation of food nutrients.
6. Exposure to hot and cold environments slightly increases TDEE
Energy Expenditure During Physical Activity

An understanding of resting energy metabolism provides an important frame of
reference to appreciate human potential to substantially increase daily energy output
according numerous surveys, physically inactivity (e.g. watching television, lounging around
the home, playing video games, and other sedentary activities) accounts for about one-third
of a person’s waking hours.
Energy cost of recreational and sports activities

Table 8.1 illustrates the energy cost among diverse recreational and sports activities.
Effect of Body Mass

Body size plays an important contributing role in
exercise energy requirements. Figure 8.3 illustrates that
heavier people expend more energy to perform the same
activity than people who weigh less. This occurs because
the energy expended weight-bearing exercise increases
directly with the body mass transported. Such a strong
relationship means that one can predict energy
expenditure during walking or running from body mass
with almost as much accuracy as measuring oxygen uptake under controlled laboratory
conditions.
Average Daily Rates of Energy Expenditure
A committee of the United States food and nutrition board proposed various norms to
represent average rates of energy expenditure for men and women in the United States. These
values apply to people with occupations considered between sedentary and active and who
participate in some recreational activities such as weekend swimming, golf, hiking, and
tennis.
Classification of Work by Energy Expenditure

All of us at one time or another have performed some type of physical work we would
classify as exceedingly “Difficult”. This includes walking up a long flight stair, shoveling a
snow-filled driveway, sprinting to catch a bus, loading and unloading furniture from a truck,
digging trenches, skiing or snow-shoeing through a snowstorm, or running in soft beach sand.
Two factors affect how researchers rate the difficulty of a particular task: duration of
activity and intensity of effort. Both factors can vary considerably. Running a 26-mile
marathon at various speeds illustrates this point. One runner maintains maximum pace and
completes the race in a little more than 2 hours. Another runner of similar fitness selects a
slower, more “leisurely” pace and complete the run in 3 hours.
METABOLIC EQUIVALENTS
Oxygen uptake and kilocalories commonly express differences in exercise intensity.
As an alternative, a convenient way to express exercise intensity classifies a physical effort a
multiple of resting energy expenditure, with a unit less measure.
Heart Rate Estimates Energy Expenditure
For each person, heart rate (HR) and oxygen uptake relate linearly throughout a broad
range of aerobic exercise intensities. By knowing this precise relationship, exercise HR
provides an estimate of oxygen uptake (and thus energy expenditure) during physical activity.
This approach has served as a substitute when oxygen uptake cannot be measured during the
actual activity.
SUMMARY
1. Energy expenditure can be expressed in gross or net terms. Gross or total values
include the resting energy requirement during the activity phase, and net energy
expenditure reflects the energy cost of the activity that includes resting metabolism
over an equivalent time period.
2. Daily rates of energy expenditure classify different occupations and sports profession.
Within any classification, variability exists from energy expended recreational or on-
the-job pursuits. Heavier individuals expend more energy in most physical activities
than lighter counterparts simply because of the cost of moving the added body weight.
3. Average total daily energy expenditure ranges between 2900 and 300 kCal for men
and 2200 kCal for women age 15 to 50 years.
4. Different classification systems rate the strenuousness of physical activities. These
includes rating based on energy cost expressed in kCal .min -1, oxygen requirement in
L.min-1, or multiples of the resting metabolic rate (METs).
5. Exercise HR estimates energy expenditure during physical activity from a laboratory-
determined individual’s HR-VO2 line. Researchers apply the HRs during recreational,
sport, or occupational activity to the HR-VO2 line to estimate exercise oxygen uptake.
6. Diverse factors that influence HR act independent of the oxygen consumption so
estimates of energy cost using HR response are limited to only select types of physical
activities.
ENERGY EXPENDITURE DURING WALKING, RRUNNING, AND SWIMMING

Total daily energy expenditure depends largely on the type, intensity, and duration of
physical activity. The following sections explore the energy expenditure for walking,
running, and swimming. These activities play an important role in weight control, physical
conditioning, and cardiac rehabilitation.
Economy and Efficiency of Energy Expenditure
Three factors largely determine success in aerobic endurance performance:
1. Aerobic power (VO2max)
2. Ability to sustain effort at a large percentage of VO2max
3. Efficiency of energy use or movement economy.
Exercise physiologist consider a high VO 2max as pre-requisite for success in endurance
activities. Among long distance runners with nearly identical aerobic powers as often explain
success in competition. For example, a performance edge would clearly exist for an athlete
able to run at a higher percentage of VO 2max that competitors. Similarly, the runner who
maintains a given pace with relatively low energy expenditure or greater economy maintains
a competitive advantage.
Efficiency of Energy Use
The energy expenditure related in external work represents only a portion of the total
energy utilized when an individual exercise. The remainder appears as heat. Mechanical
efficiency (ME) indicates the percentage of the total chemical energy expanded
(denominator) that contributes to the external work output (numerator) with in context.
Gross Mechanical Efficiency
Gross ME, the most frequently calculated measure of efficiency, applies when one
requires specific rates of work a speed or in nutritional studies that features energy
expenditures over extended durations. Gross efficiency computations use the total oxygen
uptake during the exercise.
FACTORS INFLUENCING EXERCISE EFFICIENCY
1. Work rate
2. Movement speed
3. Extrinsic factors
4. Muscle fiber composition activation
5. Fitness level
6. Body composition
7. Technique
Economy of Movement
The concept of exercise economy also can be viewed as the relationship between
energy input and energy output. For economy of human movement, the quantity of energy to
perform a particular task relative to performance quality represents an important concern. In a
sense, many of us assess economy by visually comparing the ease of movement among
highly trained athletes. It does not require a trained eye to discriminate the ease of effort in
comparisons of elite swimmers, skiers, dancers, gymnast, and diverse with less proficient
counterparts who seem to expend considerable “waste energy” to perform the same tasks.
Anyone who has learned a new sports recalls the difficulties encountered performing basic
movements that with practice, became automatic and seemingly “effortless”.
Exercise Oxygen Uptake Reflects Economy
A common method to assess differences between individuals in economy of
movement evaluates the steady-rate oxygen uptake during a specific exercise a set power
output or speed. This approach only applies to steady-rate exercise in which oxygen uptake
closely mirrors energy expenditure. At given sub-maximum speed of running, cycling, or
swimming, an individual with greater movement economy consumes less oxygen. Economy
takes on importance during longer duration exercise during which the athlete’s aerobic
capacity and the oxygen requirement of the tasks largely determine success.
Walking Economy
For most individuals, the most common form of exercise is walking, represents the
major type of physical activity that falls outside the realm of sedentary living.
Effects of Body Mass
Body mass can predict energy expenditure with reasonable accuracy at horizontal
walking speeds ranging from 3.2 to 6.4 kmh -1 (~2.0-4.0 mph) for people of diverse body size
and composition. The predicted values for energy expenditure during walking listed in table
8.4 fall with 15% of the actual energy expenditure for men and women of different body
weights up to 91 kg (200 lb). On a daily basis, the estimated energy expended while walking
would only be in error by about 50 to 100 kCal, assuming the person walks 2 hours daily.
Extrapolations can be made for heavier individuals but with some loss in accuracy.
Energy Expenditure During Running
Terrain weather, training goals, and the performer’s fitness level influence the speed
of running. Two ways quantify running energy expenditure:
1. During performance of the actual activity
2. On a treadmill in the labolatory, with precise control over running speed and grade.
Jogging and running represent qualitative terms related to speed of locomotion. This
difference relates largely to the relative aerobic energy demands required in raising an
dlowering the body’s center of gravity and accelerating and decelerating the limbs during the
run. At identical running speeds, a trained distance runner moves at a lower percentage of
aerobic capacity than an untrained runner, even though the oxygen uptake during the run may
be similar for both. The demarcation between jogging and running depend’s on the
participant’s fitness; a jog for one person represents a run for another.
Stride Length and Stride Frequency Effects on Running Speed
Running speed can increase in three ways:
1. Incresase the number of steps each minute (stride frequency)
2. Increase the distance between steps (stride length)
3. Increase stride length and stride frequency
Although the third option may seem the obvious way to increase running speed, several
experiment provide objective data concerning this question.
In 1944, researchers studied the stride pattern for the Danish champion in the 5- and
10-km running events. At a running speed of 9.3 km .h -1 (5.8 mph), this athlete’s stride
frequency equaled 160 per minute with a corresponding stride length of 97 cm (38.2 in).
when running speed increased 91% to 17.8 km, stride frequency increased only in 10% to
176 per minute, whereas 83% increase to 168 cm occurred in stride length. These data
illustrate that running speed increases predominantly by lengthening the stride length. Only a
faster speed does stride frequency become important.
Optimum Stride Length
An optimum combination of stride length and frequency exists for running at
particular speed. The optimum combination depends largely on the person’s “style” of
running cannot be determined from objective body measurements. Running speed chosen by
the person incorporates the most economical stride length. Lengthening the stride above the
optimum increases oxygen uptake more than a shorter-than-optimum stride length. Urging a
runner who shows signs of fatigue to “lengthen stride” to maintain sped proves
counterproductive for exercise economy.
Well-trained runners run at a stride length “selected” through years of training. This
produces the most economical running performance, in keeping with concept that the body
naturally attempts to achieve a level of “minimum effort.” No “best” style exist to
characterize elite runners. Instead, individual differences in body size, inertia of limb
segments, and anatomic development interact to vary one’s stride to the one most
economical.
Effects of Air Resistance

Anyone who has run into a strong headwind knows it requires more energy to
maintain a given pace compared with running in calm weather or with the wind at one’s back.
Three influence how air resistance affect energy cost of running:
1. Air density
2. Runner’s projected surface area
3. Square headwind velocity
Depending on running speed, overcoming air resistance accounts for 3% to 9% of the total
energy requirement of running in calm weather. Running into a headwind creates an
additional energy expense.
Drafting
Drafting Athletes use "drafting" by following directly behind a competitor to counter
the negative effects of air resistance and headwind on energy cost. For example, running 1 m
behind another runner at a speed of 21.6 km .h-1 (13.4 mph) decreases the total energy
expenditure by about 7%. Drafting at this speed could save about l second for each 400 m
covered during a race. The beneficial aerodynamic effect of drafting on the economy of effort
also exists for cross-country skiing, speed skating, and cycling. About 90% of the power
generated when cycling at 40 km .h -1 (24.9 mph) on a calm day goes to overcome air
resistance. At this speed, energy expenditure decreases between 26% and 38% when a
competitor follows closely behind another cyclist.
Treadmill versus Track Running

Researchers use the treadmill almost exclusively to evaluate the physiology of
running. A question concerns the Association between treadmill running and running
performance on a track or road race. For example, does it require the same energy to run a
given speed or distance on a treadmill and a track in calm weather? To answer this question,
researchers studied distance runners on both a treadmill and track at three sub-maximum
speeds of 10.8, 12.6, and 15.6 km h (6.7, 7.8, and 9.7 mph).
They also measured the athletes during a graded exercise test to determine possible
differences between treadmill and track running on submaximal and maximal oxygen uptake.
From a practical standpoint, no meaningful differences occurred in aerobic requirements of
submaximal running (up to 17.2 km h) on the treadmill or rack or between the VO2mx
Measured in both exercise forms under similar environmental conditions. At the faster
running speeds of endurance competition, air resistance could negatively impact outdoor
running performance and oxygen cost may exceed that of "stationary" treadmill running at
the same speed.
Marathon Running
The world marathon record for men is 2 h, 3 min, 59 s (set on September 28, 2008, at
the Berlin, Germany, marathon.) The record bolder. Haile Gebrselassie, became the first man
to break the 2:04 barrier at an average pace of 44 per mile, the women's world record of 2 h,
15 min, 25 s set on April 19, 2003, at the London, England, miles. Radcliffe also set world-
record marks for 20 miles (43:44) and 30 km (1:36:36) during this run.
The amazingly fast paces for both athletes not only require a steady rate aerobic
metabolism that greatly exceeds the aerobic capacity of the average male college student, it
also represents about 85% of the marathoners' \O2max, Maintained for over 2 hours. Aerobic
capacity of these athletes ranges between 70 and 84 mL kg l min, the energy expenditure
required to run the marathon averages about 2400 kCal, excluding any elevated energy
expenditure during recovery which can persist for up to 24 to 48 hours.
ENERGY EXPENDITURE DURING SWIMMING

Swimming differs in several important respects from walking and running. For one
thing, swimmers must expend energy to maintain buoyancy while generating horizontal
movement at the same time using the arms and legs, either in combination or separately.
Other differences include the energy requirements for overcoming drag forces that impede
the movement of an object through a water medium.
The amount of drag depends on the characteristics of the medium and the object's
size, shape, and velocity. These factors all contribute to a considerably lower economy
swimming compared with running, more specifically, it requires about four times more
energy to swim a given distance than to run the same distance. Energy expenditure has been
computed from oxygen uptake measured by open-circuit spirometry during swimming. In
measurement in the pool, the researcher walks alongside the swimmer while carrying the
portable gas collection equipment.
Energy Cost and Drag

Three components comprise the total drag force that impedes a swimmer's forward
movement
1. Wave drag caused by waves that build up in front of and form hollows behind the
swimmer moving through the water. This component of drag only becomes a
significant factor at fast speeds
2. Skin friction drag produced as the water slides over the skin's surface. Removal of
body hair reduces drag to slightly decrease the energy cost and physiologic demands
during swimming.
3. Viscous pressure drag contributes substantially to counter the propulsive efforts of the
swimmer at slow velocities. It results from the separation of the thin sheet of water
(boundary layer) adjacent to the Swimmer. The pressure differential created in front
of and behind the swimmer represents viscous pressure drag. Highly skilled
swimmers who "streamline" their stroke reduce this component of total drag.
Streamlining with improved stroke mechanics reduces the separation region by
moving the separation point closer to the water's trailing edge. This also occurs when
an oar slices through the water with the blade parallel rather than perpendicular to
water movement.
Differences in total drag force between swimmers can make the difference between
winning and losing, particularly in longer distance competitions. Wet suits worn during the
swim portion of a triathlon can reduce body drag by 14%. Improved swimming economy
largely explains the faster swimmers of athletes who wear wet suits. Proponents of the neck-
to-body suits worn by pool swimmers maintain that the technology-driven approach to
competitive swimming maximizes swimming economy and allows Swimmers to achieve 3%
faster times than those with standard swimsuits. As in running, cross-country skiing, and
cycling, drafting in ocean swimming (following closely behind the wake of a lead swimmer)
reduces energy expenditure. This enables an endurance swimmer to conserve energy and
possibly improve performance toward the end of competition.
Energy Cost, Swimming Velocity, and Skill
Elite swimmers swim a particular stroke at a given velocity at a lower oxygen uptake
than either less elite or recreational swimmers, Elite swimmers swim a given speed with a
lower oxygen uptake than untrained yet skilled swimmers. For different swimming strokes in
terms of energy expenditure, swimming the breaststroke "costs" the most at any speed
followed by the backstroke. The front crawl represents the least "expensive" (calorie-wise)
among the three strokes.
Effects of Buoyancy: Men versus Women
Women of all ages possess, on average, more total body fat than men. Because fat
floats and muscle and bone sink, the average woman gains a hydrodynamic lift and floats m
easily than the average man. This difference in buoyancy can help to explain women's greater
swimming economy compared with men. For example, women swim a given distance at a
lower energy cost than men; expressed another way, women achieve a higher swimming
velocity than men for the same level of energy expenditure.
Whereas the distribution of body fat toward the periphery in women causes their legs
to float higher in the water, making them more horizontal or "stream- lined," men's leaner
legs tend to swing down in the water. Lowering the legs to a deeper position increases body
drag and thus reduces swimming economy. The potential hydrodynamic benefits enjoyed by
women become not worthy in longer distances during which swimming economy and body
insulation assume added importance. For example, the women's record for swimming the 2l-
mile English Channel from England to France is 7 h, 40 min. The men's record equals 7 h, 17
min, a difference of only 5.2%. In several instances, as displayed in women actually swim
faster than men. In fact, American Table 8.7, Gertrude Ederle the first woman to swim the
English Channel (14 h, 3l min) on August 6, 1926, was faster by more than 2 hours than
British Capt. Matthew Webb, the first man without a life vest to complete the swim (21 h, 45
min on August 25, 1875).
SUMMARY
1. Mechanical efficiency represents the percentage of total chemical energy expended that
contributes to external work, with the remainder representing lost heal.
2. Exercise economy refers to the relationship between energy input and energy output
commonly evaluated by oxygen uptake while exercising at a set power output or speed.
3. Walking speed relates linearly to oxygen uptake between speeds of 1.9 and 3.l mph;
walking becomes less economical at speeds faster than 4.0 mph.
4. Walking surface impacts energy expenditure; walkıng on sand requires about twice the
energy expenditure as walking on hard surfaces. The energy cost of such weight-bearing
exercise becomes proportionally larger for heavier people.
5. Handheld and ankle weights increase the energy cost of walking to values usually observed
for running
6. It is more energetically economical to jog-run than to walk at speeds that exceed 8 km-h-'
(5 mph).
7. The total energy cost for running a given distance remains independent of running speed.
For horizontal running, the net energy expenditure averages about 1 kCal kg -1 km -1
8. Shortening the running stride and increasing the stride frequency to maintain a constant
running speed requires less energy than lengthening the stride and reducing the stride
frequency.
9. Overcoming air resistance accounts for 3% to 9% of the total energy cost of running in
calm weather.
10. Running directly behind a competitor, a favorable aerodynamic technique called
"drafting." counters the negative effect of air resistance and headwind on the energy cost of
running.
11. It requires the same amount of energy to run a given distance or speed on a treadmill as
on a track under identical environmental conditions.
12. Children run at a given speed with less economy than adults because they require between
20% and 30% more oxygen per unit of body mass.
13. It takes about four times more energy to swim than to run the same distance because a
swimmer expends considerable energy to maintain buoyancy and overcome the various drag
forces that impede movement.
14. Elite swimmers expend fewer calories to swim a given stroke at any velocity.
15. Significant gender differences exist for body drag economy, and net Oxygen uptake
during swimming Women swim a given distance at approximately 30% lower energy cost
than men.

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Chapter 8

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College of Education

Energy Expenditure During Rest

Basal (Resting) Metabolic Rate

Influence of body size on resting metabolism

Factors Affecting Total Daily Energy Expenditure

Energy Expenditure During Physical Activity

Energy cost of recreational and sports activities

Effect of Body Mass

Classification of Work by Energy Expenditure

ENERGY EXPENDITURE DURING WALKING, RRUNNING, AND SWIMMING

Effects of Air Resistance

Treadmill versus Track Running

ENERGY EXPENDITURE DURING SWIMMING

Energy Cost and Drag

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