Matrices 553 From our knowledge of matrix multiplication, this can be written in matrix form: ayy m2 3. in) by zy doa ax +. an | | 22 ie Ax=b mt ya ys en) Ln Dy a m2. dn 4 by az, ag ay 22 by where A= 7 ; and b= ok ao Oo Bn by If we multiply both sides of the matrix equation by the inverse of A, we have: MAX=A ButALA=I 3, Ix=A"\b x=A"b ‘Therefore, if we form the inverse of the matrix of coefficients and pre-multiply matrix b by it, we shall determine the matrix of the solutions of x. Example To solve the set of equations: At 2a tas 3x1 ~ 44 — 245 Sai + 3x2 +845 = -1 First write the set of equations in matrix form, which gives (4 4)}@)-G) 3-4 -2]-( x 2 Saea Saas -1 ie Ax=b 7. x=A7b So the next step is to find the inverse of A where A is the matrix of the coefficients of x. We have already seen how to determine the inverse of a matrix, so in this case A’554 Engineering Mathematics Because 1 3 14-50 +29 = 29-64 5 Cofactors: Au = +(-204 6) = -14; Ay = —(15 + 10) = -25; Ars = +(9 +20) = 29 (5-5) (3-10) =7 (-4-6)=~10 (10-3) Multiply it out x=-3( -105 3 3\ 140. 4 4 2 So finally x= {x2} =( 3 m= 2; x =3; 4 =-4 28 4 ‘Once you have found the inverse, the rest is simply x = Ab. Here is another example to solve in the same way: If 2y =x +3x x +3m Wx 2x 2x2 +54 then x im555 Matrices The essential intermediate results are as follows: 2-1 3\ /u 2 103 -1].fx2}=| 11} ie Ax x=Ab 2-2 38) \x an a2 ayy... ain) (x) (b1 ay zz 23. dan ee bl agen Gm ra Odo an J) Da All the information for solving the set of equations is provided by the matrix of coefficients A and the column matrix b. If we write the elements of b within the matrix A, we obtain the augmented matrix B of the given set of equations. a a2 ais Ain | by ay ae 033 dy | LeB ie Gin ra dns 2s in | Be (@) We then eliminate the elements other than aj, from the first column by subtracting aa1/ay; times the first row from the second row and a3, /a,; times the flrst row from the third row, ete.556 Engineering Mathematics (b) This gives a new matrix of the form: a 0 te cs en | 0 Ga ca Gt de ‘The process is then repeated to eliminate ¢2 from the third and subsequent rows. A specific example will explain the method, so move on to the next frame To solve x1 + 2x: 3 2x; — x2 — xg = HL 3x; +2243 = 5 12 -3\ fu This can be written ( 2 -1)-( 2 3.2 1) \x 1) 2 <3 f.3 ‘The augmented matrix becomes {2-1-1 | 11 aa Ss (1) 2 Now subtract times the first row from the second row and neste fs 1 om he he 102 -3 3 Thisgives (0-5 5) 5 0-4 10 | -14 4 Now subtract =, ie. 3 times the second row from the third row. 12-3! 3 ‘The matrix becomes (0 -8 5} 5 0 0 6} -18 Note that as a result of these steps, the matrix of coefficients of x has been reduced to a triangular matrix. Finally, we detach the right-hand column back to its original position: (2 )@)-G) ‘Then, by ‘back-substitution’, starting from the bottom row we g 18 2. 4 =-3 SJ, Sx =5415=20 % x 31m -B49=3 2 S24 = —3 >‘Matrices 557 Note that when dealing with the augmented matrix, we may, if we wish: (a) interchange two rows (b) multiply any row by a non-zero factor (©) add (or subtract) a constant multiple of any one row to (or from) another. ‘These operations are permissible since we are really dealing with the coefficients of both sides of the equations. Now for another example: move on to the next frame Solve the following set of equations: 41 x1 4p — 25 = 21 2x; +2 + 2x3 = 3 3x; +22 — 3 = -2 First write the equations in matrix form, which is 2 )@)-G) ‘We can now eliminate the x; coefficients from the second and third rows by and subtracting 2 times the first row from the second row ( 44 J and 3 times the first row from the third row. 1-4-2 | 21 So the matrix now becomes {0 9 6 | ~39 014 5 | ~65 and the next stage is to subtract from the third row times the second row.558 Enginerng Mathomatcs yT”~—CltCOMC‘(‘(‘(CCN(NCCW®WS 2 1-4 -2 | 21 if we do ti, the marx becomes (: 9 6 | -e D0 -433 | 438 eee eee Reforming the matrix equation (3 3 ‘) (2) e ( 2) oo -s35) (5) 7-233 Now, starting from the bottom row, you can finish it off. Mie cerca cee x Now for something rather different. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 47 In many applications of matrices to technological problems involving coupled oscillations and vibrations, equations of the form Ax= x occur, where A= {ay] is a square matrix and A is a number (scalar). Clearly, X= 0 isa solution for any value of \ and is not normally useful. For non-trivial solutions, i.e. x #0, the values of are called the eigenvalues, characteristic values or latent roots of the matrix A and the corresponding solutions of the given equations Ax = Ax are called the eigenvectors or characteristic vectors of A. Expressed as a set of separate equations, we have: ‘ay mz. ain) (1 x zy doa... dan | | x2 % =\ inn da. on) \ Xu xy fue. ayaa +ayaks +o. ann = AM ay Xy + 0X + 2 Many = er X1 + ApaX2 +--+ Oak = MwMatrices 559 Bringing the right-hand-side terms to the left-hand side, this simplifies to: (au = Ayr + nate be + aks + (daz — N)K2 +--+ AanX AnX1 + 2X2 +--+ (dom = )%4 = 0 (=a) az Oy my 0 an (az) Ay x|_{o ain, ag (am =A) \Xn 0. Ax =x becomes Ax — Ax =0 and then (A- \Dx =0 Note that the unit matrix is introduced since we can subtract only a matrix from another matrix. For this set of homogeneous linear equations (Le. right-hand constants all zero) to have a non-trivial solution, |A — \l| must be zero (see Programme 4, Frame 54), (a-2) aa ain acme] (a4) Am an na exe Ay |A—Al| is called the characteristic determinant of A and |A~ MI] =0 is the ‘characteristic equation. On expanding the determinant, this gives a polynomial of degree n and solution of the characteristic equation gives the values of J, iL. the eigenvalues of A. Example 1 To find the eigenvalues of the matrix A Ax x ie. (AAD Characteristic determinant: |A ~ A \° Set 2 acyl Characteristic equation: |A — Al] = 0 (4-A-2)42=0 2 4-SAd AED = 5A46=0 2. (A-2)(A-3)=0 A=2or3 4. M=2; =3 Example 2 aalees 2 3 2 To find the eigenvalues of the matrix A=(1 4 -2 2 10 -5 ‘The characteristic determinant is560 Engineering Mathematics "3° 3 -2 1 4-72 2 10 (-5=A) Expanding this, we get: (2 = A){(4 = A)(-5 — A) +20} - 34-5 — A) +4} — 2(10- 2(4- A)} (2 — d){-20-+ 49 + 20} +.3(1 +.) —2(2 +2) (2 — AM? +A} + 3(1 +A) — 4(1 +A) (2 — AMA+ 1) — (14d) = (1+ A)(2A— 7-1) Characteristic equation: (1 +.A)(1 — 9)? © M = =]; sal (1+ay(d ay? AS-1t ‘Now one for you to do. Find the eigenvalues of the matrix bi=i 0 Ase() dy 2501 201-1 Work through the steps in the same manner. de Here is the working: a-y = ° 1 @-) 4 4 ioe ea) (1-ay(2—A-A =a) - 1} + 11-42) 40-0 Characteristic equation: (1-9? 2-3} 41-A=0 1-2=00rX#-A-2=0 N= Lor (A+1)(A~2)=0 be. A oo Msn w=; =?Matrices 561 Eigenvectors Each eigenvalue obtained has corresponding to it a solution of x called an eigenvector. In matrices, the term ‘vector’ indicates a row matrix or column matrix. Example 1 Consider the equation A.x = Ax where A = G3 4 For A; = 1, the equation A.x = Ax becomes: £1) (a) a(s (3 2)(2)-#() tims it Therefore, the eigenvector = (5, i te gene frm ofan n=) aS a) wa (1) the ene ston, 2 = (1) ir asokton neo wnen a5: ($ 2)(22) 3(%) ~(88) fictanesin 2 svg coma (1) tain is an eigenvector corresponding to » Therefore, x1 = ( 4) andxa= (1 *) san eigenvector comeing 0562 Engineering Mathematics Example 2 Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors for the equation, oma eat 12 0 Gyo al “1 (4-a) -1/=0 1 02 AA (2-A)-NA=9) 12} 41-24 =D} = (2-aP-442}+ 2-2 =0 (2-vp?- 4043} =0 Las & d=1,2,3 10 1) f/m 0 1 13 -1}-{a2}=(0) using (A-a.x=0 12-1) \as 0 mty=0 gy =—m =m 42m-%=0 0, teeta Ax = Ax where A ‘The characteristic equation is For ds xa=0 i ae ( ‘) isn elgevetorcomsponding to A =. 1 For Ae 323) G)-() ‘Therefore, an eigenvector corresponding to Ay = 2 is, —— «-(3) Because x) =O and -x) +282 —43=0 . x1 =2e2 For As = 3, we can find an eigenvector in the same way. This gives xMatrices 563 xs = (2 1 0 1) (x 0 Because with 3 = 3: 1 -1).{x2}=(0 26-3 /4\aa 0 =ate a mK ty =0 4 2 t=O 0 = 2H, So, collecting our results together, we have: 1 i= (0) isan egenvectorconesponding to dy =1 4 2 ° 1 xo (2 | ts an eigenvector comesponding to 35 =3 1 Heres one fr you todo on your own. The mtd she sme as before waxconwiewa=(4 2 1) ann eet owns y= 1, Ae= and 22, determine conesponding egenvectrs ~ fop=O-0) 2 4 ot (=a) 0 x 0 Using (ede (2a) ” 0 Se Ey ANS o. simple substitution of the values of A in tum and the knowledge of how to ‘multiply matrices together give the results indicated. As we have seen, a basic knowledge of matrices provides a neat and concise way of dealing with sets of linear equations. In practice, the numerical coefficients are not always simple numbers, neither is the number of equations in the set limited to three. In more extensive problems, recourse to computing facilities isa great help, but the underlying methods are still the same. Al that now remains is to check down the Revision summary and the Can You? checklist. Then you can work through the Test exercise.