U p date on t h e D i ag n osi s a nd

Management of Macrorhabdus
Ornithogaster (Formerly
M e g a b a c t e r i a ) in Av i a n P a t i e n t s
David N. Phalen, DVM, PhD, Dipl. ABVP (Avian)

KEYWORDS
 Bird  Diagnosis  Macrorhabdus ornithogaster  Treatment

KEY POINTS
 Macrorhabdus ornithogaster is a yeast found only at the junction between the ventriculus
and proventriculus in birds.
 M ornithogaster can infect a wide range of birds.
 Infection with M ornithogaster is often subclinical but can also result in gastrointestinal
signs.
 Direct observation of the organism in the feces is a specific but somewhat insensitive
means of diagnosis.
 At least three antifungal drugs are reported to be effective for treatment of M ornithogaster
but resistance to one or more of these drugs may occur.

INTRODUCTION

Macrorhabdus ornithogaster is an anamorphic Ascomycetes yeast that grows only at

the junction of the proventriculus and ventriculus in birds.1 It can infect many spe-
cies of birds.2–4 There is convincing evidence M ornithogaster can cause disease
in its host but it is also clear that many birds live with this organism without obvious
signs. The only effective treatments for M ornithogaster are a few antifungal drugs
and these drugs do not always lend themselves to large-scale flock treatment.
Because M ornithogaster was thought to be a bacterium (Megabacteria) for more
than 20 years4,5 many assumptions about this organism’s biology have subse-
quently proven to be untrue.1 Continued referencing of some of these flawed studies
and anecdotal reports often creates confusion for veterinarians and bird owners
alike.

Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, 425 Werombi Road, Camden, New South
Wales 2570, Australia
E-mail address: david.phalen@sydney.edu.au

Vet Clin Exot Anim 17 (2014) 203–210

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2014.01.005 vetexotic.theclinics.com
1094-9194/14/$ – see front matter Ó 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.