Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA INSTITUTE

...the home of the achievers, the proud and the champions!
Poblacion Aritao, Nueva Vizcaya
MODULE 4:
EXOGENIC PROCESSES

The earth’s surface is composed of water and landmasses. The solid portion is made of rocks and minerals that
could experience changes either physically or chemically. The weathered materials are transported by different agents
from one place to another and will settle down in a particular area. These progressions that happen are achieved by forms
called exogenic processes. It includes weathering, erosion, and deposition.

LESSON 01: Weathering

Mechanical weathering or physical weathering is the breakdown of rocks into pieces without any change in its
composition. In this process, the size and shape of rocks changes and this occurs because of the following factors shown
in the table below.

In chemical weathering, there are changes in the composition of rocks due to the chemical reactions presented
below.

MODULE 5:
EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT

Heat energy plays a vital role in our planet. It is one of the extreme factors in what makes the world liveable. If
you think of a volcano, you know Earth must be hot inside. Our planet's internal heat shifts continents, creates mountains,
and produces earthquakes, but where does all this heat inside the earth originate?
Before we proceed to the sources of heat, let’s have a short review of layers of the earth. Basically, Planet Earth has 3
main layers, these are Crust, Mantle and Core. The Crust of the earth is a very thin layer when compared to the 3 other
layers. The Mantle is the largest layer of the earth with estimated 1800 miles thick. The mantle is composed of very hot
dense rock called magma, because of the high temperatures with the Mantle, the rock is kept in a semi-liquefied state. The
Outer Core is composed of liquefied metals such as nickel and iron. It is kept in it liquefied state because of the immense
heat in this layer. The Inner Core is also composed of metals however they are not kept in a liquefied state. It is believed
that the temperature and pressure at depth is so great that the metals are squeezed tightly together restricting movement, so
much that the particles must vibrated in place almost like a solid structure.

Earth science | First Quarter

 Sources of heat in our planet can be identified as Primordial and Radiogenic heat. During the early formation of
the Earth, the internal heat energy that gradually gathered by means of dispersion in the planet during its few million years
of evolution is called Primordial heat. The major contribution of this internal heat is the accretional energy – the energy
deposited during the early formation of a planet. The core is a storage of primordial heat that originates from times of
accretion when kinetic energy of colliding particles was transformed into thermal energy. This heat is constantly lost to
the outer silicate layers of the mantle and crust of the earth through convection and conduction. In addition, the heat of the
core takes tens of thousands of years to reach the surface of the earth. Today, the surface of the earth is made of a cold
rigid rock since 4.5 billion years ago, the earth’s surface cools from the outside but the core is still made of extremely hot
material.

On the other hand, the thermal energy released because of spontaneous nuclear disintegration is called
Radiogenic Heat. It involves the disintegration of natural radioactive elements inside the earth – like Uranium, Thorium
and Potassium. Uranium is a special kind of element because when it decays, heat (radiogenic) is produced. Estimated at
47 terawatts (TW), the flow of heat from Earth’s interior to the surface and it comes from two main sources in equal
amounts: the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust, and the primordial
heat left over from the formation of the Earth. Radioactive elements exist everywhere on earth in a significant
concentration. Without the process of radioactive decay, there would be fewer volcanoes and earthquakes – and less

LESSON 01: Source of Heat and Heat Transfer

formation of earth’s vast mountain ranges.

Both sources of heat whether primordial or radiogenic undergo heat transfer and it plays an important role to the
continuous changes and development of our planet. In connection, another part of this module describes the heat transfer
in the Earth. Three processes can transfer heat: conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction processes happen in the earth’s surface, and it directs the thermal settings in almost entire solid
portions of the Earth and plays a very important role in the lithosphere. One of the three main ways of heat transfer is
conduction. Technically, it can be defined as the process by which heat energy is transmitted through collisions between
neighboring atoms or molecules. Conduction carries heat from the Earth's core and radiation from the Sun to the Earth's
surface. When the atmosphere in normal temperature contacts with the warm surfaces of the land, it transfers thermal
energy, then it will heat up the rest of the air through convection.
Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of mass,
and it is a more effective mode of heat transport in the Earth than pure
conduction. Convection dominates the thermal conditions in zones
with significant amounts of fluids (molten rocks) and thus governs the
heat transport in the fluid outer core and the mantle. In geological time
scale, due to the tremendous temperature, the mantle acts like a
viscous fluid. In convection current, the mantle of the earth moves
slowly because of transfer of heat from the interior of the earth up to
the surface. This results to the movement of tectonic plates. Hot
materials are added at the edges of a plate and then it cools. At those
edges, it becomes dense by its exposure from the heat and sinks into
the earth at an ocean trench. This starts the formation of volcanoes.
Radiation is the least important mode of heat transport in the Earth. The process of heat exchange between the
Sun and the Earth, through radiation, controls the temperatures at the Earth's surface. Inside the Earth, radiation is
significant only in the hottest parts of the core and the lower mantle. When the land and water become warm in summer, it
emits long – wavelength infrared radiation that is readily absorbed by the atmosphere. This continues during nighttime
too. Convection in the air then spreads out the thermal energy throughout the atmosphere.

MODULE 7:
MAGMATISM

Do you still remember what happened to Taal Volcano last

January 12, 2020? Yes, you are right. This volcano, which is located
at the province of Batangas, spewed ash plumes up to nine miles (14
kilometers) into the air due to a “steam-driven” or phreatic eruption.
According to the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS), for the past two days, over 600 volcanic tremors have
been recorded which was an indication of continuous movement of
magma or molten rocks beneath the volcano. You might be wondering
how magma got inside the volcano.

Earth science | First Quarter

 Magma is composed of semi-liquid hot molten rocks located beneath the Earth, specifically in the melted mantle
rock and oceanic plate. This molten state, when solidified, creates igneous rocks found on the surface of the Earth.
Do you know the difference between magma and lava? Magma and lava are both molten rocks. However, they
differ in location. Magma is found in the magma chamber of the volcano while lava is found on the surface of earth once
the volcano erupts.
Magmatism is a process under the earth’s crust where formation and movement of magma occur. So where does
these formation and movement take place? These happen in the lower part of the Earth’s crust and in the upper portion of
the mantle, known as asthenosphere.
The magma present in the lower crust and upper mantle of the Earth is formed or generated through the process of
partial melting. In this process, different minerals in rock melt at different temperature and pressure. Another factor
being considered in this process is the addition of volatile materials such as water and carbon dioxide. This is a diagram
showing how minerals in rocks undergo partial melting.

Melting in the mantle requires one of three possible events to occur:

1. An increase in temperature: Conduction in mantle happens when heat
is transferred from hotter molten rocks to the Earth’s cold crust. This
process is known as heat transfer. As magma rises, it is often hot enough
to melt the rock it touches. It happens at convergent boundaries, where
tectonic plates are crashing together. Rocks are composed of minerals.
These rocks start to melt once the temperature in the lower crust and
upper mantle increases or exceeds the melting point of minerals. The
temperature of mantle is around 1200 degrees Celsius. Rock minerals
such as quartz and feldspar begin to partially melt at around 650-850
degrees Celsius.
2. A decrease of pressure: Mantle rocks remain solid when exposed to
high pressure. However, during convection, these rocks tend to go
upward (shallower level) and the pressure is reduced. This triggers the melting of magma. This is known as
decompression melting. This process occurs at the Mid-Ocean Ridge, an underwater mountain system.

3. Addition of volatiles: When water or

carbon dioxide is added to hot rocks, flux melting occurs. The melting points of minerals within the rocks
decrease. If a rock is already close to its melting point, the effect of adding these volatiles can be enough to trigger
partial melting. It occurs around subduction zones.

Earth science | First Quarter

 MODULE 8:
MOVEMENT OF PLATES

THREE TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARY

1. Transform Plate Boundary- It is also called as strike slip fault boundary; the plates slide past each other
horizontally. This is a type of boundary that cuts through California, the well-known San Andreas Fault. The San
Andreas Fault Zone, which is about 1300 km long and is tens of kilometer wide, slice through two thirds of the
length of California. Along with it, the Pacific Plate has been moving for 10 million years, at an average rate of
about 5 cm/yr.
2. Convergent Plate Boundary- The heavier oceanic crust sinks below the lighter continental crust. It happens
along convergent boundaries where plates are moving toward each other and sometimes one plate sinks under
another (subduction). Marianas Trench marks where the fast-moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower
moving Philippine Plate. This boundary is often where major volcanoes such as Mount Fuji in Japan can be
located. In a collision of two pieces of oceanic crust, the result is a chain of volcanic islands, of which Indonesia
is a prime example. Where oceanic crust collides with a plate carrying the continent, the result is a chain of
volcanoes on the continent, such as the Cascade of volcanic chain in Pacific Northwest of the US and the Andes
Mountains of South America. When two continental crusts collide, the result is a range of mountains such as the
Himalayan Mountain.
3. Divergent Plate Boundary- Divergent Plate Boundaries are boundaries where the earth’s tectonic plates are
moving apart. For the most part, these boundaries are located on the ocean floors, where they form a continuous
chain of volcanic mountains and rift called mid-ocean ridges that extend throughout the earth’s oceans. The Mid-
Atlantic Ridge is a good example, which runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. As the plates move apart,
magma wells up to fill the space between them, and this is why divergent plate boundaries are the sites of
volcanic activity. It is also a set where the earth’s crust is growing.

Earth science | First Quarter