Translation and the Medieval

European Manuscript
Dr Laura Chuhan Campbell
In this session….
• Examine the the way in which the material conditions of medieval
manuscript culture affected translation
• Circumstances of medieval translation (linguistic and cultural
relationships, concepts of authorship)
• Manuscript as locus of intralingual, interlingual, and intersemiotic
translation
• Think about implications of manuscript culture for translating a
medieval text in the present day
 Textuality in the European Middle Ages (500-
1500)
• Manuscript culture: texts and illustrated copied
by hand
• The codex = handwritten book. Its use roughly
coincides with European medieval period (ca
300-1600)
• Manuscripts: made of vellum, expensive to buy
and produce
• Orality: texts read and performed aloud;
differing levels of literacy; gradual development
of silent reading; changes in book consumption
• Multilingual context: Latin as language of
church, academia, different local multilingual
situations, lack of clearly defined national
identities and corresponding linguistic identity
Translation and
Composition
• Continuum between translation and other forms of writing—no
clear distinction

• Before modern concepts of authorship and originality (auctoritas

of named classical authors vs anonymous vernacular authors)

• Translation considered preferable to original writing:

“Et sachiez tot voirement que cestui romainz fu treslaités dou livre
monseingneur Odoard, li roi d'Engleterre, a celui tenz qu'il passé
houtre la mer en servise nostre Sire Damedeu pour conquister le
saint Sepoucre. Et maistre Rusticiaus de Pise, li quelz est imaginés
desovre, conpilé ceste romainz, car il en treslaité toutes les
tresmervillieuse novelles qu'il truevé en celui livre et totes les
greingneur aventures

[And you should know truly that this romance was translated from
the book belonging to Sir Edward, King of England, during the time
when he travelled abroad in the service of God to conquer the Holy
Selpulchre. And Master Rustichello da Pisa, who is pictured above,
compiled this romance, because he translated all the marvellous
stories that he found in that book, and all of the greatest adventures]
Translation and Composition
• Continuum between translation and other forms of writing—no clear distinction

• Before modern concepts of authorship and originality (auctoritas of named classical authors vs
anonymous vernacular authors)

• Translation considered preferable to original writing:

“Et sachiez tot voirement que cestui romainz fu treslaités dou livre monseingneur
Odoard, li roi d'Engleterre, a celui tenz qu'il passé houtre la mer en servise nostre Sire Damedeu
pour conquister le saint Sepoucre. Et maistre Rusticiaus de Pise, li quelz est imaginés desovre,
conpilé ceste romainz, car il en treslaité toutes les tresmervillieuse novelles qu'il truevé en celui
livre et totes les greingneur aventures.”

[And you should know truly that this romance was translated from the book belonging to Sir
Edward, King of England, during the time when he travelled abroad in the service of God to conquer
the Holy Selpulchre. And Master Rustichello da Pisa, who is pictured above, compiled this romance,
because he translated all the marvellous stories that he found in that book, and all of the greatest
adventures]
 Translatio (Latin) = I transfer

Translation and Composition

Other vernacular terms: traire (to pull), recare
(carry over), turner (convert), rimer en
• Continuum between translation and other forms of writing—no
franceis clear distinction
(rhyme in French), traitier en romanz
(to compose in romance), metre en escrit en
• Before modern concepts of authorship and originality
romanz (to(auctoritas
write downofinnamed classical authors vs
romance)
anonymous vernacular authors) (see Folena, 1983, 66)

• Translation considered preferable to original writing:

“Et sachiez tot voirement que cestui romainz fu treslaités dou livre monseingneur
Odoard, li roi d'Engleterre, a celui tenz qu'il passé houtre la mer en servise nostre Sire Damedeu
pour conquister le saint Sepoucre. Et maistre Rusticiaus de Pise, li quelz est imaginés desovre,
conpilé ceste romainz, car il en treslaité toutes les tresmervillieuse novelles qu'il truevé en celui
livre et totes les greingneur aventures.”

[And you should know truly that this romance was translated from the book belonging to Sir
Edward, King of England, during the time when he travelled abroad in the service of God to conquer
the Holy Selpulchre. And Master Rustichello da Pisa, who is pictured above, compiled this romance,
because he translated all the marvellous stories that he found in that book, and all of the greatest
adventures]
 The Materiality of Texts
• Writing and translation are not “pure consciousness”—they exist in a physical form
• Material approaches to translation: focus on the effects of particular tools and objects used to translate or
manifest translation
• Translation is not just another text, but another material form: includes paratexts, mis-en-page, images, initials,
handwriting, print, etc

“Yet intellectual history is unthinkable without technological innovation and without the
media bodies that make the recording, storage, dissemination and transmission of the
fruits and labours of thought possible, just as intellectual history is unthinkable without
translation that makes these same fruits and labours available in the hope of cross-cultural
reciprocity and exchange. If we take seriously the entanglement of the material and the
ideational, it is just as untenable to prioritize spirit over matter or subject over object as
it is to downgrade media technologies to empty shells, the sole function of which it is
to carry the fruits of the mind’s labours. Media are not merely instruments with which
writers or translators produce meanings; rather, they set the framework within which something like meaning
becomes possible at all.” (Littau 2016, 83)
 The manuscript represents a locus of translation
in 3 ways—using Jakobson’s taxonomy (On
Linguistic Aspects of Translation (1959, p. 233)

Translation Intralingual: ““it may be translated into other

signs of the same language”
in the
Medieval Interlingual: “into another language”

Manuscript
Intersemiotic: “or into another, nonverbal system
of symbols”
Intralingual Translation:
Mouvance
• Mouvance (Paul Zumthor, 1972)= each
manuscript has a different text
• Vernacular texts were subject to much
more variation; Latin texts with named
authors much less
• Copying by hand produces modifications:
• Errors—repeated words, missing lines,
misspellings
• Deliberate creative or editorial changes
• Dialectal transposition
Intralingual Translation: Mouvance
Bristol 88-91/SR39: a cel enpeint le fist a merveilles bien Sagremor de
Constentinoble la riche, et ce dist li contes que por voir il estuet li uns del
meilleurs chevaliers qui fust en tote l’ost. Et Galechins i refist tant d’armes
que meintes foiz i ce fu montrez au doi d’els et d’autres.

BNF fr 344: A celle anpoinse lou fist molt bien Saigremores de Costantinoble
la riche. Et ce dist li contes por voir qu’il estoit uns des mellors chevaliers de
tote l’ost. Et Galachins i refist tant d’armes ki maintes fois i refut lo jor
mostrez adoit et d’uns et d’atres.

BNF fr: Et la fist merveilles sagremors de constantinoble la riche et dit le

conte quil estoir ung des meilleux chevaliers de tout lost et galeschins fist
tant darmes que maintes fois fust au doy monstre dunc part et dautre
Intralingual Translation: Mouvance
• Bristol 88-91/SR39: a cel enpeint le fist a merveilles bien sagremor de
constentinoble la riche et ce dist li contes que por voir il estuet li uns del
meilleurs chevaliers qui fust en tote lost et galechins i refist tant darmes
que meintes foiz i ce fu montrez au doi d’els et d’autres
•
• BNF fr 344: a celle anpoinse lou fist molt bien saigremores de
costantinoble la riche et ce dist li contes por voir quil estoit uns des mellors
chevaliers de tote lost et galachins i refist tant darmes ki maintes fois i se
fut lo jor mostrez adoit et duns et datres
•
• BNF fr: Et la fist merveilles sagremors de constantinoble la riche et dit le
conte quil estoit ung des meilleux chevaliers de tout lost et galeschins fist
tant darmes que maintes fois fust au doy monstre dunc part et dautre
Intralingual Translation: Mouvance
• Bristol 88-91/SR39: a cel enpeint le fist a merveilles bien sagremor de
constentinoble la riche et ce dist li contes que por voir il estuet li uns del
meilleurs chevaliers qui fust en tote lost et galechins i refist tant darmes
que meintes foiz i ce fu montrez au doi d’els et d’autres
•
• BNF fr 344: a celle anpoinse lou fist molt bien saigremores de
costantinoble la riche et ce dist li contes por voir quil estoit uns des mellors
chevaliers de tote lost et galachins i refist tant darmes ki maintes fois i se
fut lo jor mostrez adoit et duns et datres
•
• BNF fr: Et la fist merveilles sagremors de constantinoble la riche et dit le
conte quil estoit ung des meilleux chevaliers de tout lost et galeschins fist
tant darmes que maintes fois fust au doy monstre dunc part et dautre
Interlingual Translation: Interlinear Gloss
• Interlinear glosses in another language
• Winchester Psalter, c11
• Close verbal translation—anticipates reading knowledge of Latin
Interlingual Translation: Interlingual
Mouvance
‘Je voil que tu metes en escrit’ ce dit Merlin, ‘que quant la chose que iadis nasqui es parties de Ierusalem aura mil .cc.liii.
anz aura li Toschans desor la mer un si grant destorbiers que de son i [sic ] avoir que de ses homes que il seront pres que
esiliez.’ ‘Di moi Merlin,’ fait Maistre Antoines, ‘qui lor fera ce?’ ‘Met en ton escrit,’ ce dit Merlin, ‘que ce lor fera lor voisins
et ce serafait por li amonestament des Affricans […]’. (Venice, Marciana, Str. App. 29
(=243), fol. 54v)

‘Jou voel ke tu metes en escrit que quant la chose ki iadis nasqui es parties de Iherusalem aura .m.cc.lvi. ans auront li
Toscant desus la mer un si grant destorbier, ke de dolor [sic ] avoir, que de lor homes, que il seront priet que escillies.’ ‘Dit
moi Mierlin,’ fait Maistre Antoine, ‘ki lor fera ce?’ ‘Meten ton escrit,’ cou dist Mierlins, ‘que cou lor fera lor voisins. Cou sera
fait par l’amonestement des Aufricains […]’ (Cod. Bodmer 116, fol. 20v).

‘Io voio che tu meti in scripto,’ disse Merlin a Maistre Antonio, ‘avanti che la cosa che die naser in le parte de Ieruxalem abia
.m.cc.lxxxi. anno avera li
Toscani de sovra lo mer uno si gran distorbamento si del so aver e de li suo homeni che li sera apreso che deffati.’ ‘Di me,
Merlin’ disse Maistro Antonio, ‘e chi li fara questo dalmaço?’ ‘Meti in scripto’ disse Merlin, ‘che questo dalmaço li fara i so
vexini e questo sera per fistigacion de la çente che insiçia
de la grande Africa.’ (Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Pal. lat. 949, fol. 86v)

[‘I want you to write down,’ [Marciana: says Merlin] [Vaticana: to Maistre Antoine], ‘That when [Vaticana: before] the thing
that was once born in the
area of Jerusalem will be [Marciana: 1254] [Bodmer: 1256; Vaticana: 1281] years old, the Tuscans will suffer on the sea
such a great loss of both possessions
and men that they will be all but devastated.’ ‘Tell me Merlin,’ says Maistre Antoine, ‘Who will do this [Vaticana: damage]?’
‘Write it down,’ says Merlin, ‘that this [Vaticana: damage] will be done by their neighbours, and it will be done by the
persuasion the Africans [Vaticana: by the people who originated in the Great Africa].’]
Interlingual Translation: Interlingual
Mouvance
‘Je voil que tu metes en escrit’ ce dit Merlin, ‘que quant la chose que iadis nasqui es parties de Ierusalem aura mil
.cc.liii. anz aura li Toschans desor la mer un si grant destorbiers que de son i [sic ] avoir que de ses homes que il
seront pres que esiliez.’ ‘Di moi Merlin,’ fait Maistre Antoines, ‘qui lor fera ce?’ ‘Met en ton escrit,’ ce dit Merlin,
‘que ce lor fera lor voisins et ce serafait por li amonestament des Affricans […]’. (Venice, Marciana, Str. App. 29
(=243), fol. 54v)

‘Jou voel ke tu metes en escrit que quant la chose ki iadis nasqui es parties de Iherusalem aura .m.cc.lvi. ans auront
li Toscant desus la mer un si grant destorbier, ke de dolor [sic ] avoir, que de lor homes, que il seront priet que
escillies.’ ‘Dit moi Mierlin,’ fait Maistre Antoine, ‘ki lor fera ce?’ ‘Meten ton escrit,’ cou dist Mierlins, ‘que cou lor
fera lor voisins. Cou sera fait par l’amonestement des Aufricains […]’ (Cod. Bodmer 116, fol. 20v).

‘Io voio che tu meti in scripto,’ disse Merlin a Maistre Antonio, ‘avanti che la cosa che die naser in le parte de
Ieruxalem abia .m.cc.lxxxi. anno avera li Toscani de sovra lo mer uno si gran distorbamento si del so aver e de li suo
homeni che li sera apreso che deffati.’ ‘Di me, Merlin’ disse Maistro Antonio, ‘e chi li fara questo dalmaço?’ ‘Meti in
scripto’ disse Merlin, ‘che questo dalmaço li fara i so vexini e questo sera per fistigacion de la çente che insiçia
de la grande Africa.’ (Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Pal. lat. 949, fol. 86v)

[‘I want you to write down,’ [Marciana: says Merlin] [Vaticana: to Maistre Antoine], ‘That when [Vaticana: before]
the thing that was once born in the area of Jerusalem will be [Marciana: 1254] [Bodmer: 1256; Vaticana: 1281]
years old, the Tuscans will suffer on the sea such a great loss of both possessions and men that they will be all but
devastated.’ ‘Tell me Merlin,’ says Maistre Antoine, ‘Who will do this [Vaticana: damage]?’ ‘Write it down,’ says
Merlin, ‘that this [Vaticana: damage] will be done by their neighbours, and it will be done by the persuasion the
Africans [Vaticana: by the people who originated in the Great Africa].’]
 Interlingual Translation: Cultural Transfer on
the Level of Paratext
“Printers, like translators, control the
distance between the reader and the
prior foreign text.
Just as the translator may elide or
enhance cultural distance with each
lexical and syntactical
choice and with register, tone, and
style, so too the printer may elide or
enhance the work’s
foreign elements with choices of mise-
en-page, ornaments, initials, and
typography”
(Coldiron 2015, )

Le Roman de la rose, St John’s

College, Cambridge, Manuscript G.5 Il Fiore, Montpellier H 438
 BNF, Lat. 6
Intersemiotic: Images (1), fol. 6r.

New York, Pierpont

Library, MS M.322 I, fol.
11v

Immisit ergo Dominus Deus soporem in Adam: cumque obdormisset,

tulit unam de costis ejus, et replevit carnem pro ea. Et aedificavit
Dominus Deus costam, quam tulerat de Adam, in mulierem: et adduxit
eam ad Adam. (2 Genesis: 21-22) prague musée nat bibl
iii b 10
[And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept;
and He took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof. And
the rib which the Lord God had taken from man, made He a woman and
brought her unto the man.]
Translating a Medieval French Manuscript for
a Modern Readership—The Bristol Merlin
Translating a Medieval French Manuscript for
a Modern Readership
• Car si tost com il s’an furent partis, si rancomanserent la gent lou roi
Claudas en chanz molt fieremant, et renserent saz del roiaume de Logres
plus de demie liue loing del chastel.
[Because as soon as they had left, they started again very strongly in the
fields the soldiers of King Claudas, and drove those of the kingdom of Logres
more than half a league away from the castle]

• Si l’a si chargie del cop que tout le fet encliner sor l’arcon de la sele
derrieres
[He hit him so hard that he made him fall forwards over the end of his
saddle backwards]
Translating a Medieval French Manuscript for
a Modern Readership
• Et quant Froiles et Poinces Antoines le voient, si corent sus, et il
se conbat a euls molt (vide)ment et si bien que molt en ocit et
(mehaigne) environ lui.

[And when Frollo and Pontius Antonius see

him, they rush to attack him, and he fights
them very emptily(?) so well that he kills
and maims all around him]
Further Discussion Questions
• What role does materiality play in modern translation? How has this
role changed in the past 50 years or so?
• Can you think of other examples from history where materiality has
influenced the practice and nature of translation?
• Think about your own methods and practical ways of translating. How
would they differ if you didn’t have access to electronic devices?
• How do you think the changes in the material circumstances of
translation will affect the practice in the future?