How are sports injuries classified and managed?

Ways to classify sports injuries

Direct
An external force is applied to the body, causing injury at the point of initial contact e.g. a boxer receives a punch to the nose

Indirect
An internal force occurs without an external force, causing injury at distance from initial point of contact e.g. a gymnast falls on an outstretched hand
and fractures their collar bone, an abnormal muscular contraction which fractures the patella after a minor twisting fall

Soft tissue
Extrinsic: excessive force is applied suddenly to a body part causing immediate pain and tissue damage
Intrinsic: caused by forces generated from the tissue, strains and sprains

Hard tissue
Dislocation: when there is an abnormal separation in a joint between two bones. A dislocated joint results in much damage to the surrounding soft
tissues including: sprains to ligaments and strains to muscles. Also called laxation.
Fracture: caused by direct or indirect force on a body part, abnormal muscle action pr overuse/repeated trauma. e.g. a basketball player who has had
resurrect injury to the left finger joints, a high jumper who lands awkwardly on their feet, fracturing their patella.

Overuse
Continual/repetitive force causing injuries such as blisters, calluses, stress fractures, tendinopathy

Injury history
Primary injury = New/first time
Secondary injury = a previous injury/poor treatment/not fully healed

Hard tissue injuries

Fractures
A break or crack of a bone
Types of fractures:
Comminuted - breaks a bone into three or more pieces.
Greenstick - a break that happens on one side of a bone, from a force perpendicular to its long axis.
Transverse - similar to greenstick fractures, but they’re complete and not partial breaks.
Avulsion - a small piece torn off the main bone.
Oblique - angled or curved, they happen when a force comes from any angle but a right angle to the bone.
Spiral - occur when the body is in motion while one extremity is planted or a strong twisting force can form a spiral fracture.
Buckled/Impacted - a bone with the ends driven into each other.
Stress - a small crack in a bone (overuse injury)
Stable - the ends of the bone stay in the correct places.

Dislocations
A displacement of two bones in relation to the joints normal position e.g. displacement of humerus in ball and socket shoulder joint

Managing hard tissue injuries

Immobilisation - use splint or sound body part to support an injured body part and keep it from moving
Medical treatment - ASAP
If soft tissue also damaged, use RICER (do not place ice on bone)

Assessment of injuries
Talk - find location of pain, injury history and how the injury occurred
Observe - look for swelling and compare to other body part
Touch - feel for any irregular heat omitted from the injury
Active movement - ability for the person to move themselves without pain
Passive movement - you move area for signs of pain
Skills test - test ability to partake in skills and return to play
Soft tissue injures
Soft tissue injuries are the most common injuries in sport. They include:

Skin - cuts, blisters, lacerations etc.

Muscle - tears or strains, bruises etc.
Tendon - tears or sprains, tendonitis, tendinopathy
Ligament - sprains and tears of ligament fibres

Soft tissue injuries can:

- result in internal bleeding and swelling, where prompt and effective management of this bleeding aids recovery
- be acute, happen suddenly, or chronic, occur over a prolonged period of time

Tears / Strain
A tear is a disruption of the fibres of a muscle or tendon, where they become torn or stretched. They occur when a muscle is overstretched or contracts
too quickly e.g. torn hip flexor

Grade 1 - a small tear to the muscle.

Grade 2 - a much larger tear around 50% or more torn.
Grade 3 - a complete tear, so that surgery is needed to join the muscle back together.

Sprains
A sprain involves the ligament being stretched, torn or ruptured from the bone. Healing is quite slow as ligaments have poor blood supply.
Rehabilitation is required for repair

Contusion
A contusion, or bruise, is bleeding into the soft tissue. Bleeding into tissue causes the formation of a haematoma as the blood clots in the connective
tissue

Inflammatory response
Phase One
๏ Inflammatory/acute stage (first 24-72 hours)

๏ Increase flow of blood and fluids to site (oedema)

๏ Bleeding, if tissues and blood vessels are damaged

๏ Pain, swelling, discolouration, heat

๏ Loss of function

Phase Two
๏ Repair and regenerative stage

๏ 3 days - 6 weeks

๏ Elimination of debris

๏ Formation of new fibres

๏ Production of scar tissue

Phase Three
๏ Remodelling stage

๏ 6 weeks or more

๏ Increase in scar tissue

๏ Formation of new tissue to strengthen and develop

Managing soft tissue injuries

Rest
Ice
Compression
Elevation
Referral **immediate treatment of skin injuries**
How does sports medicine address the demands of specific athletes?

Children and young athletes

Medical Conditions
Medical conditions can impact on children’s participation in sport. When medically supervised these conditions should not impact upon the child’s
ability to participate in sport. However, there may be times when participation is not recommended
Asthma - A condition in which a person's airways become inflamed, narrow and swell and produce extra mucus, which makes it difficult to breath.
Affects up to 25% of children. All asthmatic children should have an asthma management plan and medication should always be accessible.
Diabetes - A condition where the pancreas in unable to make enough, or makes too much, insulin. Insulin is the hormone that allows the body to use
glucose in the blood as energy. Type 1 is an auto-immune condition in which the immune system is activated to destroy the cells in the pancreas
which produce insulin. Type 2 is a progressive condition in which the body becomes resistant to the normal effects of insulin and/or gradually loses
the capacity to produce enough insulin in the pancreas. Hypoglycaemia is caused by missing or delaying meals, exercise or having to much insulin.
Epilepsy - A condition characterised by recurrent seizures. A seizure is caused by abnormal discharge of electrical activity from the brain. Medications
and supervision is needed and more attention is needed when involving water activity.

Overuse injuries
The bone structure in children is different to adults, as they have growth plates at the ends of many of their bone. Fractures that occur when a growth
plate is present are called epiphyseal fractures. Damage due to a growth site is called osteochondroses. These injuries can also occur in tendons and
ligaments. They are preventable by monitoring and controlling the frequency and type of training and competition. Rest or a decrease in activity levels
are usually recommended if an overuse injury does occur.

Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation refers to the maintenance of a stable core body temperature. It is vital for every athlete as maintaining a safe body temperature
avoids conditions such as hyperthermia and hypothermia.
Hot/humid
During these conditions all children should:
- Wear light and loose fitting clothing and a hat
- Drink plenty of fluid before, during and after an activity
Heat illness is characterised by weakness, headaches, cramps, nausea, fainting and flushed skin. If signs and symptoms are present the child should be
removed to a shady, cool place, given plenty of water and cooled with wet towels.

Cold conditions
As children have little body fat that are more at risk in cold conditions. They should wear appropriate layers of clothing and all wet clothing should be
removed.

Appropriateness of resistance training

Resistance training is defined as a “specialised form of conditioning, used to increase one’s ability to exert or resist force”. Resistance training appears to
enhance both muscular straight and muscular endurance in children.
The NSCA in the USA state:
A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can:
- Increase strength
- Enhance motor skills and sports performance
- Help prevent injury
- Improve psychological well-being
- Enhance overall health

An analysis of injuries associated with resistance training in young athletes shows that most are caused by poor training, excessive loads, poorly designed
equipment and a lack of experienced and/or qualified adult supervision.
Adult and aged athletes
The benefits of regular physical exercise in adults and aged persons include:
- Reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, colon cancer and diabetes
- Stronger bones, more supple joint and less risk of injury through falls
- Improved breathing and weight control
Before string any vigorous exercise, men over 40 and women over 50, should seek medical advice. If the person has chest pains, serious weight
problems, high blood pressure or diabetes, they should also consult their doctor prior to starting a exercise program.

Heart Conditions
Heart conditions include myocardial infarction, angina, cardiac failure and arrhythmia and recovery from surgery. Exercise plays a vital role in recovery
from heat conditions. A light to moderate physical activity program with sessions most days of the week is recommended as a starting point.
Instruction and self-monitoring is vital and warning signs include:
- Chest pains
- Breathlessness
- Dizziness
- Nausea
Recommended activities include:
- Walking
- Water activities (hydrotherapy, aqua aerobics)
- Resistance training using light loads and high repetitions
- Cycling

Fractures and bone density

Osteoporosis is a disease in which bones lose minerals, especially calcium, becoming thin and weak. An understanding of the relationship between
weight-bearing activity and bone density is important when devising strategies to maximise and maintain skeletal strength in the adult population.
Regular bouts of physical activity will strengthen bones and muscles, and improve balance, thus reducing reducing the risk of falls and resulting
fracture. Falls are the most common injury in aged persons.
Recommended activities include:
Walking
Supervised resistance training

Flexibility and joint mobility

Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints and is generally characterised by painful and swollen joints. Osteoarthritis or degenerative joint disease, is the
most common form, and is most common in the hip and knee joints. Exercise will help to alleviate pain, stiffness, and inactivity that can cause arthritis's
to become a disability.
Recommended activities include:
- Non-weight bearing activity - swimming, cycling
- Yoga
- Activities designed to improve flexibility

Female athletes
Eating disorders
Eating disorders involve concerns about weight and appearance, influenced by body image. They are more common in sports such as dance and
gymnastics where body image is extremely important. Anorexia nervosa is an psychological eating disorder characterised by an irrational fear of
food leading to extreme, life-threatening weight loss. Bulimia nervosa is an psychological disorder characterised by a distorted body image and an
obsessive desire to lose weight, in which bouts of extreme overeating are followed by fasting or self-induced vomiting or purging.

Iron deficiency
Iron deficiency causes fatigue and loss of energy in female athletes, especially endurance athletes. Supplements of vitamin C can be advised assist with
iron absorption, as well as iron supplements. Anaemia can result from low iron levels which affects the oxygen carrying capacity of the athlete. Care
should be taken with the endurance athlete as iron can be lost through sweat. Some loss of iron is due to menstruation.

Bone density
Bone density in women is affected by oestrogen hormone levels which decrease in menopause. Irregular menstruation patterns or cessation of
menstruation during training may cause increase bone loss. Long term loss of bone density may lead to osteoporosis. Adequate calcium is essential, as
is regular weight bearing exercise throughout life.

Pregnancy
During normal pregnancy, sporting and activity should continue. Self-regulated activities rather than competition would be advised. Activity is
recommended as it enhances muscle tone, general fitness and weight control. Many female athletes suggest pregnancy and childbirth increase ability
to train and perform at a higher level following pregnancy.

Menstruation
Menstruation is the process in a woman of discharging blood and other material from the lining of the uterus at intervals of about one lunar month (28
days) from puberty until the menopause, except during pregnancy.Changes can occur in normal menstruation cycles due to over-training and excessive
weight loss. Amenorrhoea, long pauses between cycles, can occur and menarche can be delayed in some athletes. Changes can be reversed.
What role do preventative actions play in enhancing the wellbeing of the
athlete?

Physical preparation
Pre-screening
Assess health stats of person before they become involved in training. Especially important for:
- Males over 40
- Females over 50
- Asthmatics
- Smokers
- Obese
- High blood pressure
- Family history of heart conditions
- Identifying those at high/moderate risk of cardiovascular problems

๏ Stage 1 pre-screening: questionnaire

The first stage is a pre-screening questionnaire, consisting of 7 questions, that can be completed with a professional or self-administered. The aim of
the pre-screening questionnaire’s first stage is “to identify those individuals with a known disease, or signs or symptoms of disease, who may be at a
higher risk of an adverse event during physical activity/exercise.”
๏ Stage 2 pre-screening: questionnaire
The second stage of the pre-screening questionnaire aims “to identify those individuals with risk factors or other conditions to assist with appropriate
exercise prescription,” and is administered by an exercise professional such as an Exercise Physiologist. This stage has 12 questions that look at family
history, behavioural risk factors, and underlying medical conditions such as hypertension that could make exercise more risky.
๏ Stage 3 pre-screening: measurements
The aim of the stage 3 measurements is “to obtain pre-exercise baseline measurements of other recognised cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors.”
The measurements taken include: BMI, Waist girth, resting blood pressure, fasting lipid profile, fasting blood glucose

Skill and technique

Poor skill and technique may lead to injury. – e.g. poor head position in a rugby tackle

Physical fitness
Athletes need specialised preparation specific to their sports:
E.g. netball requires agility, speed, hand-eye-coordination, anaerobic fitness, balance and power
E.g. rugby forwards require extensive neck-strengthening programs as they are prone to neck injuries from scrums
Specific physical fitness preparation is also needed for those with:
- Previous injury
- Medical condition
- Disability
- Identified playing weakness

Warm up, stretching, cool down

Sports policy and the sports environment
Rules of sports and activities
- Rules assist flow of play and protect players from injury
- Referee promotes safety and deal with rule infringement
• E.g.: extensive rules/regulations about safe play in rugby union – high tackles and no use of feet to prevent a try.

Modified rules for children

Young children - designing of new sports like kanga cricket, mini basketball, netters, walla rugby and minky hockey
- Equipment size reduced for greater control
- Playing area reduced to lesson physical demands on children and to increase the chance of scoring
- Game length shortened for maximum concentration
- Season length shortened
- Rule changes to assist skill development and to promote fun
Young adults – e.g. players under 19 in cricket have restrictions on how many successive bowls (reduce chance of overuse injury)

Matching of opponents, e.g. growth and development, skill level

- Opponents are generally matched according to age, however there is a lot of differences between gender, size, ethnicity, maturity, social skills and
emotional readiness when it come to children playing sport.
- Variations in size and strength need to be taken into consideration – smaller children can play under age
- Skill level – grades and divisions used
- Develop skills and fun should be the main key

Use of protective equipment

- Use of protective equipment helps to promote athlete safety and well being
- Protective equipment is purposely designed to help protect the athlete from injuries that may otherwise occur.
• Cricket helmet during participation, Foam padding around goal post in rugby, netball, AFL

Safe grounds, equipment and facilities

- Safe grounds equipment and facilities are important for sport and physical activity in order to be conducted with minimal risk of injury.

Taping and bandaging

Preventative taping
Preventative taping is when the athlete tapes a joint, such as the ankle, in order to prevent injury from occurring. Athletes who use preventative taping
often have a history of injury in the joint taped
Most commonly for
- the ankle, the knee, the shoulder, and the wrist.
Works by:
- providing feedback to the athlete by pulling on the skin when the tap is stretched, providing a sensation. This sensation provides feedback to the
athlete to stimulate the muscles around the joint and to reduce the movement in order to prevent injury.
- acting as a placebo, allowing the athlete to be confident in their movements, which biomechanically helps skilled athletes, making them less likely to
suffer injury.

Taping for isolation of injury

Taping for isolation of injury is about reducing pain during exercise and preventing further injury as the athlete is rehabilitated and begins to return to
play.
Mainly for:
- sprained ankles, patellofemoral syndrome, sprained knees, fingers, thumbs and wrists
Aims to:
- limit range of motion
- provide proprioceptive feedback to stimulate muscles for stability
- increase stability of the joint
- shift anatomic parts into the correct position e.g. patella
- compress soft tissue to reduce inflammation

Bandaging for immediate treatment of injury

Bandaging for immediate treatment of injury is part of the RICER (Rest, Ice Compression, Elevation, Referral) first aid treatment for soft tissue injuries.
Aims to:
- decrease bleeding
- provide stability support (particularly if a joint)
- reduce inflammation, by forcing fluid away from the area, or restricting fluid coming to the injured area/s
- reduce movement
- limit re-injury
Environmental considerations
Temperature regulation
Convection
Heat transferred by mass motion of a fluid, such as air or water, when the heated fluid moves away from the source of heat, taking heat energy with it.
To lose heat - placing the athlete in front of a fan, and pouring water over the skin
To gain heat - wearing a wind breaker jacket to prevent the wind from contacting the body surface, preserving heat.

Radiation
The transfer of internal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves – usually infrared (least effective mechanism for temperature regulation)
To gain heat - exposing the athlete to the sun or a warm fire will help to heat the body causing body temperature to rise.
To lose heat - exposing more skin to the environment can help to lose more heath by radiation

Conduction
The transfer of heat between two (2) objects in contact with each other. The heat transfer is always from the hotter object to the cooler one. Our bodies
heat up due to the creation of heat when ATP is turned to ADP and P.
To gain heat - Exposing skin to warm objects, such as a hot water bottle
To lose heat - Exposing the skin and lying down on a cool surface such as metal or ice-vests

Evaporation
Evaporation is the transfer of heat from our body, to water (sweat), resulting in the water becoming a vapour and taking the heat away with it. (most
effective mechanism for temperature regulation)
To gain heat - removing the water with a towel or taking off wet clothes, wearing a jumper after getting out of a pool will help trap the water
vapour, causing a humid environment under the jumper and preventing the loss of heat through further evaporation.
To lose heat - adding water to to the surface of the body, drinking adequate amounts of fluid will also assist the evaporation process as it
allows the body to continue to produce sweat without causing dehydration to the athlete.

Guidelines for fluid intake

- 2-3L a day as recommended before the event
- 500mL on the morning of the event
- 250mL thirty minutes prior to the start of the event
- 1L for every hour of high intensity activity / 250mL every 10 - 15 mins
- 1.5L for every 1kg lost

Climatic conditions
Temperature
Cold conditions
Athletes need to maintain a safe body temperature during participation. This can be achieved through; extended warm ups, limiting periods of
no movement in cold conditions, appropriate clothing (thermals, windbreakers)
Hot conditions
Athletes already increase body temp. during exercise due to ATP breakdown being used for energy, radiant heat from environment further
increases the athletes body temp. Constant fluid intake (to avoid dehydration as a result of excessive sweating), breathable clothing and
participating out of direct sunlight reduce the athletes body temp to a more manageable level

Humidity
Humidity refers to the water concentration in the atmosphere. The more concentrated or humid the climatic conditions the less effective sweat
and evaporation is at removing heat.
Humidity + Heat = greater chance of hyperthermia
Evaporation - not effective in humid conditions
Radiation - more heat gained than lost in hot conditions
Wind
The flow of air on a large scale, affects convection and movements of a ball in sports, increasing chance on injury
Cold + Wind = greater chance of hypothermia
Conduction - cold environmental surfaces e.g. snow, icy/wet grass, cold pavement
Convection - cold wind reduces body temp
Radiation - limited heat gained due to limited sunlight
Rain
Rain increases the heat lost through convection as water moves across the surface of the skin. Rainy conditions also make surfaces slippery,
therefore increasing the risk of injury to a player.
Rain + Cold + Wind = greater chance of hyperthermia
Rain + Heat = poorer evaporative cooling, greater convective cooling
Altitude
The altitude at which a sport or physical activity is conducted will influence player safety due to varying levels of oxygen concentration.
Less oxygen available in the air, means less oxygen in the blood, poorer performance.
Refer to ‘Acclimatisation’
Pollution
Refers to the presence of contaminants either in the air or the greater environment
Pollution can cause health concerns depending on the contaminant. Some contaminants have been linked with cancer, chronic
bronchitis, or other issues such as asbestosis. However, some contaminants pose fairly minor dangers to the athlete, especially if
exposure is minimal.

Acclimatisation
When the athlete arrives before competition, normally at a higher altitude in order to adapt to the lower concentrations of oxygen in the air, increasing
haemoglobin levels allowing for improved performance. Normally takes 7-10 days to acclimatise
How is injury rehabilitation managed?

Rehabilitation procedures
Progressive mobilisation
Refers to the gradual increase in the joint range of motion/movement, required because of tightening of the muscles and stiffening of the joint that
is evident post-injury
Progressive mobilisation:
- slowly stretches the muscles allowing for a gradual increase in the range of motion at the joint. The gradual progression also helps increase the
movement in the ligaments around the joint
- should begin as early as possible, in order to help prevent scare tissue and to reduce the recovery time
- utilises dynamic, static and PNF stretching, but NOT ballistic stretching as this can cause further damage

Graduated exercise
Graduated exercise is used in rehabilitation to ensure exercise intensity and activities progress with healing and do not cause further injury. It refers to
the gradual increase in range of motion, intensity, and activities to help ensure the athlete’s recovery is as pain free as possible.
Stretching
Static stretching is the least intense of the stretches, but also provides the least gain.
PNF stretching is the most common and usually the most beneficial form of stretching during rehabilitation.
Dynamic stretching is also used in rehabilitation, though usually towards the end as it requires more control.

Conditioning
Conditioning is the process of strengthening muscles and getting them back to their pre-injury levels. This is in relation to muscular strength, muscular
endurance, speed, and power.
- specific to injury e.g. knee injury - strengthening/conditioning of quadriceps, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, gluteus
- progressive overload - gradual increase in intensity, time and weight
Total body fitness
Total body fitness refers to each aspect of both the health and skill related components of fitness. This helps ensure a complete recovery in each
component, so that no weakness is present when the athlete returns to play after graduated exercise.

Training
During rehabilitation training can be done to help slow down and limit the loss of fitness. While the injury requires rest, this rest does not always have to
be to the entire body.
After rehabilitation, they still require training before they can return to play. The athlete may have regained muscular strength, muscular endurance,
speed, power, flexibility, and have a full active range of motion, but they have not fully participated in their sport yet.
This lack of engagement in their sport means the sport specific components of fitness, such as coordination, and agility have not recovered.

Use of heat and cold

Heat
The aims or benefits include:
- increased blood flow (delivering nutrients and white blood cells, while removing waste)
- decreased pain
- increased flexibility (increases the elasticity of fibres, especially the new ones)
- decreased joint stiffness (increases fluid to the joint)
- increased tissue repair (by increasing blood flow)
Methods include:
- Heat packs
- Hydrotherapy
- Infra-red lamps
- Contrast therapy
- Ultrasound
- Microwaves

Cold
The aims or benefits include:
- reduce pain
- reduce blood flow/bleeding
- reduce inflammation
Methods include:
- Ice massage
- Cold water immersion/ice bath
- Contrast therapy
- Vapocoolant sprays
- Cryotherapy machine
Return to play
Indicators of readiness for return to play
Pain free
When an athlete is pain free it indicates that they are nearly ready to return to play
An athlete who is not yet pain free has a higher chance of re-injury if they return to play.

Degree of Mobility
The degree of mobility refers to the amount of movement around the injured area.
If an athlete has restored their mobility this is an indicator that the athlete can return to play.

Monitoring progress
To ensure the injured area has returned to its normal functioning, conducting sport-specific tests will provide both coaches and athletes with
information on the athlete’s fitness and skill ability.
By comparing the athlete’s pre-test or pre-injury test and post-test or post-injury, a decision can be made on the athlete’s return to play

Psychological readiness
Athlete’s returning from injury, especially long term injury, such as a knee reconstruction may feel anxious about returning to play. If an athlete is not
confident in their bodies ability to manage competition they will shield the injured side to protect it. This causes poor technique, and can lead to injury
somewhere else. (over compensation)

Specific warm-up procedures

When returning to play after an injury, an athlete’s routine needs to include warm-up stretches and drills that are specific to the injured area.
Ensuring muscles are warm, stretched and ready for physical activity is important in preventing further damage.

Return to play policies and procedures

Sports clubs have a responsibility to ensure that policies and procedures are in place for players returning from an injury.
Clubs have a duty of care to ensure athletes are fit to return to training and competition when they are injury-free—not before their injury has healed.

Ethical considerations, eg pressure to participate, use of painkillers

External pressure
External pressure to participate in competition before the athlete is ready can come from coaches, teammates, and fans.

Internal pressure
The most dangerous pressure comes from the athlete themselves. Athletes are often very driven and motivated people. They want to succeed, they
don’t want to let their teammates, fans or coaches down, but mostly they want to be involved. This pressure can cause them to return to play early, or to
lie to the medical staff about symptoms they are experiencing in order to return faster.

Use of painkillers
To stop an athlete from being able to feel pain, may lead to the athlete causing greater injury to their body as they will not be able to identify when a
movement is causing further injury and will not be able to modify their movements accordingly.
Over the counter medication (paracetamol, ibuprofen) vs. Narcotic (codeine, methadone or morphine)
Self administered vs. Practitioner administered
To reduce the risk of injury, the opponents in children’s sport and competition should be closely matched, taking into account size, strength, skill, age,
gender, disabilities, height, weight.
Children play sport for various reasons; to have fun, make new friends, and learn new skills and to be physically active. Children in sport are not playing
as “little adults”, their needs are very different and the conditions they play under should be different. Modification of sport provides significant
advantages to most children involved.
Sport can be modified in following ways:
- Playing area reduced to lesson physical demands on children and to increase the chance of scoring
- Equipment size reduced for greater control
- Game length shortened for maximum concentration
- Season length shortened
- Rule changes to assist skill development and to promote fun
9.5 HSC Option 3: Sports Medicine

How are sports injuries classified and managed?

Ways to classify sports injuries 1
Hard tissue injuries 1
Assessment of injuries 1
Soft tissue injuries 2

How does sports medicine address the demands of specific athletes?

Children and young athletes 3
Adult and aged athletes 4
Female athletes 4

What role do preventative actions play in enhancing the wellbeing of

the athlete?
Physical preparation 5
Sports policy and the sports environment 6
Taping and bandaging 6
Environmental considerations 7

How is injury rehabilitation managed?

Rehabilitation procedures 8
Return to play 9