Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association

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Application of an integrated Weather Research

and Forecasting (WRF)/CALPUFF modeling tool for
source apportionment of atmospheric pollutants
for air quality management: A case study in the
urban area of Benxi, China

Hao Wu, Yan Zhang, Qi Yu & Weichun Ma

To cite this article: Hao Wu, Yan Zhang, Qi Yu & Weichun Ma (2018) Application of an
integrated Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF)/CALPUFF modeling tool for source
apportionment of atmospheric pollutants for air quality management: A case study in the
urban area of Benxi, China, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 68:4, 347-368,
DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2017.1391009

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2017.1391009

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JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION
2018, VOL. 68, NO. 4, 347–368
https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2017.1391009

TECHNICAL PAPER

Application of an integrated Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF)/CALPUFF

modeling tool for source apportionment of atmospheric pollutants for air
quality management: A case study in the urban area of Benxi, China
Hao Wu, Yan Zhang, Qi Yu, and Weichun Ma
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China.

ABSTRACT PAPER HISTORY

In this study, the authors endeavored to develop an effective framework for improving local urban Received February 13, 2017
air quality on meso-micro scales in cities in China that are experiencing rapid urbanization. Within Revised May 20, 2017
this framework, the integrated Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF)/CALPUFF modeling Accepted June 11, 2017
system was applied to simulate the concentration distributions of typical pollutants (particulate
matter with an aerodynamic diameter <10 μm [PM10], sulfur dioxide [SO2], and nitrogen oxides
[NOx]) in the urban area of Benxi. Statistical analyses were performed to verify the credibility of
this simulation, including the meteorological fields and concentration fields. The sources were
then categorized using two different classification methods (the district-based and type-based
methods), and the contributions to the pollutant concentrations from each source category were
computed to provide a basis for appropriate control measures. The statistical indexes showed that
CALMET had sufficient ability to predict the meteorological conditions, such as the wind fields and
temperatures, which provided meteorological data for the subsequent CALPUFF run. The simu-
lated concentrations from CALPUFF showed considerable agreement with the observed values
but were generally underestimated. The spatial-temporal concentration pattern revealed that the
maximum concentrations tended to appear in the urban centers and during the winter. In terms
of their contributions to pollutant concentrations, the districts of Xihu, Pingshan, and Mingshan all
affected the urban air quality to different degrees. According to the type-based classification,
which categorized the pollution sources as belonging to the Bengang Group, large point sources,
small point sources, and area sources, the source apportionment showed that the Bengang
Group, the large point sources, and the area sources had considerable impacts on urban air
quality. Finally, combined with the industrial characteristics, detailed control measures were
proposed with which local policy makers could improve the urban air quality in Benxi. In
summary, the results of this study showed that this framework has credibility for effectively
improving urban air quality, based on the source apportionment of atmospheric pollutants.
Implications: The authors endeavored to build up an effective framework based on the
integrated WRF/CALPUFF to improve the air quality in many cities on meso-micro scales in
China. Via this framework, the integrated modeling tool is accurately used to study the character-
istics of meteorological fields, concentration fields, and source apportionments of pollutants in
target area. The impacts of classified sources on air quality together with the industrial character-
istics can provide more effective control measures for improving air quality.
Through the case study, the technical framework developed in this study, particularly the
source apportionment, could provide important data and technical support for policy makers to
assess air pollution on the scale of a city in China or even the world.

Introduction cities, failed to meet the new standards (Ministry of

Air pollution in China has aroused widespread con-
cern, given the rapid and extensive economic develop-
ment that has occurred during the last several decades.
According to the latest report on the state of the envir-
onment in China, a total of 338 cities at or above the
prefecture level enforced the new national ambient air
quality standards in 2015. Of these cities, 78.4%, or 265
Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of
China [MEPC], 2015). Therefore, effective environ-
mental control measures for improving air quality are
urgently needed for many Chinese cities on meso-
micro scales. In air quality management systems, due
to the complexities of the factors affecting ambient air
quality, such as emissions, meteorological conditions,

CONTACT Weichun Ma wcma@fudan.edu.cn Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, 2005 Songhu Road, Yangpu District,
Shanghai, 200082, People’s Republic of China
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the paper can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/uawm.
© 2018 A&WMA
348 H. WU ET AL.
and local industrial layouts, studies that examine how
to effectively control and improve air quality using
quantitative methods have become prevalent and extre-
mely important to policy makers.
During the past several decades, various air quality
management systems have been proven to be useful for
the improvement and control of air quality. For instance, a
number of optimized methods have been developed for
identifying the influencing factors in air pollution control
systems (An and Eheart, 2007; Lu et al., 2010; Qin et al.,
2010). To strengthen the interactive effects of influential
factors, Scheffler (2013) proposed a sequential factorial
analysis (SFA) approach for supporting regional air quality
management. The results indicated that the effects of these
factors, which were evaluated quantitatively, could help
decision makers identify the key factors that have signifi-
cant influence on system performance and extract the
valuable information that may be hidden by their interac-
tions. Soliman and Jacko (2008) put forward a quantitative
approach to the Traffic Air Quality problem. The Traffic
Air Quality (TAQ) model was used to estimate fine parti-
culate emissions from vehicles on roadways and for real-
time analysis. Querol et al. (2009) also proposed a parallel
methodology for assessing the influence of African dust on
ambient particulate matter (PM) levels in southwestern
Europe in order to support the implementation of air
quality directives. In addition, several other computer-
based decision support systems for air quality management
studies are in operation around the world (Elbir and
Muezzinoglu, 2004; Jiménez-Guerrero et al., 2008; Ling
et al., 2005; Puliafito et al., 2003). In addition to the
approaches mentioned above, which are used in air quality
management, Elbir et al. (2010) developed a system based
on the CALMET/CALPUFF dispersion modeling system,
digital maps, and the associated databases to estimate the
emissions and spatial distribution of air pollutants with the
help of GIS (geographic information system) software. This
system indicated that it provided easy access to emission
control and air quality improvement by implementing
quantitative ambient air control measures.
In fact, the identification of major types of pollutants or
their main source regions, as well as quantification of the
effects of the contributions of pollutant emissions on air
quality, is a powerful and indispensable strategy for sup-
porting ambient air quality management. Strikingly, the
various modeling tools are very effective, which is signifi-
cant in arguing for more precise research in ambient air
pollution. Air pollution concentration distributions and
source contributions for areas of concern have been studied
worldwide with the aim of supporting emission controls
and the improvement of air quality (Cheng et al., 2007;
Tartakovsky et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2013). Stein et al. (2007)
simulated the spatial distribution of benzene
concentrations with a grid size of 1 km × 1 km using a
combined modeling approach, and Zou et al. (2009) stu-
died the spatial pattern of sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentra-
tions in the Dallas area of Texas at a fixed time with
AERMOD (American Meteorological Society/U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Regulatory Model).
Alternatively, many studies that examine the specific emis-
sion source contributions from various types of sources to
target areas have been developed, based on hybrid air
quality modeling (Bell et al., 2007; Cheng et al., 2007). In
particular, Wu et al. (2013) proposed control policies for
use in the Pearl River Delta region using the particulate
matter source apportionment method. Moreover, Zou
et al. (2011) studied the spatial-temporal variations in
regional ambient sulfur dioxide concentrations and the
contributions from various sources via a dispersion mod-
eling approach, which overcame the limitations associated
with the coarse resolutions and predicting geographic dis-
tribution of air pollutant concentrations and their spatial-
temporal dynamic variations based on statistical emission
data and a limited number of air quality monitoring sites.
Cheng et al. (2007) assessed the relative contributions of
different emission sources in Beijing using a coupled
MM5-ARPS-CMAQ (Mesoscale Meteorological Model
5–Advanced Regional Prediction System–Community
Multiscale Air Quality Model) modeling system and
explored possible future PM10 (PM with aerodynamic dia-
meter <10 μm) concentration distributions using two pro-
posed source-based emission reduction strategies. In
addition, Ghannam and El-Fadel (2013) studied and ana-
lyzed frameworks for emission source apportionment in
industrial areas utilizing the coupled MM5-CALPUFF in
the near-field region. In general, the modeling tools take
full advantage of simulations of the processes of dispersion
and transformation (both chemical and physical) under
various conditions, such as the layout of industries, pollu-
tant emissions, and meteorological fields, that are analo-
gous to those seen in real situations. With the aid of
modeling tools, we can effectively select control measures
to improve the air quality of entire regions by identifying
the distributions of ambient pollution concentrations and
quantifying the relative contributions from the various
categories of emission sources to pollutant concentrations.
Consequently, in this paper, we built up a technical
framework based on the integrated Weather Research
and Forecasting (WRF)/CALPUFF model for air qual-
ity management. The WRF/CALPUFF model was used
to simulate the spatial-temporal variations of regional
concentration distributions and source contributions of
PM10, SO2, and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These pollu-
tants have received considerable attention and have
been routinely monitored in China (Deng et al.,
2015). Appropriate air quality control measures were

also proposed, based on the results of these simulations.
The prefecture-level city of Benxi, which lies in north-
east China, was used as a case study for the technical
framework mentioned above.
Study area
Air quality situation
The total population of Benxi is approximately 1.52
million. Its annual gross domestic product (GDP)
exceeds 18.3 billion U.S. dollars. The value of the
industrial production accounts for more than 50% of
this amount, and it corresponds to 9.8 billion U.S.
dollars. Benxi is well known as an industrial base in
northeastern China, and it has been described as being
an “invisible” city in satellite images from the last
century, due to the serious ambient air pollution
there. Even in the new century, owing to the conven-
tional mode of the local industrial development, large
quantities of coal are consumed by various industries
and residential heating systems, resulting in a notable
deterioration in the quality of the ambient atmosphere.
Without question, the various industries distributed
within the urban area, such as the Bengang Group
(Benxi Iron and Steel Group Co., Ltd.) and metallurgy
and mining concerns, have become the major pollution
sources responsible for the deteriorated urban air qual-
ity. Furthermore, commercial activities and vehicle
usage have greatly increased in recent decades, accom-
panied by the expansion of the urban area, and these
factors have also had adverse effects on air quality. In
summary, the air quality in Benxi, which is under great
pressure from conventional industries and the rapid
urban expansion, is still a hotly discussed environmen-
tal problem among the public. More importantly, Benxi
lies within a mountainous area, and the climatic
Figure 1. (a) The urban area of Benxi (Xihu, Pinshan, Minshan, and Nanfen) and the locations of meteorological stations (blue dots),
point sources (red dots), and air quality monitoring stations (black dots). (b) The location of the city of Benxi in China.
JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 349
conditions in Benxi are relatively complex and labile.
This situation likely aggravates the air pollution.
Topographic and meteorological characteristics
The city of Benxi, which is in Liaoning Province, is
located on the edge of northeastern China (123°34ʹ-
125°46ʹE, 40°49ʹ-41°35ʹN). Its total area is 8411.3 km2,
and the urban area is just 1526 km2 (its dimensions are
27.1 km from west to east and 56.32 km from north to
south). Benxi contains several types of terrain.
Mountainous areas account for almost 80% of the
area, the cultivated land area accounts for only 8.7%,
and water and other land cover types account for
11.3%. These values indicate that the city of Benxi is a
place with complex mountainous topography. Actually,
the forest coverage in Benxi has reached more than
70%, and these forests are mainly distributed within
the suburban area. That is the reason why the urban
area is the target area for this study, rather than the
whole city of Benxi. The urban area of Benxi mainly
consists of four administrative districts (Xihu,
Pingshan, Mingshan, and Nanfen), which are shown
in Figure 1a. The terrain heights in the entire urban
district show strong variations. The elevations are rela-
tively low in the west and north, and they are higher in
the east and southeast. The maximum elevation is
1002.78 m, the minimum elevation is 85 m, and the
average elevation is 350 m. The blue dots (S1 and S2)
located in the southern and central areas represent the
geographical positions of meteorological observation
stations where the meteorological data from 2012
used in this study were obtained. The black dots (S3,
S4, S5, S6, S7, and S8) represent air quality monitoring
sites, which are mostly distributed in the districts of
Xihu, Pingshan, and Mingshan. They primarily provide
350 H. WU ET AL.
air quality parameters related to high-priority pollu-
tants (PM10, SO2, and NOx) for this study.
Benxi is located in the middle temperate zone and
experiences an annual average temperature of 6.1–7.8 °C.
The maximum temperature usually reaches 24.3 °C during
the hottest month, July, and the minimum is −14.3 °C
during the coldest month, January. In addition, the preci-
pitation and rainfall in Benxi are sufficient, and the annual
rainfall is 800–1000 mm. More than half of this amount
occurs during July and August in the summer.
Furthermore, the yearly dominant wind directions in the
urban area of Benxi are mainly southwest, west, and
northwest.
Methodology and data sources
Technical framework
Figure 2 shows the technical framework adopted in our
study. The technical framework for urban air quality
management, which is based on the integrated modeling
tool mentioned above (WRF/CALPUFF), is described
below and was used to provide control measures for
improvement in air quality in our research. This techni-
cal framework consists of several components: a source
emission inventory, an air quality modeling system, an
evaluation approach for the analysis of source contribu-
tions, and the corresponding control measures.
As seen in Figure 2, the emission inventory is the
first important component in this framework. Briefly,
an emission inventory represents an estimate of pollu-
tant emissions that affect air quality on specific
Figure 2. Technical framework for air quality management based on the source apportionment of the pollutants PM10, SO2, and NOx.
temporal and spatial scales. The emission inventory of
the urban area of Benxi was set up on the basis of
existing emission data obtained from the National
Pollution Source Census (CCFNPSCD, 2011), the
China Environmental Statistics, and the data contained
in pollution discharge declarations and registrations,
which represent the main data sources for building
emission inventories in China. The National Pollution
Source Census, which is performed by the Ministry of
Environmental Protection and the National Bureau of
Statistics, together with the China Environmental
Statistics, covers the industrial sources, agricultural
sources, and domestic sources and indicates the corre-
sponding emissions and other basic data. The data
from pollution discharge declarations and the registra-
tion of various enterprises, which is administered by
local Environmental Protection Bureaus, systematically
comprise the emission data related to various sources at
the county level. Moreover, the technical method for
building an emission inventory could be obtained from
the technical guidance for emission inventories (MEPC,
2014) and other relevant published references (Lim and
Boileau, 1999; Ohara et al., 2007; Tian et al., 2012;
Zhang et al., 2014). We built the source database
using GIS software. In this framework, the emissions
from various sources were distributed over a grid with a
resolution of 1 km × 1 km that covered our target area.
The sources were spatially divided further according to
administrative district, and the source types and corre-
sponding emissions were also estimated, with the goal
of determining the source apportionment for each pol-
lutant. Additionally, in the absence of representative

local emission factors, ranges of internationally
reported values were considered and adjusted to
account for case-specific conditions (El-Fadel and
Abi-Esber, 2012; Whyatt et al., 2007).
The meteorological fields were mainly derived from
numerical models, including the prognostic model
WRF and the diagnostic model CALMET, both of
which can be used for air quality modeling. The main
air quality models currently include CALPUFF,
CMAQ, CAMx (Comprehensive Air Quality Model
with Extensions), etc., which have been applied in
many other studies. In our study, the air quality mod-
eling system consisted of WRF and CALPUFF. WRF
was used to generate dynamic meteorological fields for
CALMET that completely covered the study area. Data
on topography (terrain height and land use–land cover
types) and observed meteorological data (ground-based
meteorological observational data and upper air data)
were then collected and used as input data for the
CALMET model to generate more precise hourly
meteorological fields. The source emission inventory
and the meteorological fields from the CALMET
model were input into the CALPUFF module, which
simulates the migration, diffusion, and transformation
of pollutants in order to obtain hourly concentration
values. Detailed information on the model setup is
given below in the section “Model introduction and
configuration.”
The evaluation approach for the analysis of source
contributions made up the core of this technical frame-
work. It helped to identify the source regions and
industries that had adverse impacts on air quality,
according to the spatial-temporal variations of pollu-
tant concentrations and the contributions from each
source category.
In the end, the entire air quality assessment was
performed to finish the work of performing a quanti-
tative source apportionment of atmospheric pollutants,
as well as proposing corresponding control measures
for consideration by local policy makers. Those source
regions or industries that have great influence on air
quality should be strictly controlled by local policy
Figure 3. The simulation domains. (a) The three nested domains in WRF and (b) the urban area in the innermost domain (D03). The
gray line in Figure 3(b) shows the main road.
JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 351
makers. Meanwhile, the energy and environmental effi-
ciency of industries or enterprises, as assessed using
metrics such as total energy consumption per ton of
steel and energy consumption per unit of output value,
should also be considered in the detailed control mea-
sures proposed. It is hoped that these control measures
will help policy makers to improve urban air quality.
Model introduction and configuration
Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model
The WRF model is a next-generation meso-scale
numerical weather prediction system designed for
both atmospheric research and operational forecasting
needs (Cipagauta et al., 2014), and the model serves a
wide range of meteorological applications across scales
from kilometers to thousands of kilometers (Giannaros
et al., 2013; Kusaka et al., 2009; Winiarek et al., 2014).
Its vertical coordinate is a terrain-following hydrostatic
pressure coordinate, and the grid staggering is based on
the Arakawa C-grid. The model uses the Runge-Kutta
second- and third-order time integration schemes and
second- to sixth-order advection schemes in both the
horizontal and vertical directions.
In this study, three one-way nested domains with
191 × 132, 295 × 208, and 61 × 118 grid points and grid
spacings of 9, 3 and 1 km, respectively, were used, as
shown in Figure 3a. The meteorological fields were
provided by the WRF model, and the initial and lateral
boundary conditions were obtained from the Global
Forecast System Final Analyses of the National
Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), which
have a horizontal resolution of 0.5° × 0.5°, at 6-hr
intervals. The innermost domain, which provided ade-
quate coverage over the urban districts of Benxi (the
study area) and the surrounding rural areas, was cen-
tered at 124.76°E and 41.25°N, as shown in Figure 3b.
Most of the physics schemes were used in the WRF
model, such as the WRF single-moment six-class grau-
pel microphysics scheme (Hong et al., 2004; Hong and
Lim, 2006), the Dudhia short-wave radiation scheme
(Dudhia, 1989), the Monin-Obukhov surface layer
352 H. WU ET AL.
scheme (Monin and Obukhov, 1954), and the Yonsei
University boundary layer scheme, which was used to
represent the planetary boundary layer (PBL) over the
domain (Noh et al., 2003). The Rapid Radiative
Transfer Model long-wave radiation scheme (Mlawer
et al., 1997) was applied in this model, and the Noah
land surface model was also used to calculate the heat
and moisture content of each subsoil layer (Kuang
et al., 2013).
Previous work has also shown that there is an inti-
mate correlation between land cover types and meteor-
ological fields, especially wind speed and temperature,
in the WRF model (Kuang et al., 2013). The default
land use data from the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) used in the WRF model are based on 1-km
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer data
obtained from 1992 to 1993, which are considered to
be outdated, due to their failure to represent the rapid
urban expansion in the past several decades in the
urban area of Benxi. Realistic land use data based on
the current status of land use in the city of Benxi (2010)
were used to derive up-to-date urban land use cate-
gories and to replace the outdated land use categories
provided by the USGS. The original land use data and
the updated urban land use data are shown in Figure 4.
CALPUFF
The CALPUFF model is an advanced non-steady-state
meteorological and air quality modeling system (Abdul-
Wahab et al. 2010; Macintosh et al., 2010; Zhou et al.,
2003). It has been adopted by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and the Ministry of
Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of
China (MEPC) as the preferred model for assessing the
Figure 4. (a) Urban land use in the innermost domain using land use data from the USGS. (b) The updated land use data.
long-range transport of pollutants and their impacts on
Federal Class I areas and on a case-by-case basis for
certain near-field applications involving complex
meteorological conditions (EPA, 2008). Compared with
other models, CALPUFF is widely applicable, open-
source, and has powerful simulation capabilities under
non-steady-state conditions and in situations with com-
plex terrain (Scire et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2006).
The CALPUFF model system is mainly composed of
CALMET (a diagnostic three-dimensional meteorologi-
cal module), CALPUFF (an air quality dispersion mod-
ule), and CALPOST (a postprocessing package), as well
as other useful processors. CALMET is a diagnostic
wind field model with micrometeorological modules
for overwater and overland boundary layers (Cui
et al., 2011; Earth Tech, 2001; Scire et al., 2000). The
CALMET model can use simulated fields from WRF, as
well as observed data, as inputs to automatically gen-
erate hourly wind fields, mixing heights, and other
three-dimensional micrometeorological parameters.
The CALPUFF model is the core module of the whole
air quality dispersion system, and it is a multilayer,
multispecies non-steady-state Gaussian puff dispersion
model that simulates the effects of temporally and
spatially varying meteorological conditions on pollutant
transport, transformation, and removal. Unlike tradi-
tional Gaussian plume models, CALPUFF simulates the
continuous plume from a source as a series of discrete
“puffs” (packets of pollutants) (Scire et al., 2000) that
are transported and dispersed through a three-dimen-
sional wind and micrometeorological field generated by
the CALMET model. CALPOST postprocesses the
results from the CALPUFF model, and it finally gen-
erates hourly, 24-hr, monthly, or yearly average

concentrations of pollutants within specified horizon-
tally gridded cells.
The terrain and land use input data were derived
from USGS data. In particular, the land use data were
corrected using realistic land use types for this case
study, which treats the urban area of Benxi, in order
to improve the performance of this simulation
(Figure 4). The observed meteorological data from sta-
tions S1 and S2 were not input into the CALMET
module, and they were mainly used to verify the per-
formance of CALMET simulation. The simulated
domain was slightly smaller than that used in WRF,
and it was gridded and specified at the southwestern
corner (4498.76 km south and 549.73 km west in
Universal Transverse Mercator [UTM] zone 51), and
it contained 56 grid cells from east to west and 65 grid
cells from south to north, with a resolution of 1 km. In
the vertical dimension, the nine height layers incorpo-
rated into the CALMET model had their boundaries at
elevations of 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, 1500, and
2000 m.
In this study, the dispersion options, including wet
and dry deposition, were selected independently. For
wet deposition, both scavenging coefficients for liquid
precipitation were set to 1 × 10−4, 3 × 10−5, and
3 × 10−5 for PM10, SO2, and NOx, respectively (Hao
et al., 2007; Zhou et al., 2003). The dry deposition
parameters included the reference cuticle resistance
and reference ground resistance (Lee et al., 2014), and
the dry deposition velocities for each pollutant (PM10,
SO2, and NOx) were calculated separately using the
resistance model internal to CALPUFF. Chemical
transformations, such as the conversion of SO2 to sul-
fate and the conversion of nitrogen oxides to nitrate
aerosols, were computed internally. However, the che-
mical reaction options (such as the background
Figure 5. (a) The sources categorized using the district-based method (Xihu, Pingshan, Mingshan, and Nanfen) are shown as
emissions (metric tons/year) and emission contributions from each source category. (b) The sources categorized using the type-
based method (the Bengang Group, the large point sources, the small point sources, and the area sources) are shown as emissions
(metric tons/year) and emission contributions from each source category.
JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 353
concentrations of precursor gases, including ammonia
[NH3], hydrogen peroxide [H2O2], nitric oxide [NO],
and nitrogen dioxide [NO2] and secondary organic
aerosols) were not considered in this study, and all of
the emission sources were considered to be point and
area sources (Lee et al., 2014). The other chemical
transformation options were set to their default values
and computed internally in the CALPUFF model.
Analysis of the emission inventory
The sources in our study were categorized into four
different districts (Xihu, Pingshan, Mingshan, and
Nanfen), including both point and area sources. This
categorization was described in terms of districts.
According to another classification method, in which
the sources were described in terms of types, the
sources were grouped into categories, which included
the Bengang Group, large point sources, small point
sources, and area sources. The district-based method
provided a basis for identifying the major source
regions based on emission contributions and their con-
tributions to pollutant concentrations, and the type-
based method mainly provided an easy method for
understanding the effects of various industrial sources
on local urban air quality. Figure 5 shows the emissions
and emission contributions from each source category
using the two different classification methods (the dis-
trict-based method and the type-based method) for the
various sources. Using the district-based method, the
total emissions of PM10, SO2, and NOx were estimated
to be 104410.6, 40169.7, and 38872.7 metric tons/year.
Large emission contributions were noted in Pingshan
and Xihu, due to the presence of the Bengang Group,
power plants, and other industrial sources, which used
excessive amounts of fossil fuels, including coal, gas,
354 H. WU ET AL.
and oil, to produce energy. Using the type-based
method, the emission contributions from point sources
for each pollutant exceeded 89%, of which the Bengang
Group accounted for more than 42%. Apparently, the
air pollution was mainly caused by point sources, rather
than area sources, in terms of emissions. In addition,
the total emissions of PM10 were far higher than those
of SO2 and NOx, which indicated that PM10 was clearly
the primary pollutant responsible for air pollution in
the urban area of Benxi.
In particular, the Bengang Group included 24 large
point sources that represented its various subsidiaries,
and these point sources were specifically excluded from
the large point sources group in this study. The large
point sources included 36 various point sources, most
of which represented the smelting and processing of
ferrous metals, the production and distribution of elec-
trical and heat energy, the mining and washing of coal,
etc. The small point sources were small-sized industries
that produced relatively small amounts of emissions
compared with those of the large point sources, and
the area sources included residential sources, traffic
sources, and other unorganized sources. To further
understand the characteristics of the industry operating
in the urban area of Benxi, we analyzed the energy
consumption status of various industries in 2012
(Table 1). Apparently, the iron-making industries,
most of which belonged to the Bengang Group,
accounted for most of the energy consumption, i.e.,
62.91% of the total. On the other hand, the other
industries, such as the smelting and processing of
steel, power plants, etc., only accounted for the remain-
der of the energy consumption (37.08%), although they
had an advantage in terms of their number. Without
question, the Bengang Group and the numerous indus-
tries listed in Table 1 were the industries that displayed
large amounts of energy consumption and emissions.
The temporal variability of point sources and vehicle
sources was considered in our emission inventory. For
the Bengang Group, the daily variation coefficient was
determined by the monitoring emission data. In
Table 1. Energy consumption status of industries in the urban area of Benxi in 2012.
Energy consumption
Industry Number (tce)
Iron-making 13 8,395,688
Smelting and processing of steel 9 1,167,974
Power plants 4 958,048.4
Production and distribution of heat energy 40 594,796.5
Coking 2 577,244.8
Manufacturing of cement 5 333,173.2
Mining and dressing of iron ores 40 281,247.2
Steel-making 5 214,785.5
Manufacturing of lime and gypsum 7 208,349
Other 151 613,692.4
Total 276 13,344,999
addition, the daily variation coefficient of pollution
emissions from large point sources was mainly deter-
mined by the daily variations in the electrical load,
whereas the daily variation coefficient of the small
point sources was determined by the diurnal variation
of the industrial production process in general. These
values were then smoothed before they were entered
into the model. For the vehicle sources, the daily varia-
tion coefficient was determined based on the diurnal
variation of traffic flow. The emission inventory was
constructed in the designated format. Point sources
were associated with the parameters of stack height,
stack diameter, emission rate, gas exit velocity and
temperature, which were needed to simulate the trans-
port, dispersion, chemical reaction, and deposition of
air pollutants under the temporally and spatially vary-
ing meteorological conditions. In addition, the area
sources included vehicle sources, residential sources,
and miscellaneous sources, which were also considered
to be area sources because of their scale and the diffi-
culty of specifically locating each source. These area
sources were calculated and allocated within a 1 km ×
1 km grid using GIS software. The total emissions from
various sources were estimated essentially by multiply-
ing the emission factors and the relevant activity data,
considering the removal efficiencies of control devices
(Lee et al., 2011).
Evaluation approach for the analysis of source
contributions
The brute-force method, which has been widely applied
in source apportionment to compare the different impacts
of various sources on pollutant concentrations (Kwok
et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2014), was applied in the
CALPUFF module. Each source category was simulated
individually in CALPUFF without considering the impact
of other source categories for each pollutant. Thus, for
each simulation, when one source category was run, the
other source categories were not considered.
Proportion of energy consumption Cumulative sum
(%) (%)
62.91 62.91
8.75 71.66
7.18 78.84
4.46 83.3
4.33 87.63
2.50 90.13
2.11 92.24
1.61 93.85
1.56 95.41
4.59 100
100
 JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 355

Using the district-based method, the contributions observed values; and i and n are the indexes of the
to pollutant concentrations (PM10, SO2, and NOx) at elements and the number of samples, respectively.
receptor n (S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, and S8) from source area i The value of the IOA always ranges from 0.0 to 1.0 (a
(Pingshan, Mingshan, Xihu, and Nanfen) were charac- value of 1.0 represents perfect agreement between the pre-
terized as Sa(i, n). Using the type-based method, the dicted and observed values, whereas a value of 0.0 is the
contributions to pollutant concentrations at receptor n theoretical minimum for an inaccurate prediction), and it
from source j (the Bengang Group, large point sources, reflects the degree to which the simulated values are accu-
small point sources, and area sources) were character- rate, as assessed using the observations. Moreover, the
ized as Sb(j, n). The contribution rate of each source simulated results are credible to some degree when the
category at receptor n can be calculated as IOA is above 0.5 (Levy et al., 2009; Willmott, 1984;
Zawar-Reza et al., 2005). The CC indicates the correlation
Sa ði; nÞ
Ca ði; nÞ ¼ P4  100% (1) and degree of consistency between the simulated values and
i¼1 Sa ði; nÞ the observed values, and it ranges from −1.0 to 1.0 (a value
Sb ðj; nÞ of 1.0 indicates a positive correlation between the predicted
Cb ðj; nÞ ¼ P4  100% (2) and observed values, whereas a value of −1 indicates a
j¼1 Sb ðj; nÞ
negative correlation). Therefore, a particular simulation
Here, Ca(i, n) represents the contributions of PM10, SO2, was counted as a success if both the IOA and the CC were
and NOx to receptor n using the district-based method, close to 1. Furthermore, the MB represents the systematic
whereas Cb(j, n) represents the contributions of PM10, error, whereas the RMSE reflects the square root of the
SO2, and NOx to receptor n using the type-based method. average squared error. The closer the values of these indexes
are to 0, the better the match of the simulated values to the
data is.
Results and analysis
Verification of meteorological fields and
The verification of meteorological fields
concentration simulations
Figure 6 shows wind roses constructed from hourly
To verify the reliability of the case-specific simulations,
simulated and observed data during various periods
we used statistical indexes to evaluate the performance
(January, April, July, and October; Jan, Apr, Jul, and
of the combined model by comparing the simulated
Oct hereafter) in the CALMET model at the locations
results, including both the meteorological fields
of S1 (Figure 6a) and S2 (Figure 6b) (see Figure 1). It
(CALMET) and the concentration fields (CALPUFF),
can be seen that the wind speeds and directions gen-
with the observed values. The indexes included the
erally agreed well with the observations. To further
index of agreement (IOA), the Pearson correlation
evaluate the credibility of the meteorological simula-
coefficient (CC), the mean bias (MB), and the root
tions, the four statistical indexes (IOA, CC, RMSE, and
mean square error (RMSE). The formulas describing
MB) were used to compare the hourly simulated values
the above indexes are given below (Cai and Xie, 2010;
(wind speed and temperature) with the observed values
Gupta and Mohan, 2013).
at sites S1 and S2 during four different periods (Jan,
Pn
ðSi  Oi Þ2 Apr, Jul, and Oct), as shown in Table 2. For the sites S1
IOA ¼ 1  Pn  i¼1   (3) and S2, the averaged IOA values were 0.82 and 0.89
jS i   j þ Oi  O 2
O
i¼1 (0.76–0.89 and 0.85–0.91) for wind speed and 0.96 and
Pn 0.95 (0.95–0.98 and 0.94–0.96) for temperature. The
 
i¼1 ðSi  SÞðOi  OÞ
CC ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Pn P ffi (4) averaged values of the RMSE, the MB, and the CC
ð S i  SÞ2 n ðOi  O  Þ2 were 1.22 m/sec, 2.04 m/sec, and 0.82 for wind speed
i¼1 i¼1

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi and 2.95 °C, −0.59 °C, and 0.95 for temperature at site
1X n S1. The corresponding values at site S2 were 1.27 m/sec,
RMSE ¼ ðSi  Oi Þ2 (5) 1.92 m/sec, and 0.82 for wind speed and 1.89 °C, 0.45 °
n i¼1
C, and 0.98 for temperature. The IOA values for wind
1X n speed and temperature were relatively high, indicating a
MB ¼ ðSi  Oi Þ (6) high degree of consistency and correlation between the
n i¼1
simulated and observed values. Meanwhile, the simu-
Si and Oi represent the simulated and observed values; lated wind speeds were probably overestimated because
S and O are the mean values of the simulated and of the positive average MB values for wind speed
356 H. WU ET AL.

Figure 6. Wind roses constructed from simulated (left) and observed (right) data from meteorological simulations in CALMET at sites
S1 (a) and S2 (b). S1 represents the meteorological fields far away from the central urban area, whereas S2 represents the
meteorological fields in the adjacent areas of Xihu, Pingshan, and Mingshan.

Table 2. Statistical verification of CALMET simulations at meteorological monitoring sites S1 and S2.
S1 S2
Period Parameter RMSE MB CC IOA RMSE MB CC IOA
Jan Wind speed 1.23 2.13 0.87 0.76 1.56 2.65 0.73 0.91
Temperature 1.58 −0.08 0.93 0.96 1.83 −1.23 0.97 0.95
Apr Wind speed 1.45 1.45 0.79 0.87 0.87 1.65 0.87 0.89
Temperature 2.43 −1.19 0.98 0.95 1.56 1.13 0.98 0.96
Jul Wind speed 0.98 2.12 0.86 0.76 1.23 2.18 0.9 0.89
Temperature 2.14 −1.15 0.96 0.95 2.81 0.94 0.97 0.94
Oct Wind speed 1.23 2.45 0.76 0.89 1.41 1.21 0.78 0.85
Temperature 3.24 0.07 0.94 0.98 1.37 0.94 0.98 0.94
Average Wind speed 1.22 2.04 0.82 0.82 1.27 1.92 0.82 0.89
Temperature 2.35 −0.59 0.95 0.96 1.89 0.45 0.98 0.95
Note. MB: °C for temperature, m/sec for wind speed; RMSE: °C for temperature, m/sec for wind speed.

(2.04 m/sec at S1 and 1.92 m/sec at S2). The low RMSE
values obtained during various periods for wind speed
and temperature also showed the reliability of the
meteorological simulations produced by CALMET.
Based on these results, the simulated data showed con-
siderable agreement with the observed data, which pro-
vided a strong foundation for predicting the dispersion
and concentration distributions of PM10, SO2, and NOx
in CALPUFF.
The verification of the concentration fields
During the simulation period, we selected the days during
which the air pollution was relatively serious by looking to
see whether the AQI value exceeded 50. Figure 7
 JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 357

Figure 7. Comparison of daily average values with observed values for PM10, SO2, and NOx at six stations (S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, and S8)
during the four selected periods, specifically Jan (13–16), Apr (12–18), Jul (14–20), and Oct (12–18).

demonstrates the close relationship between the observed values during various periods. One major reason might
values and the simulated values at six ambient monitoring be due to the overestimated wind speed (Gao et al., 2015;
stations during selected periods. It is easy to see that the Tasić et al., 2013), as shown in Figure 6. Another major
simulated values are generally lower than the observed reason can also account for this phenomenon: the emission
358 H. WU ET AL.

Table 3. Statistical verification of CALPUFF simulations at the air quality monitoring stations (S3, S4, and S6).
PM10 SO2 NOx
Station/Period IOA CC RMSE MB IOA CC RMSE MB IOA CC RMSE MB
Stationsa
S3 0.732 0.673 0.008 −0.016 0.843 0.680 0.095 −0.004 0.691 0.567 0.034 −0.012
S4 0.623 0.578 0.011 −0.032 0.745 0.734 0.023 −0.013 0.634 0.689 0.023 −0.013
S6 0.564 0.4 0.023 −0.021 0.652 0.598 0.045 −0.023 0.543 0.545 0.012 −0.023
Periodsb
Jan (13–16) 0.678 0.786 0.035 −0.032 0.645 0.563 0.038 −0.021 0.754 0.534 0.043 −0.037
Apr (12–18) 0.435 0.567 0.027 −0.023 0.563 0.467 0.021 −0.018 0.456 0.432 0.028 −0.023
Jul (14–20) 0.578 0.678 0.014 −0.012 0.786 0.675 0.011 −0.008 0.864 0.679 0.032 −0.012
Oct (12–18) 0.554 0.598 0.021 −0.014 0.782 0.598 0.009 −0.024 0.398 0.337 0.016 −0.023
Average 0.561 0.657 0.024 −0.020 0.694 0.576 0.020 −0.018 0.618 0.496 0.03 −0.024
Note. aStation values are based on hourly concentrations during the selected periods (Jan (13–16), Apr (12–18), Jul (14–20), and Oct (12–18)).
b
Period values are based on the average concentrations at the three stations (S3, S4, and S6); RMSE (mg/m3), MB (mg/m3).

sources in the surrounding area, together with biogenic
and natural emissions, were not considered because of
the difficulty of making quantitative predictions of concen-
trations in the strict sense caused by uncertain and variable
emissions, such as the temporary construction activity in
vicinity of the receptors (Kesarkar et al., 2007).
The statistical analyses for each pollutant were calcu-
lated between the CALPUFF simulations and observations,
based on hourly average concentrations at selected times
during typical months at three key stations (S3, S4, and S6,
which are shown in Figure 1, represent the air quality in
Xihu, Pingshan, and Mingshan, respectively; the air pollu-
tion in these districts was relatively serious and a source of
public concern). Table 3 summarizes the values of the IOA,
the CC, the RMSE, and the MB for each pollutant during
various selected periods. The values of the IOA and the CC
were generally high at the three stations for each pollutant,
with the exception of S6 (where the average IOA value was
0.564 for PM10, and the average CC values were 0.4, 0.598,
and 0.545 for PM10, SO2, and NOx). In particular, the
simulated values from S3 showed better agreement with
the observed data than those at the other two stations (S4
and S6), with average IOA values (0.732, 0.843, and 0.691
for PM10, SO2, and NOx) and CC values (0.673, 0.68, and
0.567 for PM10, SO2, and NOx). The IOA values were
nearly 0.5, meaning that the simulated results were gener-
ally credible compared with the observed values, although
the simulated data were not perfect. The average RMSE
values ranged from 0.008 to 0.023 mg/m3 for PM10, 0.023
to 0.095 mg/m3 for SO2, and 0.012 to 0.034 mg/m3 for NOx
during the various periods. Furthermore, the average MB
values for PM10 (−0.016, −0.032, and −0.021 mg/m3 for S3,
S4, and S6), SO2 (−0.004, −0.013, and −0.023 mg/m3 for S3,
S4, and S6), and NOx (−0.012, −0.013, and −0.023 mg/m3
for S3, S4, and S6) reflected underestimates of the actual air
pollution at the three key stations. In addition, the IOA
values during the four periods ranged from 0.435 to 0.678
for PM10, 0.563 to 0.786 for SO2, and 0.398 to 0.864 for
NOx, and the CC values ranged from 0.567 to 0.786 for
PM10, 0.467 to 0.675 for SO2, and 0.337 to 0.679 for NOx.
In general, the results show that the concentration field for
each pollutant simulated in this study shows good agree-
ment with the actual air pollution situation.
Concentration distributions of air pollutants
Figure 8 shows the distributions of concentrations
and the meteorological fields for each pollutant
during the different periods. Considering the aver-
age of all of the time periods, PM10 had higher
average concentrations than SO2 and NOx, as well
as a larger radius of impact, mainly owing to the
greater total amount of emissions. High concentra-
tions of each pollutant tended to appear in the
urban centers, compared with those occurring in
the surrounding area. In particular, the concentra-
tions in the southeastern part of the urban area of
Benxi, i.e., most of the district of Nanfen, were very
low. The air pollutants, especially PM10, mainly
transformed from the source regions towards the
northeast and southeast, and the corresponding
concentrations gradually decreased with increasing
distance from the center.
Owing to the variations in meteorological conditions
between the different seasons, the seasonal pattern for
each pollutant was different. During Jan (13–16), the
pollutants were mainly affected by winds from the
northwest and southwest, and the concentrations in
the southeast and northeast were relatively low. The
maximum 24-hr average concentrations for PM10,
SO2, and NOx were 0.21, 0.18, and 0.16 mg/m3. These
elevated concentrations all occurred in the central area
of the urban area of Benxi and exceeded the national
24-hr averaged values of 0.15, 0.15, and 0.1 mg/m3,
respectively, by considerable margins. This result indi-
cated that the air quality was substantially influenced by
the wind direction, wind speed, and topography
(Chuang et al., 2011; Gopalaswami et al., 2015;
Tartakovsky et al., 2016). During Apr (12–18), the
degree of air pollution was limited compared with the

Figure 8. Spatial distributions of the simulated concentration fields for PM10, SO2, and NOx and meteorological fields during Jan (13–
16), Apr (12–18), Jul (14–20), and Oct (12–18).
pollution that occurred during Jan (13–16), and the
highest concentrations occurred west of the urban
area of Benxi because the dominant wind direction
was from the northeast. The high concentrations for
each pollutant were distributed in Pingshan and parts
of the areas of Xihu and Mingshan, and the 24-hr
average concentrations for each pollutant in the eastern
part of the urban area of Benxi were generally below
0.01 mg/m3. During Jul (14–20), the air pollutants were
mainly influenced by the prevailing wind directions
from the south and southwest, and the scopes of the
air pollution were very limited. The high PM10
JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 359
concentrations were concentrated in the central urban
area, and the SO2 and NOx mainly occurred to the
central urban area and south. Noticeably, the 24-hr
average concentrations of SO2 and NOx during Jul
(14–20) in the east were also almost as low as
0.01 mg/m3. Previous studies have shown that summer
is associated with the highest mixing height, which is
conducive to pollutant diffusion (Lokeshwari et al.,
2014; Protonotariou et al., 2005). During Oct (14–20),
the radius of the air pollution was slightly smaller than
that during Jan (13–16), and the air pollutants spread to
the east and southeast. High concentrations of PM10
360 H. WU ET AL.
Figure 9. Contributions of PM10, SO2, and NOx to all monitoring stations from different source categories using the district-based
method and the type-based method (PM10 (a), SO2 (a), and NOx (a) belong to the district-based method, and PM10 (b), SO2 (b), and
NOx (b) belong to the type-based method), averaged over the four periods.
tended to appear in Pingshan and Nanfen, whereas
high concentrations of SO2 and NOx tended to emerge
in Mingshan and part of the area of Nanfen.
Analysis of source contributions
To determine the differences in the degrees to which
various sources in a particular area of concern have
negative impacts on air quality and to identify the
major types of sources that directly affect air quality,
the pollution sources were classified using the district-
based method and the type-based method (see
Figure 5). Moreover, we simulated the source contribu-
tions of each source category at six air monitoring
stations under the same emission and meteorological
conditions. Figure 9 shows the contributions of each
source category to the six monitoring sites using the
district-based method and the type-based method on
average for all four simulation periods.
Using the district-based method, Figure 9 shows the
contributions, averaged over the four periods, from the
four districts (Xihu, Pingshan, Mingshan, and Nanfen)
to the six sites (S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, and S8). Obviously, the
PM10 concentrations at S3 and S8 mainly came from
Xihu, Pingshan, and Mingshan, whereas the SO2 and
NOx concentrations mostly came from Mingshan.
Additionally, the concentrations of PM10, SO2, and
NOx at S4 and S5 largely came from Pingshan, the
PM10 concentrations at S6 and S7 came from Pingshan
and Xihu, and the SO2 and NOx concentrations were
mainly derived from Pingshan and Mingshan.
Furthermore, the average contributions of the four dis-
tricts (Xihu, Pingshan, Mingshan, and Nanfen) to all of
the sites were 18.38%, 66.44%, 12.08%, and 3.11% for
PM10; 14.73%, 47.45%, 26.73%, and 11.1% for SO2; and
15.56%, 40.2%, 29.48%, and 14.75% for NOx. Obviously,
these results show that Pingshan had a considerable
influence on the air quality represented by the monitor-
ing sites. This influence reflected the excessive emissions
from the Bengang Group, as well as an unreasonable
layout of industries and adverse topographic conditions
that resulted in the high contribution levels. In addition,
for SO2 and NOx, the concentrations from Mingshan
were relatively high in contrast to that of PM10, owing to
the sites (S3, S7, and S8) that were located in Mingshan
and the presence of several iron-producing facilities and
large power plants.
Using the type-based method, the contributions
from various source categories to the pollutant concen-
trations at the sites were significantly different. For
PM10, the contributions from the Bengang Group and
the large point sources at all sites were apparently

higher, whereas the contributions from the small point
sources and the area sources were very limited. For
instance, the concentration contributions from the
Bengang Group reached 56.72% and 41.57% at sites
S4 and S6, whereas the contributions from the large
point sources reached 61.1% and 60.84% at sites S3 and
S8, respectively. For SO2 and NOx, the concentration
contributions from the area sources at all sites
increased remarkably compared with those of PM10
and were as high as the total contributions from the
large point sources and the small point sources. For
example, the contributions from the area sources at S5,
S7, and S8 were 49.02%, 49.76%, and 44.53% for SO2
and 45.03%, 39.12%, and 35.23% for NOx, respectively.
Consequently, the area sources, which mainly consisted
of vehicle sources and domestic sources that accounted
for smaller amounts of emissions (see Figure 5), still
had considerable impacts on air quality, owing to the
low emission heights and the lack of effective control
measures. The average contributions from the Bengang
Group, the large point sources, the small point sources,
and the area sources to all sites were 41.52%, 32.79%,
9.71%, and 15.98% for PM10; 21.56%, 28.22%, 12.08%,
and 38.15% for SO2; and 21.24%, 28.5%, 21.74%, and
28.53% for NOx.
Moreover, we also considered the differences in
source contributions during various periods that repre-
sented various typical seasons. Table 4 shows the aver-
age contributions of PM10, SO2, and NOx during each
period using the district-based method and the type-
based method. In the case of the district-based method,
the average PM10 contribution from Pingshan to all
sites reached its peak (82.65%) during Jul (14–20); on
the other hand, the minimum (40%) was achieved
during Apr (12–18). Meanwhile, the average contribu-
tions from Xihu and Mingshan synchronously reached
their maxima of 28.53% and 26.93% during Apr (12–
18). The average contribution from Nanfen was always
low, and its maximum contribution was only 4.55%,
which occurred during Apr (12–18). For SO2, the max-
imum contributions from the four districts (Xihu,
Pingshan, Mingshan, and Nanfen) appeared during
Oct (12–18) (20.62%), Apr (12–18) (51.35%), Jul (14–
20) (32.47%), and Oct (12–18) (20.62%), respectively.
In addition, the maximum NOx contributions from the
four districts emerged during Oct (12–18) (29.24%),
Jan (13–16) (46.47%), Jul (14–20) (35.02%), and Oct
(12–18) (28.24%), respectively. Notably, although the
contributions from each district varied with time, the
contribution of Pingshan to each pollutant was the
largest during each of the four different periods.
Using the type-based method, the average contribu-
tions of PM10 from the Bengang Group, the large
JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 361
point sources, the small point sources, and the area
sources during the various periods ranged from
26.73% to 63.19%, 21.87% to 44.03%, 2.14% to
28.48%, and 9.14% to 26.82%; the SO2 average contri-
butions ranged from 19.57% to 24%, 24.52% to 32.74%,
6.02% to 18.57%, and 33.87% to 43.59%; and the NOx
average contributions ranged from 19.18% to 23.89%,
18.70% to 37.56%, 8.18% to 31.37%, and 21.85% to
31.1%. Overall, the Bengang Group and the large
point sources were always major sources of PM10 pol-
lution, whereas all the source types, especially the large
point sources and the area sources, had considerable
impacts on the SO2 and NOx concentrations during
various periods.
Corresponding control measures
Identification of key areas for air pollution control
It is of great significance to identify the key areas for air
pollution control in air quality management. In the
management structure used in environmental protec-
tion in China, which has three levels (provinces, pre-
fecture-level cities, and districts or counties), districts
and counties, which are responsible for local ecological
and environmental protection, become the basic plat-
forms or units for the specific implementation of envir-
onmental protection measures. Consequently, to
identify the key areas for air pollution control on the
district or county scale in China would be very instruc-
tional and effective.
Using the technical framework adopted in our
study, it was not difficult to identify the key areas
for air pollution control. Table 5 shows the emission
contributions and source contributions from each dis-
trict. The pollutant emissions mainly came from
Pingshan and Xihu, which contributed more than
70% of each pollutant when taken together (85.38%
for PM10, 75.82% for SO2, and 72.63% for NOx). The
source contributions indicated that Xihu and Pingshan
had considerable impacts on the PM10 concentrations
(18.38% and 66.44%), whereas Mingshan and
Pingshan (26.73% and 47.45% for SO2 and 29.48%
and 40.2% for NOx) had considerable impacts on the
concentrations of SO2 and NOx. Hence, given the
emission contributions and source contributions
from each district, Pingshan could be identified as a
key area for air pollution control, where strict cuts in
the emissions of pollutants (PM10, SO2, and NOx)
might be considered. In addition, the emissions for
each pollutant from Xihu were slightly lower than
those from Pingshan, as was the PM10 concentration
contribution from Xihu (18.38%). Consequently, emis-
sion controls on particulate matter in Xihu should be
 362
H. WU ET AL.

Table 4. Averaged contributions of PM10, SO2, and NOx during each period using the district-based method and the type-based method.
District-based method (%) Type-based method (%)
Pollutant Period Xihu Pingshan Mingshan Nanfen Bengang Group Large point sources Small point sources Area sources
PM10 Jan (13–16) 14.13 76.69 6.89 2.29 32.79 24.56 28.48 14.17
Apr (12–18) 28.53 40 26.93 4.55 63.19 21.87 5.80 9.14
Jul (14–20) 5.11 82.65 9.08 3.17 26.73 44.03 2.42 26.82
Oct (12–18) 25.74 66.43 5.41 2.42 43.36 40.70 2.14 13.80
Average 18.38 66.44 12.08 3.11 41.52 32.79 9.71 15.98
SO2 Jan (13–16) 18.56 49.88 26.75 4.80 24 29.83 6.02 40.15
Apr (12–18) 3.86 51.35 29.97 14.83 21.98 32.74 11.41 33.87
Jul (14–20) 15.86 47.53 32.47 4.13 19.57 24.52 12.31 43.59
Oct (12–18) 20.62 41.03 17.73 20.62 20.67 25.78 18.57 34.99
Average 14.73 47.45 26.73 11.1 21.56 28.22 12.08 38.15
NOx Jan (13–16) 13.29 46.47 33.57 6.67 23.89 37.56 8.18 30.37
Apr (12–18) 4.40 42.92 34.01 19.67 19.18 30.88 18.84 31.1
Jul (14–20) 15.32 45.22 35.02 4.43 21.96 18.70 28.56 30.79
Oct (12–18) 29.24 26.20 15.31 28.24 19.92 26.86 31.37 21.85
Average 15.56 40.2 29.48 14.75 21.24 28.5 21.74 28.53
Note. The values in this table are based on the average contributions from all monitoring sites during each period.
 JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 363

Table 5. The emission contributions and source contributions from each district of the urban area of Benxi.
Emission contributions (%) Source contributions (%)
Pollutant Xihu Pingshan Mingshan Nanfen Xihu Pingshan Mingshan Nanfen
PM10 30.76 54.62 8.72 5.9 18.38 66.44 12.08 3.11
SO2 28.93 46.89 12.49 11.69 14.73 47.45 26.73 11.1
NOx 26.79 45.84 13.48 13.9 15.56 40.2 29.48 14.75
Note. The source contributions are based on the average contributions of each district to all of the monitoring stations during the various simulation periods
(for definitions of the periods, refer to Table 4).

another important aspect of the air quality manage- total energy consumption of the steel industry
ment system of the urban area of Benxi. Furthermore, accounted for 79.71% of the total energy consumed by
although the SO2 and NOx emissions in Mingshan industrial activities in the urban area of Benxi. In addi-
were limited, the concentration contributions from tion, for the Bengang Group, the energy consumption
Mingshan were relatively high, and they were only per unit output value was 1.72 tce/104￥, which was
slightly lower than those of Pingshan. Without a also much higher than the domestic advanced level of
doubt, the total emissions of SO2 and NOx from 0.96 tce/104￥ (SHEITC, 2011). Consequently, the
Mingshan should be controlled. Bengang Group is clearly a key control object.
Optimizing the energy structure (increasing the pro-
portion of clean energy and reducing the dependence
The key industries and enterprises for air pollution on traditional energy sources, such as coal and other
control fossil fuels), increasing the use of advanced production
Table 6 shows the emission contributions and source technologies (eliminating outdated technology and
contributions from each source category (the type- equipment), and the promotion of dust removal and
based method). As one of the largest iron and steel the purification efficiency of pollutants would be very
enterprises in China, the Bengang Group was the lar- effective in cutting down the emissions of pollutants
gest point source in the urban area of Benxi, and it from the Bengang Group.
contributed 50%, 47%, and 43% of the emissions of The emission contributions for each pollutant from the
PM10, SO2, and NOx, respectively. The source appor- large point sources all accounted for more than 24%, and
tionment showed that the Bengang Group had a con- the concentration contributions exceeded 28%, averaged
siderable impact on urban air quality, which could be over all of the periods (see Table 6). In addition, industrial
explained in terms of the source contribution of each activities related to iron-making, energy production, the
pollutant (41.52% for PM10, 21.56% for SO2, and smelting and processing of steel, mining, and the produc-
21.24% for NOx). In this study, energy and environ- tion and distribution of heat energy accounted for most of
mental efficiency is also an important indicator to the emissions from the large point sources, as well as the
identify the key industries or enterprises. The compre- total energy consumption from all urban industries (see
hensive energy consumption per ton of steel reached Table 1). Furthermore, these industries consumed very
0.72 tce/t (ton of standard coal equivalent per ton of large amounts of energy per unit output value, and they
output) in 2012. This value is still considerably higher displayed high concentration contributions to air quality
when compared with the advanced energy consump- among the large point sources. In light of their emission
tion level, which is less than 0.6 tce/t (Shanghai contributions and source contributions to air quality, the
Municipal Commission of Economy and large point sources might also be subjected to emissions
Informatization [SHEITC], 2011) in China, and the cuts, and the importance of this measure was only slightly
smaller than that of the Bengang Group. This finding is
Table 6. The emission contributions and source contributions especially true of industrial activities related to iron-mak-
from each source category. ing, energy production, the smelting and processing of
Emission contributions (%) Source contributions (%) steel, mining, and the production and distribution of heat
Pollutant Be La Sm Ar Be La Sm Ar energy, etc., that had high comprehensive energy con-
PM10 49.98 31.33 7.16 11.53 41.52 32.79 9.71 15.98 sumptions and are thought to be key industries for saving
SO2 46.65 24.58 22.47 6.30 21.56 28.22 12.08 38.15
NOx 43.09 38.59 9.88 8.44 21.24 28.5 21.74 28.53 energy and reducing emissions.
Note. The source contributions are based on the averaged contribution from each Although the emission contributions from the area
source category to all of the monitoring stations during the various simulation sources (12% for PM10, 6% for SO2, and 8% for NOx)
periods (These periods refer to Jan (13–16), Apr (12–18), Jul (14–20), and Oct
(12–18) in Table 4), and Be, La, Sm, and Ar represent the Bengang Group, the were relatively low, their impacts on air quality were
large point sources, the small point sources, and the area sources, respectively. significant. The concentration contributions averaged
364 H. WU ET AL.
over the four periods were 38.15% and 28.53% for SO2
and NOx, respectively, which were higher than those of
the other source types (see Table 6). The area sources
mainly included domestic sources, vehicle sources, and
other unorganized sources, which were easy to consider
as a group because of their low emission heights and
because they are concentrated in the central part of the
urban area of Benxi. Hence, the impact of the area
sources on urban air quality should be carefully con-
sidered. Implementing vehicle emission standards,
accelerating the elimination of old vehicles, improving
residential energy efficiency, and promoting the use of
central heating will greatly reduce pollutant emissions,
especially the emissions of SO2 and NOx; thus, the
urban air quality will be improved considerably. In
addition, the area sources were mainly distributed
within urban centers, so the districts of Xihu,
Pingshan, and Mingshan were expected to cooperate
to take up the responsibility for the air quality
improvement.
As for the small point sources, their impact on air
quality was relatively limited in terms of their emission
contributions and source contributions, but their aver-
age NOx contributions to the sites reached 21.74%,
which should draw considerable attention.
Discussion
Remarkably, many approaches have always been useful
for air quality management and improvement (Behera
et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2012; Titov et al., 2007). The
source apportionment of pollutants has been one of the
most widely applied approaches used in studies of air
quality management. Lee et al. (2014) evaluated the
concentrations and source contributions from PM10
and SO2 emitted from industrial complexes to prioritize
emission control and mitigation efforts for air quality
improvement on small scales. Huang et al. (2012) stu-
died the contributions from various sources in Beijing
and systematically identified the local PM10 emission
sources that were of high priority for regulation in
urban air quality management. All of these studies on
emission source apportionment discussed the impacts
of various sources on air quality and quantified the
source contributions for different source categories. It
can be seen that the quantitative simulation and analy-
sis of air pollution, especially the quantitative analysis
of pollutant source apportionment, are of great signifi-
cance and have been widely applied in the world.
Overall, this approach of using source apportionment
based on models can provide better visually represented
and quantitative data support for developing effective
air quality management policies at different geographic
scales. Based on this approach, this paper built a gen-
eral technical framework for air quality management
systems (see Figure 2). This framework is simple and
easily understood, and it could be widely applied in
studies of air quality management systems. It could be
especially useful in many cities, such as Benxi in China.
The technology and knowledge involved in this frame-
work are quite mature, and they have been widely used
in practice; hence, their use will reduce the costs to
policy makers in China.
Based on this case study, some key factors should be
considered for more effective implementation of this
framework. First, this study showed that refinement of
the emission inventory was important for improving
the accuracy of the numerical simulation of air quality.
Therefore, using a high spatial resolution could provide
more accurate source contributions to pollutant con-
centrations (Pérezlanda et al., 2007; Tan et al., 2014).
Hence, our modeling resolution was 1 km × 1 km,
providing better performance in air quality simulations
and an improved basis for calculating source contribu-
tions. In addition, it is crucial to establish a source
classification system that meets the effective control
requirements of the local atmospheric environment.
The classification system should be based on the cur-
rent situation, including air pollution, the characteris-
tics of the industrial structure, the patterns and
structure of energy consumption, and pollutant
emissions.
Conclusion and limitations
In this study, the integrated model WRF/CALPUFF
was utilized to develop a framework for improving
the air quality management system in China. This
framework consisted of a source emission inventory,
an air quality modeling system, an evaluation approach
for the analysis of source contributions, and the corre-
sponding control measures at different levels, including
districts, industries, and enterprises. In this case study,
which treats the urban area of Benxi, a gridded emis-
sion inventory of 1 km × 1 km was first established, and
the combined model WRF/CALPUFF was then used to
simulate the temporal and spatial characteristics of the
pollutant concentration distribution (PM10, SO2, and
NOx) and the source contributions from various pollu-
tion sources that affect air quality. The observed con-
centrations were compared with the simulated values
obtained from CALPUFF. The results showed that the
model estimated the concentration distribution of pol-
lutants within the region reasonably well, and it was
useful for obtaining a better understanding of the spa-
tial concentration distribution than could be obtained

from the available ambient monitoring sites. Therefore,
it could be concluded that the simulation results were
acceptable and credible for predicting the concentra-
tions in various scenarios and providing support for
policy makers to implement effective environmental
measures. Furthermore, we evaluated the source con-
tributions from various pollution sources (using the
district-based method and the type-based method, as
seen in Figure 5) to determine what types of sources
existed in the study area and to what extent these
sources led to air pollution in the study area.
The results from the case study indicated that the
spatial-temporal variations in local concentrations dur-
ing different periods revealed that the concentration dis-
tributions of the air pollutants were closely associated
with meteorological conditions, such as weed direction,
wind speed, and temperature. In addition, the fluctua-
tions in concentration distributions during the various
periods showed that high concentration levels were fre-
quently achieved in wintertime and in urban centers.
Obviously, the regions of elevated concentrations were
very close to the locations of the various sources, but not
absolutely. Comparison of the concentration distribu-
tions of PM10, SO2, and NOx also indicated that PM10
was the primary pollutant during all of the periods.
Given the emission contributions and source contribu-
tions identified using the district-based method and the
type-based method, on the whole, the districts of Xihu,
Pinshan, and Mingshan were the key source regions,
which all held the primary responsibility for their con-
tributions to urban air quality during various periods,
and the Bengang Group, the large point sources, and the
area sources were key pollution source types that played
significant roles in determining the air quality of this
urban area, owing to their high contributions during
various periods. In particular, for the area sources, the
vehicle sources, and the domestic sources should not be
ignored, because their source contributions of SO2 and
NOx to reductions in air quality in the urban center were
relatively high. Through the case study of Benxi City, it
can be concluded that the technical framework devel-
oped in this study, particularly the source apportion-
ment, could provide important data and technical
support for assessing air pollution on the scale of indivi-
dual cities, which would be helpful in improving the
pertinence and effectiveness of city-scale air pollution
controls. Therefore, the technical framework is crucial
for environmental managers to implement emission con-
trols and relevant measures to improve local air quality,
and it could also be generalized and applied to other
cities in China.
This study still has some limitations. In addition to
the unavoidable errors involved in determining the
JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION 365
emission factors, the poorly defined background con-
centrations caused by transformed pollutants trans-
ported over large distances from various sources
outside of the study area were not taken into account.
This simplification might lead to underestimation of
the pollutant concentrations. Furthermore, the brute-
force method applied in CALPUFF unavoidably ignores
the chemical interactions among pollutants (PM10, SO2,
and NOx) as well as biological sources, accordingly
resulting in some errors in the estimated concentration
levels. In future work, the hybrid model CAMx with
Ozone and Particulate Source Apportionment
Technology (OSAT/PSAT) could be introduced to
further improve the simulation of source contributions
in this framework.
About the authors
Hao Wu is a master graduate student of the Department of
Environmental Science and Engineering at Fudan University,
China. His research is mainly engaged in numerical simula-
tion of atmospheric pollution in Environmental Science.
Yan Zhang is an associate professor of the Department of
Environmental Science and Engineering at Fudan University,
China. Her research interests include numerical simulation of
meteorology and air quality, air pollution in water and land
traffic, long distance transport of aerosol.
Qi Yu is an associate professor of the Department of
Environmental Science and Engineering at Fudan
University, China. Her research is mainly engaged in the
simulation and prediction of the migration and transforma-
tion of atmospheric environmental pollutants.
Weichun Ma is a professor of the Department of
Environmental Science and Engineering at Fudan
University, China. His research interests include environ-
mental mathematical model, geographic information system,
environmental planning and evaluation.
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