 Automata theory:
the study of abstract computing devices,
or ”machines”
automaton is an abstract self-propelled
computing device which
follows a predetermined sequence of
operations automatically.
Automaton is based on the
mathematical concept of computation
which includes symbols, alphabets and
strings.
 Central Concepts of Automata
Theory
Alphabet
A finite, nonempty set of symbols.
Symbol: Σ
Examples:
The binary alphabet: Σ = {0, 1}
The set of all lower-case letters: Σ = {a,
b, . . . , z}
The set of all ASCII characters
Combination of binary as well as
alphabets Σ = {0,1,a, b, . . . , z}
 String
is a finite sequence of symbols chosen
from some alphabet
Example:
01101 and 111 are strings from the binary
alphabet Σ = {0, 1}
 Length of a string
the number of positions for symbols
present in the string
Notation of length of the string w: |w|
 Empty string
The string with zero occurrences of
strings.
Denoted by epsilon є or λ.
If String empty | є |=0
Powers of an alphabet
If Σ is an alphabet, we can express the
set of all strings of a certain length from
that alphabet by using the exponential
notation:
Σ k: the set of strings of length k, each of
whose is in Σ
Empty string
The string with zero occurrences of
strings.
Denoted by epsilon є or λ.
If String empty | є |=0
Powers of an alphabet
If Σ is an alphabet, we can express the
set of all strings of a certain length from
that alphabet by using the exponential
notation:
Σ k: the set of strings of length k, each of
whose is in Σ
Representation −
∑* = ∑0 ∪ ∑1 ∪ ∑2 ∪……. where ∑p is
the set of all possible strings of length p.
Example − If ∑ = {a, b}, ∑* = {λ, a, b, aa,
ab, ba, bb,………..}
Positive closure
Definition − The set ∑+ is the infinite set
of all possible strings of all possible
lengths over ∑ excluding λ.
Representation −
∑+ = ∑1 ∪ ∑2 ∪ ∑3 ∪…….
∑+ = ∑* − { λ }
Example − If ∑ = { a, b } , ∑+ = { a, b, aa, • R + ∅ = ∅ + R = R (The identity for
ab, ba, bb,………..}
Concatenation of strings
Let w1 and w2 be two strings then
w1w2 denotes their concatenation w.
The concatenation is formed by making • R + R = R (Idempotent law) • L (M +
a copy of w1 and followed by a copy of N) = LM + LN (Left distributive law)
w2.
For example w1 = xyz, w2 = uvw
then w = w1w2 = xyzuvw
Reversal :
Writing symbols in the reverse order.
Sub string
String of consecutive characters from
the given string.
Palindrome
String that can be read the same way in Step 1: For each state(Qi), calculate the
both forward and backward direction. number of different outputs that are
Prefix and suffix
A prefix of a string is any number of
leading symbols of that string, and suffix states as Qin, if it has n distinct outputs
is any number of trailing symbols.
20. Explain Arden’s Theorem
In order to find out a regular expression
of a Finite Automaton, we use Arden’s
Theorem along with the properties of
regular expressions.
Statement −
Let P and Q b e two regular
expressions.If P does not contain null
string
ε, then R = Q + RP has a unique
solution that is R = QP*
Proof −
R = Q + (Q + RP)P [After putting the
value R = Q + RP]
= Q + QP + RPP
When we put the value of R r ecursively
again and again, we get the following
equation −
R = Q + QP + (Q+RP)PP
R = Q + QP +QP2+ QP3…..
R = Q (ε + P + P2 + P3 + …. )
R = QP* [As P* represents (ε + P + P2 +
P3 + ….) ]
Hence, proved.
19. Write a short note on Identity
properties of Regular Expressions
Identities Related to Regular
Expressions
Given R, P, L, Q as regular expressions,
the following identities hold –
• ∅* = ε
• ε* = ε
• RR* = R*R
• R*R* = R*
• (R*)* = R*
• (PQ)*P =P(QP)*
• (a+b)* = (a*b*)* = (a*+b*)* = (a+b*)* =
a*(ba*)*
union)
• R ε = ε R = R (The identity for
concatenation)
• ∅ L = L ∅ = ∅ (The annihilator for
concatenation)
• (M + N) L = ML + NL (Right
distributive law)
• ε + RR* = ε + R*R = R* Transition diagram for Moore machine
will be:
15. Explain the procedure for
transforming a Mealy machine to
Moore.converting the Mealy machine
to Moore machine, we will create a
separate state for
every new output symbol and according
to incoming and outgoing edges are
distributed.
The following steps are used for
converting Mealy machine to the Moore
machine:
16. Define Regular Expression?
available in the transition table of the
17. Regular Expressions are used to
Mealy machine.
denote regular languages. An expression
Step 2: Copy state Qi, if all the outputs
is regular if:
of Qi are the same. Break qi into n
defined as follows −
• ε is a Regular Expression indicates the
where n = 0, 1, 2…
language containing an empty string.
Step 3: If the output of initial state is 0,
(L (ε) = {ε})
insert a new initial state at the starting
• φ is a Regular Expression denoting an
which gives 1 output.
empty language. (L (φ) = { })
Example: Convert the following Mealy
• For every xϵ∑, x is a Regular Expression
machine into equivalent Moore
where L = {x} If r1 is a Regular
machine.
Expression denoting the language L(r1)
and r2 is a Regular
Expression denoting the language L(r2),
then
• L(r1+r2) = L(r1) ∪ L(r2). • L(r1.r2) =
L(r1) . L(r2) • L(r1*) = (L(r1))*
• L((r1))=L(r1)
The last four rules of this definition are
used to reduce L(r) to simpler
components
respectively. The first three are the
termination conditions for this
recursion.
Solution: Transition table for above
Mealy machine is as follows:
The state q1 has only one output
. The state q2 and q3 have both output
0 and 1.
So we will create two states for these
states.
For q2, two states will be q20(with
output 0) and q21(with output 1)
. Similarly, for q3 two states will be
q30(with output 0) and q31(with output
1)
.Transition table for Moore machine
will be: