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PROPERTIES OF BULK MATTER

DEFORMING FORCE :
A deforming force is one which when applied on a body tries to change the configuration ( shape and size ) of the body .

ELASTICITY :
The property of body which opposes applied deforming force and due to which on removing deforming force the body
regain its original configuration is called elasticity .

ELASTIC LIMIT :
Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming force up to which if deforming force is removed the body regains its original
form completely and beyond which if deforming force is increased the body loses its property of elasticity and gets
permanently deformed .

STRESS :
In equilibrium the internal restoring force acting per unit area of a deformed body is called stress .
Stress = F
A
It is a scalar quantity . Its S.I. unit is N/m2 or Pa .
Stress is mainly of two types
(1) Normal stress (2) Tangential stress or shearing stress
Further normal stress can be divided into three categories
(1) Tensile stress (2) Compressive stress (3) Hydraulic stress

STRAIN :
The ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration is called strain .
Strain = change in configuration
original configuration
It has no unit and no dimensions .
Strain is of three types
(1) Longitudinal strain : Longitudinal strain = change in length
original length
(2) Volume strain : volume strain = change in volume
original volume
(3) Shearing strain : shearing strain = change in shape
original shape

HOOK'S LAW :
Within elastic limit the stress developed is directly proportional to the strain produced in a body .
stress strain
stress = E × strain
E = stress
strain
E is known as modulus of elasticity of material of the body . Its S.I. unit is N/m2 and dimension is [ ML-1T-2 ] .
Modulus of elasticity is of three types .

YOUNG'S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY :

Within elastic limit the ratio of normal stress to the longitudinal strain is called Young's modulus of elasticity .
Y = normal stress
longitudinal strain
normal stress = F = mg
A πr2
longitudinal strain = l
L L
Now Young's modulus Y = F/A
l/L
Y = FL
Al l
Y = mgL
πr2 l mg
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BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY :
Within elastic limit the ratio of normal stress to the volume strain is called bulk modulus of elasticity .
B = normal stress
volume strain
normal stress F = P
A
volume strain = ΔV
V
Now bulk modulus B = F/A
ΔV/V
B = FV
AΔV
B = PV
ΔV

COMPRESSIBILITY :
The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity is called compressibility .
Compressibility c=1
B

MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OR SHEAR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY :

Within elastic limit the ratio of tangential stress to the shearing strain is called modulus of rigidity .
G = tangential stress F
shearing strain
tangential stress = F ΔL
A
shearing strain = θ
If θ is small angle then θ = ΔL θ θ
L L
Now G=F
Aθ Fixed

STRESS - STRAIN RELATIONSHIP CURVE :

The portion OA of graph is a straight line showing stress
stress is directly proportional to strain , thus Hook's D
law is fully obeyed in this region. point A is called point E
of proportionality . BP C
Beyond point A the stress strain variation is not a straight A
line now strain increases much more rapidly with stress
but wire still has elasticity upto point B therefore point B
is called elastic limit .
Adjacent to point B at point P wire completely loses its
elasticity therefore P is called yield point . The portion OP
is called elastic region .
Beyond P permanent changes starts in the length of wire O strain
and upto point C wire start thinning without increasing
further load on it . At point D the maximum stress is developed in the wire that it can tolerate without breaking , this is
known as breaking stress .
Beyond D at point E wire suddenly breaks this is known as breaking point . The portion PE is also known as plastic region .

DUCTILE MATERIALS :
Ductile materials show large plastic range beyond elastic limit . Such materials can be used in making springs and sheets .
Ex. copper , silver , gold etc.

BRITTLE MATERIALS :
Brittle materials show very small plastic range beyond elastic limit . For such materials the breaking point lies close to
the elastic limit . Ex. glass , cast iron , mud etc.
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ELASTOMERS :
For elastomers stress strain variation is not straight line within elastic limit i. e. they do not obey Hook's law . They do not
have plastic range , their breaking point lies just close to the elastic limit . Ex. rubber , tissue of arota , blood vessels etc .

ELASTIC AFTER EFFECT :

On removing deforming force some elastic bodies regain their original configuration immediately but few others take
some time to recover their original configuration . This temporary delay is called elastic after effect .

ELASTIC FATIGUE :
Elastic fatigue is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour becomes less elastic under the action of
repeated alternating deforming force .

A hollow shaft is stronger than a solid shaft :

The torque required to produce a unit twist in a solid shaft
τ = πGr4 …………………(1)
2L
Also torque required to produce unit twist in a hollow shaft
τ' = πG( r24 - r14 ) ……………….(2)
2L
Dividing eq(2) by eq(1)
τ' = ( r24 - r14 ) = ( r22 - r12 ) ( r22 + r12 )
τ r4 r4
If the two shafts are made of equal material then
πr2L = π( r22 - r12 )L
r2 = ( r22 - r12 )
Now τ' = ( r22 + r12 )
τ r2
But ( r2 + r1 ) > r2
2 2

Therefore τ' > τ

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A STRETCHED WIRE :

The work done in stretching a wire is stored in it as elastic potential energy .
Suppose l is the increase in the length of a wire on applying force F on it then ,
average internal restoring force = 0 + F = F
2 2
Now work done in stretching the wire W = average force × increase in length
W = F l = 1 Fl
2 2
This work done is stored in the wire as elastic potential energy therefore
U = 1 Fl = 1 F l ( AL )
2 2AL
If A is the area of cress - section and L is the original length then AL will represent volume of the wire , now elastic
potential energy per unit volume of wire
u=U =1Fl
AL 2AL
u = 1 stress × strain
2
But stress = Young's modulus × strain , therefore
u = Young's modulus × ( strain )2

POISSON'S RATIO :
When a deforming force is applied at the free end of a suspended wire its length increases but its radius decreases , now
two types of strains are produced by a single force ,
(1) longitudinal strain = l (2) lateral strain = - r
L R
The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called Poisson's ratio
σ = - r/R
I/L
σ = - rL
Rl
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THERMAL STRESS :
When a rod is rigidly fixed at its two ends and its temperature is changed , then a thermal stress is set up in the rod which
is given by F = Y α ∆t
A

RELATION BETWEEN Y , B , G and σ :

(1) Y = 3B ( 1 - 2σ ) (2) Y = 2G ( 1 + σ ) (3) σ = 3B - 2G (4) 9 = 1 + 3
2G + 6B Y B G

THRUST :
The total normal force exerted by liquid at rest on a given surface in contact with it is called thrust of liquid on that
surface . S.I. unit of thrust is N .

PRESSURE OF LIQUID :
The normal force or thrust exerted by a liquid at rest per unit area of the surface in contact with it is called pressure of
liquid or hydrostatic pressure .
Pressure P=F
A
Pressure is a scalar quantity . Its S.I. unit is N/m2 or Pa ( Pascal ) .

DENSITY and RELATIVE DENSITY :

The mass per unit volume of the substance is called density .
Density ρ=m
V
It is a scalar quantity , its S.I. unit is kg/m3 .
The relative density of a substance is equal to the ratio of its density to the density of water at 4°C .
Relative density = density of substance
density of water at 4°C

VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH :

The mass of liquid in imaginary cylinder
M = volume × density = Ahρ F1
The liquid cylinder is under the action of following vertical forces , C
(1) Force F1 = P1A vertically downwards at point C
(2) Force F2 = P2A vertically upwards at point D Mg
(3) Weight Mg = Ahρg of liquid cylinder vertically downwards h
As the liquid cylinder is in equilibrium of rest the net force on it must be zero
Therefore F1 + Mg - F2 = 0 D
P1A + Ahρg - P2A = 0 F2
P2 - P1 = hρg
Case (1) : If points C and D lie at the same level in liquid then h = 0
P1 = P2
The pressure is same at all points inside the liquid lying at the same depth in a horizontal plane .
Case (2) : If point C is shifted to the top of liquid surface exposed to the atmosphere then
P1 = Pa ( atmospheric pressure ) ; P2 = P
P - Pa = hρg
P = Pa + hρg
Here ( P - Pa ) is also known as gauge pressure i.e. difference of total pressure at the point inside liquid and atmospheric
pressure .

HYDROSTATIC PARADOX :
The pressure exerted by a
liquid depends only upon
the height of liquid column
and is independent of shape
of containing vessel . h h h
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PASCAL'S LAW :
If gravity effect is neglected the pressure at every point of liquid
in equilibrium of rest is the same .
or
The increase in pressure at one point of the enclosed liquid in F1
equilibrium of rest is transmitted equally to all other points of C
the liquid and also to the walls of the container provided the
effect of gravity is neglected .
If P1 and P2 are the pressures at points C and D respectively ,
then force at point C D
F1 = P1A F2
force at point D
F2 = P2A
Since the liquid is in equilibrium therefore
F1 = F2
P1A = P2A
P1 = P2

HYDRAULIC LIFT :
Hydraulic lift is based upon Pascal's law . It is used to f load
lift the heavy loads .
Suppose a is the area of smaller piston C and A is the C D
area of larger piston D , where a << A . F
Let a downward force f be applied on smaller piston
C , then the pressure exerted on the liquid
P=f
a
According to Pascal's law this pressure is transmitted
equally to piston D , now upward force acting on
larger piston D
F = PA = f A
a
F=fA
a
As a << A therefore F >> f , hence small force applied on smaller piston will appear as a very large force on the
larger piston , as a result a heavy load placed on larger piston is easily lifted upwards .

HYDRAULIC BRAKES :
The working of hydraulic brakes is based upon the Pascal's law .
Working : When the brake pedal is pressed the lever system
operates . The piston P of the master cylinder is pushed
inwards . There will be increased pressure on liquid at P which
is transmitted equally to P1 and P2 of wheel cylinder in
accordance with Pascal's law . Due to it P1 and P2 move
outwards . They force the brake shoe to move away from
each other which in turn press against the inner rim of the
wheel and hence retard the motion of the wheel i.e. the
brake becomes operative .
When the pressure on the brake pedal is released the brake
shoes return to their normal position by the action of spring
which in turn forces the brake oil to return from wheel cylinder to master cylinder .

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE :
The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth is called earth's atmosphere . It exerts a huge pressure , the value of
atmospheric pressure on the surface of earth at sea level is called one atmosphere .
In S.I. system , 1 atm = 1.013 × 105 N/m2
It is also measured in mm or cm of mercury column .
1 atm = 760 mm ( Hg ) = 76 cm ( Hg )
Its another unit is torr
1 torr = 1 mm ( Hg )
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The metreological unit of atmospheric pressure is bar
1 bar = 105 Pa

INTER MOLECULAR FORCES :

The force between the molecules of the substances are called inter molecular forces . These forces are of two types .

(1) Cohesive force : The force of attraction amongst the molecules of same substance is called cohesive force .
(2) Adhesive force : The force of attraction acting between the molecules of different substances is called adhesive force.

MOLECULAR RANGE :
The maximum distance upto which a molecule can exert some measurable attraction on other molecules is called
molecular range . The order of molecular range is 10-9 m in solids and liquids .

SPHERE OF INFLUENCE :
It is an imaginary sphere drawn with a molecule as centre and molecular range as radius .

SURFACE FILM :
It is the top most layer of liquid at rest with thickness equals to the molecular range .

SURFACE TENSION :
Surface tension is the property of the liquid by virtue of which the free
surface of liquid at rest tends to have minimum surface area and as B
such it behaves as if covered with a stretched membrane . F
Imagine a line AB of length l is drawn tangentially anywhere on the
liquid surface at rest . The force acting on this line A
F l
F=Sl
S=F
l
If l = 1 ; S = F
surface tension of a liquid is measured as the force acting on unit length of an imaginary line drawn tangentially
anywhere on the free surface of the liquid at rest , perpendicular to this line along tangent to the liquid surface .
Surface tension is neither vector nor scalar , it is a tensor quantity . Its S.I. unit is N/m .

SURFACE ENERGY :
The free surface of liquid at rest tends to contract in order to have minimum surface area due to surface tension . Thus if
the area of free surface of the liquid has to be increased some work will have to be done against the force of surface
tension . This work done appears in the liquid surface as the potential energy of increased area . This potential energy of
per unit increased area at constant temperature is called surface energy of the liquid .
Since there are two free surfaces of film and surface tension
acts on both of them , hence total inward force on wire PQ B P P' A
F = S × 2l
To increase the area of soap film we have to pull the sliding
wire PQ outwards with a force F upto a distance x . Now F l
work done in stretching the film ,
W = F x = S × 2l × x x
Here 2l × x = ∆A ( increase in area of film on both sides )
W = S × ∆A C Q Q' D
S=W
∆A
If ∆A = 1 then S = W
Hence surface tension of a liquid is equal to the work done in increasing the area of liquid surface by unity against the
force of surface tension at constant temperature .
Another unit of surface tension is J/m2 .

VARIOUS SURFACES OF LIQUID :

For the curved surface of liquid in
equilibrium , the pressure on concave
side of liquid will be greater than plane convex concave
pressure on its convex side .
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EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A LIQUID DROP :
Consider a liquid drop of radius R . Due to excess of pressure , let there be increase
in the radius of drop by a small quantity δR
Work done by excess pressure
W = F × δR R δR
But F = excess pressure × area of surface of liquid drop
F = P × 4πR2
Now W = P 4πR2 δR
Increase in surface area of the liquid drop
∆A = 4π ( R + δR )2 - 4πR2 = 4π [ R2 + ( δR )2 + 2R δR - R2 ]
neglecting ( δR ) being too small
2

∆A = 8πR δR
Now surface tension of liquid
S = W = P 4πR2 δR
∆A 8πR δR
S = PR
2
P = 2S
R

EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A SOAP BUBBLE :

Consider a soap bubble of radius R . Due to excess of pressure , let there be increase
in the radius of bubble by a small quantity δR
Work done by excess pressure
W = F × δR R δR
But F = excess pressure × area of surface of soap bubble
F = P × 4πR2
Now W = P 4πR2 δR
The soap bubble has two free surfaces therefore increase in surface area of the
soap bubble ∆A = 2 [4π ( R + δR )2 - 4πR2 ] = 8π [ R2 + ( δR )2 + 2R δR - R2 ]
neglecting ( δR ) being too small
2

∆A = 16πR δR
Now surface tension of soap solution
S = W = P 4πR2 δR
∆A 16πR δR
S = PR
4
P = 4S
R R δR

EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE AN AIR BUBBLE IN LIQUID :

P = 2S
R

ANGLE OF CONTACT :
The angle of contact between a liquid and solid in contact
is equal to the angle enclosed between the tangents to the
liquid surface at the point of contact and the solid surface
inside the liquid .
Those liquids which wet the walls of container e.g. for water
and glass , angle of contact is acute θ
Those liquids which do not wet the walls of container e.g. θ
for mercury and glass , angle of contact is obtuse .
water mercury
CAPILLARITY :
A tube with a fine and uniform bore throughout its length is called a capillary tube .
The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube is called capillarity .
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RISE OF LIQUID IN A CAPILLARY TUBE ( ASCENT FORMULA ) :
The force due to surface tension can be resolved s cosθ s cosθ
into two rectangular components S θ θ S
Horizontal component S cosθ
Vertical component S sinθ S sinθ S sinθ
The component S cosθ is responsible for raising the θ θ r
liquid in capillary tube , therefore total upward force S S h
on liquid column A B
F = 2πr S cosθ ( S = F/l ) r
Volume of liquid column in capillary tube D C E
V = volume of liquid cylinder of height h
+ volume of liquid under meniscus ACBED
V = volume of liquid cylinder of height h + ( volume of cylinder ABED - volume of hemisphere ACB )
V = πr2h + ( πr2r - 2 πr3 ) = πr2h + 1 πr3
3 3
V = πr2 ( h + r/3 )
If ρ is the density of liquid then weight of liquid column in capillary tube
W = Vρg = πr2 ( h + r/3 )ρg
In equilibrium , total upward force due to surface tension = weight of liquid column in capillary tube
2πr S cosθ = πr2 ( h + r/3 )ρg
S = r ( h + r/3 )ρg
2 cosθ
But r << h , therefore neglecting r/3 w.r.t. h
S=rhρg
2 cosθ

VARIATION IN SURFACE TENSION :

(1) The surface tension of liquid decreases with rise in temperature .
(2) The surface tension of liquid vary due to presence of impurities in it depending upon their degree of contamination .
A highly soluble substance like salt , sugar when dissolved in water increases the surface tension of water . While the
sparingly soluble substance like oil , sand when dissolved in water decreases the surface tension of water .

VISCOSITY :
Viscosity is the property of a fluid ( liquid or gas ) by virtue of which an internal frictional force comes into play between
various layers of fluid having relative motion .

VELOCITY GRADIENT AND COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY : A ( v + dv )

The rate of change in velocity between two layers of a liquid with distance
=
is called velocity gradient .
velocity gradient = -dv dx
dx
It is vector quantity . Its S.I. unit is s-1 . v
The viscus drag between two layers of liquid depends upon ,
(1) F A ( are of each surface of layer )
(2) F -dv ( velocity gradient )
dx
Combining both
F A ( -dv )
dx
F = - η A dv
dx
η is called coefficient of viscosity .
If A = 1 dv = 1 then η = - F
dx
Thus coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is equal to the tangential force required to maintain a unit velocity gradient
between two parallel layers of liquid each of unit area .
The S.I. unit of η is N s/m2 or Pa s or deca poise . The C.G.S. unit of η is poise
1 N s/m2 = 10 poise = 1 deca poise
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POISEUILLE'S FORMULA :
The rate of flow ( volume of liquid flowing per second ) of liquid through a horizontal capillary tube ,
V = π Pr4
8 ηl
According to Poiseuille the rate of flow of liquid through a horizontal capillary tube depends upon ,
(1) Pressure gradient P/l (2) Radius r of tube (3) Coefficient of viscosity η
V (P) r η a b c

l
V = K ( P )a rb ηc ………..(1)
l
Writing the equation in dimensional formula
[ L3T-1] = [ ML-2T-2 ]a [ L ]b [ ML-1T-1 ]c
[ L3T-1] = [ M ]a+c [ L ]-2a+b-c [ T ]-2a-c
Comparing powers of [ M ] from both sides
a+c=0 …….(2)
Comparing powers of [ T ] from both sides
-2a - c = -1 ……..(3)
adding eq(2) and eq(3)
-a = -1 a=1
put the value of a in eq(2)
1+c=0 c = -1
Comparing powers of [ L ] from both sides
-2a + b - c = 3 -2 + b + 1 = 3 b=4
Put the values of a , b , c in eq(1)
V = K P r4 η-1
l
V = K P r4
ηl
Experimentally K = π/8 , therefore
V = π Pr4
8 ηl

STOKE'S LAW :
Stoke found that backward dragging force acting on a small spherical body moving through a viscus medium ,
F = 6π ηrv
According to Stoke the backward dragging force depends upon
(1) Coefficient of viscosity η of medium (2) Radius r of spherical body (3) Velocity v of body
F η a rb v c
F = K ηa rb vc ………..(1)
Writing the equation in dimensional form ,
[ MLT-2 ] = [ ML-1T-1 ]a [ L ]b [ LT-1 ]c
[ MLT-2 ] = [ M ]a [ L ]-a+b+c [ T ]-a-c
Comparing powers of [ M ] from both sides
a=1
Comparing powers of [ T ] from both sides
-a - c = -2 -1 -c = -2 c=1
Comparing powers of [ L ] from both sides
-a + b + c = 1 -1 + b + 1 = 1 b=1
Put values of a , b , c in eq(1)
F=Kηrv
Experimentally K = 6π
F = 6π η r v

TERMINAL VELOCITY :
The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling freely in a viscus medium is called terminal velocity .
When a small spherical body falls freely through a viscus medium , three forces FT FV
act on it .
(1) Weight of the body W = mg = V ρ g
here ρ is the density of material of body .
(2) Upward thrust FT = V σ g W
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here σ is the density of viscus medium .
(3) Viscus drag FV = 6π η r v
In equilibrium W = FT + FV
V ρ g = V σ g + 6π η r v
V ( ρ - σ ) g = 6π η r v
Put V = 4 π r3
3
4 π r3 ( ρ - σ ) g = 6π η r v
3
v = 2 r2( ρ - σ ) g
9 η

STREAMLINE FLOW : 4 3 2 1
The flow of liquid in which every particle of liquid follows exactly the same P
path of its preceding particle is called streamline flow .

TUBE OF FLOW :
A tube of flow is the bundle of streamline having the same velocity of liquid particles over any cross section
perpendicular to the direction of flow of liquid .

LAMINAR FLOW :
In laminar flow the liquid flows over a horizontal surface in streamline flow in the form of layers of different velocities
which do not mix with each other .

TURBULENT FLOW :
When a liquid moves with a velocity greater than its critical velocity , the motion of the particles of liquid becomes
disorderly or irregular . Such a flow is called turbulent flow .

CRITICAL VELOCITY :
Critical velocity is the velocity of liquid flow upto which flow is streamline and above which the flow becomes turbulent .
The critical velocity of liquid depends upon ,
(1) Coefficient of viscosity η of liquid (2) Density ρ of liquid (3) Radius r of the tube
vc ηa ρb rc
v c = K η a ρ b rc ……..(1)
Writing the equation in dimensional form
[ LT-1 ] = [ ML-1T-1 ]a [ ML-3 ]b [ L ]c
[ LT-1 ] = [ M ]a+b [ L ]-a-3b+c [ T ]-a
Comparing powers of [ T ] from both sides
-a = -1 a=1
Comparing powers of [ M ] from both sides
a+b=0 1+b=0 b = -1
Comparing powers of [ L ] from both sides
-a - 3b + c = 1 -1 + 3 + c = 1 c = -1
Put the values of a , b, c in eq(1)
vc = K η ρ-1 r-1
vc = K η
ρr

REYNOLD'S NUMBER :
Reynold's number is a pure number which determines the nature of flow of liquid .
According to Reynold the critical velocity of liquid flow through a tube of diameter D ,
vc = NR η
ρD
NR = ρ D v c
η
Here NR is the Reynold number .
If 0 < NR < 2000 flow is streamline .
If 2000 < NR < 3000 flow is unstable changing from streamline to turbulent .
If NR > 3000 flow is turbulent .
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EQUATION OF CONTINUITY :
If an ideal liquid flows through a tube of flow then at every cross section of flow the rate of flow of liquid is the same .
at end X ,
volume of liquid entering per second = A1 v1
If ρ is the density of liquid then X v1 v2 Y
mass of liquid entering per second = A1 v1 ρ A2
Similarly at end Y , mass of liquid leaving per second = A2 v2 ρ A1
As the liquid is incompressible therefore ,
mass of liquid entering per second at X = mass of liquid leaving per second at Y
A1 v1 ρ = A2 v2 ρ
A1 v1 = A2 v2
Hence larger is area of cross section , smaller will be the velocity of liquid flow and vice versa .

ENERGY OF FLOWING LIQUID :

(1) Pressure energy :
Suppose P is the pressure applied on the surface of a liquid having area A such that liquid moves by distance x . Now
Force applied by the pressure F=PA
Work done by this force W=Fx=PAx
This work done is stored in liquid as pressure energy therefore
pressure energy per unit mass of liquid = P A x = P
Axρ ρ
pressure energy per unit volume of liquid = P A x = P
Ax
(2) Kinetic energy :
Suppose a liquid of mass m is flowing with speed v then its kinetic energy = 1 m v2
2
Kinetic energy per unit mass of liquid = 1 m v = 1 v2 2

2m 2
Kinetic energy per unit volume of liquid = 1 mv2 = 1 ρ v2
2V 2
(3) Potential energy :
Suppose a liquid of mass m is flowing at height h then its potential energy = m g h
Potential energy per unit mass = m g h = g h
m
Potential energy per unit volume = m g h = ρ g h
V
Y
BERNOULLI'S THEOREM :
For streamline flow of an ideal liquid the total energy v2 A2
per unit mass ( i.e. sum of pressure energy , kinetic
energy and potential energy per unit mass ) always X
remains constant at every cross section throughout
the liquid flow . v1
P + 1 v2 + gh = constant A1
ρ 2 h2
As the liquid flows from X to Y therefore P1 > P2
At end X , Force on liquid F1 = P1 A1
Work done per second on the liquid while entering h1
at end X by pressure energy ,
W 1 = F 1 v 1 = P 1 A1 v 1
Similarly work done per second by the liquid while
leaving at end Y by pressure energy ,
W2 = P2 A2 v2
Net work done on the liquid per second by pressure energy in going from X to Y
W = W1 - W2 = P1 A1 v1 - P2 A2 v2
By equation of continuity , A1 v1 = A2 v2 = m/ρ
Now W = ( P1 - P2 ) m
ρ
Increase in kinetic energy per second of liquid in going from X to Y
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∆K = 1 m ( v22 - v12 )
2
Increase in potential energy per second of liquid in going from X to Y
∆U = m g ( h2 - h1 )
Now increase in total energy per second of liquid in going from X to Y
∆E = 1 m ( v22 - v12 ) + m g ( h2 - h1 )
2
By work energy theorem ,
Net work done on the liquid per second by pressure energy = increase in total energy per second of liquid
( P1 - P2 ) m = 1 m ( v22 - v12 ) + m g ( h2 - h1 )
ρ 2
P1 - P2 = 1 v22 - 1 v12 + g h2 - g h1
ρ ρ 2 2
P1 + 1 v12 + g h1 = P2 + 1 v22 + g h2
ρ 2 ρ 2
P + 1 v2 + g h = constant …………….(1)
ρ 2
multiplying Bernoulli's theorem by ρ
P + 1 ρ v2 + ρ g h = constant ………….(2)
2
If the liquid is flowing through a horizontal tube then h1 = h2
Now P1 + 1 ρ v12 = P2 + 1 ρ v22
2 2
dividing Bernoulli's theorem eq (1) by g
P + v2 + h = constant
ρg 2g

Here P = pressure head ; v2 = velocity head ; h = gravitational head

ρg 2g
All the heads have same dimension = [ L ]

MAGNUS EFFECT :
When a spinning ball is thrown it deviates from its usual path in flight . This is called Magnus effect .

VENTURIMETER :
Venturimeter is based upon Bernoulli's theorem .
It is used to determine the rate of flow of liquid .
By equation of continuity , h
A1 v1 = A2 v2
A1 = v2 …………(1)
A2 v 1
According to Bernoulli's theorem for flow of v1 v2
liquid through horizontal tube A2
P1 + 1 ρ v12 = P2 + 1 ρ v22 A1
2 2
P1 - P2 = 1 ρ v2 - 1 ρ v12
2

2 2
P1 - P2= 1 ρ v12 ( v22 - 1 ) = 1 ρ v12 ( A12 - 1 ) = 1 ρ v12 ( A12 - A22 )
2 v12 2 A22 2 A22
If h is the difference in height between length of liquid columns in two vertical tubes then ,
P1 - P2 = h ρ g
Now h ρ g = 1 ρ v12 ( A12 - A22 )
2 A22
v1 = 2 g h A 2
2 2

( A12 - A22 )
v 1 = A2 2gh
( A12 - A22 )
Rate of flow of liquid
V = A1 v 1
 13
V = A1 A2 2gh
( A12 - A22 )

TORRICELLI'S THEOREM :
Velocity of efflux i.e. the velocity with which a liquid flows out of an orifice is equal to that which a freely falling body
would acquire in falling through a vertical distance equal to the depth of orifice below the free surface of liquid .
According to Bernoulli's theorem ,
P1 + 1 ρ v12 + ρ g h1 = P2 + 1 ρ v22 + ρ g h2 P
2 2
P + 0 + ρ g H = P + 1 ρ v2 + ρ g ( H - h ) h
2
ρ g H = 1 ρ v2 + ρ g H - ρ g h H
2 (H-h)
1 ρ v2 = ρ g h
2
v2 = 2 g h x
v=√2gh
This is Torricelli's theorem . The path of liquid flow is parabolic . If t is the time taken by the liquid in falling from the
orifice to the horizontal surface then by 2nd equation of motion
s = u t + 1 a t2
2
( H - h ) = 0 + 1 g t2 ( for vertical motion u = 0 )
2
t2 = 2 ( H - h )
g
t= 2(H-h)
g
Now horizontal range
x=vt=√2gh×2(H-h)
g
x=2√h(H-h)
x will be maximum when h = H/2
Now xmax = 2 H ( H - H ) = 2 H H
2 2 2 2
xmax = H

HEAT :
Heat is a form of energy which produces in us the sensation of warmth .
The S.I. unit of heat is Joule ( J ) but the practical unit of heat is calorie .
One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 1 °C from 14.5 °C to
15.5 °C .
According to Joule when mechanical work is converted into heat the ratio of work W and heat Q is always constant ,
W=J
Q
W=JQ
J is called mechanical equivalent of heat . It is not a physical quantity .
J = 4.186 J/cal = 4.186 × 103 J/k cal

TEMPERATURE :
The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature .
When two bodies of different temperatures are kept in contact with each other the heat flows from a body of higher
temperature to a body at lower temperature till their temperatures become equal . In that case both the bodies are said
to be in thermal equilibrium .

RELATION BETWEEN CELSIUS AND FAHRENHEIT SCALE :

C = F - 32
5 9
-40 °C and -40 °F represents the same temperature .
 14
RELATION BETWEEN CELSIUS AND KELVIN SCALE :
K = 273 + C
Absolute ( Kelvin ) temperature can never be negative . Absolute zero ( 0 K ) temperature is -273.15 °C .

THERMAL EXPANSION :
All solids are found to expand on heating . This is called thermal expansion .

LINEAR EXPANSION :
The increase in length of solid on heating is called linear expansion . It is found that the increase in length of a rod on
heating , (1) ∆L L (2) ∆L ∆T
Combining ∆L L ∆T
∆L = α L ∆T
α = ∆L
L ∆T
α is called coefficient of linear expansion . If L =1 ; ∆T = 1 °C then α = ∆L
Coefficient of linear expansion is equal to the small change in length per unit original length per ° C change in
temperature . Its unit is °C-1 or K-1 .

AREAL EXPANSION :
The increase in surface area of solid on heating is called areal expansion . It is found that the increase in surface area on
heating , (1) ∆S S (2) ∆S ∆T
Combining ∆S S ∆T
∆S = β S ∆T
β = ∆S
S ∆T
β is called coefficient of areal expansion . If S = 1 ; ∆T = 1 °C then β = ∆S
Coefficient of areal expansion is equal to the small change in surface area per unit original surface area per °C change in
temperature . Its unit is °C-1 or K-1 .

VOLUME EXPANSION :
The increase in volume of solid on heating is called volume expansion . It is found that increase in volume on heating ,
(1) ∆V V (2) ∆V ∆T
Combining ∆V V ∆T
∆V = ϒ V ∆T
ϒ = ∆V
V ∆T
ϒ is called coefficient of volume expansion of solid . If V = 1 ; ∆T = 1 °C then ϒ = ∆V
Coefficient of volume expansion is equal to the small change in volume per unit original volume per °C change in
temperature . Its unit is °C-1 or K-1 .

RELATION BETWEEN α , β and ϒ :

Consider a solid cube of each side L then area of each surface of cube S = L2 ; volume of cube V = L3
Let the cube be heated by a small range of temperature ∆T such that increase in each side of cube is ∆L . Now coefficient
of linear expansion α = ∆L ……..(1)
L ∆T
New area of each surface of cube
S + ∆S = ( L + ∆L )2 = L2 + ( ∆L )2 + 2L ∆L
neglecting ( ∆L ) being too small
2

∆S = 2L ∆L
Now coefficient of areal expansion
β = ∆S = 2L ∆L = 2 ∆L
S ∆T L2 ∆T L ∆T
β = 2α
New volume of cube
V + ∆V = ( L + ∆L )3 = L3 + ( ∆L )3 + 3L2 ∆L + 3( ∆L )2 L
neglecting ( ∆L ) and ( ∆L )3 being too small
2

∆V = 3L2 ∆L
Now coefficient of volume expansion
ϒ = ∆V = 3L2 ∆L = 3 ∆L
V ∆T L3 ∆T L ∆T
 15
ϒ = 3α
Hence α : β : ϒ = α : 2α : 3α
α:β:ϒ=1:2:3

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS :
Volume expansion of liquids is of two types , (1) real expansion (2) apparent expansion
Coefficient of real expansion of liquid
ϒr = ∆Vr
V ∆T
Coefficient of apparent expansion of liquid
ϒa = ∆Va
V ∆T
Now ϒr = ϒa + ϒc
Here ϒc is the coefficient of volume expansion of container .

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY OF SOLIDS and LIQUIDS :

Coefficient of volume expansion of solid / liquid
ϒ = ∆V
V ∆T
∆V = ϒ V ∆T
New volume of solid / liquid
V' = V + ∆V = V + ϒ V ∆T = V ( 1 + ϒ ∆T )
If ρ is the density of solid / liquid at temperature T and ρ' is the density of solid / liquid at temperature ( T + ∆T )
Then ρ=m and ρ' = m
V V'
Now m = m ( 1 + ϒ ∆T )
ρ' ρ
ρ' = ρ ( 1 + ϒ ∆T )-1
expanding it binomially
ρ' = ρ ( 1 - ϒ ∆T )
Clearly ρ' < ρ hence density of solid / liquid decreases with rise in temperature .

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY or SPECIFIC HEAT :

When a fixed amount of heat is given to a certain mass of a substance the rise in temperature is different in cases of
different substances . It is found that heat given to a substance depends upon ,
(1) Q m (2) Q ∆T
Combining both Q m ∆T
Q = c m ∆T
c=Q
m ∆T
c is called specific heat of material of substance . If m =1 ; ∆T = 1 °C then c = Q
Specific heat of a substance is equal to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of substance
through unit degree . Its S.I. unit is J / kg °C or k cal / kg °C . Its C.G.S. unit is cal / g °C .

MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT :

Molar specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram mole the
substance through unit degree .
Molar specific heat C=Mc
Here M is the molecular mass of the substance . Its unit is J / mole °C , k cal / mole °C and cal / mole °C .

THERMAL CAPACITY or HEAT CAPACITY :

Thermal capacity of a body is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the body through unit degree .
Heat given to a body
Q = c m ∆T
If ∆T = 1 °C then thermal capacity = c m
Its unit is J / °C , k cal / °C and cal / °C

WATER EQUIVALENT :
Water equivalent of a body is the mass of water which would absorb or evolve the same amount of heat as is done by the
body in rising or falling through the same range of temperature .
 16
Heat given to a body Q = c m ∆T ……….(1)
If the same amount of heat is required to raise the temperature of mass w of water through the same range ∆T then
Q = w ∆T ………..(2) ( for water c = 1 )
Comparing eq(1) and eq(2)
w=cm
water equivalent is measured in kg or g .

LATENT HEAT :
Latent heat of a substance is equal to the amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of the substance from
solid to liquid or from liquid to gas / vapour without any change in temperature .
If L is the latent heat then heat required to change the state of a substance
Q=mL
Its unit is J / kg , k cal / kg and cal / g .
Latent heat of fusion of ice L = 80 cal / g .
Latent heat of vaporisation of water = 540 cal / g .

CALORIMETRY :
Calorimeter is used to determine the specific heat and latent heat of any substance . The principle of calorimetry is the
method of mixture i.e. heat lost = heat gained
Suppose w is the water equivalent of caloriemeter and m1 is the mass of water placed in it at temperature T1 . Suppose
m2 is the mass and c is the specific heat of the substance at temperature T2 when mixed in water this mixture attains a
common temperature T .
Rise in temperature of water and calorimeter = T - T1
Fall in temperature of substance = T2 - T
Heat gained by water and calorimeter Q1 = ( m1 + w ) ( T - T1 ) ( for water c = 1 )
Heat lost by the substance Q2 = c m2 ( T2 - T )
According to principle of calorimetry
heat gained = heat lost
( m1 + w ) ( T - T1 ) = c m2 ( T2 - T )
c = ( m1 + w ) ( T - T1 )
m2 ( T2 - T )

LIMITS ON SPECIFIC HEAT OF A GAS :

(1) If a gas is compressed suddenly no heat is supplied from outside , Q = 0
as c=Q =0
m ∆T
(2) Let the gas be heated and allowed to expand at such a rate that rise in temperature due to heat supplied is exactly
equal to fall in temperature due to expansion of gas then ∆T = 0
Now c=Q = ꝏ
m ∆T
On the basis of above these reasons gases have two types of specific heats

Specific heat of gas at constant volume ( cv ) :

At constant volume the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas through unit degree is
called specific heat of gas at constant volume ( cv ) .

Specific heat of gas at constant pressure ( cp ) :

At constant pressure the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas through unit degree is
called specific heat of gas at constant pressure ( cp ) .

MOLAR SPECIFIC HEATS OF GAS :

CP = M c p ; CV = M c v
Here M = molecular mass of gas

CP is greater than CV :
When heat is given to a gas at constant volume , it is only used to raise temperature of unit mass of gas through unit
degree this is known as specific heat of gas at constant volume ( CV ) .
When heat is given to a gas at constant pressure , it is spent in two ways ,
(1) A part of heat is used to raise temperature of unit mass of gas through unit degree .
(2) Remaining amount of heat is used in doing work against external pressure .
 17
This is known as specific heat of gas at constant pressure ( CP ) .
Hence CP > CV

CONDUCTION :
Conduction is the mode of transfer of heat from one point of the body to another from particle to particle in the direction
of fall of temperature without any actual movement of the heated particles .
All solids are generally heated by conduction .

CONVECTION :
Convection is the mode of transfer of heat from one part of the medium to another part by the actual movement of the
heated particles of the medium . All fluids are heated by convection .

RADIATION :
Radiation is a mode of transfer of heat from the source to receiver without any actual movement of source or receiver
and also without heating the intervening medium . The transfer of heat by radiation is independent of medium . All
bodies emit radiant energy at higher temperature .

STEADY STATE :
The state of a rod in which temperature of each part of the rod becomes constant and there is no further absorption of
heat anywhere in the rod is called steady state .
Note that in steady state temperature of each part of rod is constant but not the same .

TEMPERATURE GRADIENT :
In steady state the rate of fall of temperature with distance between two faces in the direction of flow of heat is called
temperature gradient .
temperature gradient = -∆T
∆x
It is a vector quantity . Its direction is from lower temperature to higher temperature . Its unit is °C/m or K/m .

COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY :

Heat is conducted through the solid from hot face to cold face .
The heat conducted through a solid depends upon ,
(1) Q A ( area of cross section of rod )
(2) Q ( T1 - T2 ) ( temperature difference between two ends of rod )
(3) Q 1 ( length of rod )
l T1 T2
(4) Q t ( time taken for the flow of heat )
Combining all Q A ( T1 - T2 ) t Heat
l
Q = K A ( T1 - T2 ) t l
l
Here K is called coefficient of thermal conductivity of solid . The value of K is large for good conductors and is small for
bad conductors ( or insulators ) . If A = 1 ; ( T1 - T2 ) = 1 °C ; l = 1 ; t = 1 then K = Q
The coefficient of thermal conductivity of solid is equal to the amount of heat conducted per second through a solid rod
of unit length and unit area of cross section at 1 °C temperature difference across the ends of rod .
Its unit is J / °C m s , W / °C m , K cal / °C m s and cal / °C cm s .

THERMAL RESISTANCE :
When there is some temperature difference across two ends of a rod heat begins to flow . The ratio of temperature
difference to the rate of flow of heat is known as thermal resistance .
The rate of flow of heat H = Q = K A ( T1 - T2 )
t l
Thermal resistance R = ( T1 - T2 )
H
R = ( T1 - T2 )
K A ( T1 - T2 )
l
R=l
KA
Thus a good conductor has low resistance . Its unit is °C s / J , °C s / k cal and °C s / cal .
 18
NEWTON'S LAW OF COOLING :
The rate of loss heat of a body is directly proportional to the difference in temperature of the body and the surroundings
providing that temperature difference is small not more than 40 °C .
suppose a body of temperature T is placed in a medium of temperature T0 . According to Newton's law of cooling ,
-dQ ( T - T0 )
dt
-dQ = k ( T - T0 )
dt
Here k is a constant of proportionality . Put dQ = m c dT
- m c dT = k ( T - T0 )
dt
-dT = k ( T - T0 )
dt m c
Put k = K ( another constant )
mc
-dT = K ( T - T0 )
dt
-dT ( T - T0 )
dt
Thus Newton's law of cooling also states that the rate of fall of temperature of a body is directly proportional to the
difference of temperature between the body and its surroundings provided that temperature difference is small not
more than 40 °C .

EXPRESSION FOR TIME OF COOLING :

According to Newton's law of cooling ,
-dT = K ( T - T0 )
dt
dT = -K dt
( T - T0 )
Integrating both sides within suitable limits
T2 t
dT = -K dt
( T - T0 )
T1 0
T2 t
[ loge ( T - T0 ) ] = -K [ t ]
T1 0
loge ( T2 - T0 ) - loge ( T1 - T0 ) = -K ( t - 0 )
loge ( T1 - T0 ) - loge ( T2 - T0 ) = K t
loge ( T1 - T0 ) = K t
( T2 - T0 )

REFLECTANCE , ABSORPTANCE and TRANSMITTANCE :

Reflectance or reflecting power :
The ratio of amount of thermal radiations reflected by a body in a given time to the total amount of thermal radiations
incident on the body in the same time is called reflecting power.
r = Qr ….……(1)
Q
Absorptance or absorbing power :
The ratio of amount of thermal radiations absorbed by a body in a given time to the total amount of thermal radiations
incident on the body in the same time is called reflecting power .
a = Qa ..………(2)
Q
Transmittance or transmitting power :
The ratio of amount of thermal radiations transmitted by a body in a given time to the total amount of thermal radiations
incident on the body in the same time is called transmitting power .
t = Qt ………….(3)
Q
adding eq(1) , eq(2) and eq(3) r + a + t = Qr + Qa + Qt = Qr + Qa + Qt
Q Q Q Q
But Qr + Qa + Qt = Q ( total amount of thermal radiations )
 19
Now r+a+t=Q
Q
r+a+t=1
If a body does not transmit any heat radiations , t = 0
r+a=1 a=1-r
Hence good reflectors are bad absorbers and vice - versa .

Monochromatic emittance or spectral emissive power ( eλ ) :

Monochromatic emittance of a body corresponding to a particular wavelength λ at a particular temperature is equal to
the amount of radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit surface area of the body within unit wavelength interval
around λ .

Total emittance or emissive power ( e ) :

Total emittance of a body at a given temperature is equal to the total amount of thermal energy emitted per unit time
per unit surface area for all possible wavelength .
ꝏ
e = ʃ eλ dλ
0
Its unit is J / m2 s or W / m2 .

Emissivity ( Є ) :
Emissivity of a body at a given temperature is equal to the ratio of total emissive power of the body ( e ) to the total
emissive power of a perfectly black body ( E ) at that temperature .
ϵ=e
E

Monochromatic absorptance or spectral absorbing power ( aλ ) :

Monochromatic absorptance of a body corresponding to a certain wavelength λ is equal to the ratio of amount of heat
energy absorbed in a certain time to the total heat energy incident upon it in the same time , both in unit wavelength
interval around the wavelength λ .

PERFECTLY BLACK BODY :

A perfect black body is that , which absorbs completely the radiations of all wavelengths incident on it .
As a perfect black body neither reflects nor transmits any radiation therefore the absorbing power of a perfect black body
is unity i.e. a = 1 .
When a perfect black body is heated to a suitable high temperature it emits radiation of all possible wavelengths . The
radiations emitted by a perfect black body are called black body radiation or total radiation . Hence for black body
emissivity is also unity i.e. ϵ = 1 .

KIRCHHOFF'S LAW :
The ratio of emissive power to the absorptive power corresponding to a particular wavelength and at any given
temperature is always a constant for all bodies . This constant is equal to the emissive power of a perfect black body at
the same temperature and corresponding to the same wavelength .
eλ = constant = Eλ
aλ
Thus good absorbers are good emitters and poor absorbers are poor emitters .

STEFAN'S LAW :
The amount of heat energy ( E ) emitted per second by unit area of a perfect black body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of absolute temperature ( T ) of the body .
E T4 E = σ T4
σ is called Stefan's constant . σ = 5.67 × 10-8 J / m2 K4 s
For bodies which are not perfect black body E = ϵ σ T4
If the body at temperature T is surrounded by a medium at temperature T0 , then E = ϵ σ ( T4 - T04 )

WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW :

The minimum wavelength of maximum intensity of emission of black body radiation is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature of the black body .
λm 1 λm T = b
T
b is called Wien's constant . b = 2.892 × 10-3 m K