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 4 forces of the universe

Electro-magnetic Weak nuclear Strong nuclear Gravity

Holds the atom Radioactive decay Keeps the nucleus Keeps galaxies
together together together
 Momentum = mass x velocity The mass of an object is a measure of
the object's inertial property, or the
amount of matter it contains.
Velocity = Speed & direction
The weight of an object is a measure
of the force exerted on the object by
Distance gravity, or the force needed to support
Speed = ----------- it.

Time The pull of gravity on the earth gives

an object a downward acceleration of
about 9.8 m/s2.

Speed
Acceleration = -------- My mass is
the same but I
Time don’t feel any
weight !

Force = mass x acceleration

Sir George Cayley
1810
Four
Forces of
Flight
Albert Einstein 1919

No idea how Why down?

Daniel Bernoulli it Works but and not up ?!
Gravity is a
1738 force !!
Sir Isaac Newton

…in fluids

1687
Speed Pressure
Four ..keeps airborne

Forces of

Flying Lift

Weight

gravity
 Cruzing at 28,000 ft
Speed fixed at 550 miles/hr
.. feelin no force !!
Lift

Drag Aircraft Thrust

Weight
Lift…the fight for flight

AIRFOIL
 Work in groups of 4 L …. W
L ….. W use Th … D
Th …. D =
< or
>
L ……. W
Th …….. D
L …. W
Th … D

Lift = Weight
Thrust = Drag
Aircraft Lighter than air Zeppelin

Hot air baloons

Heavier than air

Kites / Gliders

Rotating – wing (Helicopters)

Fixed – wing (Airplanes)

Propeller

Turbo-prop

Jet
Aircraft Axes … yaw pitch roll
Ailerons Control Surfaces
The ailerons are located on the outside portions of the
trailing edge of the wing.
They move in opposite directions and
cause the airplane to roll (or bank) to the left or right.
Rudder
The rudder moves left and right
and is attached to the vertical
stabilizer. It causes the airplane
to yaw left or right.

Flaps

The flaps are found

on the inside
portions of the Elevator
trailing edge of the
wing. They move in The elevator is
the same direction attached to
and increase or the horizontal
decrease drag to stabilizer and
allow the airplane moves up and
to remain airborne down. It
at slower speeds, causes the
particularly useful airplane
for takeoff and to pitch up or
landing. down.
 Control
Instruments

Pedal and Yoke

 Yaw
Left – Right

Pedal and Rudder

Rudder
Roll
Right - Left
Yoke and Aileron
Pitch Up - Down
Yoke and Elevator
Air hitting
Air hitting the top
under the
of the elevator
elevator
forces the nose
forces the
upwards
nose down
How do we calculate Center of Gravity (CG)?

21
CP and CG locations affect the stability of flight.
•The Weight of the aircraft, applied at the Center of Gravity (CG) of the aircraft.
•The Lift, applied at the Center of Pressure (CP).

The distance between the CG and

the CP induces a pitch down
moment that needs to be
compensated for to keep the
aircraft level. This is done
through the Trimmable
Horizontal Stabilizer (THS) that
exerts a downward force.

22
 Airframe
Avionics

Landing gear
Powerplant
Engine + APU
 AVIONICS
Avionics refers to the
electronic systems and
equipment used in aircraft
to provide communication,
navigation, and other vital
information to the pilots
and crew.
It includes a wide range of
systems such as flight
instruments, flight
management systems,
radios, GPS, weather radar,
autopilots, and collision
avoidance systems.
Cockpit Voice Recorder
… in the cockpit
ATTITUDE Indicator

is an instrument to inform the pilot of

the orientation of the aircraft relative
to Earth's horizon

ALTIMETER

is an instrument to show the altitude,

from a fixed level (usually the ground)
 AIR SPEED INDICATOR

The airspeed indicator shows

the aircraft's speed (usually in
knots) relative to the
surrounding air.
1 knot = 0.51 m/s

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

The VSI (also called a variometer, or rate of climb

indicator) senses changing air pressure, and displays
that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or
descent in feet per minute, meters per second or knots.
1 feet = 0.30 m
 CLOCK COMPASS HEADING Indicator

CDI – Course Deviation Indicator RMI – Radio Magnetic Indicator

shows the Helps the pilot

direction to read the magnetic
to steer to bearing to or from
correct for the transmitting
course station
deviations
 AUTOPILOT

WEATHER RADAR FLIGHT DIRECTOR

ADF – Automatic Direction Finder
automatically and continuously displays the
relative bearing from the aircraft to a suitable
radio station

ACARS – Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System

a digital datalink system for transmission of
short messages between aircraft and ground
stations via airband radio or satellite

TCAS – Traffic Collusion Avoidance System

Designed to reduce the incidence of mid-air
collision.
Modern day jet cockpit
Boeing B777 glass cockpit
Space shuttle glass cockpit
 AIRFRAME

An airframe is the basic structure of an

aircraft, which includes the fuselage, wings,
tail assembly, and other essential
components that support the weight of the
aircraft and enable it to fly. The airframe
provides the necessary strength, stability,
and aerodynamic shape to the aircraft, and
it houses the cockpit, cabin, and other
systems and equipment required for flight.
ENGINES
A jet engine is a type of internal combustion engine that uses the energy
produced by the combustion of fuel to generate thrust, which propels an
aircraft forward. A typical jet engine consists of four main components:
the compressor, the combustion chamber, the turbine, and the nozzle.
… engine is half an aircraft !
The continuous process of compressing air, adding fuel and igniting it, and using the
resulting energy to drive the turbine and nozzle is what allows a jet engine to produce
the powerful thrust needed for flight.
Market share of the leading commercial aircraft engine manufacturers worldwide in 2020

Rolls-Royce 12%

CFM International 39%

General Electric Aviation 14%

Pratt & Whitney 35%

Source(s): Flightglobal; Cirium; Flight Airline Business

A key technological factor shaping the air transport industry is choosing a suitable type
of aircraft we can use to transport passengers or cargo for each flight. A usual
distinction in the aircraft industry is between narrow-body and wide-body aircrafts:

Narrow-body aircraft (short-haul): has a fuselage of less than four metres of diameter,
which allows to accommodate passengers on a single-aisle configuration, from four to
six seats per row.
The Bombardier CRJ family, which allows a cabin of up to 104 seats, is a typical example
of planes with cabins of four seats per row.
Larger narrow-body planes have six seats per row. Typical examples are the Airbus
A320 family, which allows up to 244 seats, and the Boeing 737 family with a cabin of up
to 220 seats.

Examples: B707, B727, B737, B757, MD80 SF, A320 family, BAe146, DC8, DC9, Tu-204

Wide-body aircraft (long-haul): has a fuselage diameter between five and six metres.
This wider cabin allows arranging two aisles and between seven and eleven seats per
row in economy class, depending on size cabin and seat configuration.
The largest wide-body aircraft ever produced is the Airbus A380 with a capacity of
more than 500 passengers, followed by the Boeing 747 and B777 families with a
capacity of more than 400 passengers.
The Airbus A330 and A340 families are examples of wide-body aircrafts of lesser
capacity.

Examples: B747, B777, A350, MD-11, AN-124, II96-T, A380, B767, A300, A310, A330,
A340, DC-10, II76-TD
• Above picture is the seat map of a narrow body A321neo from Lufthansa (32 seats in
business cabin, 167 seats in economy).
• Below picture is the seat map of a wide-body B777-300ER with two classes
configuration from Emirates (42 seats in business cabin, 385 in economy cabin).
 Key figures of the four largest aircraft manufacturers worldwide in FY 2021

Number of employees (in 1,000s) Revenue (in million U.S. dollars) Deliveries (in
units)
Airbus 73.56 38779.22 611
Boeing Commercial Airplanes 35.93 19493 340
Bombardier 13.8 6085 120
Embraer 18.32 4197.2 141

Source(s): Various sources; Statista

 Number of jets added to the global aircraft fleet from 1999 to 2021, by manufacturer (in units)

Boeing Airbus Bombardier Embraer Others Since 2003, Airbus has consistently been
the largest commercial aircraft
1.100 manufacturer, delivering 611 jets in
2021. Their main competitor, Boeing,
added 340 jets to the global aircraft fleet
900 in that year.

Airbus and Boeing

Aircraft deliveries in units

700
The two dominant global aircraft
manufactures are Boeing and Airbus.
500
Aside from commercial aircraft, both
companies also produce military aircraft,
rockets, satellites, communications
300
equipment and missiles. Boeing
generates more than half its revenue in
the United States , with roughly a third of
100
revenue coming from its commercial
airplanes segment . Airbus have a greater
-100
presence than Boeing in Europe and the
Asia-Pacific region , although their share
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021 of the North American market is much
smaller.
7

Source(s): JADC; Various sources (Airbus; Ascend; Boeing; Bombardier; Embraer)

Boeing Aircraft
Family
(currently in
production)
 Average prices for Boeing aircraft as of March 2021, by type (in million U.S. dollars)

777-9 442,2
419,2
747-8 418,4
410,2
777-300ER 375,5
352,3
777-200LR 346,9
338,4
777-200ER 306,6
Aircraft type

292,5
787-8 248,3
220,3
767-300ER 217,9
134,9
737 MAX 9 128,9
124,8
737 MAX 8 121,6
112,6
737-800 106,1
99,7
737-700 89,1

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Price in million U.S. dollars

4 Source: Boeing
Worldwide number of Airbus aircraft in operation as of June 30, 2021, by aircraft type

Number of aircraft in operation

0 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000 8.000 9.000 10.000

Single aisle 9.517

A330 1.437

A350 436
Aircraft type

A300/A310 287

A380 243

A340 214

Airbus - aircraft in operation by aircraft type 2021

Source: Airbus
New production values for Airbus aircraft in 2021, by type (in million U.S. dollars)

Price in million U.S. dollars

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

A380 169,5

A350-1000 159,1

A350-900 145,8

A330-900 (neo) 104

A330-800 92,2

A330-200 Freighter 84

A330-300 80,6

A330-200 72,4
Aircraft type

A321neo 54,5

A320neo 49,2

A321 48,5

A320 41,5

A220-300 36,8

A319neo 36,7

A220-100 32,6

Airbus aircraft - new aircraft values 2021

2

Source(s): Airfinance Journal; ISTAT; Website (www.hugheshubbard.com)

Russian Aircrafts
• Tupolev
– TU-154
– TU-204
• Ilyushin
– IL-76
– IL-96
• Antonov
– AN-124
• Mil
– MI-8
• Beriev
– BE-200
• Sukhoi
– Sukhoi Superjet 100

50
Ilyushin IL-62
 Antonov An - 24 Ilyushin - 86

Ilyushin – 96 300

Tupolev Tu - 154

Tupolev Tu - 334
Aircraft leasing
An aircraft lease refers to the agreement between an airline (lessee) and an aircraft owner or leasing
company (lessor) where the lessor provides an aircraft to the lessee for a specific period of time and at
a specified rate. The lessee pays a rental fee to the lessor for the use of the aircraft, and the lessor
retains ownership of the aircraft.
Aircraft leases are a common practice in the aviation industry as they allow airlines to expand their
fleet without incurring the high cost of purchasing new aircraft. There are several types of aircraft
leases, including wet lease, dry lease, and damp lease. A wet lease typically includes the aircraft, crew,
maintenance, and insurance, while a dry lease involves only the aircraft itself. A damp lease is a
combination of both wet and dry leases.

Share of leased aircraft in the aviation industry worldwide from 1970 to 2021
60%

50%
In 2021, 51 percent of
the total aircraft in use
Share of aircraft leased

40%
are were leased, which is
an exponential increase
30% from only half percent in
1970. In 2020, there were
20% a total of 158 aircraft
lessors in the world.
10%

0%
1970 1980 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2021
Source(s): Boeing; ORIX; BOC Aviation; Statista estimates
 Average new aircraft lease rates worldwide in 2021, by aircraft model (in 1,000 U.S. dollars per month)

1.600
Aircraft lease rate in thousand U.S. dollars per month

1.400 1.347
1.227
1.200 1.140
1.081
952 944 943
1.000 887
800 747 726
660 654 652
600 515
369 359
400 315 311 310 296 284 279
259 256 256 242 228
210 200 178
200 141 140 124 124

SSJ100
777F

787-9
787-8

A330-300

767F
A321neo
A320neo

E190-E2

A319neo
E195-E2
A380

A350-900

A330-800
A330-200

737 Max 9
A321
737 Max 8
737-800
A320

A220-300

A220-100
E190
E175
747-8F

787-10

Mitsubishi CRJ900
DHC8-400
A350-1000

ATR72-600
ATR42-600
A330-900 (neo)
777-300ER

A330-200 Freighter

Aircraft model

Monthly average aircraft lease rates by aircraft type 2021

Source(s): Airfinance Journal; ISTAT; Hughes Hubbard & Reed

Distribution of the global operating aircraft fleet from 2014 to 2019, by region (in units)

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

9.000

8.000

7.000
Number of aircraft in units

6.000

5.000

4.000

3.000

2.000

1.000

0
Africa Russian and Middle East Latin America Europe North America Asia-Pacific
Central Asia

2 Source(s): Boeing
Average age of airplanes* removed from the global aircraft fleet from 2005 to 2018, by aircraft type
(in years)

Passenger jets Passenger turboprops

30 28,5
27,5 27,5 27,6
25,8 25,6 26 26
24,2 24,7
25 23,6 23,3 23,6
22,8
Average age in years

20

15

10

0
2005 2012 2013 2015 2016 2017 2018

2 Source(s): JADC; Ascend

Average age of the global operating aircraft fleet from 2020 to 2030, by region or country (in years)

2020 2025 2030

16

14

12
Average age in years

10

0
Africa Asia Pacific China Eastern India Latin America Middle East North Western
Europe America Europe

2 Source(s): Oliver Wyman

 Typical fleet of Full-Service Carrier (FSC)

Lufthansa and regional partners’ fleet on May 2019

 More payload or more range?
Not all flights are economically viable with any
aircraft. The present development of technology
requires long-haul flights to be offered with wide-
body aircraft, whereas short-haul flights can be
offered with narrow-body aircraft.
Payload – Range Trade-off
Finding the best aircraft for specific routes is a management task!
The fleet needs to be optimized for cost-efficiency.
• Short-/Medium-haul aircraft
(A320, B737) are often used on
sectors that are much shorter
than their design range.
• They also carry little or no cargo
and so airlines are paying for an
a/c of which the full capabilities
are rarely used.
• Operating at maximum efficiency
means operating at point A.
• To the left of A, we lose range
capability, to the right we lose
payload (pax or cargo).
• The distance to point A from the left
is usually longer for long-haul aircraft.
• After point C is usually what we call
ferry (empty) flights.
58
 Aircraft Weights

Manufacture Empty Weight Maximum Weight Restriction

Basic Weight Maximum Take-off Weight

Dry Operating Weight Maximum Landing Weight

Aircraft Weight
Actual Zero Fuel Weight
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight

Maximum Taxi Weight Payload

Allowable Payload (Underload)

59
 HELICOPTER
A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which
lift and thrust
are supplied by rotors

Advantages
This allows the helicopter to
take off and land vertically,
to hover, and
to fly forward,
backward, and
laterally.

Disadvantages
Slow
Noisy
Too much vibration
 Focke Wulf-61 1936

Da Vinci’s Airscrew

Paul Cornu - 1907 Oehmichen - 1923

V 22
 Uses ..

✓ transportation of people and cargo,

✓ military uses,
✓ construction,
✓ firefighting,
✓ search and rescue,
✓ tourism,
✓ medical transport, and
✓ aerial observation, among others.