1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Quality requirements.). IS 9001:2000 is an example of
a QMS. The word QMS was first used by
The word “Quality” has a variety of meanings 'Ken Croucher'.
and definitions which are mentioned below:
● A degree of excellence Elements of QMS
● Conformance to requirements ● Quality objectives
● Totality of characters which act to ● Quality manual

gy
satisfy a need ● Organizational structure and
● Fitness for use responsibilities

lo
● Fitness for purpose ● Data management
● Freedom from defects ● Processes including purchasing

no
● Delighting the customers ● Product quality leading to customer
The quality characteristics of a satisfaction

ch
product or service are known as determinants ● Continuous improvement including
of quality. Quality of a product is not a single corrective and preventive actions
point, it's a range of points where it has ● Quality instruments
Te
always a scope for improvement. ● Document control

Definition by ISO: The totality of features and
of
characteristics of product or service that bear
on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs
te
1.3 Quality manual and quality plans
It's vital that you understand the differences
between a quality manual and a quality plan.

revolving around the customer. These documents go hand in hand in an

organization’s quality management, they
tu

Quality and Grade: entail different things.

Grade talks about the characteristics and
sti

features of a product while quality talks about Quality manual: It is a document that states
the degree that the inherent characteristics of the company's intentions for operating the
In

a product fulfill its requirements. Thus a high process within the quality management
grade can have low quality and vice versa. system. It can include policies for all areas of
Quality talks about the durability of a product business that affect your ability to make high
re

while the grade talks about the fancifulness of quality products and to meet customers and
a product. ISO's requirements.
Co

1.2 Quality management system (QMS) Uses:

A QMS is a set of policies, processes and In addition to serving as a tool for managers,
procedures required for planning and the manual can be used for several other
execution (production or development important purposes.
service) in the core business area of an ● To communicate management's
organization. (i.e: areas that can impact the expectations to employees
organization's ability to meet customer

1
 ● To demonstrate the companies plan to
confirm to the requirements of ISO
9001:2015
● To demonstrate the organizational
roles responsibilities and authorities
are assigned, communicated and
understood.
● To provide a starting point for auditors
● Determine format and structure of the
manual and make the first draft
● Calculate the draft manual for input
from all departments and addresses
inadequacies identified
● Attain a formal approval and release
Quality Plans: Quality plans comprise a
collection of documents specifying a quality

gy
either internal, customer-affiliated or
the ISO certification body. management system’s quality standards,
resources, specifications, practices, and all

lo
Contents: activity sequences relevant to a specific
QMS manuals comprise all the following project, product, or service. Their purpose is

no
records: to identify all organizational requirements that
● Quality policy statement: This must be established to produce a product or

ch
document details the level of service as intended. Quality plans outline all
commitment an organization exhibits procedures that fall under the following

Te
in maintaining quality.
● Quality policies: The quality policy
outlines a company’s plans in great
activity types:

1.4 Quality assurance: These activities

include all proactive pre-production efforts,
of
detail and includes extensive
documentation. such as developing quality standards and
creating process checklists, and strive to
● Standard operating procedures: These
te

improve process accuracy

procedures identify the parties
tu

responsible for carrying out each 1.5 Quality control: Quality control
activity and their allotted time frames. procedures refer to reactive post-production
sti

● Work instructions: Work instructions efforts focused on identifying any defective

highlight the activities and procedures goods or services. Examples include product
In

set to occur. monitoring and inspections.

● Explanation of the company's In short, a quality manual defines a
documentation structure business’s quality management system, while
re

● Policy statement for each applicable a quality plan explains how a company will
ISO requirements meet quality requirements for a specific
Co

Development:
● List policies to be written (not any
ISO requirements that do not apply)
● Draft policies based on applicable ISO
requirements
● List operating procedures or refer to
them as appropriate
product or service.
Quality Policy: In QMS, a quality policy is a
document developed by management to
express the directive of the top management
with respect to quality. Quality policy
management is a strategic item. Section 5.2 of
the ISO 9001:2015 standard requires a written

2
well defined quality policy that is
communicated and understood within an
organization. Section 5.2 also sets out some of
the requirements of quality policies.
Business policy: It defines the scope or
spheres within which decisions can be taken
by the subordinates in an organization. Each
permits the lower level management to deal
gy
with the problems and issues without
consulting top level management every time
lo
for decisions.
1. HR policy - hiring and firing, training,
no
transfers, promotion, wages, incentive
and bonus employee profiles.
ch
2. Material policy - quality, quantity,
vendors, payment terms, stores and
Te
handling documentation.
3. Marketing policy - what to sell,where
to sell, to whom, through whom,
of
communication
4. Quality policy - standards, checks and
control feedback, corrective measures
te
Management strategy: It is a management
tu
process that focuses on identifying and
building competitive advantage by generating
sti
good ideas and implementing them
effectively.
In
1.6 International organizations for quality
The ISO 9000 (International Organization of
re
Standardization) of QMS standards is
designed to help organizations ensure that
Co
they meet the needs of customers and other
stakeholders while meeting statutory and
regulatory requirements related to a product
or service. ISO 9000 deals with the
fundamentals of QMS including the seven
quality management principles upon which
the family of standards is based. ISO 9001
deals with the requirements that organizations
wishing to meet the standard must fulfill. ISO
9000 is a series or family of standards. ISO
9001 is a standard within the family. The ISO
9000 family of standards also contains an
individual standard named ISO 9000. This
standard lays out the fundamentals and
vocabulary of quality.
ISO 9000 series of standards:
The ISO 9000 family contains these standards
● ISO 9001:2015 QMS requirements
● ISO 9000:2015 QMS fundamentals
and vocabulary
● ISO 9004:2009 QMS managing for
the sustained success of an
organization
● ISO 19011:2011 guidelines for
auditing management systems
● ISO 9001 is the only standard within
the ISO 9000 family to which
organizations can certify
History and revision: Originally published in
1987 by the ISO, a specialized International
agency for standardization composed of the
national standard bodies of more than 160
countries underwent major revision in 2000,
again in 2008 and current versions of ISO
9000 and ISO 9001 were published in
September 2015.
The ISO 9000 series are based on 7 quality
management principles. They are
● Customer focus
● Leadership
● Engagement of people
● Process approach
● Improvement
● Evidence based decision making
● Relationship management
Other organizations for quality are
3
 ● ACI American concrete Institute
● ASTM American society for testing
and materials
● BIS Bureau of Indian Standard
● BSI British standards institution
● ASQ American society for quality
● CSA Canadian standards association
gy
1.7 PDCA cycle
It is known as plan-do-check-act or
plan-do-check-adjust. It is a four step iterative
lo
management method used in business for the
no
control and continuous improvement of
processes and products. It is also known as
the Deming circle/ cycle/ wheel.
ch
Plan- assessing a current process or a new
process and figuring how it can be improved
Te
upon. If we know the output of the process
then it is easy to develop a plan to fix or
improve the process.
of
Do- the do face allows the plan from the
previous phase to be enacted and small
te
changes are usually tested.
Check- the data and results from the do phase
tu
are gathered and evaluated. Results are
compared with expected outcome to any
sti
similarities or differences.
Act- if the results from the check phase
In
matches with intended results, no change in
the baseline is required. If changes request
apply the changes then this becomes the new
re
baseline.
Co
Iteration is the fundamental principle in this.
At Toyota this is known as "building people
before building cars."
1.8 Quality circle: A quality circle or quality
control circle is a group of workers who do
the same or similar works, who meet regularly
to identify, analyze and solve work related
problems. A small group is usually led by a
supervisor or manager and presentS its
solutions to management where possible as
well as the workers implement the solutions
themselves in order to improve the
performance of the organization and motivate
employees.
1.9 Total quality management: Total quality
management consists of organization-wide
efforts to install and make a permanent
climate where employees continuously
improve their ability to provide products and
services that consumers will find a particular
value. Total - means all departments like
engineering design, sales accounting and
finance. Management - executives are
obligated to actually manage quality through
funding, training, staffing and goal setting.
The seven basic tools of quality is a
designation given to a fixed set of graphical
techniques identified as being most helpful in
troubleshooting issues related to quality. They
are
● Check sheet
● Control chart
● Stratification (alternatively a flowchart
or a run chart)
● Pareto chart
● Histogram
● Cause and effect diagram (fishbone or
ishikawa)
● Scatter diagram
4
1.10 Cause and effect diagram
It is also known as fishbone diagram or Cost of Cost of non
Ishikawa diagram. The problem statement conformance conformance
placed at the head of the fishbone is used as a
starting point to trace the problem source back Prevention costs Internal failure
to its actionable root cause. The problem (Build a quality costs
product) (Failures found by
statement typically describes the problem as a
● Training project)
gap to be closed or as an objective to be ● Document ● Rework

gy
achieved. The causes are found by looking at processes ● Scrap
the problem statement and asking why until ● Equipment
the actionable root cause has been found out ● Time to do

lo
or reasonable possibilities on each fishbone it right
have been exhausted.

no
Appraisal costs External failure
Advantages (Assess the quality) costs
● Highly visual brainstorming tool ● Testing (found by

ch
which can spark further examples of ● Destructive customers)
root causes. testing loss ● Liabilities
Te
● Quickly identify if the root cause
found multiple times is a same or
● Inspections ● Warranty
works
● Lost
different causal tree Business
of
● Allows one to see all causes
simultaneously Money spent during Money spent during
the project to avoid and after the project
te

● Good visualization for presenting

issues to stakeholders failure because of failures
tu

Disadvantages
1.12 Non-conformance
● Complex defects might yield a lot of
sti

● Non conformance is the failure to

causes which might make the diagram
adhere to the act or its regulations
visually messy.
● Non conformance is the failure to
In

● Inter relationships between causes are

comply with a requirement, standard
not early identifiable.
or procedure.
re

1.11 Cost of quality Non-conformance notice (NCN)

Co

It includes all costs incurred over the life of ● It is issued for conflicts with the
the product by investment in preventing non contract documents
conformance to requirements, appraising the ● They may range from non
products or services for conformance to conformance with recognised onsite
requirements and failing to meet requirements public and employee safety
(reworks). Failure costs are often categorized requirements to deficiencies with the
into internal and external. Failure cost is also work of the project
called as cost of poor quality.

5
Non-conformance report
It is used and issued by a QA/QC engineer on
site to a concerned party who deviated a plan
and/or a specification of the construction
project. It is important as there will always be
a construction team or sub contractor who
deliberately or unknowingly went off plan due
to the tight time schedule and restrictions.
gy
Also this report has to be issued as soon as
possible even suggested on the same day for
fastest circulation of the document, does
lo
lesser time consumed for rectification.
no
NCR are also issued to a contractor
who unknowingly or deliberately used
ch
materials that are not approved by the client.
A failure in the design and strength,
Te
construction methodology as per client's
choice is not followed, any deviation to the
clients construction with respect to
of
installation sequence of works and several
other reasons. A non conformance means the
completed work is not as per the approved
te
plan or drawing, not as per specification, and
tu
not as per requirements of client's design.
1.13 Request for information (RFI)
sti
The construction documents (agreements,
drawings and specifications) developed by the
In
consultant documents the conditions agreed
upon between the owner and the contractor.
re
These documents reflect the understanding
that each party has their own views with
Co
regard to construction in the project they
represent. If every set of construction
documents were clear, unambiguous and
complete interpretation would be necessary as
the extent and understanding of the parties
would be self-evident. Unfortunately this is
not always the case.
In most construction documents it is
inevitable that agreement drawings and
specifications will not adequately address
every single matter. There may be gaps,
conflicts or subtle ambiguity. RFI is to act as a
partnering tool to resolve these gaps, conflicts
or subtle ambiguity during the bidding
process or early in the construction process to
eliminate the need for costly corrective
measures. The one who submits the RFI is the
general contractor and the one who represents
is the consultant. It shall be raised during the
bidding phase or door in the construction
phase.
RFI can be categorized as
● Substitution or construction
modification
● Clarification or additional information
● Construction deficiency (during the
construction phase)
● Construction document deficiency
1.14 Inspection Request (IR)
Inspections are carried out when a segment of
the scheduled work is completed. IR’s are the
documents generated by contractor’s QA/QC
engineers to let the consultant/inspection team
to verify the work for conformance and
approval.
1.15 Project quality checklist
The quality checklist template is a document
that can help you keep track of what needs to
be done when working on a project. This will
help you to ensure that everything has been
completed and nothing has been forgotten.
You can use a quality checklist to ensure that
you are capturing all the necessary
information. This is especially important for
making sure you have documented your
findings and completed the work order
6
according to your company's procedures.
Quality checklists are used to ensure that the
policies of activity have been followed. They
allow for continuous improvement and
promote best practices.
1.16 Material Submittal Sheet (MSS)
Material Submittal Sheet are shop drawings,
material data, samples, and product data.
● The intended start date
● Details of the nature of work to be
undertaken
● The number of operators or workers
who will be involved in the works
● The name of the supervisor or person
responsible for health and safety
● The anticipated date for the

gy
completion of work
Submittals are required primarily for the
3. Method of work
architect and engineer to verify that the
● The description of how the work are to

lo
correct products and quantities will be
be carried out in relation to the task
installed on the project. In precise, material

no
and site specific hazards
submittal sheet is the form that is filled up
● A schedule of the works and the
completely with correct descriptions such as
sequence of operation or tasks

ch
supplier, material descriptions, colour, size,
● Details of where the work is to take
pattern and type of material that are chosen
place and weather this designated area
Te
while submitting materials for the site use. It
will confirm that the material meets the
contract requirements and the needs of the
requires segregation
● Wherever applicable, the inclusion of
details regarding other subcontractors
of
end user. Submittals fall into different
who may affect your works or details
categories depending on specification
of how you will affect the works of the
requirements, some require approval, some
te

other subcontractors
are information only, and others are part of
● For high risk works, provide a detailed
tu

request for proposal.

description of intended emergency
1.17 Method of statement procedures
sti

It is a written document that essentially details 4. Plant or equipment

a safe system of work and identifies the ● The inclusion of details regarding any
In

conceivable hazards that may arise during the equipment or plant that is to be
work that is undertaken. They are usually provided for the works
5. Operative competence
re

provided to the client or consultant by the

main contractor and/or the main contractor by ● The provision of any training that
Co

the subcontractor. operates undertaken the works

Steps to prepare method of statement:
1. Basic contract or name of the project
● The name and number (whatever
applicable) of the contract or job
2. Job details
● The name and address of the company
that is undertaking the works
currently held. For high risk works,
provide details of the designated first
aider
6. Drawing or sketches
● Inclusion of simple illustrations that
can communicate tasks or procedures

7
 to the operatives where necessary or
possible
7. Monitoring and review
● Details of how the works will be
monitored, supervised or evaluated
● Details of the person who will
communicate the method of statement
to the relevant operatives and when

gy
this communication take place
8. Risk assessment
● The inclusion of any risk assessment

lo
site health and safety issues which will

no
assist in the identification and
management of task specific hazards

ch
A method of statement may also include
information regarding specific necessities as
Te
per the request of the client, principal
contractor, manufacturer, health and safety
specialist or local authority
of
te
tu
sti
In
re
Co

8
 2. QA/QC in Construction
2.1 QA in construction industry
Quality assurance is a method of avoiding
potential mistakes in a construction project by
creating ‘rules’ about minimum quality, while
ensuring all decisions meet these standards.
gy
Quality assurance covers things like:
● Materials used: Are they of the right
standard, size, shape and material?
lo
● Equipment: Will it work in the
no
environment and is it safe?
● Agreed ways of measuring quality:
What does ‘good’ look like?
ch
● Project management: Timeframes, fair
bidding processes, agreed budgets, etc.
Te
● Certificates and skills: Do your people
have the right skills for the job?
A successful QA program aims to ensure that
of
the quality procedures implemented during
the design phase of a construction project
te
effectively meet the company-established
standards for quality service, performance,
tu
and production. The core specifications focus
on:
sti
● Qualifications established for
architects, designers, and engineers
In
● Markup rules pertaining to plans and
drawings from preparation thru
re
revision and into final approval
● The assurance that specified materials
Co
comply with company-established
quality standards.
Quality Assurance crafts procedures that
enable management and work crews to
identify properly qualified suppliers and
defines a methodology that enables your team
to evaluate and identify construction
standards that best satisfy:
● Building code specifications
● Legal provisions
● Construction safety necessities
● Customer quality expectations.
It sets the specifications for supplier selection,
including requirements for:
● Visit and inspection of supplier
facilities
● Materials testing
● Existence of a supplier-side QA
program and
● Any other criteria necessary to ensure
that the proposed supplier is qualified
to meet the company-established
Quality Assurance specs.
Achieving quality in construction is a
time-consuming and intensive process, which
everyone is responsible for. It’s about
constantly checking decisions and work that
meet the quality assurance standards set. The
best and most transparent way to build and
maintain the trust of your customers is to
guarantee the promised quality. For this
purpose, the so-called Quality Assurance
Programs (QAP) exist. They can be defined
as a set of activities and initiatives that work
together to ensure that a project is carried out
according to a predefined quality standard,
that a product is installed correctly or that a
specific service is provided to the owner of
the building according to the highest industry
standards.
Quality Assurance Programs (QAPs)
follow the principles dictated by ISO 9002
and incorporate a wide range of initiatives,
which a construction industry can follow to
9
ensure the correct installation of a product or
system.
2.2 Quality Control
QC is the process that ensures that materials
used on the project actually comply with
properly signed drawings and plans and
ensures that the task-specific personnel
selection, and labor performance efficiency.
QC is also responsible for testing finished
goods and services to ensure compliance to
the QA standards and examines the
established QA standards, certifies that
prospective suppliers meet the criteria, and
follows through by testing supplied parts and
services as dictated by the existing

gy
actually perform construction project company-establish construction project QA
processes according to the specified QA program.

lo
standards. Quality Control verifies correct 2.3 Materials in construction
applied quality methodology, material

no
ch
Te
of
te
tu
sti
In
re
Co

10
 3. TESTS ON CEMENT
Quality Tests on cement are carried out to check
the strength and quality of the cement used in
construction. It helps to identify the usage of
cement for different purposes based on its
durability and performance.
gy
3.1 Field Tests on Cement
The following tests should undergo before mixing
lo
the cement at construction sites:
no
❖ The colour of the cement should not be
uneven. It should be a uniform grey colour
ch
with a light greenish shade.
❖ The cement should not contain any hard
lumps. These lumps are formed by the
Te
absorption of moisture content from the
atmosphere. The cement bags with lumps
of
should be avoided in construction.
❖ The cement should be smooth if you rub it
between your fingers. If not, then it is
te
because of adulteration with sand.
tu
sti
In
re
❖ The particles of cement should flow freely
in water for sometime before it sinks.
Co
❖ It is very important to check the
manufacturing date because the strength
of cement decreases with time. It's better
to use cement before 3 months from the
date of manufacturing.
❖ Should have homogeneous colour and
texture.
❖ Should give cool feeling when the hand is
thrusted inside the bag of cement.
3.2 Laboratory tests on Cement
The following tests are conducted on cement in
the laboratory are as follows:
3.2.1. Fineness Test Of Cement
The fineness of cement has an important bearing
on the rate of hydration and hence on the rate of
gain of strength and also on the rate of evolution
of heat. Finer cement offers a greater surface area
for hydration and hence faster the development of
strength. Increase in fineness of cement is also
found to increase the drying shrinkage of
concrete.
Aim:
To determine the fineness of cement by using a 90
µm IS sieve
Reference:
● IS 4031 (Part 1) – 1988 – Determination
of Fineness by Dry Sieving
Apparatus:
● 90µm IS Sieve
● Weight Balance has a capacity of 10 mg to
100 g,
● Nylon or pure bristle brush
Procedure:
● Collect a sample of cement and rub it with
your hands. The Fineness test sample
should be free of lumps.
● Take 100 gm of cement sample and note
its weight as W1.
● Drop 100 gm of cement in a 90 µm sieve
and close it with the lid.
11
 ● Now, shake the sieve with your hands by Apparatus:
agitating the sieve in planetary and linear ● Vicat apparatus
movements for 15 minutes. ● Vicat mould
● After that take the weight of the retained ● 10 mm dia plunger
cement on the 90 µm sieve as W2. To ● Stop watch
calculate the fineness of cement formula is ● Weighing balance
given below, ● Measuring jar
● Non porous smooth plate
Fineness = (W2/W1) * 100

gy
● Graduated scale
Then, calculate the percentage of Weight of
cement retained on Sieve. Repeat this procedure Reference:

lo
with three different samples of cement and ● IS 4031 (Part 4) – 1988 – Determination
average the values for accurate results. of Consistency of Standard Cement Paste

no
Observations and Calculations Procedure:
● Keep the vicat apparatus on a level base.

ch
N Wt of Wt Cement Sample Fineness
Unscrew the top of the dashpot. Half fill
o Cement Retained on 90µm of
the dashpot with any suitable oil of

1
Sample

100 gm
Te Sieve

4.65
Cement

4.65 %
viscosity and screw the top.
● Attach the plunger for determining
standard consistency to the movable rod.
of
2 100 gm 8.25 8.25 % Work the plunger a number of times.
● Take 400 gm of cement in a pan and a
te

3 100 gm 7.95 7.95 % weighted quantity of water in a beaker.

● Prepare a paste with the water added to
tu

Average 6.95 % cement. Start a stopwatch at the time of

adding water to cement.
sti

Result: The standard value of fineness of cement ● Keep the vicat mould on a non porous
should have fineness less than 10 % or fineness of plate and fill the cement paste in it.
In

cement should not be more than 10% as per IS ● After completely filling the mould, shake
Recommendations. it slightly to expel the air. Smooth off the
re

surface of the paste making it level with

3.2.2 Standard Consistency Test the top of the mould.
Co

The standard consistency of cement is that
consistency, which permits the vicat plunger to
penetrate to a point 5 to 7mm from the bottom of
the vicat mould when tested.
Aim:
To determine the standard consistency of cement.
● Place the test block resting on the non
porous plate under the movable rod,
bearing the needle.
● Lower the plunger gently to touch the
surface of the cement paste and quickly
release.
● Prepare trial test specimens with varying
percentages of water until plunger

12
 penetrates to a point 5 to 7mm from the
bottom of the vicat mould, which is read
on the scale.
● If the plunger penetrates to a point
between 5mm to 7mm from the bottom of
the mould, the water added is correct.
Express the water required as percentage
by weight of the dry cement.
3.2.3 Initial Setting and Final Setting test of
cement
The initial setting time of concrete is the time
when cement paste starts hardening while the
final setting time is the time when cement paste
has hardened sufficiently in such a way that a 1
mm needle makes an impression on the paste in
the mould but a 5 mm needle does not make any

gy
impression.
Observations and Calculations:
1. Weight of cement taken (g) = _________ Aim:

lo
2. Initial percentage of water added to To find the initial and final setting time of
cement = __________ concrete using Vicat’s apparatus.

no
3. Quantity of water added to cement
=_______ Reference:
● IS 4031 (Part 5) – 1988 – Determination

ch
The following table is for recording standard of initial and final setting times
consistency value
Sl.
No: (ml)
Te
Qty of water Depth of
penetration (mm)
Apparatus Required:
● Vicat’s apparatus
● Balance
of
● Measuring cylinder
● Stop watch
te

● Glass plate
● Enamel tray
tu

Standard Consistency of Cement = ● Trowel

(Quantity of water for 5-7 mm penetration/Weight
sti

of cement) x 100 Initial Preparation

● Consistency test to be done before starting
the test procedure to find out the water
In

required to give the paste normal

consistency (P).
re

● Take 400 g of cement and prepare a neat

cement paste with 0.85P of water by
Co

weight of cement.
● Gauge time is kept between 3 to 5
minutes. Start the stopwatch at the instant
when the water is added to the cement.
Results: Record this time (T1).
Percentage of water content for standard ● Fill the Vicat mould, resting on a glass
consistency = _____% plate, with the cement paste gauged as
above. Fill the mould completely and

13
 smooth off the surface of the paste making
it level with the top of the mould. The
cement block thus prepared is called a test
block.
Test for Initial Setting Time
● Place the test block confined in the mould
and resting on the non-porous plate, under
the rod bearing the needle.
Calculations:
Initial setting time = T2-T1
Final setting time = T3-T1
Where,
T1 =Time at which water is first added to
cement
T2 =Time when needle fails to penetrate 5
mm to 7 mm from bottom of the mould

gy
T3 =Time when the needle makes an
● Lower the needle gently until it comes in impression but the attachment fails to do so.
contact with the surface of the test block

lo
and quick release, allowing it to penetrate Standard Specification of Setting Time for
into the test block. Different Types of Cement

no
● In the beginning the needle completely Depending upon the admixtures added into the
pierces the test block. Repeat this cement in the process of manufacture of cement,

ch
procedure i.e. quickly releasing the needle the setting time differs for different cement.
after every 2 minutes till the needle fails Standard setting times are listed in the below

Te
to pierce the block for about 5 mm
measured from the bottom of the mould.
Note this time (T2).
table as per IS Codes.

Initial Final
of
Cement Type Setting Setting
Test for Final Setting Time
Time, min Time, min
● For determining the final setting time,
te

replace the needle of the Vicat’s apparatus

by the needle with an annular attachment. OPC(33) 30 600
tu

● The cement is considered finally set when

OPC(43) 30 600
upon applying the final setting needle
sti

gently to the surface of the test block; the

OPC(53) 30 600
needle makes an impression thereon,
In

while the attachment fails to do so. Record

SRC 30 600
this time (T3).
re

PPC 30 600
Co

RHPC 30 600

PSC 30 600

High alumina 30 600

Super sulphated 30 600

14
 ● Take the halves of the mould and cover
Low heat 60 600
them with a thin film of petroleum jelly at
the contact surface of the mould bottom
Masonry cement 90 1440
and its base plate to prevent water leakage
during vibration.
IRS-T-40 60 600
● Apply oil to the interior surfaces of the
mould. Place the mould after assembling
3.2.4 Compressive strength of hydraulic
it on the vibration machine table and
cement

gy
clamp it firmly.
The strength of cement cannot be defined directly
● Take a hopper of a suitable size and shape
on the cement. Instead the strength of cement is
to facilitate the filling of the material.

lo
indirectly defined on cement-mortar of 1:3.
● Place the hopper at the top of mould and

no
Aim: keep it on till the vibration is completed.
To find the compressive strength of 1:3 cement ● Place the prepared mortar in the cube
mortar, which is the strength of cement at a mould and compact it till no entrained air

ch
specific period. is present and honeycombing is also
absent. Fill the remaining quantity of
References:
Te
● IS 4031 (Part 6) – 1988 – Determination
of Compressive Strength of Hydraulic
mortar if necessary via hopper and
compact again as done earlier with
Vibration Speed = 1200 ± 400
of
Cement Other than Masonry Cement vibration/min for a time Period 2 min
● Place the moulds in a moist room for 24
Apparatus Required:
te

hrs after vibration and submerge the cubes

● Vibration Machine
in clean fresh water until testing of cubes
● Cube Mould
tu

at 27 ± 2 °C.
● Poking rod
● Apply the load steadily and uniformly
sti

● Gauging Trowel
starting from 0 at the rate of load
● Balance
application shall be 35 N/mm2/min and
● Standard Weights
In

note the load at which the cement cube

● Graduated Glass Cylinders
fails
● Non porous plate
re

● Hopper Observations:
Co

Procedure Time Period Load at which the cement

● Take a mixture of cement and standard cube fails (P)
sand on a non-porous plate and dry mix Cube 1 Cube 2 Cube 3
them for a minute with a trowel.
● Add the required quantity of water to the 3 days
dry mix and mix for 3 to 4 minutes to
7 days
obtain an uniform mix.
28 days

15
 Compressive strength = P/A ● Cover the mould with another piece of
P = Crushing load in N lightly oiled glass sheet, place a small
A = area of cube subjected to the load in mm2 weight on this covering glass sheet and
(5000 mm2) immediately submerge the whole
The calculations are to be taken to the nearest assembly in water at a temperature of 27 ±
0.05 mm2. 2°C and keep there for 24 hours.
Compressive strength of the given cement sample ● Measure the distance separating the
= Average of 3 cubes indicator points to the nearest 0.5 mm as

gy
L1. Submerge the mould again in water at
Testing Periods for Different Types of Cement: the temperature prescribed above.
● Bring the water to boiling, with the mould

lo
● OPC – 3, 7, & 28 days
● RHC – 1 & 3 days kept submerged, in 25 to 30 minutes, and

no
● Low heat Portland cement – 3 & 7 days keep it boiling for three hours. Remove
the mould from the water, allow it to cool
3.2.5 Soundness Test for Cement and measure the distance between the

ch
In the soundness test a specimen of hardened indicator points as L2.
cement paste is boiled for a fixed time so that any ● The difference between these two
Te
tendency to expand is speeded up and can be
detected. Soundness means the ability to resist
volume expansion.
measurements indicates the expansion of
the cement. This must not exceed 10 mm
for ordinary, rapid hardening and low heat
of
Portland cements. If in case the expansion
Aim:
is more than 10 mm as tested above, the
To find the soundness of cement using
te

cement is said to be unsound.

Le-chatlier’s apparatus.
tu

References:
sti

● IS 4031 (Part 3) – 1988 – Determination

of Soundness
In

Apparatus Required:
● Le-chatlier’s apparatus
re

● Water bath Observation and Recordings:

● Weighing balance
Co

Soundness/expansion of cement = L2-L1

Procedure:
● Place the lightly oiled mould on a lightly
oiled glass sheet and fill it with cement
paste formed by gauging cement with 0.78
times the water required to give a paste of
standard consistency.
L1=Measurement taken after 24 hours of
immersion in water at a temp. of 27 ± 2℃
L2=Measurement taken after 3 hours of
immersion in water at boiling temperature.
Calculate the mean of two values to the nearest
0.5 mm.

16
Note: Observation and Recordings
❖ If the value of expansion is less than
10mm, the cement is called sound. Description of item Trial 1 Trial 2
❖ As the value of expansion is more than
Weight of empty bottle
10mm, the cement is called unsound
(W1 g)
3.2.6 Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio between Weight of bottle + Cement
weight of a given volume of material and weight (W2 g)

gy
of an equal volume of water. To determine the Weight of bottle + Cement
specific gravity of cement, kerosene is used + Kerosene (W3 g)

lo
which does not react with cement.
Weight of bottle + Full

no
Aim:
Kerosene (W4 g)
To determine the specific gravity of a given
sample of cement.

ch
Weight of bottle + Full
Water (W5 g)
Apparatus Required
Te
● Weighing balance
● Specific gravity bottle (50ml capacity)
● Kerosene
Specific gravity = (W2 - W1) x (W4-W1) /
[{(W4-W1)-(W3-W2)} x (W5-W1)]
of
● Funnel

Procedure
te

● Clean and dry the specific gravity bottle

and weigh it with the stopper (W1).
tu

● Fill the specific gravity bottle with the

sti

cement sample at least half of the bottle

and weigh with the stopper (W2).
● Fill the specific gravity bottle containing
In

the cement, with kerosene (free of water)

placing the stopper and weigh it (W3),
re

While doing this do not allow any air Result:

bubbles to remain in the specific gravity The tensile strength of the given cement sample is
Co

bottle. ______ N/mm2

● After weighing the bottle, the bottle shall
be cleaned and dried again. 3.2.7 Tensile Strength of Cement
● Then fill it with fresh kerosene and weigh
Aim:
it with the stopper (W4).
To determine the tensile strength of the given
● Remove the kerosene from the bottle and
cement sample
fill it with water and weigh it with the
stopper (W5).

17
Apparatus:
● Testing machine
● Briquette mould
● Spatula

Procedure:
● Take cement and sand in 1:3 ratio and
water in quantity = (P/5) + 2.5 where P is
the percentage water required for standard

gy
consistency.
● The cement mortar mix is prepared and

lo
filled in a briquette mould.
● Place an additional heap of cement mix at Observation and Recordings

no
the top once the mould is filled and apply
a downward force on this heap by beating

ch
with a spatula till water appears at the top. Mould P A 3 days 7 days
Tensile Tensile
This is to ensure that the top surface is
Strength Strength

of mould.
Te
levelled. Repeat the same to the other side

● Smoothen the surface with the trowel

1
of
blade to achieve the finishing of the 2
surface. Prepare 12 such moulds
3
● Keep the moulds at 27 ± 2 °C and the
te

atmosphere containing 90 % humidity for 4

tu

24 hours.
● Remove the briquettes from moulds after 5
sti

24 hours and immerse them in clean water

6
for curing till the specimen is taken out for
In

testing. Avg – –
● Test 6 briquettes in 3 days and another 6
in 7 days.
re

● Place the cement specimen between the Result:

anvils of the testing machine and apply The tensile strength of the given cement sample is
Co

the load on the specimen at the rate of 0.7 ______ N/mm2

N/mm2 starting from 0 in 12 seconds.
● Note the load at which the cement
specimen fails.
● The tensile strength can be found by
dividing the failure load by surface area

18
 4. TESTS ON AGGREGATES
Aggregates are crucial in the construction Procedure:
industry and can be utilized for a variety of ● Test samples consist of aggregate passing
projects. Aggregates are a key component in the a 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on a
production of concrete and provide various 10mm IS sieve. The aggregate to be tested
advantages. Their principal application is to is dried in the oven for a period of not less
reinforce concrete, hence strengthening its than 4 hours.
structure and reducing cracking. ● The cylindrical steel cup is filled with 3

gy
equal layers of aggregate and each layer is
As a result, before using aggregates for tamped 25 strokes by the rounded end of

lo
construction, they must be examined and the tamping rod and the surplus aggregate
evaluated for quality. Many types of aggregate struck off, using the tamping rod as a

no
studies show that aggregate quality has a straight edge.
significant impact on the quality of concrete and,
● The net weight of aggregate in the

ch
eventually, the building.
cylindrical steel cup is determined to the
4.1 Aggregate Crushing Test nearest gram (WA) and this weight of
Te
The strength of aggregate is defined as the
resistance of the aggregate against gradual
aggregate is used for the duplicate test on
the same material.
● The cup is fixed firmly in position on the
loading. The strength of aggregate is determined
of
by the Crushing Value Test on aggregates. base of the machine and the whole of the
test sample is added in thirds, each third
Aim: being subjected to 25 strokes from the
te

For determination of the aggregate crushing value tamping rod.

tu

of coarse aggregate, which passes 12.5 mm. IS ● The surface is leveled and the plunger is
sieve and retained on 10 mm IS sieve. inserted so that it rests horizontally on the
sti

surface. The whole assembly is then

References: placed between the plates of the testing
In

● IS 2386 (Part IV)-1963 Methods of test for machine and loaded at a uniform rate so as
aggregate for concrete Part IV Mechanical to reach a load of 40 tons in 10 minutes.
Properties ● The load is then released and all aggregate
re

Apparatus: is removed from the cup and sieved on

2.36 mm. IS sieve until no further
Co

● Steel Cylinder
significant amount passes in one minute.
● Sieves (12.5mm,10mm)
● The fraction passing the sieve is weighed
● Cylindrical metal measure
to an accuracy of 0.1g (WB)
● Tamping Rod
● Balance (0-10 kg)
● Oven (300°C)
● Compression testing Machine (2000KN)

19
 Procedure:
● The cylindrical steel cup is filled with 3
equal layers of aggregate and each layer is
tamped 25 strokes by the rounded end of
the tamping rod and the surplus aggregate
struck off, using the tamping rod as a
straight edge.
● The net weight of aggregate in the

gy
cylindrical steel cup is determined to the
nearest gram (WA) and this weight of
aggregate is used for the duplicate test on

lo
the same material.
● The cup is fixed firmly in position on the

no
Calculation base of the machine and the whole of the
The ratio of the weight of fines formed to the total test sample is placed in it and compacted

ch
sample weight in each test is to be expressed as a by a single tamping of 25 strokes of
percentage, to the first decimal place. tamping rod.
Te
Aggregate crushing Value =(WB/WA) × 100
● The hammer is raised until its lower face
is 380 mm. above the upper surface of the
Result: aggregate in the cup, and allowed to fall
of
The Aggregate crushing Value of the aggregate freely onto the aggregate 15 times, each
sample is being delivered at an interval of not less
te

than one second.

4.2 Aggregate Impact Test ● The crushed aggregate is removed from
tu

the cup and sieved on 2.36 mm. IS sieve

Aim:
until no further significant amount passes
sti

For determination of the aggregate impact value

in one minute.
of coarse aggregate, which passes 12.5 mm. IS
● The fraction passing the sieve is weighed
sieve and retained on 10 mm IS sieve.
In

to an accuracy of 0.1 g (WB)

References:
● IS: 2386(Part IV)-1963 Methods of test
re

for aggregate for concrete Part IV

Co

Mechanical Properties

Apparatus:
● Aggregate Impact Test Machine
● Sieves (12.5mm,10mm)
● Cylindrical metal measure
● Tamping Rod
● Balance (0-10kg)
● Oven(3000c)

20
Calculation
The ratio of the weight of fines formed to the total
sample weight in each test is to be expressed as a
percentage, to the first decimal place.
Aggregate impact Value = (WB / WA) × 100
Result:
The Aggregate impact Value of the aggregate
Calculation
sample is
separation of the sample is made on 1.70
mm IS sieve.
● The material which is coarser than 1.70
mm. IS sieve is washed, dried and
accurately weighed to the nearest gram
(B).

gy
The difference between the original weight and
4.3 Aggregate Abrasion Test the final weight of the test sample is expressed as

lo
a percentage of the original weight of the test
Aim: sample.
For determination of the aggregate abrasion value

no
Aggregate Abrasion value = [(A-B)/A] x 100%
of coarse aggregate.
4.4 Flakiness Index Test

ch
References:
● IS: 2386(Part IV)-1963 Methods of test Aim:
To determine the Flakiness Index of the given
Te
for aggregate for concrete Part IV
Mechanical Properties sample of course aggregate.

Apparatus: References:
of
● Los Angeles machines ● IS 2386 (Part 1):1963 Methods of Test for
● Sieves (1.70mm) Aggregates for formation of Concrete-
te

● Cylindrical metal measure Particle Size and Shape. Reaffirmed Dec

● Tamping Rod 2016
tu

● Balance (0-10 kg)

Apparatus:
● Oven (3000C)
sti

● Weighing balance
Procedure:
● Metal gauge
In

● The required weight of test sample (A) is

● Standard sieves
selected conforming to one of the grading
mentioned in Table II of IS : 2386 (Part
re

IV) – 1963.
● The test sample and the abrasive charge is
Co

to be placed in the machine and rotated at

a speed of 20 to 33 rev/min.
● For grading A, B, C & D [as per Table II
of IS : 2386 (Part IV)- 1963] the machine
is to be rotated for 1000 revolutions.
● At the completion of the test, the material
is discharged from the machine and

21
 5. TESTS ON SOIL
Soil inspection or say geotechnical inspection is very Minimum Quantity of Soil Required for Water
important in understanding the physical properties of Content Determination
soil and the rocks beneath. This is required to
ascertain the type of foundation required for the Size of particles more Minimum Quantity
proposed construction. Various tests are done to than 90% of passing (grams)
explore the subsurface and surface characteristics of
soil. Some of these are given below.
425 micron sieve 25

gy
5.1 WATER CONTENT 2 mm sieve 50
The water content of soil is the ratio of mass of

lo
4.25 mm sieve 200
water to mass of soil which is expressed in
percentage. The commonly used testing methods

no
10 mm sieve 300
are oven drying method, pycnometer method and
calcium carbide method. 20 mm sieve 500

ch
5.1.1 Oven Dry Method
40 mm sieve 1000
Aim :

using an oven.
Te
To determine the water content of the soil by
Procedure
● Clean and dry the containers and weigh
them and note down the mass of each
of
Principle : container (W1). Also note down the
The water content of a soil sample is equal to the number of each container along with its
weight.
te

ratio of mass of water to the mass of solids.

● Remove the top layer of soil and collect
tu

Reference : IS 2720 (Part II) -1973 the wet soil sample from bottom layers.
● Fill the containers with the required
Apparatus Required for Oven Dry Method
sti

quantity of soil sample and weigh each

● Hot Air Oven
container and note down its mass (W2).
● 3 Non-corrodible airtight containers
In

● Place the containers in a hot air oven,

● Digital Weight Machine
arrange temperature to 110 ± 5 and allow
● Desiccator
them to dry for 24 hours.
re

● Tongs
● After 24 hours, turn off the oven and take
out the containers using tongs.
Co

Minimum Soil Sample Quantity

The soil sample collected from the field should be
of required quantity to find the water content. The
quantity of soil required depends upon the
maximum particle size and gradation of soil
sample. Below table shows the soil quantity
required for the test based on the sieve.
● Cool down the containers in a desiccator
for one hour.
● After that weigh containers and note down
the mass (W3) of each container with the
dry sample.
● An average of 3 determinations should be
taken.

22
Calculations ● Now empty and wash the pycnometer.
Water content of given soil sample = Then fill it with only water and take its
((W2-W3)/(W2-W1)) x 100 % mass (M4).

5.1.2. Pycnometer Method

Pycnometer method is also useful to determine
water content. But this is used when the specific
gravity of the given soil sample is already known.

gy
However, Specific gravity can also be determined
using a pycnometer.

lo
Aim:
To find the water content using pycnometer

no
Apparatus Required
● Pycnometer

ch
● Weighing balance with an accuracy of
1.0g
● Glass rod
● Vacuum pump
Te Calculations
Water content =
{[(M2-M1)/(M3-M4)][(G-1)/G]-1} x 10
of
Procedure where
● Wash, clean and dry the pycnometer and M1=mass of empty Pycnometer,
M2= mass of the Pycnometer with wet soil
te

note down its mass (M1) along with brass

cap and washer using weighing balance M3= mass of the Pycnometer and soil, filled with
tu

with an accuracy of 1.0 g. water,

● Now place a sample of wet soil about 200 M4 = mass of Pycnometer filled with water only.
sti

to 400 g in a pycnometer and note down G= Specific gravity of solids.

its mass (M2). 5.1.3 Calcium carbide method
In

● Then add water to the soil in the

pycnometer to make it about half full. The calcium carbide method is a rapid method of
● Stir the soil using a glass rod to remove determining water content in the soil. The
re

air voids of the soil sample. If available, calcium carbide method works on the principle of
the chemical reaction that is when the water
Co

connect the vacuum pump to the soil

specimen to remove entrapped air. reacts with calcium carbide (CaC2) releases the
● Add some more water and after acetylene gas (C2H2).
eliminating the entrapped air stop stirring
Test standard reference : IS 2720 (Part II) -1973
and fix the brass cap. More water is added
through a hole in the brass cap until the Principle : The water in the soil reacts with
water is flush with the hole. calcium carbide to produce acetylene gas and the
● Now take the mass of the pycnometer
(M3).

23
pressure exerted by it on the diaphragm gives ● Shake the unit up and down vigorously in
water content in soil. this position for about 15 seconds.
● Hold the unit horizontally, rotating it for
Apparatus 10 seconds, so that the balls roll around
● Moisture Tester the inner circumference of the body. Let it
● Dial Gauge rest for 20 seconds.
● Scoop ● Repeat the above cycle until the pressure
● Steel balls gauge reading is constant. The acetylene
● Balancing Machine

gy
gas produces pressure inside the metallic
● Metallic bottle bottle and this pressure is recorded by the
Dial Gauge.

lo
● From the scale of the dial gauge the water

no
content based on the total mass is
determined. Usually it takes 4 to 8
minutes to achieve constant reading. This

ch
is the water content (m) obtained on a wet
mass basis.
Te ● Finally, release the pressure slowly by
opening the clamp screw and taking the
cup out, empty the contents and clean the
of
instrument with a brush.

Calculations
te

Procedure The reading obtained is in wet moisture basis (m).

tu

● Check that the cup and the body are clean. This must be converted into water content on dry
● Hold the body horizontally and gently mass basis, which is calculated as:
sti

deposit the leveled, scoop-full of the Water content = [m/(100-m)] x 100%

absorbent (Calcium Carbide) inside the
In

chamber. Transfer the weighted soil of 6g 5.2 FREE SWELL INDEX

from the pan to the cup. Free swell or differential free swell, also termed
● Hold cup and chamber horizontally, as free swell index, is the increase in volume of
re

bringing them together without disturbing soil without any external constraint when
Co

the sample and the absorbent. subjected to submergence in water.

● Clamp the cup tightly into place. If the
Aim:
sample is bulky, reverse the above
To determine the free swell index of the soil.
placement, that is, put the sample in the
chamber and the absorbent in the cup. Reference:
● In case of clayey soils, place all the 4 steel ● IS: 2720 (Part XL) – 1977
balls (3 smaller and 1 bigger) in the body
along with the absorbent. Apparatus:
● IS Sieve of size 425µm

24
 ● Oven
● Balance, with an accuracy of 0.01g
● Graduated glass cylinder- 2 nos., each of
100ml capacity
Procedure:
● Take two specimens of 10g each of
pulverized soil passing through 425µm IS
Sieve and oven-dry.
gy
● Pour each soil specimen into a graduated
glass cylinder of 100 ml capacity.
lo
● Pour distilled water in one and kerosene
oil in the other cylinder upto 100 ml mark.
no
● Remove entrapped air by gently shaking
or stirring with a glass rod.
ch
● Allow the suspension to attain the state of
equilibrium (for not less than 24 hours).
Te
● Final volume of soil in each of the
graduated cylinders should be read out.
Calculations:
of
Free swell index = [Vd – Vk] / Vk x 100%
where,
te
Vd = volume of soil specimen read from the
graduated cylinder containing distilled water.
tu
Vk = volume of soil specimen read from the
graduated cylinder containing kerosene.
sti
5.3 PLASTIC LIMIT
In
The plastic limit is the water content at which a
soil-water paste changes from a semisolid to a
plastic consistency as it is rolled into a 3 mm
re
diameter thread in a standard test.
Co
Aim:
To determine the plastic limit of soil as per the IS
standard code.
Reference:
● IS: 2720 (Part 5) – 1985
Apparatus:
● 120mm dia porcelain evaporating dish
● Spatula
● Container to determine moisture content
● Balance, with an accuracy of 0.01g
● Oven
● Ground glass plate – 20cm x 15cm
● Rod – 3mm dia. and about 10cm long
Procedure:
● Take about 20 gm of thoroughly mixed
portion of the material passing through
425 micron I.S.sieve obtained in
accordance with I.S. 2720 (Part 1)- 1983.
● Mix it thoroughly with distilled water in
the evaporating dish till the soil mass
becomes plastic enough to be easily
moulded with fingers.
● Allow it to season for sufficient time (for
24 hrs) to allow water to permeate
throughout the soil mass
● Take about 8 gm of this plastic soil mass
and roll it between fingers and glass plate
with just sufficient pressure to roll the
mass into a thread of uniform diameter
throughout its length. The rate of rolling
shall be between 80 and 90 strokes per
minute.
● Continue rolling till you get a thread of 3
mm diameter.
● Kneed the soil together to a uniform mass
and re-roll. Continue the process until the
thread crumbles when the diameter is 3
mm.
● Collect the pieces of the crumbled thread
in an air tight container for moisture
content determination as described in
IS:2720 (Part 2)-1973.
● Repeat the test at least 3 times and take
the average of the results calculated to the
nearest whole number.
25
5.4 LIQUID LIMIT top and 8mm deep. For sandy soil: The
ASTM tool is used to cut a groove 2 mm
Liquid limit is the water content where the soil wide at the bottom, 13.6mm wide at the
starts to behave as a liquid. top and 10mm deep.
Aim: ● After the soil pat has been cut by a proper
To determine the liquid limit of the soil. grooving tool, the handle is rotated at the
rate of about 2 revolutions per second and
Reference: the number of blows counted, till the two

gy
● IS 2720 (Part V) -1985 parts of the soil sample come into contact
for about 10mm length.
Apparatus:
● Take about 10g of soil near the closed

lo
● Casagrande’s liquid limit device
groove and determine its water content.
● Grooving tools of both standard and
●

no
The soil of the cup is transferred to the
ASTM types
dish containing the soil paste and mixed
● Oven
thoroughly after adding a little more

ch
Evaporating dish
water. Repeat the test.
● Spatula
● By altering the water content of the soil
Te
● IS Sieve of size 425µm
● Weighing balance
● Wash bottle
and repeating the foregoing operations,
obtain at least 5 readings in the range of
15 to 35 blows. Don’t mix dry soil to
of
● Air-tight and non-corrodible container for
change its consistency.
determination of moisture content
● Liquid limit is determined by plotting a
te

Procedure: ‘flow curve’ on a semi-log graph, with no.

● Air-dry the soil sample and break the of blows as abscissa (log scale) and the
tu

clods. Remove the organic matter like tree water content as coordinate and drawing
roots, pieces of bark, etc. the best straight line through the plotted
sti

● About 100g of the specimen passing points

through 425µm IS Sieve is mixed
In

thoroughly with distilled water in the

evaporating dish and left for 24 hours for
re

soaking.
● Place a portion of the paste in the cup of
Co

the liquid limit device and level the mix so

as to have a maximum depth of 1cm.
● Draw the grooving tool through the
sample along the symmetrical axis of the
cup, holding the tool perpendicular to the
cup. For normal fine grained soil:
Casagrande's tool is used to cut a groove 2
mm wide at the bottom, 11mm wide at the
Reporting of results
Plot the relationship between water content (on
y-axis) and number of blows (on x-axis) on a
semi-log graph. The curve obtained is called flow
curve. The moisture content corresponding to 25

26
drops (blows) as read from the represents liquid
limit. It is usually expressed to the nearest whole
number.
Flow index If = (W2-W1)/log(N1/N2) = slope of
the flow curve
A sample ‘flow curve’ is given as
temperature of the sample should not exceed 60
degree Celcius. The clod may be broken with a
wooden mallet to hasten drying. Care should be
taken not to break the individual soil particles.
Tree roots and pieces of bark should be removed
from the sample.
Procedure
● The dried sample is taken in a tray, soaked

gy
in water and mixed with either 2g of
sodium hexametaphosphate or 1g of

lo
sodium hydroxide and 1g of sodium
carbonate per litre of water. The soaking

no
of soil continues for 10 to 12 hrs.
● The sample is washed through 4.75mm IS

ch
Sieve with water till substantially clean
water comes out. Retained sample on

Te 4.75mm IS sieve should be oven-dried for

24hrs. This dried sample is sieved through
20mm and 10mm IS Sieves.
5.5 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
of
● The portion passing through 4.75mm IS
Aim: Sieve should be oven-dried for 24hrs. This
To determine the particle size distribution of soil oven-dried material is rifled and about
te

200g taken.
Reference:
tu

● This sample of about 200g is washed

● IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985
through 75µm IS sieve with half litre
sti

Apparatus Required: distilled water, till substantially clear

● A set of fine IS Sieves of sizes – 2mm, water comes out.
In

600µm, 425µm, 212µm and 75µm ● The material retained on 75µm IS sieve is
● A set of coarse IS Sieves of sizes – 20mm, collected and dried in the oven at a
10mm and 4.75mm temperature of 105 to 120oC for 24hrs.
re

● Weighing balance The dried soil sample is sieved through

● Oven 2mm, 600µm, 425µm and 212µm IS
Co

● Mechanical shaker Sieves. Soil retained on each sieve is

● Brushes
● Trays
Preparation of the sample
Soil samples, as received from the field, should
be dried in air or in the sun. In wet weather, the
drying apparatus may be used where the
weighed.
● If the soil passing 75µm is 10% or more, a
hydrometer method is used to analyse soil
particle size.
Hydrometer Analysis
● Particles passed through 75µm IS sieve
along with water are collected and put into

27
 a 1000 ml jar for hydrometer analysis.
More water, if required, is added to make
the soil water suspension just 1000ml. The
suspension in the jar is vigorously shaken
horizontally by keeping the jar in-between
the palms of the two hands. The jar is put
on the table.
● A graduated hydrometer is carefully
Aim:
To find the specific gravity of the soil sample
Test standard reference :
● IS 2720 (Part III) – 1980
Apparatus
● 50 ml capacity density bottle with stopper

gy
inserted into the suspension with ● A constant temperature water bath (27 ̊C)
minimum disturbance. ● Oven with a range of 105 to 110 ̊C
● At different time intervals, the density of ● Spatula

lo
the suspension at the centre of gravity of ● Vacuum desiccators
● Vacuum pump

no
the hydrometer is noted by seeing the
depth of sinking of the stem. The ● Other accessories, such as, weighing
temperature of the suspension is noted for balance, trays, wooden mallet etc.

ch
each recording of the hydrometer reading.
Procedure
● Hydrometer readings are taken at a time
Te
interval of 0.5 minute, 1.0 minute, 2.0
minutes, 4.0 minutes, 15.0 minutes, 45.0
● Clean and dry the density bottle. Wash the
bottle with water and allow it to drain.
Wash it with alcohol and drain it to
minutes, 90.0 minutes, 3hrs., 6hrs., 24hrs.
of
remove water. Wash it with ether to
and 48hrs.
remove alcohol and drain ether. Weigh the
● By using the nomogram given in IS: 2720
empty bottle with stopper (𝑊1).
te

(Part 4) – 1985, the diameter of the

● Take about 5 to 10 gm of oven dried soil
particles for different hydrometer readings
sample which is cooled in a desiccator.
tu

is found out.
Transfer it to the bottle. Find the weight of
sti

the bottle and soil (𝑊2).

● Put 10 ml of distilled water in the bottle to
allow the soil to soak completely. Leave it
In

for about 2 hours.

● Again fill the bottle completely with
re

distilled water, put the stopper and keep

the bottle under a constant temperature
Co

water bath. Take the bottle outside and

wipe it clean and dry note.Now determine
the weight of the bottle and the contents
(𝑊3).
5.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
● Now empty the bottle and thoroughly
Specific gravity G is defined as the ratio of the
clean it. Fill the bottle with only distilled
weight of an equal volume of distilled water at
water and weigh it. Let it be (W4) at
that temperature, both weights taken in air.
temperature

28
 ● Repeat the same process for 2 to 3 times.
Calculations
Specific gravity of soil = Weight of soil/ Weight
of water of equal volume at 27⁰C
= (W2 – W1) / [(W4 – W1) – (W3 – W2)]
= (W2 – W1) / [(W2 – W1) – (W3 – W4)]
● Calculate the percentage weight retained
on each sieve as
Percentage weight retained =
(Weight retained on a particular
sieve / Total sample weight) x100
Determine the cumulative percentage weight
retained on each sieve.

gy
5.7 Sieve Analysis
Sieve Wt % wt Cumulative %

lo
Aim size retained retained retained passing
To find the relative proportion of various particle

no
mm g % % %
sizes in a soil sample using sieve analysis.
4.75 10 1 1 99

ch
Apparatus
● Standard set of sieves 2.36 57 5.7 6.7 93.3
● Mechanical sieve shaker

Procedure
Te 1.18

0.6
276

355
27.6

35.5
34.3

69.8
65.7

30.2
● Oven-dry the soil sample at a temperature
of
of 110 ± 5 °C and let the sample cool 0.3 172 17.2 87 13
before performing the test.
0.15 89 8.9 95.9 4.1
te

● Arrange the standard set of sieves by

stacking them on top of each other in Pan 41 4.1 100 0
tu

descending order of their opening sizes.

Place a pan at the bottom of the last sieve.
sti

Total cumulative retained = Σf = 394.2

● Place the stacked sieves in the mechanical Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate = Σf/100
sieve shaker and start shaking the sieve = 3.942
In

set.
● Transfer a portion of the soil sample to the Draw a graph in semi-log scale with percentage
top-most sieve cautiously soil passing in Y axis and sieve opening in X axis
re

● Continue sieving for a duration till no and obtain gram size distribution curve.
Co

particle originally retaining on a sieve

slips through it into the sieve present just
underneath.
● Once the sieving operation is completed,
remove the sieve stack and weigh the
material retained on each sieve.

29
 Co
re
In
sti
tu
te
of
Te
ch
no
lo
gy

30