LESSON 12

The "History & Pioneers of Victimology and Nature of Victimization" module in the Human
Behavior subject of criminology provides students with a foundational exploration of victimology.
This course delves into the historical evolution of victimology, tracing societal attitudes towards
victims and their role in early criminal justice systems. Students examine the contributions of key
pioneers such as Emile Durkheim, Hans von Hentig, and Benjamin Mendelsohn, understanding
their impact on shaping victimological theories. The module also addresses the victims' rights
movement, analyzing its influence on legal frameworks and societal perceptions. Students
explore the contemporary landscape of victimization, categorizing various forms and discussing
emerging challenges, including cyber victimization and social media's role. Through lectures,
case studies, discussions, and assessments, students gain a holistic understanding of
victimology's historical context and its relevance in today's criminological landscape.

1. HISTORY OF VICTIMOLOGY

● Etymology of "Victimology": The term "victimology" comprises the Latin word

"Victima, translating to "victim," and the Greek word "logos" denoting a system of
knowledge or discipline.

● Historical Evolution of the Term "Victim": Originally, the term "victim" emerged in the
English language in 1497, derived from the Latin "Victima, referring to a living creature
offered as a sacrifice. Not until 1660 did it take on the modern sense of a person harmed
by another. The Latin term "victima" historically signified individuals or a***s destined for
sacrifice

● Connection to Harm and Loss: In the nineteenth century, the term "victim" became
associated with harm or loss. The modern criminal justice system defines a victim as
someone who experiences injury, loss, or hardship due to the illegal actions of others.

● Introduction of "Victimology": The term "victimology" first appeared in 1949 in a book

by forensic psychiatrist Fredric Wertham, describing the study of individuals harmed by
criminals. Today, victimology encompasses the scientific study of victims and
victimization, examining relationships between victims and various entities in the criminal
justice system.

● Early Victimological Notions: Before criminologists, early notions of victims were

explored by poets, writers, and novelists in 1948. Hans von Hentig's book emphasized a
dynamic approach, challenging the unidimensional study of offenders and highlighting
the victim's contribution to the genesis of crime

● Beniamin Mendelsohn's Influence: Often referred to as the "Father of Victimology,

Beniamin Mendelsohn's writings in the 1930s laid the foundation for victimology as a
science. In 1956, he proposed the term "victimology and advocated for an international
society dedicated to its study
 ● Coined Term in 1949: The term "victimology was officially coined in 1949 by Frederick
Wertham, who emphasized the need for a science of victimology to understand both the
psychology of murderers and the sociology of victims

● Emergence as a Discipline: While early writings by criminologists touched on victims,

victimology emerged as a distinct discipline with the publication of works like Hans von
Hentig's in 1948. During the 1980s, victimology gained prominence, becoming an
integral part of criminology

● Overlooking the Victim Despite its obvious importance the study of crime victims was
relatively small in comparison to criminology for over a century, Social scientists
including criminologists, sometimes overlook the obvious, and victimology's recognition
has been a gradual process

2. PIONEERS IN VICTIMOLOGY

Hans Von Hentig:

• Developed a victim typology (1948) based on the degree of victims' contribution to the criminal
act.
• Classified victims into 13 categories, considering psychological, social, and biological factors.
• Notable categories included the young, female, old, immigrants, depressed, wanton,
tormentor, blocked, exempted, or fighting.
• His concept of victim contribution led to the development of the controversial idea of
"victim-blaming.”

Benjamin Mendelsohn:
• Referred to as the "father" of victimology, Mendelsohn (1976) was an attorney intrigued by
victim-offender dynamics.
• Developed a six-category typology of victims based on legal considerations of their culpability.
• Classification ranged from completely innocent victims (e.g., children) to imaginary victims
(e.g., those with mental disorders)

Marvin E. Wolfgang:
• Presented empirical evidence supporting the idea that victims bear some responsibility for their
victimization.
• Analyzed Philadelphia's police homicide records (1958) and reported that 26% of homicides
resulted from victim precipitation
• Identified factors common to victim-precipitated homicides, including prior relationships,
escalating disagreements, and alcohol consumption.
Stephen Schafer:
• Introduced a typology (1968) classifying victims based on their "functional responsibility" in the
victim-offender relationship
-Seven-category typology ranged from no victim responsibility (e.g., unrelated victims) to total
victim responsibility (eg, self-victimizing).
• Focused on how victims functioned to avoid provoking harm and preventing acts against
themselves

Menachem Amir:
• Conducted one of the first studies on rape (1971) and reported that 19% of forcible rapes were
victim-precipitated.
• Factors included alcohol use, seductive actions, and the victim's clothing, criticized by the
victim's movement and feminist groups as victim- blaming
• Addressed controversial aspects of victim culpability in sexual assault cases

3. VICTIMOLOGY TODAY
Victimology is the scientific study of victims and victimization. It examines the relationships
between victims and offenders, the interaction between victims and the criminal justice system,
and the impact of crime on victims. In the context of human behavior, victimology seeks to
understand the psychological, social, and cultural factors that contribute to victimization.
To explore victimology in the Philippines, we can consider the following areas

1. Legal Framework:
• Examine relevant laws and policies in the Philippines that address the rights and protection of
victims. This may include the Anti- Violence Against Women and Their Children Act, the
Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act, and other related legislation.

2. Crime Trends and Statistics:

• Analyze crime trends and victimization statistics in the Philippines. Government agencies,
such as the Philippine National Police (PNP) and the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), may
provide data on crime rates and types of victimization.

3. Victim Support Services:

• Investigate the availability and effectiveness of victim support services in the Philippines. This
could include services provided by government agencies, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), and other entities.

4. Cultural and Social Factors:

• Explore the cultural and social factors that may influence victimization in the Philippines.
Consider how societal norms, gender roles, and economic factors contribute to patterns of
victimization.
5. Jurisprudence:
• Search for relevant jurisprudence or court decisions related to victimology in the Philippines.
Supreme Court decisions may provide insights into legal interpretations and protections for
victims

4. NATURE OF VICTIMIZATION
NATURE OF VICTIMIZATION:

Von Hentig originally classified victims into categories, which could easily be described as a list
of characteristics that increase victim vulnerability or exposure to danger.

• The Young: Von Hentig was referring to children and infants. From a contemporary point of
view, children are physically weaker have less mental prowess, have fewer legal rights, and are
dependent on their caretakers (e.g., parents, guardians, teachers, and day - care providers);
they also have the potential to be exposed to a wider range of harm than adults. Moreover, they
are less able to defend themselves and sometimes less likely to believed should they report
abuse. This includes children who suffer emotional, physical, and sexual abuse at home
because of abusive parents (often under the influence of drugs and alcohol); children who are
bullied at school because of some aspect of their appearance or personality, and children who
are forced into acts of prostitution or sold into slavery by impoverished parents.

• The Acquisitive: Von Hentig was referring to those who are greedy and looking for quick gain.
In other words, those focused in acquiring wealth and possessions. Such individuals may
suspend their judgment, or intentionally put themselves in dangerous situations, to get the
things of value that they desire.

• The Wanton Von Hentig was referring to promiscuous individuals. People who engage in
indiscriminate sexual activity with many different partners expose themselves to different levels
of disease and varying personalities. Some of these personalities may be healthy and
supportive, some may be narcissistic, possessive, jealous, and destructive.

• The Lonesome or Heartbroken: Von Hentig was referring to widows, widowers, and those in
mourning. From a contemporary standpoint. loneliness is at epidemic proportions, with more
than half of marriages ending in divorce, the rise of the culture of narcissism since the late
1970s and diminishing intimacy skills across all cultures. This category does not apply only to
those in mourning, those who are lonely or heartbroken are prone to substance abuse, and can
be easy prey for con men, the abusive and the manipulative

• The Tormentor: Von Hentig was referring to the abusive parent. In contemporary terms, there
are abusive caretakers, intimates, and family members of all kids. Such abusers expose
themselves to the harm they inflict, the resulting guilt and angst, and the potential for their
victims to fight back. For example, an abusive mother who gets drunk and punches a child
exposes herself to the dangers of injuring her hand of misjudging her strike and even her
balance, of feeling bad about it, and of the child punching back

• The Blocked, Exempted, or Fighting: Von Hentig was referring to victims of blackmail,
extortion, and confidence scams. In such cases the attention of law enforcement, and any
subsequent publicity, is something that this victims wish to avoid. They fins a means of dealing
with the crimes being committed against them (eg.. giving in to demands) without avoiding harm
or loss and without involving the authorities

LESSON 13
VICTIMOLOGY

in this course, students will gain a profound understanding of victimology, delving into the
historical roots and key theories that have shaped our comprehension of victimization. We will
explore the influential work of pioneers such as Hans Von Hentig, Benjamin Mendelsohn,
Marvin E. Wolfgang. Stephen Schafer, and Menachem Amir, unraveling the complexities of
victim typologies and their contributions. The nature of victimization will be examined through
categories such as the young, the acquisitive, the wanton, the lonesome or heartbroken, the
tormentor, and those blocked, exempted, or fighting Throughout the course, we will delve into
the psychological impact of victimization, shedding light on how individuals cope with and
respond to various forms of harm. Through this comprehensive exploration, students will
develop a nuanced understanding of human behavior in the context of victimology

1. VICTIMOLOGY
Scientific study of physical, emotional and financial harm people suffer because of illegal
activities.
Included in this definition is the victimization occurring for victims within the criminal justice
system.

Victimization
- Is an asymmetrical interpersonal relationship that is abusive, painful, destructive, parasitical,
and unfair
- Law forbids certain forms of victimization - oppressive and exploitative acts - but not all types
of harmful activities.

Victimology
• Victims-individuals who experience loss, injury, or hardship for any reason.
• Crime Victims - above as result of an illegal act.
• Direct/Primary experiences criminal act and its consequences first hand
• Indirect/Secondary - family and those who suffer emotionally or financially but are not
immediately involved or physically injured
Typologies of Victimization
• Mendelsohn's typology of crime victim
• Von Hentig's typology of crime victim

Mendelsohn's Typology of Crime Victims:

1. Complete Innocent Victim
• Did not contribute to victimization; wrong place at the wrong time.
2. Victim with Minor Guilt
• Does not actively participate but contributes to some degree, e.g., frequenting high-crime
areas.
3. Guilty Victim, Guilty Offender (Voluntary Victim)
• Engaged in criminal activity together; consciously chose to suffer harm.
4. Victim More Guilty than Offender
• Provokes criminal act but ends up losing, eg, throws the first punch in a fight
5. Most Guilty Victim
• Instigated a conflict but killed in self-defense, e.g., abused woman killing her partner.
6. Simulating or Imaginary Victim
• Pretender or false reporter; no actual crime occurred.

2. VON HENTIG'S TYPOLOGY

General Classes of Victims

(Based on the classification of Hans Von Hentig, a European lawyer)

1.The young -the weak by virtue of age and immaturity

2. The Female - often less physically powerful and easily dominated by males.
3. The Old - the incapable of physical defense and the common object of confidence scheme.
4. The Mentally Defective - those that are unable to think clearly.
5. The Immigrant - those that are unsure of the rules of conduct in the surrounding society.
6. The Minorities - racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment by the
agency of justice.

Psychological Types of Victims

1. The Depressed-submissive person by virtue of emotional condition
2. The Acquisitive or Greedy - person who wants more than what is sufficient makes a natural
victim of crime
3. The Wanton or Overly Sensual - person ruled by passion and thoughtlessly seeking
pleasure

4. The Lonesome - person who eventually becomes a victim by virtue of wanting

companionship or affection
5. The Heartbroken - one who is emotionally disturbed by virtue of heartaches and pains
6. The Tormented - a victim who asked for it, often from his own family or friends
Important Note:
• Von Hentig's work laid the basis for theories of victim precipitation, suggesting victims play a
role in their victimization.
• Recognizing the role of victimization without blaming individuals is crucial in understanding
crime dynamics.
• Generalizations from these typologies may not always apply when studying specific crimes or
victims.

3. VICTIMOLOGY & DAMAGES

"If there is a complainant, there must be a defendant." Thus, there could never be a victim if
there is no offender, except in what is known as victimless crimes.

The only thing that does away with criminality is decriminalization. This is otherwise known as
LOGOMACY Logomacy is a statement that we have no crime if we had no criminal law, and that
we could eliminate all crime by abolishing all criminal laws

Man has a juridical capacity and capacity to act. He is normally entitled to the following
civil damages.

1. Moral Damages-the compensation awarded to a person's physical suffering, mental anguish,

fright, serious anxiety, besmirched re**tion, wounded feelings, moral shock, social humiliation,
and similar injury
2. Actual or Compensatory Damages-the compensation awarded to a person for such
pecuniary loss suffered by him as he has duly proved
3. Nominal Damages - amount awarded to a victim in order that his right that had been violated
or invaded maybe restored or recognized
4. Temperate Damages - moderate damages, the compensation that is more than nominal but
less than compensatory damages given to a person when the court finds that he has suffered
some pecuniary loss, but its amount cannot, from the nature of the case, be proved with
certainty
5. Liquidated Damages - damages that agreed upon by the parties to a contract to be paid in
case of BREACH OF CONTRACT
6. Exemplary Damages corrective damages: those that imposed by way of example or
correction for the public good, in addition to the moral temperate, liquidated or compensatory
damages

LESSON 14
ROLES OF VICTIMS IN CRIME

The module on "Roles of Victims in Crime" delves into the multifaceted ways in which
individuals who have experienced crime actively contribute to the criminal justice process. It
explores the evolving role of victims from passive recipients of justice to more active
participants, emphasizing their rights, perspectives, and agency within the legal system. The
module investigates how victims can influence the investigation and prosecution of crimes, seek
restitution, and engage in restorative justice processes. Additionally, it considers the
psychological and social impacts of victimization, shedding light on the challenges they may
face and the support mechanisms essential for their recovery. By examining the complex
dynamics between victims, offenders, and the justice system, this module provides a
comprehensive understanding of the varied roles victims play in the aftermath of criminal
incidents.

1. ROLES OF VICTIMS IN CRIME

1. Victim Precipitation:
• Active Precipitation: Victim provokes or attacks first.
• Passive Precipitation: Victim's characteristics encourage the attacker.
• Contributing Factors:
• Culture, time, and place-bound.
• Offender perceives victim's behavior as facilitating the crime.

• Environmental Factors:
• Inter-relationship between victimizer and victim's environment
• Offender's interpretation of events precipitating the crime.

2. Victim Facilitation:
• Negligence or thoughtlessness makes the victim susceptible.
-Crimes of facilitation: e.g., leaving doors open, increasing risks.
• Introduction by Marvin Wolfgang, focusing on victim's actions.

3. Victim Provocation:
• Victim's actions incite another to commit an illegal act
-Without victim's behavior, the crime wouldn't occur.
• Example: Attempted mugger shot by the victim.

Characteristics Increasing Victimization Potential:

1. Lifestyle Theory:
• High-risk victims: Expose themselves to criminal offenders.
• Moderate-risk victims. Placed in riskier situations
• Low-risk victims Stay out of trouble, lack criminal associations
• Researcher Ideas: Correlation between lifestyles of victims and offenders. Both tend to be
impulsive and lack self-control

2. Deviant Place Theory:

• Victims in socially disorganized, high-crime areas.
• Minorities at higher risk due to social and economic inequality.
• Safety measures may have little use in dangerous areas.
-Researcher Ideas: Area's demographic, not victim's lifestyle, increases victimization.

3. Routine Activity Theory:

-Volume and distribution of predatory crime influenced by routine activities.
• Variables: Availability of suitable targets, absence of capable guardians, presence of motivated
offenders.
• Guardianship: Well-guarded targets deter criminals.
• Hot Spots: Areas with congregated motivated offenders become hot spots for crime.
• Researcher Ideas: Routine activities theory bound up in opportunity and lifestyle.
• [Reference] (Not provided)

Lesson: Theory of Victimization / Nature and Concept of Victimization:

• Characteristics Increasing Victimization Potential:

1. Target Vulnerability:
• Victim's physical weakness or psychological distress.

2. Target Gratifiability:
• Possession, skill, or attribute that offenders want

3. Target Antagonism:
-Characteristics arousing anger, jealousy, or destructive impulses in offenders.
• Researcher Ideas: Lifestyle choices affecting victim risk, correlation between victim and
offender impulsivity.

• Lifestyle, Opportunity, and Routine Activities:

• Routine activities theory tied to opportunity and lifestyle.

-Living arrangements affect victim risk: lifestyle controls proximity to criminals, time of exposure,
attractiveness, and ability to be protected.

Lesson 15
1. STUDYING OF VICTIMIZATION SCIENTIFICALLY
• Subjective Approach
- Issues are approached from standpoint of morally ethics, philosophy, personalized reactions
and emotions.

• Objective Approach
Requires observer to be fair open - minded. even - handed. dispassionate, neutralindunbiased
•Why should victimologists NOT be pro -victim?
• 'Ideal victim": person who suffered harm was weaker than aggressor, acting virtuously or not
looking for trouble or breaking any laws, and wrongdoer was a stranger acting illegally and was
unprovoked
Victims or Offender?
• Who is the victim and who is the offender?
• Not always clear cut - consider the following:
-Subway Vigilante
- Menendez Brothers
-Bobicks

Criminals as Victims
• Predatory persons prey each other
- Organized crime "takes out a contract*
-'Drive - by shooting between two gangs
-*Drug deal gone bad*

Cycle of Violence
• Cycle of violence over time can transform a victim (s) into victimizer (s)
- Group of picked on students may gang up against the bully
- Battered wife may launch a vengeful attack against husband
- Convicts much more likely to have been abused physically or sexually as children
- Violence Begets Violence

Victims vs. "Good Guys"

• Victimologists do not limit their studies to clashes between victims and offenders
• They also consider the social reaction to victimization
• Victims outraged by media coverage - sensationalism
• Investigation of charges in high profile cases require victimologists to be detached and
disinterested in carrying out analysis

Victimology's Undeserved "Bad Re**tion*

• Victimology during the 90s and into the twentieth century has become to many a dirty word"
• (Paalia, 1993) A critic of contemporary feminism destared on national TV. -I hate victimology I
despise a victim - centered view of universe*
• (Leo. 1994) A news magazine commentator complained, "We are deep into the era of the
abuse excuse" The doctrine of victimology - claiming victim status means you are not
responsible for your actions - is beginning to warp the legal system
An author of a book about race relations called a well - known preacher who is a civil rights
activist a Professional Victimologist* (Dreher.
2001)

(Harrop. 2003) A review of a book noted, *The art of victimology requires three easy steps:
(1) Identify a group suffering from real or perceived injustices
(2) Exaggerate the problem
(3.) Blame the problem on a group you don't like.
Conservatives have long condemned the victimology industry" as a racket, especially when
practiced by women and minorities.
• Victimology is a new academic discipline that only means the study off victims,
• It is focused on the research about people harm by criminals
• It does not impose a partisan point of view or a set or predictably blased conclusions
• The ideology of victimism" is a coherent, integrated set of beliefs that shapes interpretations
and leads to political action
• Do not confuse "victimism" with victimology"
• Victimological research must tell the whole truth regardless of who is disappointed or insulted
• Three types of biases undermine the ability to any social scientist to achieve objectivity - they
include.

Three types of biases

1. May arise from personal experience, taking the form of individual preferences and prejudices.

2. Derives from the history of the discipline itself.

- Pioneers in the study of victimology first introduced the concept of victim - blaming
- Today, majority of victimologists are pro - victim

3. A subtle bias traced back to the mood of the times

-60s - 70s: a demand for government to devise ways La help victims get back on their feet
financially, medically, and emotionally
-80s: a theme of self - reliance and a reduction in government social spending and tax cutting
gained popularity

Three Origins of Victimology

• Significant gains in the United States when the President's Commission on Law Enforcement
and the Administration of Justice urged criminologists to pay more attention to victims.
• By the 70s victimology became field of study
•By 1990, 240 colleges and universities offered courses in victimology
Most states passed crime victims rights amendments to their state constitution
• 2004 - Congress enacts the Crime Victims Rights Act which provides for fair treatment and
opportunities for input in federal court proceedings

Victimology vs. Criminology

• Victimology is best viewed as an area of specialization within criminology
• Criminology embraces the scientific study of crimes, criminals, criminal laws and the justice
system, societal reactions, and crime victims
• Criminologists ask why certain individuals become involve in lawbreaking while others do not
• Victimologists ask why some individuals, households, and entities are targeted while others
are not, and why over and over again.
• Criminologists apply their findings to devise crime prevention strategies
• Victimologists use patterns and trends to develop victimization prevention strategies and risk -
reduction tactics.
•Both Criminologists and Victimologists study how the criminal justice system actually works
versus how it is supposed to work.
• Boundaries
- Boundaries are clear cut for Criminology
- Boundaries for Victimology still unclear
- Overlap due to lack of boundaries (Crime rates vs. Victimization rates)

Division within the Discipline

Political ideologies shape policy recommendations:
- Conservative
- Liberal
- Radical

1. Conservative influence
• Focuses on basically street crimes
• Everyone to be held accountable for their decisions and actions
• Emphasis on self reliance. NOT government
• Individual responsibility for preventing, avoiding, resisting and recovering from critical acts
• Strictly punish offenders on behalf of their victims

2. Liberal influence
• Scope of field to extend beyond street crimes
• Endorse government intervention
• Extend safety net mechanisms for all kinds of misfortunes
• Look to wrongdoers repaying their victims to allow for reconciliation

3. Radical / Critical / Conflict Influence

• Victimization is a result of oppressive social system
• Scope of the field to include:
• Industrial polluters, hazardous workplaces, fraudulent advertisers, brutally violent law
enforcement agencies, poverty, malnutrition, family dysfunction, unemployment and substance
abuse; these are social problems of which the criminal justice system is part of the problem.

Lesson 16
EFFECT OF CRIME VICTIMIZATION
Crime victimization exerts a multifaceted impact on individuals, encompassing physical,
psychological, social, and economic dimensions. Beyond the Inmediate physicaliniures victims
often grapale with enduring psvehological trauma including anxiety, depression, and
pos?-traumatic stress disorder.
disrupting their emotional well-being. Socially, victims may face stigmatization and strained
relationships, while the economic toll manifests through financial losses, impacting stability and
future prospects. Changes in behavior such as increased vigilance or altered routines, reflect
adaptive responses aimed at self-preservation. Legal processes and administrative involvement
introduce further stressors. Collectively, these effects compound, significantly diminishing the
overall quality of life for victims. Recognizing and addressing these complex repercussions is
vital for fostering a more compassionate and effective response to crime victimization,
underlining the importance of comprehensive support systems and victim-centered approaches
within both the criminal justice system and society at large.

1. EFFECT OF CRIME VICTIMIZATION

• Criminal victimization is an unsettling, unpredictable, and largely unpreventable experience
• Victims face confusion, fear, frustration, and anger seeking answers as to why they were
targeted.
• The aftermath leaves victims insecure, unsure of where to turn, and burdened by the
complexities of the criminal justice system.
• Impact extends beyond physical emotional. and financial aspects, affecting victims
psychologically and socially.
• Crime's effects vary, causing trauma that can be profoundly devastating based on individuals
previous experiences

A. Types of Losses
I. Tangible Losses
• Property damage and loss (property damaged, taken, and not recovered)
• Medical care (payments for hospital and physicians, emergency medical transport,
rehabilitation, prescription, medical devices, and premature funeral expenses)
• Mental health care ( payments for services to crime victims by psychiatrists, psychologists, and
social workers)
•Productivity ( wages, benefits, housework, and school days lost by victims and their families,
productivity lost by co - workers and supervisors/agency recruiting and training replacements for
disabled workers, people stuck in traffic jams caused by vehicular accident)
Il. Intangible Losses
• Pain (physical )
• Suffering (mental - anti - social behavior, emotional - trauma)
* Reduced quality of life (physical disability / incapacity)

B. Sufferings
i. Physical
• Physical injuries (such as gunshot wounds, lacerations, broken bones, sprains, and burns)
• Physical injuries that lead to other health conditions (such as heart attack, stroke, fractures
from falling, and loss of dexterity)
• - Physiological anxiety (including rapid heart rate, hyperventilation, and stomach distress)
• Permanent disability
• Disfigurement
• Sleep disorders
• Inability to work
For sexual assault victims: possible exposure to sexually transmitted diseases, exposure to HIV,
and unwanted pregnancy
ii. Mental
• Slowed thinking
• Confusion
• Disorientation
• Memory problems
• Intrusive memories or flashbacks
• Nightmares
• Inability to concentrate
• Difficulty in making decisions

III. Financial
• Medical bills (eg. emergency transportation, hospital stays, inpatient and outpatient physical
care, medical supplies)
• - Medication and prescription drugs
• Replacement of eyeglasses hearing aids, or other sensory aid items damaged destroyed or
stolen
• Physical therapy
• Occupational therapy
• Job retraining
• Mental health counseling and therapy
• Loss of wages due to incapacitation, rehabilitation, or taking time off from work to repair
damage from property crimes, participate in criminal or juvenile justice proceedings, or seek
medical or mental health treatment
• - Loss of or damage to personal property
• Costs of replacing locks and changing securitv devices
• For families of homicide victims, funeral and burial expenses and loss ofincome

IV. Emotional
• Shock, disbelief and denial
Victims may deny the crime initially, experiencing disbelief and pretending it didn't occur.
Reactions can last moments to months, involving a childlike state and feelings of the crime
happening in a dreamlike state, followed by emotions like anger, fear, confusion, guilt, shame,
and grief after the shock wears off.
• Anger or rage
Victims may feel anger towards God, the offender, and others, leading to desires for revenge
and societal disapproval, justified by the suffered.
• Fear or Terror
Victims often endure lingering fear after crimes, particularly those with threats, leading to
potential panic attacks. Seeking prompt consultation with a physician is advised for
overwhelming fear.
•Frustration
Victims often feel frustrated by helplessness during a crime, especially if they couldn't defend
themselves. Post-crime, continued frust may arise if they lack access to necessary support and
information for healing.
• Confusion
Crime victims may feel confused about the events, especially when seeking answers to why it
happened to them, as the intentions of thi offender can be elusive.
• Guilt or self-blame
Victims commonly blame themselves or feel guilt, especially if no offender is found. "Survivor
guilt" may arise when they survive an inciden where others are harmed or killed, and societal
blame is also prevalent.
• Shame and humiliation
Victims, especially in sexual abuse or domestic violence cases, may blame themselves,
enduring lasting shame and self-hatred due to degrading actions by offenders
• Grief or Sorrow
- Intense sadness is often the most powerful long-term reaction to crime. It is common for
victims to become depressed after a crime occurs.

2. C. FEAR
C. FEAR
Many particularly the elderly, poor, rad minority groups, fear crime, heightened by sensational
news reports. Those who experience crime firsthand are even more likely to be fearful and alter
their behaviors, Victims of violent crime, in particular fear a recurrence of their attack

D. Anti-Social Behavior
A growing correlation exists between crime and victimization, especially among youth who
share characteristics with delinquents. Victims may seek revenge against those they believe are
at fault, and these feelings can generalize to others with similar characteristics as their
attackers.

Characteristics of Victims
A. Gender
B. Age
C. Social Status
D. Ethnicity
E. Repeat Victimization

Types of victims
A. Homicide Victims
B. Female as Victims

i. Sexual Violence
lil. Theories of sexual violence
1. Sexual Motivation
2. Socialization
3. Biological Factors
4. Psychological Factors
5. Culture of Violence
C. Child Victims
i. Theories regarding Child Abuse
1. Theory of Physical Abuse
Child abuse has diverse causes, including parental mental illness, violence history, family
stress, and societal acceptance. Clinicians may find the limited focus in research frustrating, as
it may not align with the unique circumstances they encounter.

2. Theory of Child Neglect

Child abuse and neglect are broad terms encompassing various childhood injuries resulting
from parental actions. The diagnostic focus simplifies etiology, emphasizing causes over
manifestations of maltreatment.

3. Theory of Child and Sexual Abuse

Child sexual abuse is the exploitation of a child by an adult or older adolescent for sexual
stimulation, with various forms and potential long-term psychological consequences

D. Elder Victims
i. Theories of Elder Abuse
1. Cycle of Violence
The cycle of violence is a repeating pattern of dangerous acts associated with high emotions
and retribution, most prevalent in intimate terrorism, a form of ongoing colstol using emotional
and physical abuse, often leading victims, predominantly women, to women's shelters,
illustrating the complexity of breaking the cycle beyond simply leaving.

There are three phases in the cycle of violence:

a. Tension Phase:
● Lasts weeks or months.
● Stress builds, communication breaks down.
● Verbal abuse and minor incidents occur.
● Victims feel a growing danger, "walking on eggshells."
● Denial or minimization by family and friends

b. Acute or Crisis Phase:

Tension erupts into violence
● Explosive and unpredictable, lasting 24-72 hours
● May result in serious injuries or death.
● Incident linked to abuser's emotional state or external events
● Victim takes survival actions like accommodating demands or trying to escape

c. Calm or Honevmoon Phase:

● Follows violent crisis phase.
● Lasts days, weeks, or months
● Abuser may apologize, beg for forgiveness, and promise change
● Victim wants to believe change is true.
 ● Abuser appears vulnerable, making victim feel guilty and responsible
● Victim may feel worn down, and children may become caretakers for peacekeeping.

2. Psychological
● Sexual violence causes harm and psychopathology
● Effects: depression, anxiety, eating disorders
● Indicators in children: regressive behaviors, sexual acting out
● Behavioral problems: withdrawal, cruelty to a***s. ADHD
● Teenage pregnancy, risky behaviors in adolescence
● Causal link between elder sexual abuse and adult psychopathologies
● Males abused as children more in criminal justice than mental health settings

3. Social Exchange Theory

● Elder abuse theory: societal attitudes facilitate abuse without remorse or intervention
● Negative attitudes lead to devaluation of older people
● Stereotyping as frail, incompetent, and powerless
● Social failure to recognize the importance of dignity and support
● Social Exchange Theory interactions as negotiated exchanges
● Developed by sociologist George Caspar Homans in the 1950s
● Considers social behavior as exchange of material and non-material goods
4. Family Stress Theory
● Family Stress Theory: Four stages in crisis situations - crisis disorganization, recovery
reorganization
● Providing elder care induces stress within the family.
● Asserts that elder abuse is caused by stress
● Victim complaints about stolen items as a trigger for elder abuse
5. Neutralization Theory
● Neutralization Theory: Internalized norms neutralized via rationalization
● Techniques include denial of responsibility, injury blame on the victim, condemnation of
disapprovers, appeal to loyalties, defense of necessit and rationalization of minor
deviation
● Developed by Sykes and Matza to explain juvenile delinquency
● Implications for treating elderly victims and abusers discussed
E. Hate Crimes
● Hate Crime: Violent, prejudice-motivated crime targeting victim's perceived social group
● Targets include ethnicity, gender identity, language, nationality, appearance, religion, or
sexual orientation
● Involves physical assault, property damage, bullying. harassment, verbal abuse,
offensive graffiti, or hate mail

A hate crime occurs when a person is targeted because of hostility or prejudice towards their:
● Disability
● Race or Ethnicity
● Religion or belief
 ● Sexual orientation
● Transgender identity

Lesson 17

1. VICTIMS AND VICTIMIZATION/ CRIME VICTIM SERVICES AND VICTIMS RIGHT

CRIME VICTIMS' SERVICES

Crime victim services are programs that are recognized to support a victim through the criminal
justice system.

Coping and help-seeking

One form of active coping is seeking help from others, and it can be from family and friends or
police. Attributions about victimization may play a role in whether an individual seeks help or
from whom they seek it. For example, men who are victimized may be less likely to seek
support and ask for help due to shame and high expectations for men. It is important to
remember that victims do not choose to be victimized. Becoming a victim is an unpleasant and
unwanted life experience at best. Coping with and Recovering from victimization are complex
processes. Unfortunately, some victims never able to do so.

Interaction with the Criminal Justice System

Possibly the most worrying experience for victims involves dealing with the criminal justice
system if and when an offender is apprehended. At this level. the crime is considered to have
been committed against the state, and victims become witnesses of the crimes. A victim can
sometimes feel of losing complete control because he or she is not directly involved in the
prosecution or sentencing of the offender. However, participation in the criminal justice system
can aid victims in rebuilding their lives. If victims are kept well-informed about the criminal
proceedings and feel that they have a voice in the process, they will feel that they are part of a
team effort it enables the victims to understand the judicial process and helps to return to them a
sense of control to their lives and circumstances (Tantanco, 2018)

Police-based services
Trained personnel generally provide these services. and the programs are affiliated with the
local police department. Services are confidential and provide immediate crisis intervention to
victims and their families for a specified period following a crime

Community-based services
These include victim advocacy groups and safe homes.

What victims want and need from victim services?

Maguirre (1985) has reviewed existing research evidence about victims needs and identified
three areas of need:
• Information including the progress report in the police investigation and court processes, and
information about crime prevention and insurance.
• Practical help including short-term financial support, claiming insurance or compensation, etc.
• Emotional support, which, as we have already noted, is an evident need, but difficult to
quantify.
• Provide immediate payment for loss of earnings and expenses incurred in connection with the
crime.
• Provide interventions that can help protect people from further victimization-particularly with
domestic violence.
• Provide more practical help and information.

Other services that victims can expect to be provided with:

• Compassionate and respectful treatment
• Information on the legal proceedings and on their rights
• The presentation of their views to decision-makers
• Legal aid
• Swift case processing
• Protection of their privacy and identity in appropriate cases
• Protection from retaliation and intimidation where required
• Court-ordered and state compensation
• A special treatment to reflect special needs

Victim Rights
It is important to note that victims rights, just like criminal offenses, will depend on the
jurisdiction where the crime is investigated and prosecute; hence these rights vary depending
on federal, state, or tribal law.

1. The right to be treated with dignity, respect, and sensitivity

Victims generally have the right to be treated with courtesy fairness, and care by law
enforcement and other officials throughout the entire criminal justice process.

2. The right to be informed

The purpose of this right is to make sure that victims have the information they need to exercise
their rights and to seek services and resources that are available to them. Victims also usually
have the right to receive notification of important events in their cases
Most states require that victims receive notice of the following circumstances
• the arrest and arraignment of the offender
• bail proceedings
• pretrial proceedings
• dismissal of charges
• plea negotiations
• trial
• sentencing
• appeals
• probation or parole hearings
• release or escape of the offender
3. Right to protection
Victims have the right to protection from threats, intimidation, or retaliation during criminal
proceedings. In some instances, depending on th jurisdiction, victims may receive the following
types of protection:
• police escorts
• witness protection programs
• relocation
• restraining order

4. Right to Apply for Compensation

The purpose of compensation is to recognize victims' financial losses and to help them recover
some of these costs. Some types of damages t are usually covered include:
• medical and counseling expenses
• lost wages
• funeral expenses

5. Right to Restitution from the Offender

-which means the offender must pay to repair some of the damage that resulted from the crime.
The purpose of this right is to hold offenders directly responsible to victims for the financial harm
they caused, which includes the following:
• lost wages
• property loss
• insurance deductiblesy

6. Right to Prompt Return of Personal Property

The prompt return of personal property reduces inconvenience to victims and helps restore their
sense of security.

7. Right to a Speedy Trial

8. Right to Enforcement of Victim's Rights