Hypotheses in Food Science

Concise Reviews &

Apple pomace as food fortification ingredient: A
systematic review and meta-analysis
Bojan Antonic , Simona Jancikova , Dani Dordevic , and Bohuslava Tremlova

Abstract: The present review aimed to investigate and analyze the use of byproduct apple pomace as a fortification
ingredient in different types of foods. The data obtained from English published articles found on Web of Science, Scopus,
and Google Scholar in the period from 2007 to 2019 were used for making the table overview and meta-analysis of results
described in those studies. The systematic review confirmed the importance of apple pomace use in the food industry due
to the beneficial nutritional profile and ecological issue (waste management). The main attributes of apple pomace are
high content of antioxidant compounds and dietary fibers. Dietary fibers from apple pomace significantly increased total
fiber content in enriched products—meaning that the transfer of the fortification can be declared health beneficial. The
conducted meta-analysis showed unambiguously the different influence of apple pomace addition according to fortified
food commodity. The fortification drawbacks were noticeable in plant food products because darker and brownish color
was not evaluated positively by panelists. Oppositely, color, as one of the main sensory characteristics, was beneficially
affected in animal origin food. The sensory properties, including color, play an important role in product acceptance by
consumers. Besides color, animal origin products fortified by apple pomace showed the most acceptable textural properties
and oxidative stability.

Keywords: apple pomace, byproduct, dietary fibers, fortification

1. INTRODUCTION Apple pomace is made out of skin and flesh (95%), 2% to 4% of

There are numbers of scientific studies that as the main subject seeds, and 1% of stems (Bhushan et al., 2008). It is rich in healthy
have apples, as a fruit containing substances desirable in the healthy bioactive compounds (Konrade, Klava, & Gramatina, 2017). The
human diet (Tsao et al., 2003). The polyphenolic compounds as studies revealed that phenolic substances are mainly found in ap-
the strong antioxidants bring the most of the healthy value to the ple peels in comparison to the rest of the apple (Cao et al., 2009;
apples (Lu & Foo, 2000; Sánchez-Rabaneda et al., 2004). Based Kruczek et al., 2017). Van der Sluis et al. (2002) reported that juices
on the data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) produced from two apple species had about 3% to 10% of antiox-
of the United Nations, the World approximate production of ap- idant capacity of the whole fruit. Dietary fibers that can be found
ples in 2017 was 81 million tons (FAOSTAT, 2017). The juice, in apple pomace contain well-balanced soluble and insoluble fibers
cider, frozen, and dried products industries process between 25% and represent constituents with higher quality when compared to
and 30% of fresh apples and this production creates around 25% to popular cereal ones (Kruczek et al., 2017). Those facts created re-
30% of byproduct named apple pomace (Bhushan, Kalia, Sharma, searches concerning the use of the apple pomace as a functional
Singh, & Ahuja, 2008). Several millions of tons of apple pomace are ingredient in different food types with the purpose of fortification
generated annually with an increasing trend, and mainly it repre- and increase of their nutritive value, which for the main goal had a
sents waste or it is used as a feed for animals (Kammerer,Kammerer, creation of products with increased value and which are acceptable
Valet, & Carle, 2014). The disposal of apple pomace as a waste cre- to the consumers. The biggest success was achieved by the addi-
ates the environmental problem and also does not represent the tion of apple pomace extract to the pizza salami that was sufficient
high-quality feed for animals due it’s poor protein content (Suárez to prevent its rancidity during 8 weeks while it is kept on –18 °C.
et al., 2010). Sensory analysis revealed that there was no change in taste or smell
The costs for the treatment and apple pomace waste manage- of experimentally produced food (Kammerer et al., 2014).
ment are high because composting creates secondary pollution due When taking into consideration the importance of dietary fibers
to greenhouse gasses production. The composting is also creating and polyphenolic compounds and overall trend and demand for
surfaces for the breeding of human disease vectors and it can con- natural healthy compounds (Skinner, Gigliotti, Ku, & Tou, 2018),
taminate underground waters (Dhillon, Kaur, & Brar, 2013). The this study was conducted to explore and analyze all known ex-
high water content of apple pomace makes it a great substrate for periments/studies that as the main subject had fortification of dif-
fast fermentation, making another problem in its disposal (Reis, ferent types of products with apple pomace. The review gives a
Rai, & Abu-Ghannam, 2014). clear overview of possibilities and limitations, which can help the
future experiments to support the utilization of apple pomace on
JFDS-2020-0987 Submitted 6/11/2020, Accepted 8/17/2020. All authors are
a higher level.
with Department of Vegetable Foodstuffs Hygiene and Technology, Faculty of Vet-
erinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences 2. SEARCH STRATEGY AND METHODOLOGY
Brno, Palackeho tr. 1946/1, Brno, 61242, Czech Republic. Author Dordevic is with In the present study, the research literature published in the En-
Department of Technology and Organization of Public Catering, South Ural State Uni-
versity, Lenin Prospect 76, Chelyabinsk, 454080, Russia. Direct inquiries to author
glish language was reviewed. The used sources of scientific articles
Antonic (E-mail: antonicb@vfu.cz). were Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The searched
terms for the first two were “apple AND pomace” to get as many

© 2020 Institute of Food Technologists®

doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.15449 Vol. 85, Iss. 10, 2020 r Journal of Food Science 2977
Further reproduction without permission is prohibited
Hypotheses in Food Science
Concise Reviews &
Apple pomace as fortification compound…
Table 1–Nutrient composition of dried apple pomace.
Quantity
Compounds (g/100 g) Compounds
Moisture 3.97 to 9.75 Sodium
Fat 0.26 to 8.49 Potassium
Protein 1.2 to 6.91 Calcium
Fructose 11.5 to 49.8 Phosphorus
Glucose 2.5 to 22.7 Magnesium
TDF (Total Dietary Fibres) 26.8 to 82.0 Iron
Pectin 3.5 to 14.32 Zinc
Total polyphenolics 0.17 to 0.99 Copper
Malic acid 0.05 to 3.28 Manganese
Ash 0.5 to 4.29
Queji, Wosiacki, Cordeiro, Peralta-Zamora, & Nagata, 2010; Sato et al., 2010; Sudha
et al., 2007; Lavelli & Corti, 2011; Lavelli & Kerr, 2012; Almeida-Trasvina,
Medina-González, Ortega-Rivas, Salmerón-Ochoa, & Pérez-Vega, 2014; Bchir et al.,
2014; Brushlyanova, Petrova, Penov, Karabadzhov, & Katsharova, 2013; Gazalli, Malik,
Jalal, Afshan, & Mir, 2013; Pieszka, Gogol, Pietras, & Pieszka, 2015; Reis et al., 2014;
Yadav & Gupta, 2015; Kırbas et al., 2019; Konrade et al., 2017; Leyva-Corral et al., 2016;
Sudha et al., 2016; Catană et al., 2018; Jannati, Hojjatoleslamy, Hosseini, Mozafari &
Siavoshi, 2018; Alongi et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2020.
as possible researches on that subject that were then preselected
based on the names of the studies. The search of Google Scholar
was done only by the titles of articles using the “allintitle: apple
AND [pomace OR peel OR by-product OR fortification OR
fibres OR fibre]” search term. The 1,183 articles from Web of
Science, 970 articles from Scopus, and 1,090 from Google Scholar
were obtained as a result of this search. The article names were
prescreened manually to find articles that refer to the main subject
of this review and composition of the apple pomace as the relevant
topic for the study. Articles that were taken into consideration were
from 2007 to 2020. The 19 articles were found and used for the
creation of a table representing the proximate composition of ap-
ple pomace, and 21 studies about the fortification of apple pomace
in different kinds of products.
The Review Manager Software (number 5.3 developed by
Cochrane Collaboration) was used for meta-analysis conduction.
3. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF APPLE POMACE
Apple pomace is the waste product; its composition is highly
dependent on the manufacturing process, the apple cultivar, and
the year of harvest, and it is marked as the potential ingredient that
has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antiviral ac-
tivity (Skinner et al., 2019; Waldbauer, McKinnon, & Kopp, 2017).
In Table 1, the proximate apple pomace composition is presented.
The most important substances that might be used from those
byproducts are fibers, from which pectin is the most important;
polyphenols that are the main compounds responsible for antiox-
idant and antibacterial activity; seed oil that is rich in unsaturated
fatty acids; and tocopherols, malic acid, saccharides, and yellow pig-
ments (Kammerer et al., 2014, Lu & Foo, 2000). Due to high water
content, apple pomace is very submissive to microbial spoilage, but
also to the oxidation of polyphenols. It is also very susceptible to
rapid depolymerization and deesterification of pectins (Kammerer
et al., 2014). Due to the oxidation process of polyphenols, in ad-
dition to polyphenols naturally present in apples, there is also a
significant percentage of their oxidation products (Fernandes, Le
Bourvellec, et al., 2019). The enzymatic browning of polyphenols
present in the apple pomace is done by polyphenol oxidase and
sometimes helped with peroxidase, and it can affect the flavor and
nutrient content and change the visual quality of this byproduct
(Persic, Mikulic-Petkovsek, Slatnar, & Veberic, 2017). To stop and
slow down this deterioration, it is necessary to dry the apple po-
mace immediately upon the production (Kammerer et al., 2014).
2978 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 85, Iss. 10, 2020
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Table 2–The main polyphenol compounds found in apple po-
mace.
Quantity
(mg/100 g) Main polyphenols Content in mg/kg of dry
detected in apple pomace weight of apple pomace
2 to 200
449 Phlorizin 8 - 1435.4
50 to 150 Catechin 1 - 127
50 to 950 Epicatechin 4.2 - 640
20 to 45 Chlorogenic acid 26 – 2298
2.4 to 23 Caffeic acid 3 - 280
0.22 to 1.5 Procyanidin B2 48.8 - 590.2
0.11 to 0.22 Hyperin 65.5 - 564.2
0.61 to 0.9 Quercitrin 69 - 373.8
Ćetković et al. 2008, Cerda-Tapia et al., 2015, Vasantha Rupasinghe and Kean, 2008,
García et al., 2009, Suárez et al., 2010, Krawitzky et al., 2014, Górnaś et al., 2015, Li,
Yang, et al., 2020.
Apples are known for having large quantities of polyphenolic
compounds as their constituents. After the extraction process in
apple processing, it was estimated that 82% to more than 99% of
polyphenols stayed in the apple pomace. Aside from their antiox-
idant activity, polyphenols present in the apple pomace have anti-
inflammatory effects, including other important complex phys-
iological processes (Silva et al., 2020). Among them, phlorizin,
which in the most apple cultivars has the greatest content, has a
notable effect on glucose transport systems, same as the antihy-
perglycemic role in the human body (Ehrenkranz, Lewis, Ronald
Kahn, & Roth, 2005, Górnaś et al., 2015), and chlorogenic acid has
the indicative role in the metabolism of glucose and lipids, and it
is an important factor in the prevention of some types of diabetes
(Meng, Cao, Feng, Peng, & Hu, 2013). In Table 2, contents of some
of the most important phenolic compounds are presented.
Apple seeds contain considerable amounts of oil.Oil yield ranges
approximately from 12% to 27.5% (Górnaś, Segliņa, Lācis, & Pu-
gajeva, 2014b). Apple seed oil is composed of unsaturated fatty
acids (90%), mainly oleic and linoleic acids. Saturated fatty acids
in apple seed oil count up to 10%; the main saturated fatty acid is
palmitic acid (Fromm, Bayha, Carle, & Kammerer, 2012; Górnaś
& Rudzińska, 2016; Górnaś, Rudzińska, & Seglina, 2014a). Other
important constituents in apple seed oils are tocopherols (α, β, γ ,
and δ) and phytosterols (Górnaś et al.,2014b;Górnaś & Rudzińska,
2016). Tocopherols, by assumption, can play the protective role
against oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, because they are the
most important natural antioxidants (Górnaś, 2015). Even though
apple seeds contain all of those healthy constituents, they also con-
tain cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin, which is potentially toxic in
dependence of concentrations (Fidelis et al., 2019; Górnaś et al.,
2015). The concentration of amygdalin in apple seed was found
to be around 4 mg/g, and the apple seeds are only a minor con-
stituent (2% to 4% in apple pomace) of apple pomace. However, it
was still recommended to remove it from the apple pomace prior
to the further processing (Bhushan et al., 2008; Bolarinwa, Orfila,
& Morgan, 2015; Górnaś et al., 2015).
The fructose, which can be present in some apple pomaces (up
to 49.8 g/100 g), is a simple sugar that is sweeter than saccharose,
and because of that, apple pomace can be used as a potential sweet-
ener ingredient. The drawback for higher amounts of fructose in
the final product is its metabolism and higher capability of forming
the triglycerides in comparison to the other carbohydrates (Hall-
frisch, 1990). Also, the total sugar content in the apple pomace
makes it a perfect substrate for fermentation. It was successfully
used for microbial oil production after hydrolysis was done. Ob-
tained fermentable sugars showed a better substrate for microbial
oil production than glucose (Liu, You, Deng, Guo, & Meng, 2019).

Apple pomace as fortification compound…
Aside from biofuel production, microbial oils can be used as food
additives and supplements (Bellou et al., 2016).
Malic acid, which can be found at levels up to 3.28 g/100 g, is
another health beneficial constituent that supports the human im-
mune system, has a positive effect on skin, and has an important
role in lowering the risk of toxic metals poisoning (Hossain,Akhtar,
& Anwar, 2015). The apple pomace is an important source of
pectin, and 14% of the worldwide-produced pectins comes from
this byproduct (Morales-Contreras et al., 2020). The use of pectins,
which are in large extent present in the apple pomace, as gelling
agents and stabilizers in the food industry, is well known (Mar-
con, Vriesmann, Wosiacki, Beleski-Carneiro, & Petkowicz, 2005).
Pectin as a soluble fiber takes part in lipid metabolism in processes
of total cholesterol reduction, in lowering the risks of diabetes and
cardiovascular diseases, and can be classified in a group of overall
health beneficial compounds (Makarova et al., 2015).
The content of main minerals (Ca, Na, K, P, and Mg), as well
as essential trace elements (Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn), is presented in
Table 1, and their role is significant for any biological process in
the human body (Gorinstein et al., 2001).
Great perspective showed natural pigments that can be obtained
from the apple pomace. By oxidation of phenolic compounds, the
yellow pigment can be obtained as a natural substitute for tartrazine
at a pH below 5 and orange to reddish at a pH above 6 as an alter-
native to curcumin that is not water soluble (Fromm, Loos, Bayha,
Carle, & Kammerer, 2013). Apple pomace also showed prospects
as a raw material for lactic acid production (Gullon, Yánez, Alonso,
& Parajó, 2008).
The recent study of Lu et al. (2020) gave out interesting conclu-
sions about the use of micronized apple pomace as an emulsifier
in the food industry. Containing the bioactive compounds, apple
pomace can make emulsions with satisfying oxidative and physical
stability (Lu et al., 2020). This was also confirmed in the practical
experiment of Wang, Kristo, and LaPointe (2019), where the addi-
tion of apple pomace to the yoghurt drinks increased its emulsion
stability and textural properties.
There is also the existing concern about the potential pres-
ence of mycotoxins in the apple pomace. Only rotten apples (not
treated correctly during harvest of processing) contained myco-
toxins, whereas no traces were found in healthy fruits and fruits of
good technological quality (Li et al.,2020).Phytochemicals present
in apple pomace exerted strong antifungal activity as well (Oleszek
et al., 2019).
4. STUDIES ABOUT THE USE OF APPLE POMACE AS A
FORTIFYING AGENT
4.1 The fortification of plant foodstuffs
Table 3 gives an overview of the use of apple pomace in dif-
ferent types of plant origin products and the achieved effect. The
studies investigated the incorporation of the apple pomace flour
into products: cakes, muffins, cookies, bread, biscuits, crackers, and
extruded snacks.
Sudha, Baskaran, and Leelavathi (2007) in their study were using
the apple pomace that had 51% of total dietary fibers. The tests
showed that the cakes made with the addition of apple pomace into
the flour were with evidently higher density and lower volume,and
with the increase of total phenolic content of 52% for the 25%
blend against the control product without added apple pomace.
The overall evaluation for the finalized product was that cake was
acceptable with a nice fruity flavored taste for the blends up to 20%
and with enriched antioxidant properties.
Hypotheses in Food Science
Concise Reviews &
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In the study of Jung, Cavender, and Zhao (2015), the dried apple
pomace was used as a replacement (15% and 20%) of wheat flour
in the preparation of the cookies and muffins. The obtained bak-
ery products were with higher amounts of fibers, but significantly
darker than the control ones that were produced by using wheat
flour only. The reasons for that were in the original color of ap-
ple pomace and because of possible nonenzymatic browning. The
large amounts of simple carbohydrates present in the apple pomace
can undergo caramelization or Maillard reaction while being heat
treated (Manzocco, Calligaris, Mastrocola, Nicoli, & Lerici, 2000),
and this is probably the reason for color change in those products
as well. Texture wise, the obtained cookies and muffins products
were softer than control ones, but there was no harmful effect on
the final product regarding the physicochemical and textural prop-
erties.
Products of satisfactory quality were also obtained when using
apple pomace in making gluten-free products (Rocha Parra, Ri-
botta, & Ferrero, 2015), where 12.5% of dried apple pomace was
added to the gluten-free bread while making the mixture. By anal-
ogy to other similar studies, it was found that the final product has
decreased cohesiveness and increased crumb hardness. The same
author investigated in 2019 the quality of sugar snap cookies where
the wheat flour was replaced with 15% and 30% of dried apple
pomace. Sensory analysis showed that samples with the addition
of 15% of apple pomace instead of wheat flour were taste wise
more acceptable than control ones. For all other sensory proper-
ties tested, there was no significant difference between control and
the apple pomace-contained samples.
The study of Alongi, Melchior, and Anese (2019) showed that
it is possible to reduce the glycemic index of biscuit products by
replacement of wheat flour with 10% and 20% of dried apple po-
mace blend. The control product had glycemic index 70.4, which
categorized it as high-glycemic-index food, whereas the samples
in which the replacement with apple pomace was done could
be categorized as intermediate glycemic index foods with values
65.7 and 60.8 for 10% and 20% blends, respectively. The product
obtained had a slight change in the sensory aspect that included
darker color due to the browning and was with decreased thick-
ness, but overall was acceptable as a product.
Mir, Bosco, Shah, Santhalakshmy, and Mir (2017) were doing
the study that resulted in good antioxidant properties of gluten-
free brown rice crackers with the addition of 3%, 6%, and 9% of
dried apple pomace. There was a significant increase in total di-
etary fiber content. As in other studies, the product obtained with
the addition of apple pomace blend was with a darker color and
decreased firmness. The flavor property showed the higher grades
for the apple pomace blends in comparison to the control sample.
Overall sensory acceptance of all blends was very similar to the
control ones.
Rupasinghe, Wang, Huber, and Pitts (2008) used apple skin
powder to replace the wheat flour in the muffin baking process.
Replacement was done in percentages of 4%, 8%, 16%, 24%, and
32% (w/w). The recovery of polyphenols present in the apple skin
is marked as poor and varied from 16% to 64%. The positive linear
correlation was found between both phenolic content and antiox-
idant activity and the percentages of apple skin powder added.
Addition of the apple pomace to the extruded snacks was part of
the study of Drożdż et al. (2014), where apple pomace was added
up to 20% as a replacement of corn grits into the final product.
The obtained results led to the conclusion that there was a signifi-
cant increase in phenolic content and antioxidant activity, but also
significant color change in the samples with added apple pomace.
Vol. 85, Iss. 10, 2020 r Journal of Food Science 2979
Hypotheses in Food Science
Concise Reviews &

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Apple pomace as fortification compound…

Table 3–Effect of addition of apple pomace on different types of plant origin products.

Product Conditions Remarks

Cake (Sudha et al., 2007)
Cookies and muffins (Jung et al.,
2015)
Gluten-free bread (Rocha Parra
et al., 2015)
Biscuits (Alongi et al., 2019)
Gluten-free brown rice crackers (Mir
et al., 2017)
Sugar snap cookies (Parra et al.,
2019)
Muffins (Rupasinghe et al., 2008)
Extruded snacks (Drożdż et al., 2014)
Extruded snacks (Reis et al., 2014)
Baked scones (Reis et al., 2014)
Cereal crispbread (Konrade et al.,
2017)
Batter and cake (Kırbas et al., 2019)
Biscuits (Kohajdová et al., 2014)
Cookies (de Toledo et al., 2017)
Sangak bread (Jannati et al., 2018)
Bread (Bchir et al., 2014)
Note. ↑ = positive effect; ↓ = negative effect.
Replacement of wheat flour with apple
pomace (up to 30%)
Replacement of 10 and 15% of wheat
flour with dried apple pomace
Addition up to 12.5% of apple pomace
on bread making mixture
Replacement of 10% and 20% of wheat
flour with dried apple pomace
Addition of 3%, 6%, and 9% (based on
brown rice flour content) of dried
apple pomace
Replacement of 15% and 30% of wheat
flour with dried apple pomace
Replacement of up to 32% of wheat
flour with dried apple skin powder
Replacement of 10%, 15%, and 20% of
corn grit with apple pomace
Replacement of 10%, 20%, and 30% of
rice flour/wheat semolina mixture
with apple pomace
Replacement of 10%, 20%, and 30% of
Odlums Cream flour with apple
pomace
Replacement of 5%, 10%, and 15 % of
ingredient flours with apple pomace
flour
Replacement of 5%, 10%, and 15% of rise
flour with apple pomace
Replacement of wheat flour with 5%,
10%, and 15% of dried apple pomace
Replacement of wheat flour with 5%,
10%, and 15% of apple pomace
Addition of 1%, 3%, 5%, and 7% of apple
pomace to the bread making mixture
Addition of 10% of apple pomace based
on wheat flour weight
↑Acceptable final product, with nice fruity flavor and enriched
antioxidant properties
↓Decrease in volume
↑Increased fiber content
↓Darker products with softer consistency
↑Enriched product with satisfactory quality
↓Increase of the crumb hardness and decrease of cohesiveness
↑Lowered glycemic index to the acceptable level
↓Change in sensory and physical properties of the final product
↑Increase antioxidant potential and fibers. Desirable sensoric
properties
↓Change in color and firmness of the final product (less crispy
product with increase of pomace percent)
↑Very acceptable enriched final product for 15% fortification.
↓Excessive sweet and bitter taste for samples with 30% replacement
↑Increase of phenolic content and antioxidant activity, higher
dietary fiber content, higher water holding capacity
↑Increase of total phenolic content and antioxidant activity
↓Change of color in comparison to the control product
↑Increase of fibers, phenolic content, and antioxidant activity
↓Decrease in protein and starch content. Decrease in protein
digestibility.
↑ Increase of fibers, phenolic content, and antioxidant activity
↓Decrease in protein and starch content
↑Increase of total dietary fiber content
↓Harder consistency of product with added apple pomace
↑Increase of total dietary fiber content
↓Decrease of cake volume, darker final products, increased hardness
↑Acceptable sensory properties for 5% blend
↓Increase of hardness and reduced volume, thickness, and spread
ratio
↑Enrichment with the fibers
↓Decrease in product lightness
↑Fiber-enriched product with enhanced aroma
↓Change in color and hardness
↑Fiber-enriched product with properties similar to white bread
↓Change in color of final product

Overall sensory grade of extruded snacks products with added ap-
ple pomace was marked as good for all tested ratios.
The study of Reis et al. (2014) aimed to prove an increase of
antioxidant activity of final products: extruded snacks and baked
scones where apple pomace was incorporated in different percent-
ages up to 30% as an exchange for main flour ingredients. The ex-
truded products were made by combining the rice flour and wheat
semolina mixture (2:1) with apple pomace flour in percentages of
10%, 20%, and 30%, whereas in baked scones the Odlums Cream
flour was replaced with same percentages of apple pomace. The
results revealed an increasing trend for total dietary fiber and de-
creasing trend for proteins and starches. There was a significant
increase in total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of both
types of products. The notable decrease of digestibility of soluble
and insoluble proteins was acquired in experiments done on ex-
truded products.
Konrade et al. (2017) were making the experiments by adding
5%, 10%, and 15% of apple pomace flour as a replacement of rye–
oat flour (80:20) and rice–wheat flour–wheat bran mixture while
preparing the cereal crispbreads. Increase of total dietary fiber was
determined in fortified products. The hardness of products with
incorporated apple pomace increased in comparison to the control
ones.
In the work of Kırbas, Kumcuoglu, and Tavman (2019), the rice
flour was replaced with the 5%, 10%, and 15% of apple pomace
flour in making the gluten-free cake. The obtained product had
decreased volume, was darker, and was with harder consistency. It
was concluded that it is possible to make fiber-enriched products
with satisfying overall sensory acceptance for the addition of up to
10% of apple pomace in the mixture.
Study of Kohajdová, Karovičová, Magala, and Kuchtová (2014),
on the addition of apple pomace in amounts of 5%, 10%, and 15%
instead of wheat flour into the biscuits, showed that there was no
significant difference regarding overall acceptance between con-
trols and samples with incorporated 5% of apple pomace. The in-
crease of added apple pomace addition led to evidently lower sen-
sory grades. The fortified products were with harder consistency
and lower volume and thickness, which is similar to the other de-
scribed studies.
Bchir, Rabetafika, Paquot, and Blecker (2014) were testing the
dough performance and bread quality when 2% of fibers were
added to the dough mixture. It was done by adding 10% of apple
pomace that was made by the process of pressing the cooked apples.
The addition of apple pomace significantly increased the yields of
dough, and structure wise, the crumb and crust of enriched final
product were very similar to the ones of the control. There was a

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Apple pomace as fortification compound…
Figure 1–Impact of addition of apple pomace to L value of color in plant food origin products.
significantly different change in color of crumb and crust in the
fortified product when compared to the control.
4.1.1 Meta-analysis. The meta-analysis of changes in L
value of the color of plant origin products with the addition of
apple pomace is summarized in Figure 1. The L value showed that
there are statistically significant (P < 0.05) differences between
all studies as no one crosses the line of null effect. The L value
was lower when the apple pomace was added in the products. The
products with the addition of apple pomace were darker than con-
trol products, except bread crust with 10% of apple pomace (the
bread crust with 10% of apple pomace was lighter than control
sample without apple pomace) (Bchir et al., 2014). The first rea-
son for the darker final product after fortification is because of the
color of the apple pomace itself, which was with lower lightness
value in comparison to the original replaced ingredient. In the
work of Parra, Sahagún, Ribotta, Ferrero, and Gómez (2019), the
measured lightness value (L) of wheat flour was 90, whereas the
three apple pomace blends that were used in fortification of cook-
ies had the values 40.1; 48.1, and 54.1. Another possible reason for
the decrease in lightness is due to the high content of glucose and
fructose in apple pomace, which are susceptible to the Maillard re-
action and caramelization during the baking process (Alongi et al.,
2019; Kırbas et al., 2019).
The diamond showed the average of all studies, indicating that
the samples with some addition of apple pomace were generally
darker than control.
The meta-analysis of the a color value changes in plant origin
products with the addition of apple pomace can be seen in Figure
S1. There were also statistically significant (P < 0.05) differences
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between all studies/all samples. And again like in the measuring of
L value, in all samples the higher amount of a value was measured
than in control samples except bread crust 10%, where the value
was lower than in the control sample. The positive a value means
that the product has a more reddish color (Alongi et al., 2019),
and overall positive trend of analyzed studies can be attributed
to the reddish to brown color of the apple pomace (Mir et al.,
2017).
The diamond showed the average of all studies, so generally, the
samples with some addition of apple pomace had higher a value
than control samples.
The meta-analysis of changes in b value of the color of plant
origin products with the addition of apple pomace is summarized
in Figure S2. In the case of b value, the results are significantly
(P < 0.05) different, but the conclusion cannot be made unilater-
ally. In studies by Bchir et al. (2014) and Parra et al. (2019), the b
value was lower in samples with apple pomace than in control, but
oppositely in studies by Alongi et al. (2019) and Mir et al. (2017),
the b value was higher in experimented samples than in control.
Those variations can be explained by different conditions in which
those experiments were done.
The diamond showed the average of all studies; generally, the
samples with some addition of apple pomace had higher b value
than control samples. The positive b value means that the color is
more yellow, and this is in line with the presence of yellow pig-
ments in the apple pomace (Kammerer et al., 2014).
The meta-analysis of changes in TDF and soluble and insoluble
fiber of plant origin products with the addition of apple pomace
is summarized in Figures 2, S3, and S4. As can be seen from the
Vol. 85, Iss. 10, 2020 r Journal of Food Science 2981
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Apple pomace as fortification compound…

Figure 2–Impact of addition of apple pomace to TDF in plant food origin products.

Table 4–Effect of addition of apple pomace on different types of animal origin products.

Product Conditions Remarks

Chicken patty and beef
jerky (Jung et al., 2015)
Chicken sausage (Yadav
et al., 2016a)
Chicken nuggets (Yadav
et al., 2016b)
Buffalo meat patties (Younis
& Ahmad, 2018)
Stirred yogurt and yoghurt
drinks (Wang et al., 2019)
Acidophilic yoghurt (Issar
et al., 2017)
Yoghurt (Fernandes,
Ferreira, et al., 2019)
Note. ↑ = positive effect; ↓ = negative effect.
Replacement of 10% and 20% of meat with
wet apple pomace
Replacement of 3%, 6%, and 9% of chicken
meat with apple pomace
Replacement of 3%, 6%, and 9% of chicken
meat with apple pomace
Replacement of 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8% of
buffalo meat with apple pomace
Addition of up to 3% of dried apple pomace
into fermented product
Addition of 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% of
extracted fibers from apple pomace
Addition of apple pomace extract to achieve
3.3% (wextract /wmilk )
↑Product with enriched fiber content, pectin, and radical scavenging activity
↓Product with lower firmness
↑Enhanced antioxidant activity and color. The enrichment with fibers.
↓Increased hardness
↑Very good sensory properties for addition up to 6% of pomace. Higher
emulsion stability and increased cooking yield.
↑Increased cooking yield and emulsion stability, enhanced textural properties,
and acceptable sensoric evaluation for addition of up to 6% of apple
pomace
↑Increase of viscosity, firmness, stability, and antioxidant activity
↓Change in color of the product
↑Enhanced physical and sensory properties in the products fortified up to 5%
↑Increase in phenolic content and antioxidant activity

figures,all samples had a higher amount of total dietary fiber as well
as soluble and insoluble fiber and also the diamond showed that
the addition of apple pomace had a significant (P < 0.05) effect
on fiber content. The amount of fiber increased with the addition
of apple pomace. The TDF increased statistically significantly (P
< 0.05) in almost all samples except in crispbreads 2** (second
formulation) for 5% fortification product (Konrade et al., 2017).
The insoluble fiber increased in all samples except cookie 5%
(de Toledo et al., 2017), but there was no statistical difference
(P < 0.05). And in the case of soluble fiber, the significant dif-
ferences were found in all studied samples except cookie 10% (de
Toledo et al., 2017).
The fact that the apple pomace can contain up to 82% of to-
tal dietary fibers (Bchir et al., 2014), and that there were observed
positive trend while it was incorporated in different types of prod-
ucts, indicates that the apple pomace can be used as an alternative
source of fibers in those products.
4.2 The fortification of animal origin foodstuffs
Studies about the potential use of apple pomace in the animal
origin products are presented in Table 4.
Jung et al. (2015) were doing the experiments by replacing the
meat in the chicken patty and beef jerky with 10% and 20% of wet
apple pomace. The final product obtained was with lower firm-
ness, but with higher fiber content and pectin and radical scaveng-
ing activity. The chicken patties were significantly darker than the
control, probably because of the same reason mentioned for plant
food products (Maillard reaction and caramelization). The study of
Yadav, Malik, Pathera, Islam, and Sharma (2016a) showed that ad-
dition of 3% to 6% of dried apple pomace as a replacement of the
same amount of chicken meat in production of sausages gave good
results concerning sensory analysis and color of the fortified prod-
uct was even graded better than the control. Instrumental deter-
mination of color revealed that the fortified products were darker
and with increased redness, which was graded as a good sensory

2982 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 85, Iss. 10, 2020


Apple pomace as fortification compound…
property among the panelists. The cooking yield and emulsion
stability were increased with the increase of added apple pomace
to the mixture. Beside of that, the obtained meat product was en-
riched by natural fibers and showed better stability in sense of lower
lipid oxidation during the storage period. This can be attributed to
the antioxidant capacity of apple pomace. The microbial quality of
the product was not affected by the addition of the apple pomace
blend. As expected, the protein content of the final product was
lower, same as moisture, due to replacement of meat. The same
author group was also doing the study regarding chicken nuggets
preparation by using the apple pomace. Similar to the sausages, the
obtained results showed good sensory properties, higher stability
of emulsion, and increase of the cooking yield of the final prod-
uct. The water and protein levels were significantly lower in com-
parison to the controls. The study of Younis and Ahmad (2018)
showed that addition of apple pomace up to the levels of 6% as a
replacement of the buffalo meat in the patties had acceptable sen-
sory grades. The higher levels had a decrease in grading due to
sweet taste that was undesirable in that kind of product. The ap-
ple pomace has a very good water holding capacity that brought
a positive reaction from the panelists, but on the other hand, the
good oil holding capacity of the apple pomace negatively affected
the taste properties of the patties.
The great potential of apple pomace as a natural stabilizer and
dietary fiber source in the stirred type of yoghurt and yoghurt
drinks has also been studied (Wang et al., 2019). In the study of
Wang et al., the apple pomace was added at 1, 2, and 3% to the
fermented matrix, where the textural parameters—viscosity, con-
sistency,cohesiveness,and firmness—increased proportionally with
the pomace addition. It was also observed that the whey separation
decreased during the storage time of 28 days, probably due to wa-
ter holding capacity and emulsifying properties of added apple po-
mace. The increase of polyphenolic compounds was also observed
as the effect of yoghurt fortification in this study. Another study in
dairy products enrichment by addition of fiber extracted from the
apple pomace up to 10% was made (Issar, Sharma, & Gupta, 2017).
The samples enriched with 2.5 and 5% exhibited better sensory
grades for the color, flavor, consistency, and overall acceptance in
comparison to the control samples. The further increase led to the
products that were rejected as not acceptable. Fernandes, Ferreira,
et al. (2019) in their study created the formulation by addition of
hot water extract of apple pomace to make 3.3% (w/w) of extract
in milk, which was the maximum for its dissolution in milk on
experimental conditions. The polyphenolic content was increased
from 11 to 29 mg of gallic acid equivalent per 100 g of product,
and antioxidant activity was increased from 9 to 32 mg of Trolox
per 100 g of product. The prolonged lag phase of lactic acid bac-
teria Streptococcus thermophilus growth was observed, but not to an
extent that would allow the growth of pathogenic microorganisms
or reduce the final product stability.
4.2.1 Meta-analysis. The results of the meta-analysis of L
value for animal origin products are shown in Figure S5. The ad-
dition of apple pomace had a statistically significant impact on L
value in almost all samples except chicken nuggets with 3 and 6%
apple pomace. But when all samples are summarized, the diamond
shows that the changes in L value are statistically (P < 0.05) signif-
icant. The samples are almost always darker than the control sam-
ples. The reasons for the darker color of the product can be the
same as for the apple pomace incorporation into the plant food
products. The important fact is that color change in meat products
was positively affected sensory grades among the panelists (Yadav
et al.,2016a,2016b;Younis & Ahmad,2018),where all were graded
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better than the control samples except the buffalo meat patties in
the study of Younis and Ahmad (2018), with incorporated 8% of
apple pomace.
The meta-analysis for changes in a value of animal origin prod-
ucts is shown in Figure S6. All samples had higher a value than
control samples. The differences were significant except chicken
nuggets with 3% of apple pomace, and the diamond shown signif-
icant differences when the apple pomace was added, confirming
the overall changes of a value to higher values.Similar to the impact
of apple pomace to the color of the final product, the measured
redness might be due to the presence of peels in the pomace,which
can have an impact on color change in the final product (Yadav,
Malik, Pathera, Islam, & Sharma, 2016b).
Results of the meta-analysis of changes in b value of animal
origin products with the addition of apple pomace are shown
in Figure S7. All samples from the study by Younis and Ah-
mad (2018) showed statistically significant differences, but all sam-
ples from the study conducted by Yadav et al. (2016a, 2016b)
crossed the null line, so no statistically significant difference was
observed. The diamond of all summarized studies shown a sta-
tistically significant difference as the b value of samples with
the addition of apple pomace is lower than b value in control
samples.
5. CONCLUSION
The apple pomace as a byproduct generated mainly in the apple
juice industry has a considerable amount of important nutrients.
The systematic review confirmed that the apple pomace can be
successfully used as a fortification ingredient in plant food prod-
ucts, in meat products, and dairy products as well. High content
in dietary fibers in apple pomace was in great extent transferred
to the treated final product, improving its nutritional profile. The
increase in the antioxidant activity of the most fortified products
has been observed because apple pomace is the main polyphenolic
source of the whole fruit. The main drawback of fortification in
plant food products was the undesirable change in color to darker
and brownish color, whereas in meat products this change brought
positive response among the sensory panelists. The finding of color
change is supported by conducted meta-analysis.
The novelty of the conducted systematic review can be observed
through the emphasized influence of apple pomace addition on
different food commodities. However, the beneficial nutritional
profile of apple pomace that can be readily transferred to the forti-
fied product is not questionable. Sensory properties, such as color,
can be differently and adversely affected by apple pomace addi-
tion. Certainly, fortified product modifications will be necessary
because sensory attributes play a major role in product acceptance
by a broader number of consumers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research was funded by Internal Grant Agency IGA VFU
Brno 228/2020/FVHE.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
B. Antonic and D. Dordevic did the planning, data collection,
and writing. S. Jancikova did statistical analysis and its interpreta-
tion. B. Tremlova made the conception and arranged the funding.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Vol. 85, Iss. 10, 2020 r Journal of Food Science 2983
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Apple pomace as fortification compound…

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