Notes for Lecture No.

17 – 18
Why the Ottoman Empire Fell?
Introduction:
In the zenith of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire stood as a formidable global force, wielding
unparalleled military and economic might. Its dominion extended far beyond its origins in Asia Minor,
encompassing vast regions of southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The empire's territorial
reach spanned from the Danube to the Nile, fortified by a robust military, flourishing trade, and noteworthy
accomplishments in diverse domains such as architecture and astronomy. Nonetheless, this zenith of influence
and prosperity proved short-lived.
Causes of the downfall:
1. Too much dependents on Agrarian Economy:
As the industrial revolution swept across Europe during the 1700s and 1800s, the Ottoman economy, in
contrast, remained heavily reliant on agriculture. Michael A. Reynolds, an associate professor of Near Eastern
Studies at Princeton University, highlights that the empire lacked the factories and mills necessary to compete
with industrialized nations like Great Britain, France, and Russia. Consequently, the Ottoman Empire
experienced limited economic growth, and any agricultural surplus it generated was utilized to repay loans to
European creditors.
When the time came for the Ottoman Empire to engage in World War I, its industrial capabilities proved
insufficient for the production of essential resources such as heavy weaponry, munitions, iron, and steel. This
inadequacy extended to the inability to construct the necessary railroads vital for supporting the war effort.
2. It wasn’t cohesive enough:
At its zenith, the Ottoman Empire encompassed a vast territory, including Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Hungary,
Jordan, Lebanon, Israel and the Palestinian territories, Macedonia, Romania, Syria, parts of Arabia, and the
north coast of Africa. Even without external interference, Michael A. Reynolds suggests that the empire would
have faced challenges in maintaining its unity and transitioning into a modern democratic nation. He points to
the significant diversity within the empire in terms of ethnicity, language, economics, and geography, asserting
that homogeneous societies are more prone to easy democratization than heterogeneous ones.
The diverse populations within the empire became increasingly rebellious, leading to the empire's concessions
in the 1870s, allowing Bulgaria and other nations to gain independence while ceding additional territories.
Subsequent losses in the 1912-1913 Balkan Wars, where a coalition including some of its former imperial
possessions emerged victorious, compelled the Ottoman Empire to relinquish its remaining European holdings.
3. Under-education within its population
The Ottoman Empire faced a significant challenge of under-education within its population. Despite initiatives
to enhance education during the 1800s, the empire trailed far behind its European counterparts in literacy. By
1914, it is estimated that only a modest 5 to 10 percent of its residents possessed the ability to read. Michael
A. Reynolds emphasizes that the human resources of the Ottoman Empire, akin to its natural resources,
remained comparatively undeveloped. This resulted in a scarcity of well-trained professionals, including
military officers, engineers, clerks, doctors, and individuals in various other crucial professions.
 4. International Conspiracies:
The intentional weakening of the Ottoman Empire by other nations played a significant role in its decline.
Eugene Rogan, the director of the Middle East Centre at St. Antony’s College, Oxford, points out that the
ambitions of European powers expedited the empire's demise. Russia and Austria supported nationalist
movements in the Balkans to enhance their own influence, while the British and the French were keen to seize
territories under Ottoman control in the Middle East and North Africa. These strategic maneuvers by external
powers contributed to the empire's vulnerability and hastened its eventual downfall.
5. Czarist Russia Rivalry:
The neighboring Czarist Russia, encompassing a vast realm that included Muslims, emerged as a growing and
bitter rival to the Ottoman Empire. Michael A. Reynolds notes that the Russian Empire posed a significant and
existential threat to the Ottomans. However, during World War I, when the two empires found themselves on
opposing sides, Russia faced a collapse, partially attributed to Ottoman forces obstructing the supply route
from Europe through the Black Sea.
Despite the possibility of negotiating a separate peace with the Ottoman Empire, Tsar Nicholas II and his
foreign minister, Sergei Sazanov, resisted such overtures. This decision, as Reynolds suggests, may have
contributed to Russia's downfall during the war.
6. Picking the wrong side:
The Ottoman Empire's alignment with Germany in World War I stands out as a pivotal factor in its demise.
Prior to the war, the empire entered into a secret treaty with Germany, a decision that proved to be
detrimental. During the conflict, the Ottoman army engaged in a brutal and bloody campaign on the Gallipoli
peninsula to defend Constantinople from invading Allied forces in 1915 and 1916. The toll was devastating,
with the empire losing nearly half a million soldiers, primarily to disease, and around 3.8 million more suffering
injuries or falling ill. In October 1918, the Ottoman Empire signed an armistice with Great Britain, signaling its
withdrawal from the war.
Some argue that, had it not been for its entanglement in World War I, the empire might have survived.
Historian Mostafa Minawi from Cornell University contends that the Ottoman Empire had the potential to
transform into a modern, multi-ethnic, and multi-lingual federal state. Instead, World War I triggered the
empire's disintegration as it sided with the losing faction. Consequently, when the war concluded, the victors
decided the division of the Ottoman Empire's territories.