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A Study of Afro-Cuban Jazz as Pioneered by

Chucho Valdés and the Group Irakere
Salvent, Aldo Houari
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UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI
A STUDY OF AFRO-CUBAN JAZZ AS PIONEERED BY CHUCHO VALDÉS AND

THE GROUP IRAKERE
By
Aldo Houari Salvent
A DOCTORAL ESSAY
Submitted to the Faculty

of the University of Miami
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts
Coral Gables, Florida
May 2020
Ó 2020
Aldo Houari Salvent
All Rights Reserved
UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI
A doctoral essay submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Musical Arts
A STUDY OF AFRO-CUBAN JAZZ AS PIONEERED BY CHUCHO VALDÉS AND

THE GROUP IRAKERE
Aldo Houari Salvent
Approved:
Gary W. Keller, M.M., Co-Chair Martin Bejerano, M.M., Co-Chair

Professor of Practice Associate Professor
Department of Studio Music and Jazz Department of Studio Music and Jazz
John Hart, B.M. Stephen J. Guerra, D.M.A.

Assistant Professor of Professional Lecturer
Practice Department of Jazz and Studio Music
Department of Studio Music and Jazz
___________________________________
Melvin L. Butler, Ph.D. Guillermo Prado, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Dean of the Graduate School
Department of Musicology
SALVENT, ALDO HOUARI (D.M.A., Jazz Performance)
(May 2020)
A Study of Afro-Cuban Jazz as Pioneered by Chucho Valdés and the Group Irakere
Abstract of a doctoral essay at the University of Miami.
Doctoral essay supervised by Gary Keller, M.M. and Martin Bejerano, M.M.
No. of pages in text. (146)
Although there is a substantial amount of educational material addressing jazz
improvisation, harmony, composition, and arranging, there is very little analysis of Cuban
composers and music written for Afro-Cuban jazz ensembles. This essay focuses on
transcription, analysis, and background of selected works by Chucho Valdés for the group
Irakere, with emphasis on selected passages for the horn section. The foundational
elements of Cuban music, including the clave, African influenced rhythmic cells, bebop
vocabulary, and Cuban dance music are addressed and provide the basis for analysis.
Decoding the music of Chucho Valdés for the group Irakere is intended to
illuminate the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic components of the modern Afro-Cuban
jazz genre.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ..........................................................................................................................v
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................1
Background ......................................................................................................1
Need For Study .................................................................................................6
Purpose Of The Study ......................................................................................7
Research Questions ..........................................................................................7
Delimitations ....................................................................................................8
2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................9
3 METHOD .............................................................................................................19
Overview ........................................................................................................19
Source Material ..............................................................................................19
Data Analysis .................................................................................................20
Interview .........................................................................................................21
Implications of the Study ...............................................................................21
4 CHUCHO VALDÉS ............................................................................................22
5 IRAKERE .............................................................................................................26
6 IRAKERE AND THE AFRO-CUBAN TRADITIONS ......................................32
Afro-Cuban Rhythmic Cells ............................................................................33
7 THE CLAVE ........................................................................................................38
8 BATÁ DRUMS ....................................................................................................52
iii
The Rhythms and Pitches of the Batá Drums..................................................55
Changó.............................................................................................................61
Chachalokafun .................................................................................................65
9 CUBAN POPULAR MUSIC ..............................................................................68
10 CUBAN TRADITIONAL PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS .............................84
11 TRANSCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF “STELLA, PETE AND RONNIE” 89
“Stella, Pete And Ronnie” .............................................................................90
Rhythmic Analysis ........................................................................................96
Harmonic And Melodic Analysis ................................................................101
Pentatonic and Hexatonic Scales .................................................................102
Typical Bebop Phrases in “Stella, Pete And Ronnie” .................................109
12 TRANSCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF “CHANGÓ” ........................................116
“Changó” .....................................................................................................116
Rhythmic Analysis ......................................................................................121
Harmonic And Melodic Analysis ................................................................126
13 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................129
APPENDIX A – “Stella, Pete and Ronnie” in the Key of Eb .........................................131
Stella, Pete and Ronnie” in the Key of Bb ..........................................135
APPENDIX B – “Changó” in the Key of Eb ...................................................................139
“Changó” in the Key of Bb ..................................................................142
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................145
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 6.1: Tresillo .................................................................................................................33
Figure 6.2: Conga Rhythm .....................................................................................................34
Figure 6.3: The Clave Pattern.................................................................................................34
Figure 6.4: Cinquillo ..............................................................................................................35
Figure 6.5: Danzón Rhythm / Bass Line ................................................................................35
Figure 6.6: Danzón Pattern Aligned with the 3-2 Clave and the Bass Line of “La Comparsa”
.............................................................................................................................36
Figure 6.7: Rhythmic Cell Used by Bassists ..........................................................................36
Figure 6.8: African Rhythm (Performed with 6/8 Feel) .........................................................37
Figure 6.9: Afro-Caribbean Rhythmic Cells ..........................................................................37
Figure 7.1: The 3-2 Son Clave Demonstrated in Two Measures of 4/4 .................................40
Figure 7.2: Son Clave In 2/4 ..................................................................................................40
Figure 7.3: The 3-2 Son Clave Demonstrated in One Measure of 4/4 ...................................40
Figure 7.4: The 2-3 Clave.......................................................................................................41
Figure 7.5: The Guaguancó Clave ..........................................................................................41
Figure 7.6: The Columbia Clave ............................................................................................42
Figure 7.7: The Wemba Clave ...............................................................................................42
Figure 7.8: The Yoruba Clave or 6/8 Clave ...........................................................................42
Figure 7.9: The Abakuá Clave ...............................................................................................42
Figure 7.10: Claves in 12/8 or 6/8 ..........................................................................................43
Figure 7.11 a: Cross Rhythm in 6/8 .......................................................................................44
Figure 7.11 b: Cross Rhythms in 6/8 ......................................................................................44
Figure 7.12: Excerpt of Misa Negra .......................................................................................45
v
Figure 7.13: Common Pulse and Different Claves.................................................................46
Figure 7.14: The Imaginary Clave in Tanga ..........................................................................47
Figure 7.15: Intro Of “Manteca” ............................................................................................48
Figure 7.16: Melody Of “Manteca” .......................................................................................49
Figure 7.17: The Imaginary Clave In “Mambo Influenciado” ...............................................50
Figure 7.18: The Imaginary Clave In “Bacalao Con Pan” (Horn Section) ............................50
Figure 8.1 a: Iyá Pitches .........................................................................................................55
Figure 8.1 b: Iyá Pitches .........................................................................................................56
Figure 8.1 c: Iyá Pitches .........................................................................................................56
Figure 8.2 a: Itótele Pitches ....................................................................................................57
Figure 8.2 b: Itótele Pitches ....................................................................................................57
Figure 8.2 c: Itótele Pitches ....................................................................................................57
Figure 8.3 a: Okónkolo Pitches ..............................................................................................58
Figure 8.3 b: Okónkolo Pitches ..............................................................................................58
Figure 8.4: All The Pitches Produced By The Batá Drums ...................................................59
Figure 8.5: Melodic Notation For Batá Drums ......................................................................60
Figure 8.6: Rhythmic Notation For Batá Drums ....................................................................61
Figure 8.7: The Itótele in “Changó” (Both Hands) ................................................................61
Figure 8.8: The Itótele in “Changó” (Separate Hands) ..........................................................62
Figure 8.9: The Okónkolo in “Changó” .................................................................................62
Figure 8.10: The Iyá in “Changó” ..........................................................................................63
Figure 8.11: All Three Batá Drums in “Changó” ...................................................................63
Figure 8.12: Triplets ...............................................................................................................64
Figure 8.13: Batá Drums Notation Symbols ..........................................................................65
vi
Figure 8.14: Chachalokafun Basic Pattern .............................................................................66
Figure 8.15: Conversations Between The Iyá And Itótele (Chachalokafun) .........................66
Figure 8.16: Independent Variations On The Iyá And Okónkolo (Chachalokafun) ..............67
Figure 9.1: Afro. Version By Goldschmidt, Peckels And Greenwood ..................................70
Figure 9.2: Slow Tempo Clave...............................................................................................71
Figure 9.3: Fast Tempo Clave ................................................................................................71
Figure 9.4: Cha-Cha-Chá. Version By Goldschmidt, Peckels And Greenwood ....................72
Figure 9.5: Mozambique. Version By Goldschmidt, Peckels And Greenwood.....................73
Figure 9.6: Pilón. Version By Goldschmidt, Peckels And Greenwood .................................74
Figure 9.7: Conga. Version By Goldschmidt, Peckels And Greenwood ...............................75
Figure 9.8: Conga (Bells). Version By Goldschmidt, Peckels And Greenwood ...................76
Figure 9.9: Cinquillo In Danzón.............................................................................................77
Figure 9.10: Basic Cuban Pattern In The First Part Of The Danzón (A Section) ..................78
Figure 9.11: Montuno Section Of Danzón (Based On The Cha-Cha-Chá) and Guaguancó
Rumba .................................................................................................................78
Figure 9.12: Yambú. Version By Goldschmidt, Peckels And Greenwood ............................81
Figure 9.13: Columbia. Version By Goldschmidt, Peckels And Greenwood ........................82
Figure 9.14: Guaguancó. Version By Goldschmidt, Peckels And Greenwood .....................83
Figure 10.1: Example Of A Basic Maraca Pattern .................................................................85
Figure 10.2: Example Of The Cáscara In Timbales ...............................................................87
Figure 10.3: Cáscara In 2-3 Clave with One of the Timbales “Cáscara” Patterns .................87
Figure 10.4: Cáscara In 3-2 Clave ..........................................................................................88
Figure 10.5: Cáscara Variations .............................................................................................88
Figure 10.5 a: Cáscara Variations ..........................................................................................88
vii
Figure. 11.1: Transcription of “Stella, Pete And Ronnie” In Concert Key ...........................92
Figure 11.2: The Guaguancó Clave from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 1-4 ....................96
Figure 11.3: Mozambique Conga Pattern from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 5-6 ...........97
Figure 11.4: Yambú Conga Pattern from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 9-12...................97
Figure 11.5: Cowbell 2 Conga Pattern from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 15-16 ............98
Figure 11.6: Amphibrachs Pattern from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” m. 20 ...........................98
Figure 11.7: Habanera Pattern from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” m. 29 .................................99
Figure 11.8: Cinquillo Pattern from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 33-34 .........................99
Figure 11.9: Timbales “Cáscara” Pattern from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 35-38 ......100
Figure 11.10: Son Clave (3-2) from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 55-56.......................100
Figure 11.11: Clave (3-2) from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 57-58 ..............................100
Figure 11.12: Timbales “Cáscara” Pattern from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 84-87 ....101
Figure 11.13: Pilón Güiro Pattern from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 101-104 .............101
Figure 11.14: A Pentatonic /D hexatonic scale in “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 1-4 .....103
Figure 11.15: Minor Pentatonic Scale in “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 15-16. ..............104
Figure 11.16: Melodic Contrast in “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 17-24 .........................104
Figure 11.17: VII/I Upper Structure, Minor Pentatonic and Triad Resolution in “Stella, Pete
And Ronnie.” mm. 23-24 ..................................................................................105
Figure 11.18: Relative Minor Pentatonic Scale in “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 30-31 .106
Figure 11.19: Chromatic Ascending Line in “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 41-42 .........106
Figure 11.20: Ascending Parallel Whole Tone Scales Separated by a Fourth Interval.
“Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 47-48 ..............................................................106
Figure 11.21: Diminished Scale in “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 69-72 ........................107
Figure 11.22: The Bebop Dominant Scale in “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 92-93 ........108
viii
Figure 11.23: Repetition of Melodic Sequence on G Major/Minor in “Stella, Pete and
Ronnie.” mm. 84-91..........................................................................................108
Figure 11.24: Melodic/Rhythmic Motivic Development in “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm.
73-78 .................................................................................................................109
Figure 11.25: Bebop Phrase #1 from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” m. 15 .............................110
Figure 11.27: Bebop Phrase #3 From “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” m. 18.............................111
Figure 11.33: Bebop Phrase #9 from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 70-72 ....................113
Figure 11.34: Bebop Phrase #10 from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 92-93 ...................114
Figure 11.35: Bebop Phrase #11 from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” m. 94 ...........................114
Figure 11.36: Bebop Phrase #12 from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” mm. 100-101 ..............115
Figure 11.37: Bebop Phrase #13 from “Stella, Pete And Ronnie.” m. 130 .........................115
Figure 12.1: Transcription of “Changó” in Concert Key .....................................................118
Figure 12.2: Triplet Pattern #6 in “Changó.” m. 20 .............................................................121
Figure 12.3: Variation of Triplets #5 in “Changó.” m. 24 ...................................................121
Figure 12.4: Variation of Triplets #1, 4, 5and 7 in “Changó.” m. 36...................................122
Figure 12.5: Partial Columbia, Wemba and Yoruba Claves in “Changó.” m. 21 ................122
Figure 12.6: The Left Hand Itótele Rhythmic Cell in “Changó” as Demonstrated in Figure
8.8, Chapter 8. m. 25 .........................................................................................123
Figure 12.7: 3-2 Clave in “Changó.” m. 55..........................................................................123
ix
Figure 12.8: Chachalokafun “Itótele Pattern” in “Changó.” m. 69 ......................................124
Figure 12.9: Itótele Rhythmic Cell in the Changó Rhythm .................................................125
Figure 12.10: Keyboard Comping Rhythm in “Changó.” mm. 61-62 .................................125
Figure 12.11: Sequence of Suspended Chords in “Changó.” mm. 1- 4 ...............................126
Figure 12.12: D Minor Pentatonic in “Changó.” mm. 6-7 ...................................................127
Figure 12.13: Arpeggiated Major Triads in “Changó.” mm. 13-14 .....................................127
Figure 12.14: Two Consecutive Diatonic Enclosures in “Changó.” m. 30 ..........................127
Figure 12.15: Parallel Whole Tone Scale in “Changó.” mm. 31-33 ....................................128
x
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Background
From the mid-nineteenth century on, as stated by Cuban American musicologist
Raul Fernandez, musicians from Cuba have inspired the world with their forceful creations
for dancing: the habanera, the bolero, the danzón, the son, the rumba, the mambo, the cha-
cha-cha, the pilón, the mozambique, the songo, and the timba.1 The geographic proximity
of Cuba and the United States, the economic relationship between the two countries, and
the diverse musical heritage of the United States have been crucial in the creation of Latin
jazz, initially known as Cubop or Afro-Cuban jazz.2 Fernandez also mentions that the
African American communities living in the United States created jazz, while Cuban
popular music had its roots in African folklore merged with European classical traditions.
However, while there is considerable research into the history of Latin jazz in the United
States, especially in New York, there is surprisingly very little on the influence of African
folk traditions in Cuban jazz.
American jazz was first heard in Cuba as early as the 1920’s via radio broadcasts
and live performances in venues such as nightclubs, hotels and casinos.3 According to jazz
1
Timba is a Cuban genre of music based on popular Cuban music along with salsa, American funk/R&B,
and the strong influence of Afro-Cuban folkloric music. Timba rhythm sections differ from their salsa
counterparts, because timba emphasizes the bass drum, which is not used in salsa bands.
2
Raul A. Fernandez, From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz (Berkeley, California: University of
California Press, 2006), viii/ Preface.
3
Leonardo Acosta, Descarga Cubana: El jazz en Cuba 1900-1950 (La Habana: Ediciones UNIÓN,
2000),42-49.
1
2
historian Scott Yanow, a few years later Machito’s Afro-Cubans became the first
Cuban dance band in New York to combine Cuban rhythms with American jazz.
Cuban musicologist and saxophonist Leonardo Acosta mentions that Afro-Cuban
jazz developed simultaneously in New York and Havana, the difference being that in Cuba
it was a gradual, almost imperceptible process.4 In New York, the Cuban American jazz
movement was led by Cuban expatriates Mario Bauzá, Machito and Chano Pozo. Cuban
trumpeter, music director, arranger and composer Mario Bauzá is often considered the
father of Afro-Cuban jazz.5 Bauzá, as addressed by Yanow, had previously played trumpet
with Chick Webb and Cab Calloway’s bands, where he extensively learned about
American jazz. After becoming Machito’s musical director and arranger he started hiring
American jazz musicians for the horn sections.
In 1943, Bauzá composed Tanga, widely considered the first Afro-Cuban jazz song.
He also introduced percussionist Chano Pozo to American jazz trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie,
upon learning that Gillespie wanted to add a Cuban percussionist to his band. Pozo and
Gillespie co-wrote several legendary Afro-Cuban jazz compositions such as Manteca and
Tin Tin Deo. Perhaps the most significant contribution to the genre came later when group
Irakere, under the direction of Cuban pianist and composer Chucho Valdés pioneered the
integration of Cuban dance music and American jazz, and most significantly, the folkloric
rhythms of African origin.
The beginning of Fidel Castro’s revolution in January 1959 marked an unexpected
turning point for both the music and musicians in Cuba. The performance and promotion
4
Leonardo Acosta is a Cuban saxophonist and musicologist, author of the book Cubano Be Cubano Bop, as
well as other significant books on the history of Cuban jazz.
5
Yanow, Jazz: A Regional Exploration, 137.
3
of American jazz music was expressly prohibited by the Communist government’s
political agenda, which was designed to eliminate the existing cultural relationship between
the two countries. Once jazz was classified as “the music of the enemy,” Cuban musicians
interested in performing jazz-related music had to find an alternate solution. They did so
by disguising jazz as progressive Cuban dance music.
Irakere was founded in the early 1970’s under the leadership of the aforementioned
Chucho Valdés. Born on October 9th, 1941, Valdés is widely considered to be the most
influential figure in modern Afro-Cuban jazz.6 He has dedicated his musical life to
creating, in his opinion, the “true” Cuban jazz music: that which merges American jazz
melody and harmony with Afro-Cuban folk genres such as son, rumba, danzón,
mozambique, cha-cha-chá, mambo and guaracha, as well as incorporating the instrumental
training and high performance standards of the European classical tradition.
At the onset, Castro’s government did not officially support Irakere, primarily due
to the fact that several of the band’s founding members had previously performed with
Cuba’s Modern Music Orchestra, a popular post-revolutionary ensemble that attempted to
preserve jazz music on the island.7 In order to justify the existence of the band politically,
Irakere promoted itself as an experimental group, further exploring the unique blend of
European, Latin, and African roots that informs the Cuban musical tradition. To that end,
Irakere had two separate repertories. One focused on Cuban popular music for dancing,
6
Rebeca Mauleón, Decoding Afro-Cuban Jazz: The Music of Chucho Valdés & Irakere (Petaluma, CA:
Sher Music, 2018), vi.
Irakere means “forest.” In Yoruba language, which refers to an ethno-linguistic group that inhabits western
Africa, but the dialect is also spoken in Cuba.
7
Mauleón, Decoding Afro-Cuban Jazz: The Music of Chucho Valdés & Irakere, 37- 45.
4
the other on concert music to be appreciated by serious listeners. The group possessed the
ability to perform both contrasting repertoires at the highest emotional and technical level.
Despite Irakere’s initial struggle as an unofficial band with no government financial
support, the group’s reputation spread quickly among locals because their sound appealed
to listeners from a variety of racial, social, and intellectual backgrounds. Irakere soon
developed a wide fan base. A defining feature of the group was the highly complex and
explosive passages performed by Irakere’s horn section. Audiences were amazed by the
level of technique and precision of the bebop influenced horn lines, integrated with Afro-
Cuban rhythmic patterns played on traditional Cuban percussion instruments.8 The horn
players’ improvisations were influenced by the jazz vocabulary of American jazz icons.
Based on the author’s discussion with the late saxophonist Carlos Averhoff, a founding
member of Irakere, these influences included saxophonists Charlie Parker, John Coltrane,
Michael Brecker, and Sonny Rollins, as well as trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie, Clifford
Brown, and Freddie Hubbard.
The Cuban government soon realized the potential of the group and saw the
advantage of using it to represent the communist values and cultural achievements of the
country’s political system.9 Chucho and Irakere were then granted official status and the
financial support allowed them to continue exploring new musical ideas. The word “jazz”
was barely mentioned when describing the background of the band because it was contrary
to the government’s policies regarding Cuban musical culture. Instead, the unique
8
Bebop is a style of jazz developed in the early to mid-1940s in the United States, which features songs
characterized by a fast tempos and complex, rapidly changing chord progressions which demanded both
instrumental virtuosity and advanced harmonic understanding.
9
Note that because of the absolute control of Fidel Castro’s government, it was essential to be accredited as
an official band in order to be able to perform in public, travel and record albums.
5
percussion instruments, lyrics in African dialects, and rhythms of Cuban popular music
were promoted.
Irakere’s first international excursions were made to socialist countries politically
aligned with Cuba. Over time, performances in capitalist countries were also allowed. In
1978, Columbia Records offered a contract to the Cuban government to bring Irakere to
the United States for a nineteen-city tour and the opportunity to record an album. As part
of this tour the band made its debut in Carnegie Hall on June 30th of that year. One year
later Irakere won the first ever Grammy in the category of “Best Latin Jazz Recording” for
the album Irakere, recorded live at the Newport Jazz Festival. In 1980 Irakere was once
again nominated for the album Irakere II, further raising its international recognition and
opening yet more opportunities for the group to travel and perform. For more than twenty
years, the group was acknowledged with a level of respect equal to that of world acclaimed
American jazz icons.
The success of Irakere was also significant and influential in Cuba. The band’s
unique sound and style continued to influence Cuba’s “conjuntos” throughout the 1980’s
and 1990’s.10 New bands led by former members of Irakere emerged throughout the
country, applying Chucho Valdés’ concept of mixing Afro-Cuban roots and American jazz.
Some groups were quite similar to Chucho’s all-star crew, while other bands such as
Afrocuba, Habana Ensemble, NG La Banda, Perspectiva, Klimax, Maraca and his New
Vision, Opus 13, and Gonzalo Rubalcaba’s Grupo Proyecto were more innovative. All
these groups helped to promote Cuba as a serious contributor to the global jazz scene. The
advanced rhythmic concepts and flashy technique, combined with modern jazz
10
Cuban conjuntos are small groups or combos performing traditional music such as son and salsa.
6
composition and arranging, eventually influenced most traditional styles of Cuban music,
including son, guaracha, bolero and cha-cha-chá. Perhaps this is one of the reasons why
the great Puerto Rican salsa and Latin jazz pianist Eddie Palmieri once opined that Cuban
musicians have produced “the most complex and exciting rhythms of the planet.”
Need for the Study
In Cuban music, the horn section of Irakere demonstrated an unprecedented
synchronization as a unit, and virtuosic instrumental technique. Valdés’ writing style
exploiting virtuosic technique and precision phrasing coupled with jazz melody and
harmony and Afro-Cuban rhythms has become a primary element in the distinctive sound
of Cuban jazz. The horn passages in pieces such as “Changó” and “Estela, Peter and
Ronnie,” exemplify this concept. The ability to execute such passages, and to improvise in
a similar manner, could be considered representative of an idealized performance style and
reflective of the aspirations of a typical jazz horn player in Cuba.
In the United States, transcription books are commonly used in music colleges and
conservatories to learn melodies, harmonic progressions, and lyrics. Although Irakere has
recorded a significant number of albums that showcase the challenging and extensive
passages performed by the horn section, published written material is limited to the eleven
pieces published by pianist, author and musicologist Rebeca Mauleón in her most recent
book.11 At this writing, other research devoted to the groundbreaking horn passages
performed by Irakere could not be found.
In order to preserve Cuban musicians’ contributions to Latin jazz there is also a
need for adequate sources of repertoire. Such repertoire will aid musicians from other
11
Sher Music, 2018).
7
cultures in understanding the stylistic elements of Cuban jazz composition and
performance. In addition, not all musicians have the time or inclination to transcribe
recordings as a method of learning specific repertoire, and some students may have
excessive difficulty with such a task. Therefore, this study would fill in a gap in the existing
literature by providing transcriptions that could be studied and analyzed by players and
composers with various degrees of interest and levels of expertise.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the content of selected Irakere horn
passages through transcription and analysis, as well as research the specific influence of
African folkloric traditions exhibited in the music of Chucho Valdés. The author will also
set up a personal interview with Chucho, in an effort to provide the protagonist’s
experience working with Cuba’s illustrious group. The final product will offer
transcriptions of the interviews and a detailed melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic analysis of
the selected works as well as their significance in a historical and cultural context.
Research Questions
Specific research questions to be addressed by this study include:
1. Why is it relevant to create a catalog by gathering and publishing transcribed horn
passages from selected Irakere’s discography?
2. What role has Irakere played in development of Cuban jazz?
3. Which of Chucho Valdes’ horn passages for Irakere should be included in a
potential transcription book and what is the rationale?
4. What is the influence of the rhythmic elements of Afro-Cuban music on the
instrumental technique and performance style of the Irakere’s horn section?

8
5. What musical concepts or methods were employed by Chucho when writing for
Irakere’s horn section?
6. What are the specific musical contributions of Irakere to Cuban popular dance
music?
7. Is it possible to create jazz patterns directly derived from excerpts of Irakere’s
horn passages?
Delimitations
All the source material for transcriptions in this essay will be limited to the albums
“Irakere 30 años”, and “Live at Ronnie Scott’s: The Best of Irakere.” The compositions
chosen are “Changó” and “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” The author will transcribe by ear each
horn passage from the selected material, using computer software to assist in slowing down
fast passages for an accurate reproduction of the exact notes played by the horn section.
Sibelius music notation software will be used to create professional-quality scores and
examples.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Music scholars, college students and researchers around the world have published
works about the history of Latin jazz, Afro-Cuban Jazz, and timba. However, musical
analysis and publication of Cuban jazz compositions have been less explored.
There are myriad books, online articles, interviews, and research papers on Afro-
Cuban Jazz, as well as on Cuban dance genres and music styles such as charanga, conga,
mambo, contradanza, feeling, bolero, son, danzón, changüí, mozambique and cha-cha-
cha. The majority of articles offer investigations on socio-political and cultural conditions
in Cuba, while other works have helped to study elements of Afro - Cuban rhythms, and
the influence of percussion instruments in the formation of popular music in Cuba.
However, there is still limited information on the musical work created by Chucho Valdés,
the principal exponent in modern Afro-Cuban jazz.
The following are some of the existing published works related to Afro-Cuban
music and its major figures, that were consulted for the elaboration of this investigation.
Acosta, Leonardo. Cubano Be Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba.
Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution, 2003.
Based on the author’s experience as an active jazz performer in Cuba; Cubano Be,
Cubano Bop explores the lineage of Cuban jazz musicians and composers, as well as the
musical exchange between Cuban and American jazz in the twentieth century. Acosta
writes about the decisive presence of Cuban musicians in New Orleans circa 1900, the
foundation of the first jazz ensembles in Cuba, and the big bands of the thirties. The
confluence of bebop, mambo, and son montuno in the forties is analyzed, as well as the
9
10
creation of Afro-Cuban jazz by legendary musicians and composers Mario Bauzá,
Dizzy Gillespie, Machito and Chano Pozo, including also the contributions of a new
generation of Cuban jazz artists such as Paquito D’ Rivera, Armando Romeu and Chucho
Valdés.
Acosta, Leonardo. Descarga número dos: El jazz en Cuba 1950-2000. La Habana:

Ediciones UNIÓN, 2002.
This work, by Cuban musicologist, author and saxophonist Leonardo Acosta, traces
the history of what is known today as Cuban jazz. He shares his personal experiences as a
prominent jazz musician, and conducted an unprecedented research in Cuban popular
music, filling a gap in the history and evolution of one of the most popular musical forms
of our time. He also investigates important discography that points out the existence and
historic contributions made by influential musicians such as Chucho Valdés, Emiliano
Salvador, Armando Romeu, Cachao López and Bebo Valdés. Additionally, he also offers
a general perspective of the political situation in La Havana since 1959, with the
predominance of the communist government policies, and how it affected both music and
musicians in the second half of the twentieth century in the country.
Ake, David, Charles Hiroshi Garrett, and Daniel Goldmark, eds. Jazz/Not Jazz: The Music
and Its Boundaries. California: University of California Press, 2012.
Jazz/Not Jazz explores the terms, names, teaching practices, places, and the
bibliography that defines jazz for both audiences and jazz performers. Authors David Ake,
Daniel Goldmark, and, Charles Hiroshi Garrett put together a group of writers to look
beyond the already known jazz greats. This collection seeks out some names and pieces
11
missing from the books already published, to explore how both jazz and Latin jazz is
currently being defined.
Anglesey, Zoë, and Jesús Chucho Valdés. "Jesús Chucho Valdés." BOMB, no. 64 (1998):
52-56. Accessed January 31, 2019. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40425512.
The online journal article by Zoe Anglesey is an interview with Chucho Valdés in
1998. In this piece, Chucho was invited to answer questions on the term “Afro-Cuban jazz,”
his impression on some of the solo concerts he had recently performed in New York and
how Irakere, the iconic Cuban jazz group he founded, developed and transformed
throughout the years. Valdés also recalls the importance of Cuban percussionists and how
they were essential to Latin jazz.
Chinen, Nate. Chucho Valdés, the Pianist, Reflects on Irakere and His Career. New York
Times Company, 2015. Accesed November 20, 2019.
According to journalist and author Nate Chinen “Irakere was a force for
cultural hybridism from the start, a clutch of virtuosos like saxophonist Paquito D’ Rivera,
trumpeter Arturo Sandoval, and guitarist Carlos Emilio Morales, engaging with multiple
traditions.”12 He also explains that the band was a forerunner to timba, the still-popular
Cuban dance music that blends rumba, guaguancó, and other folkloric styles with elements
of jazz, rock, funk and classical music.
The interview took place in a hotel lobby in New York, where Chucho talked about
his artistic career, musical influences, music education, and some brief stories describing
how the group Irakere was founded. Valdés also provided opinions on the evolution of
12
Nate Chinen, Chucho Valdés, the Pianist, Reflects on Irakere and His Career (New York Times
Company, 2015).
12
Afro-Cuban music, and the role of percussion instruments in defining the new jazz sound
in Cuba. Finally, he commented on his respect and appreciation for each member of the
group and revealed details of the international tour of Irakere 40, the most recent group he
put together with young Cuban musicians to recreate, once again, the Irakere sound.
Chinen also offers in the article what contemporary Cuban drummer-composer
Dafnis Prieto has expressed via email:
“When I first encountered the band on television, I remember hearing and looking at so
many different sounds and instruments. There were batá drums from our Afro-Cuban
tradition plus the American drum set, the electric bass, the guitar, the singer, the horns.
Everything sounded so unique and fresh.”
On the other hand, Cuban pianist and composer David Virelles, who is currently
experiencing a successful career in New York, also offered this opinion to complement
Chinen’s article.
“Everybody I knew that was trying to learn how to play jazz was influenced by someone in
Irakere. They are one of the most influential groups there ever was in Cuba”.
Fernandez, Raul A. From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz. Berkeley and Los Angeles,
California: University of California Press, 2006.
This book explores the characteristics of Cuban dance music, as well as both the
historical and musical connection to other Caribbean popular music genres such as salsa
and the so-called Latin jazz. The author presents several musical biographies of Latin
musical icons. Some of them include Cuban luminaries such as singer Celia Cruz, bassist
Cachao López, and percussionist Cándido Camero, just to mention a few. Interviews
conducted by the author over a nine-year period are included, addressing some of the
important contributions to both Afro-Cuban music and Latin Jazz. Fernandez also
examines the foundations of both the Cuban son form and the salsa phenomenon.
13
Gridley, Mark C. Jazz Styles. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1978.
This is a general exploration of the many jazz styles and performance practices
related to America’s jazz history. Accessible to the general reader, the publication offers a
guide for the appreciation of jazz, emphasizing melodic and harmonic components of the
various styles and sub-genres associated with it. Although the author is primarily focused
on the chronological evolution of jazz, as well as the contributions to the genre of
instruments such as saxophone, piano and trumpet along with their principal performers, it
also covers a general overview of the relationship of jazz to other music styles that were
popular starting the second half of twentieth century.
Grove, George. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanley
Sadie. London: MacMillan, 1980.
This is one of the most complete encyclopedias of music ever written. With more
than 23,000 well-researched articles that cover more than 5,000 years of music history
makes it an essential source for musicians worldwide. It is very helpful tool for finding
valuable information associated with Latin jazz, its origins, influential performers and
composers of the genre.
Mauleón, Rebeca. 101 Montunos. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music, 1999.
This book compiles information directed to pianists or music performers. Various
examples of piano patterns used in salsa and Latin jazz are shown. It traces most of the
history of Latin piano playing from the Cuban roots to its many current variations. This
work by Mauleón is highly recommended for any pianists or musicians wanting to learn
14
more about the insights of Afro-Cuban piano playing. This source may shed some light on
elements that Chucho Valdés incorporated in his distinctive arranging and performing style
as it relates to Irakere.
Mauleón, Rebeca and Chucho Valdés. Decoding Afro-Cuban Jazz: The Music of Chucho
Valdes & Irakere. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co., 2018.
Mauleón’s most recent publication covers valuable information provided by
Chucho, founder of Irakere. Besides the biographical, cultural and socio-political data
collected, the author explores technical and musicological aspects of the work presented in
the book. Examination of the historical origins of Afro-Cuban jazz music is also made.
Also, for the first time, complete arrangements and transcriptions of eleven songs by
Chucho are available for further study and analysis.
Orovio, Helio. Cuban Music from A to Z. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.
Cuban Music from A to Z is an encyclopedic guide to one of the most influential
musical cultures from Latin America and the Caribbean. It is considered the most extensive
catalog of information about singers, composers, instruments, bands, and dances of Cuba
ever written. It is a very useful reference guide to Cuban music offering more than 150
illustrations and 1,300 entries on national music genres such as danzón, cha-cha-cha and
mambo. In the encyclopedia, considered Helio Orovio’s life work, he reveals the unique
fusion of African and Spanish traditions of the son musical genre and the integration of
15
jazz and rumba in the timba style developed by bands like Afrocuba, Irakere, NG La Banda
and the Buena Vista Social Club.
Perna, Vincenzo. Timba: The sound of the Cuban crisis. Routledge, 2017.
Vincenzo Perna has investigated the role of black popular music in post-
Revolutionary Cuba and in the 1990’s in particular.13 The emergence of timba after Irakere
is analyzed as a distinctively new style of Afro-Cuban dance music. The limitations for
Cuban groups to reach broader audiences after the communist revolution imposed by Fidel
Castro in 1959 are also addressed. The book provides extensive information on the socio-
political and cultural situation of Cuba under the Fidel’s regime, and the consequent effects
on Cuban popular musicians.
Roberts, John Storm. Latin Jazz: The first of the Fusions, 1880s to Today. New York:
Schirmer, 1999.
Latin music, especially from Brazil, Cuba, Argentina and Mexico has been
influential on American Jazz. The book summarizes the long history of interaction between
Latin musicians and jazz musicians in New Orleans since the beginning of the twentieth
century, enriching the American art form as the definitive result. Roberts provides
information on Latin jazz luminaries such as Ray Barreto, Tito Puentes, and Astrud
Gilberto, that informs in detail the activity in centers of Latin jazz such as the United States,
Cuba, Brazil, etc.
Roberts, John Storm. The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United
States. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
13
Vincenzo Perna, Timba: The sound of the Cuban crisis (Routledge, 2017).
16
This book can be considered as a continuation of Robert’s previous piece Latin
Jazz: The first of the Fusions, 1880s to Today. It covers broadly some of the characteristics
of what people know as Latin Jazz, its origins, principal promoters and founders. It also
explores some genres such as mambo, tango and salsa, specifically the influence of Puerto
Rican’s popular music in New York’s Latin music scene.
Roy, Maya. Cuban Music: From Son and Rumba to The Buena Vista Social Club and
Timba Cubana. Translated by Denise Asfar and Gabriel Asfar. Princeton, NJ:
Markus Wiener, 2002.
Roy’s book covers the history and development of Cuban music since the XVIII
century. It explores the musical environment in Cuba that fostered the creation of son and
habanera, and provides a general overview of the social aspects that contributed to the
transformation of popular Cuban music throughout the decades. Roy addresses important
contributions from the Caribbean, Europe (particularly Spain), and Africa as part of the
rich cultural-ethnic heritage of Cuba. Roy also proposes further investigation the
importance of harmonic progressions found in American blues and jazz to some Cuban
music genres like trova, feeling and bolero.
Sublette, Ned, and Orlando Valle. "Orlando "Maraca" Valle." BOMB, no. 82 (2002): 62-
65. Accessed January 31st, 2019. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40426861.
This article is an interview with Orlando Valle, aka “Maraca,” by Ned Sublette,
who produced Maraca’s first album Habana Calling in 1996. Valle is a virtuoso Cuban
jazz flutist, admired worldwide by both scholars and fans. He is also a prolific arranger and
composer for his group Otra Vision. Maraca is one of the current exponents of Cuban jazz.
He is a former member of Irakere, where he developed many of his skills as both a

17
bandleader and arranger. In the article, Maraca talks about his experience working with
Chucho Valdés, as well as developing his musicianship by listening to other Cuban jazz
groups from the eighties such as Afrocuba, Gonzalo Rubalcaba and Grupo Proyecto, the
Emiliano Salvador Quartet, the band Fervet Opus, among others.
Tirro, Frank. Jazz: A History. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 1993.
This book reflects the general history of jazz from the late nineteenth century
through the last decade of the twentieth century, including the popularization of jazz-fusion
and electronic instruments. Tirro covers both the musical and social influences on the genre
from the roots of jazz in Africa and highlights the contributions made by key performers
and composers. He communicates to the readers about the interrelation of musicians from
Cuba and United States that eventually led to the creation of Latin jazz. Extensive material
is covered related to the American history of jazz, resulting in a major reference for jazz
history classes in most conservatories and music colleges around the country.
Yanow, Scott. Jazz: A Regional Exploration. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005.
This work seeks to describe American musical traditions that are, or once were,
associated with geographic regions smaller than the nation as a whole. These musical
varieties include jazz, blues, country music, Hispanic American music, Irish American
music, traditional folk jazz among others.
West-Durán, Alan. "A Resonant Rum for the Ears*: Afro-Cuban Music." Journal of
Popular Music Studies 20, no. 1 (2008): 79-91. Accessed January 31st, 2019.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1533-1598.2008.00145.x.
This article by Alan West-Durán researches the socio-political situation of Cuba in
the early 1990’s, during the so-called “Special Period” following the fall of communism in
18
Soviet Union resulting in the termination of generous subsidies to the Cuban economy. At
that time in Cuba, music was an important source of revenue for the Cuban government,
which controlled the music contracts of the groups that were popular both nationally and
internationally. This was especially true with Timba, the new musical sub-genre (fostered
by Irakere) that combined elements of Son, Jazz, Mambo, and Rumba, attracted
international music promoters who hired Cuban groups to perform around the world.
CHAPTER 3
METHOD
Overview
This essay explores the contributions made to Afro-Cuban jazz by Chucho Valdés
and group Irakere. It provides transcriptions and analysis of two of their original
compositions, “Stella, Pete, and Ronnie,” and “Changó.” The examination of these selected
Chucho’ songs featuring the horn section of Irakere will illuminate the intersection of
rhythms of Africa origin and Cuban dance music.
First, an analysis will be done on the rhythmic content found in both African
folklore and Cuban dance music and the instruments used by the performers. Secondly,
transcriptions and analysis of selected horn passages composed by Chucho and played by
Irakere will be made in order to demonstrate the approach he applied when merged bebop
vocabulary with Afro-Cuban rhythms. Finally, jazz patterns will be extracted from one of
the transcriptions in order to provide an alternative source among jazz students and
interested readers seeking to learn more about Afro-Cuban rhythmic patterns and musical
content in Cuban jazz.
Source Material
All material transcribed for my essay will come from the albums “Irakere 30 años,”
and “Live at Ronnie Scott’s: The Best of Irakere.” The selected songs are “Stella, Pete and
Ronnie” and “Changó.” These compositions constitute some of the most challenging pieces
written by Chucho for the horn section of Irakere. The transcriptions will include the
complete horn passages and the accompanying chord progression. In order to provide
historical and relevant musical background on Chucho Valdés and Irakere, text from
19
20
books, online articles, album reviews, and other internet-based information will be
included. The majority of this information including printed books, scholarly articles, and
thesis or dissertations is available at the University of Miami’s Richter Library and from
the author’s personal collection. Finally, the author will interview Chucho to provide
supplemental insights.
Selected repertoire will be transcribed from the digital copies purchased in iTunes,
an authorized online music store. Jazz has a strong emphasis on listening, transcribing and
improvising. Transcribing other musicians’ improvised solos is recommended for
improving your ears and also for fostering understanding into their musical vocabulary. It
is also considered as an important educational method.14
The computer software Transcribe! will be used to slow down the music when
needed. All single line passages will be transcribed by the author with the aid of the tenor
saxophone, while chords and harmonic progressions will be transcribed using the aid of a
keyboard. Transcription of the chord progression will be executed by determining the root
of the chord, then the quality of the chord, i.e., major, dominant, diminished, altered, or
minor, then adding any specific alterations that may apply. The music will be notated
digitally into the music notation software Sibelius Ultimate, purchased and installed on the
author’s personal computer.
Data Analysis
After all the transcription data is entered into Sibelius, I will analyze the musical
material in terms of its harmonic, rhythmic and melodic implications.
14
Andy Robinson, “How to Transcribe,” Seventh String Website, accessed April 7, 2020,
https://www.seventhstring.com/resources/howtotranscribe.html.
21
Interview
The author will conduct a personal interview with Chucho Valdés to reinforce the
information gained through transcription and analysis. Chucho will be asked how the
rhythmic elements from Afro-Cuban music and bebop vocabulary were used to create the
horn passages and what type of jazz harmonic and melodic approaches were used. The
interview will also address possible similarities with the practices of American jazz icons
Duke Ellington and Art Blakey, who featured their soloists on specific tunes based on the
musician’s personal style and capabilities. Other questions in the interview will be related
to Chucho’s musical background and early influences, professional performance
experience, and musical training regarding improvisation, jazz, and Cuban popular music.
The author will also ask for Chucho’s observations on each of the tunes transcribed and
analyzed for this essay. The author will present the finished works to him to seek further
feedback.
Implications of the Study
Once the data collection and further musical analysis have been completed and
presented, the resultant work can be used as a transcription source book on Irakere’s horn
passages. This is important because it will provide complex written musical content from
Cuba’s most innovative jazz group that can be analyzed, learned and played. From a
pedagogical perspective, these transcriptions will benefit both students and professional
musicians interested in learning about Cuban musical roots and approach to jazz, dance
and academic music. Also, this work may offer great value to interested musicians seeking
to improve their instrumental technique.

CHAPTER 4
CHUCHO VALDÉS
In order to better appreciate what is known as the legacy of Afro-Cuban jazz, as
expounded by author and pianist Rebeca Mauleón, it is crucial to analyze and understand
how Cuban musicians contributed to the genre and defined cultural identity. She mentions
Chucho Valdés as part of the lineage of pianists who have contributed to the development,
transformation and promotion of authentic Cuban music around the globe. 15
Dionisio Jesús Valdés Rodriguez, also known as “Chucho Valdés” or simply
“Chucho,” was born in Havana, Cuba on October 9th, 1941. He is a Cuban pianist,
composer and arranger. He is the recipient of six Grammy and four Latin Grammy Awards,
and is considered the most influential figure in modern Afro-Cuban jazz.16 His father, Bebo
Valdés, was a seminal pianist, bandleader, composer and arranger, considered one of the
most influential musicians in early Cuban music. By the age of three, Chucho started
playing the piano and recognizing melodies by ear. By the age of nine, he started formal
classical music studies surrounded by renowned musicians who often visited his father’s
house.
In 1952, Bebo Valdés recorded Cubano, one of the few jazz albums made in Cuba
by that time. This album produced by American impresario Norman Granz, is considered
an historic recording session that placed Bebo as a key figure of the fusion between jazz
15
Sher Music, 2018), 37.
16
Chucho Valdés, "Chucho’s official website”, accessed February 5, 2020, http://www.valdeschucho.com/.
22
23
and Cuban music. 17 The recording session featured Bebo’s original “Con Poco Coco,” that
was labeled afterwards as a Cuban descarga. 18
In 1959, Chucho debuted with the Orchestra Sabor, directed by his father and
considered one of the greatest groups in the history of modern Cuban music.19
When Bebo Valdés left Cuba in 1960, Chucho was asked to continue his father’s
duties both as the pianist and musical director of the house band in the Tropicana
Nightclub.
In 1963 as Mauleón recalls, Chucho joined the Musical Theatre Orchestra, where
he met guitarists Leo Brower, Carlos Emilio Morales, and saxophonist Paquito D’ Rivera.
One year later Chucho recorded his first two albums entitled Jazz Nocturno and Guapachá
en La Habana.20 In 1967, Chucho became part of the acclaimed Cuba’s Modern Music
Orchestra. As described by musicologist Leonardo Acosta, the ensemble tried to play jazz
despite the new communist government’s policies that prohibited the reproduction of any
music from the United States.21
Some groups such as the Instrumental Quintet of Modern Music, directed by
Leopoldo “Pucho” Escalante began focusing on playing Cuban popular music with added
sections for instrumental solos, while featuring the use of Afro-Cuban rhythms in order to
receive the government authorization to perform in public places and to make recordings.
17
Mauleón, Decoding Afro-Cuban Jazz: The Music of Chucho Valdés & Irakere, 40.
18
Cuban Descarga is the equivalent to Jam Session in the United States.
19
Valdés, "Chucho’s official website”, accessed February 4, 2020.
20
Mauleón, 41.
21
Leonardo Acosta, Cubano Be Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba (Washington and
London: Smithsonian Institution, 2003), 176-188.
24
While still an active member of the Modern Music Orchestra, Chucho began writing
original music, rehearsing, and experimenting along other members of the band. They
incorporated the batá drums and other Cuban percussion instruments, as well as the
addition of a horn section.
It was during this time that Chucho exercised his creativity by branching out into
small group configurations alongside some of Cuba’s best jazz musicians. These included
trumpeter Arturo Sandoval, saxophonist Paquito D’ Rivera, guitarist Carlos Emilio
Morales, bassist Carlos del Puerto, drummers Enrique Plá and Bernardo García, trumpeter
Jorge Varona and percussionist Oscar Valdés. It was Valdés who first introduced the
Yoruba dialect as a vocalist.22 Among the members of Irakere, musicality, creativity, and
trust over the years led to the achievement of a very cohesive group sound. In 1973,
encouraged by Paquito D’ Rivera, the group was officially founded as Irakere. 23
Chucho was the pianist, bandleader, main arranger and composer for the new
groundbreaking group as stated by author Isabelle Leymarie. Irakere emerged as one of
the most popular entities among the new local bands in the country, blending folkloric
percussion and electronic instruments into musical genres such as jazz, funk, rock and
Cuban dance music.24
22
Dialect that originated among the Yoruba people, an ethnolinguistic group from West Africa.
23
“Irakere” is a Yoruba word meaning forest.
24
Isabelle Leymarie, Cuban fire: the story of salsa and Latin jazz (London: Continuum, 2002), 258-263.
25
Chucho left Irakere in 2005 to consolidate his career as a piano soloist, leading
“The Afro-Cuban Messengers” and “Jazz Batá 2,” small ensembles which have won
awards from both the American Recording Academy and the Latin Recording Academy.25
Recently in 2019, his album Jazz Batá 2 won another Latin Grammy Award for Best Latin
Jazz album.26 The group features piano, the American drumset, acoustic bass, percussion
(conga drums) and the batá drums, a concept Chucho first explored in 1972.27
25
Valdés, "Chucho’s official website”, accessed February 5, 2020.
26
Prensa Latina, “Cuba’s Chucho Valdés wins Latin Grammy Award for Best Jazz Album,” Prensa
Latina: Agencia Informativa Latinoamericana, accessed February 5, 2020,
https://www.plenglish.com/index.php?o=rn&id=48973&SEO=cubas-chucho-valdes-wins-latin-grammy-
award-for-best-jazz-album.
27
The batá drums, originally from Nigeria, are sacred, double-headed drums shaped like an hourglass.
They are used in the ritual music of the Yoruba religion, better known as Santería.
CHAPTER 5
IRAKERE
Irakere was founded in 1973. Author Maya Roy mentioned that the sound of the
group was characterized by the linkage of classical music, Cuban popular music, rock,
samba, and funk alongside the incorporation of the batá drums, instruments rarely seen in
public performances.28 From his father, Chucho learned that good musicians should be
familiar with all genres of music, not just the inherited one. According to Roy, Bebo
advised his son that Cuban music could be modernized by adding the harmonies and
improvisations of jazz, as well as the technical precision achieved by most classical
musicians. Chucho certainly applied much of his father’s vision in his concept for the
repertoire and performance style of Irakere.
From the outset, Irakere was comprised of the most in-demand Cuban jazz
musicians. Under the direction of Oscar Valdés, the Irakere’s percussion section
showcased Afro-Cuban sacred and secular rhythms, as well as religious chants sung in the
Yoruba dialect.29 Author Rafael Lam comments in his book about Chucho and Oscar’s
research into the Yoruba musical traditions, including sacred instruments such as the arará,
yuka, and the batá drums used in religious ceremonies. 30
Chucho chose expert professional musicians for his brass section, considered one
of the most outstanding horn sections in history, as asserted by Roy. All the Irakere
28
Maya Roy, Cuban Music: From Son and Rumba to The Buena Vista Social Club and Timba Cubana
(Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2002), 165-167.
29
30
Rafael Lam, Los Reyes de la Salsa (Habana, Cuba: Editorial José Marti, 2011), 162-166.
26
27
musicians were cutting-edge virtuoso. They experimented with integrating electronic and
acoustic sounds, which they successfully blended into popular Cuban dance music and
Afro-Cuban jazz to create a contemporary new sound. According to Mauleón, Irakere
became the only Cuban group capable of performing diverse musical styles and
challenging repertoires at an unprecedented level of technique and dexterity.
According to Mauleón, the initial Irakere personnel was Chucho on piano, Paquito
De Rivera on alto and baritone saxophones, Carlos Averhoff on tenor saxophone and flute,
Arturo Sandoval and Jorge Varona on trumpets, Carlos Emilio Morales on guitar, Carlos
Del Puerto on bass, Bernardo García and Enrique Plá on drums, Oscar Valdés and
Armando Cuervo on percussion and vocals and Jorge “El Niño” Alfonso and Lázaro “Tato”
Alfonso on percussion.31
Although Chucho rarely changed Irakere’s personnel throughout the years,
members such as Paquito D’ Rivera and Arturo Sandoval left the country to escape from
the imposed communist political system. Saxophonist César López, and flutists Orlando
“Maraca” Valle and José Luis Cortés aka “El Tosco,” went on to create their own bands,
while others like guitarist Carlos Emilio Morales and drummer Enrique Plá, stayed loyal
to Chucho until he decided to put Irakere on pause to develop new musical solo projects.
The first generation of musicians, especially the horn section, defined much of the
sound of the band and raised the level of instrumental technique of Cuban musicians for
generations to come. Based on Chucho’s own words, the band at first played simple horn
passages, typical of Cuban dance music. The difficulty of the music was then increased
31
Mauleón, Decoding Afro-Cuban Jazz: The Music of Chucho Valdés & Irakere, 55-63.
28
following the requests of some of the group’s members, particularly Arturo Sandoval and
Paquito D’Rivera.
Chucho recalls he started to write complex music for the horn section after he
noticed their instrumental proficiency. The members of Irakere rehearsed five days a week,
from four to six hours. Within that time, Chucho dedicated a minimum of two hours to
work with the horn section.
The level of discipline and talent resulted in one of the most groundbreaking horn
sections in the history of Cuban popular music. Compositions and arrangements that
characterized the sound of the first generation of musicians of Irakere were “The Black
Mass,” “Bacalao con Pan,” “Mozart’s Adagio,” “Juana 1600,” and “Cien Años de
Juventud,” a composition written especially for Arturo Sandoval and Jorge Varona.
In Irakere’s second generation, beginning in the early 1980’s, saxophonist German
Velazco replaced Paquito D’ Rivera, and Juan Munguía took over Arturo Sandoval’s chair
in the trumpet section. The remaining personnel included Chucho on piano and keyboard,
Carlos Averhoff on tenor saxophone and flute, Jorge Varona and Jose “El Greco” Crego
on trumpets, Carlos Emilio Morales on guitar, Carlos Del Puerto on bass, Enrique Plá on
drums, Oscar Valdés on vocals and percussion and Jorge “El Niño” Alfonso on conga
drums and percussion. Some of the popular compositions written by Chucho during this
time were “Stella va a Estallar,” “Las Margaritas” featuring Germán Velazco on soprano
saxophone, “Concierto para Metales,” and “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.”
The third generation, from the late 1980’s until the middle 1990’s, expanded to
include baritone saxophone, flute as a featured instrument, a second drummer on electronic
machines, and an additional percussionist. Chucho, for the first time, presented three
29
trumpets and three saxophones playing at the same time. The members of the third
generation of Irakere were Chucho on piano and keyboard, César López on alto saxophone,
Carlos Averhoff on tenor saxophone and flute, Alfredo Thompson on tenor saxophone,
Juan Mungía, Adalberto “Trompetica” Lara, Mario “El Indio” Hernández and Manuel
Machado on trumpets, Carlos Alvarez on trombone, Javier Zalba on baritone saxophone
and flute, Orlando “Maraca” Valle on flute and keyboards, Carlos Emilio Morales on
guitar, Enrique Plá on drums, Miguel “Angá” Díaz on vocals and percussion, and Oscarito
Valdés on drums, percussion and drum machine. The composition “Changó,” was among
the group’s most popular compositions around 1989 and featured Orlando “Maraca” Valle
and César López as the soloists.
The fourth generation (mid to late 1990’s) featured two electric guitars. Chucho’s
arrangement of “Giant Steps” by John Coltrane, is one of the highlights of this band. This
arrangement featured the horn section performing the complete solo of John Coltrane as
recorded in 1959 on the album “Giant Steps.”32
The members of the fourth generation were Chucho on piano and keyboard, Roman
Filiú on alto saxophone, Irving Acao on tenor saxophone, Julio Padrón, and Basilio
Márquez on trumpets, Carlos Emilio Morales and Jorge Luis Chicoy on guitars, Jorge
Reyes on bass, Enrique Plá on drums and Andrés “Negrón” Miranda on percussion.
From the Irakere’s debut it was evident that the musical level had been raised for
all Cuban musicians. Author and musician Leonardo Acosta defined some of the qualities
of the group when referring to “their super technique, the virtuosity of their soloists, the
32
“Giant Steps” is an iconic jazz album recorded in 1959 by jazz saxophonist and composer John Coltrane
on Atlantic Records. All seven compositions were written by Coltrane, and featured bassist Paul Chambers,
drummers Art Taylor and Jimmy Cobb, and pianists Tommy Flanagan and Wynton Kelly.
30
driving swing that they maintained in any rhythm and at any tempo, and the intelligent
recovery of our cultural heritage combined with experimentation. Also significant is the
excellent way they fuse Afro-Cuban elements with jazz.” 33
Chucho also pioneered the use of electronic instruments, which was crucial in
defining the modern sound of the band. As a result, the Fender Rhodes electric piano,
Roland Jupiter-8 and Yamaha CP-70 synthesizers, Solina String Ensemble, Hohner
Clavinet, and the Yamaha organ appeared for the first time in Cuba. His compositional
creativity when writing for the horn section of Irakere, is reminiscent of the jazz rock horn
riffs of American fusion groups such as Herbie Hancock’s Head Hunters, Earth, Wind &
Fire and Chicago.34 Mauleón also noted that similar to the practices of Miles Davis, Duke
Ellington or Art Blakey, Valdés composed and arranged based on the individual strengths
of the players and highlighting the virtuosity of the soloists. As debated by Acosta,
Chucho’s definition of the Cuban element presented in Irakere’s work are “not just in the
percussion, but also in the phrasing, the attack, and the soloists’ sense of rhythm, as well
as in the ensemble passages.” 35
Isabelle Leymarie, musicologist and musician, states that Irakere gave a new
impulse to Cuban jazz identity with its virtuosic solos, experimental instrumentation,
complex polyrhythms, syncopations, off beats, and complex horn passages. The ruthless
33
Leonardo Acosta Cubano Be Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba (Washington and
34
Mauleón, 77.
35
Acosta, Cubano Be Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba, 217-218.
31
unison lines premiered by Chucho, and occasionally accompanied by the bass, guitar,
keyboard, and the percussion section, gave the group a signature Afro-Cuban jazz sound.36
36
Isabelle Leymarie, Cuban fire: the story of salsa and Latin jazz (London: Continuum, 2002), 258-262.
CHAPTER 6
IRAKERE AND THE AFRO-CUBAN TRADITIONS
The legacy of the relationship of African folklore and Cuban music is diverse and
convoluted. It is apparent that the richness of the African rhythms alongside the diversity
of the cultural lineage of Cuba played an important role in defining the music of Irakere.
As Mauleón points out, Chucho Valdés and the members of Irakere grew up exposed to
the rhythms and instruments brought from Africa, as well as Cuban folk songs, American
jazz, and dances and other cultural expressions of European religious practices. They
inherited valuable information passed down from their predecessors, passed down verbally
and through observation of performances.37
Various sacred rhythms and secular folk styles have found their way into Cuban
popular music. Chucho and the musicians of Irakere pioneered the integration of Afro-
Cuban rhythmic elements, traditional Cuban dance music, and American jazz into a unique
fusion sound and style. The following examples illustrate how Chucho and Irakere’s
rhythm section adopted some of the cited traditional music styles, and distributed the parts
among the instruments, including the horn section. This is not intended as an ultimate
analysis, academic classification, or reference guide on Cuban folk genres. It is intended
to offer a general map of the music foundations that influenced Chucho’s music, and to
understand the complexity of these rhythms with visualizations of their interlocking
components and what (or if) there is a relationship to “the clave.”
37
32
33
As explained by Mauleón, to fully understand and interpret Afro-Cuban music, it
is essential to “understand the drum and its rhythms.”
Afro-Cuban Rhythmic Cells
Cuban musicologist Fernando Ortiz states that rhythm is the predominant element
in African communities. He has done extensive research on the music of African countries
and Cuba, with special focus on the batá drums, which is considered an important
instrument in the sound of Cuban music. As he recalls, it was professor Gaspar Agüero
who first studied the rhythms of Western-Africa origin present in Cuban popular music.
To that end, he analyzed the rhythms of some of the Cuban dance music, focusing on the
main elements, and compiled six rhythms of absolute “Africanism.” These rhythmic
patterns appear in Cuban music, not only in the percussion instruments, but also in melody
and harmonic accompaniment. They were first written in binary time signatures.38
The first of the six rhythmic cells is known as “tresillo.” It is often notated by some
copyists and arrangers as shown in (A). It is commonly used by the bass with the accent
on all three notes, and it should be interpreted as shown in (B). See figure 6.1
Figure 6.1: Tresillo
38
Ortiz, Africanía de la Música Folklórica de Cuba, 273-280.
34
The second cell, as shown in (D) is often interpreted wrongly. Both notes are
accented. It is also used on the bass, and it should be performed as shown in (E). This is
the primary cell of the Conga rhythm, as demonstrated in (F).
Figure 6.2: Conga Rhythm
The third rhythmic cell as mentioned by Ortiz is known as the “clave pattern.” See
figure 6.3
Figure 6.3: The Clave Pattern
The fourth rhythmic cell brought to Cuba by the French creoles from Haiti, is called
“cinquillo,” as it refers to a five-note rhythmic pattern.39 It is often notated and read as
shown in (G). However, a more easily read notation is shown in (H). As implied by Ortiz,
the first, second and fifth notes are accentuated for a correct interpretation and feel. The
39
Isabelle Leymarie, Cuban Fire: The Story of Salsa and Latin Jazz (London: Continuum, 2002), 18.
35
cinquillo as shown in (I) constitutes the principal rhythmic pattern of the danzón,
considered the national Cuban dance genre. See figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4: Cinquillo
Bassists and percussionists often use the “cinquillo pattern” in contemporary Cuban
dance music such as mambo, cha-cha-chá, danzón, bolero, son montuno, guaracha and
habanera. See figure 6.5
Figure 6.5: Danzón Rhythm/ Bass Line
The following example demonstrate the relationship between the “cinquillo”
pattern as played in the danzón, with the “3-2 clave,” and the bass line intro of “La
Comparsa” by Ernesto Lecuona.40 See figure 6.6
40
Ernesto Lecuona is considered Cuba’s most prolific composer with more than 1000 published works of
diverse styles. He was also a virtuoso pianist and conductor.
36
Figure 6.6: Danzón Pattern Aligned with the 3-2 Clave and the Bass Line of “La
Comparsa”
The fifth rhythmic cell is widely used in bass patterns. See figure 6.7
Figure 6.7: Rhythmic Cell Used by Bassists
The sixth rhythmic cell is felt in compound meter but generally written in 3/4-time
signature. See figure 6.8

37
Figure 6.8: African Rhythm (Performed with 6/8 Feel)
Authors Alejandro Madrid and Robin Moore identified other significant rhythmic
cells such as the “Habanera” and Amphibrachs,” found in the early Cuban contradanza in
the 19th century.
Figure 6.9: Afro-Caribbean Rhythmic Cells
Cuban music possesses a great rhythmical variety not only in the African-derived
rhythmic cells, but in the traditional genres such as the danzón, the contradanza, cha-cha-
chá, and other rhythms. Mauleón implies that Cuban music and its musicians have inherited
a vast and broad range of musical traditions.41 To support this, Chucho commented he
could perform songs for one hour featuring various Cuban rhythms without repeating one.42
41
Mauleón, Decoding Afro-Cuban Jazz: The Music of Chucho Valdés & Irakere, 167-169.
42
Chucho Valdés, interview by author, Coral Springs Florida, February 20, 2020.
CHAPTER 7
THE CLAVE
In order to understand the musical language of Afro-Cuban music, it is necessary
to explore beyond its patterns and rhythms, as asserted by Mauleón.43 The work Chucho
Valdés did with the Irakere involved a deep investigation into Nigerian folkloric traditions,
including both secular and sacred rhythms. These were incorporated in distinctive ways
into his music. As explained in Chapter 6, binary rhythmic cells are the root of almost all
African derived music. These patterns affect how the music is interpreted, and in Cuban
music, the concept of the clave constitutes the vertebral column of its rhythms and
melodies. The Cuban clave can be described as a rhythmic pattern, but is also an instrument
if referred to in the plural as “claves.” It is a guide that affects how the various elements of
Cuban music fit together and is not focused on a particular musical style.
It is, therefore, important to have concise information of the relationship between
the function of the clave within both popular and folkloric music, hopefully to clarify the
mysterious elements that challenge many individuals who are unfamiliar with Afro-Cuban
music. As noted by Charley and Sheller, in salsa music, Latin jazz, Cuban popular music,
and Afro-Cuban folkloric genres, the clave is present from the moment the music begins
until the end.44 They also inform us about the effect of the clave within the songs as it
remains the centrifugal force throughout the performance. It is present even when there is
43
Sher Music, 2018), 21-22.
44
Gerard Charley, and Marty Sheller, Salsa!: The Rhythm of Latin Music (Crown Point, IN: White Cliffs
Media Company, 1989), 13-14.
38
39
a break in the arrangement, or when there is silence, and no music is played for certain
amount of measures. John Santos described this phenomenon as the “clave feeling,” as
cited by Charley and Sheller. The clave feeling is present in many Afro-Cuban related
music styles such as son, rumba, the sacred music performed on batá drums, salsa, danzón,
cha-cha-chá, just to mention a few. The clave feeling, is indeed in the music whether or
not the claves are being played.45
As explained by Chucho, for him it was natural to write all the music based on the
clave pattern, because he grew up surrounded by Afro-Cuban sounds and the musical
information gained from a young age listening to his father performing and rehearsing.
Chucho also affirms that for foreign arrangers or composers, it is essential to have proper
knowledge of the clave function within the music, since it will affect directly the
authenticity of the style.46 The percussion, instrumental and vocal melodies, bass lines,
horn passages, and harmonic accompaniment are strictly tied to the clave. All have to be
perfectly aligned for the correct interpretation of the Afro-Cuban musical style intended to
be performed.
Mauleón expresses that the most significant Cuban musical expression comes from
the influence of African-derived folklore, highlighting the rumba as the most important
genre.47 Extended information about the rumba is provided in Chapter 9.
45
Charley and Sheller, Salsa!: The Rhythm of Latin Music, 14.
46
47
40
Figure 7.1: The 3-2 Son Clave Demonstrated in Two Measures of 4/4
It is important to mention that Cuban dance and folkloric music was seldom notated
during the early years of its development, and if it was, the common notation was in 2/4
meter.
Figure 7.2: Son Clave in 2/4
Furthermore, it happened that Cuban musicians of past generations notated the
clave in one measure of 4/4 as shown in figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: The 3-2 Son Clave Demonstrated in One Measure of 4/4
41
The rhythms of the rumba comprises three different rhythmic structures (Yambú,
Columbia, and Guaguancó), each with its own clave pattern and developed in combination
with dance. Chucho had the knowledge and ability to experiment with this and other
complex structures and clave patterns, as implied by Mauleón.
Leymarie explains the different types of claves. According to her, the most common
in Cuban popular dance music is the so-called “3-2” or “son clave,”48 as shown in figure
7.1.
Other variations include the “2-3” clave, as well as the rumba clave (guaguancó
clave), the wemba clave, the columbia (also known as 6/8 o yoruba clave), and the abakuá
clave (figures 7.5 to 7.9). According to Leymarie, the wemba clave has been also utilized
in Abakuá chants.49
Figure 7.4: The 2-3 Clave
Figure 7.5: The Guaguancó / Rumba Clave
48
Isabelle Leymarie, Cuban Fire: The Story of Salsa and Latin Jazz (London: Continuum, 2002), 37-39.
49
Leymarie, Cuban Fire: The Story of Salsa and Latin Jazz, 16.
42
Figure 7.6: The Columbia Clave
Figure 7.7: The Wemba Clave
Figure 7.8: The Yoruba Clave or 6/8 Clave
Figure 7.9: The Abakuá clave
The following example superimposes the four claves, showing the similarities and
differences. Further comparison of the 12/8 or 6/8 claves will lead to both significant
similarities and slight differences between them.

43
Figure 7.10: Claves in 12/8 or 6/8
Chucho often combined various rhythmic cells when composing music for Irakere,
producing complex polyrhythms that are representative of the influence of the African
roots on Cuban music. Also, Mauleón in an effort to decipher the mystery of Afro-Cuban
complex rhythmic patterns and polymetric structures derived from African music,
encourages the reader to play specific rhythmical exercises that develop independence and
to correctly phrase the melodies or solos. Following are some basic examples of cross-
rhythms in 6/8.
44
Figure 7.11 a: Cross Rhythms in 6/8
Figure 7.11 b: Cross Rhythms in 6/8
Chucho wrote “Misa Negra” or “Black Mass” in 1969. The piece, recorded live at
the Newport Jazz Festival in 1978 on Columbia Records, has been recognized as one of his
greatest compositions and demonstrates the alternate use of two claves, the 6/8 and rumba
clave. The basic form is similar to the structure of a Suite, and featured the batá drums, a
choir, religious yoruba chants combined with both sacred and secular elements, impressive
horn passages and a prolonged piano solo b. The following example (figure 7.12) is a small
45
fragment of “Misa Negra” demonstrating the 6/8 or Yoruba clave. Oscar Valdés, lead
singer and percussionist of Irakere, sings the melody before the choir answers him with
the same melodic line. This is a common element within African derived music termed
“call and response.”50
Figure 7.12: Excerpt of “Misa Negra”
The 6/8 clave is present in various contemporary forms of Latin music such as Latin
jazz and Latin rock. It is common to hear salsa arrangements breaking into transitory
passages of 6/8 rhythms. An effective way to practice the different claves is to alternate
between each pattern while keeping a common pulse. This exercise (figure 7.13) might be
helpful for arrangers and composers that desire to be more familiar with the Afro-Cuban
rhythms and the Cuban clave. In order to have a better understanding of the intended
outcome, the pulse (bottom line) remains the same even though it switches from a half-
note pulse to a dotted-quarter-note pulse.
50
Mauleón, 5.
46
Figure 7.13: Common Pulse and Different Claves
When “the claves” are not present, the clave pattern is usually internalized by the
performers and remains implicit. Mauleón’s impression is that among Cuban musicians,
the clave is a force that remains present in the music, whether it is actually played or not.51
Leymarie states that in Cuban music, a mistaken clave pattern affects the overall
equilibrium of the band and the specific role of each instrument.52
51
Mauleón, 34.
52
Leymarie, 38.
47
While other music genres allow rhythmic freedom, Cuban music is more precise.
The following excerpt from “Tanga,” composed and recorded in 1943 by Mario Bauzá,
shows the interplay of the 2/3 clave with other instruments.
Figure 7.14: The Imaginary Clave in “Tanga”

48
A similar example is found in “Manteca,” considered one of the foundational
standards of Afro-Cuban jazz, co-written by American jazz trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie and
Cuban percussionist Chano Pozo. See figure 7.15
Figure 7.15: Intro of “Manteca”

49
Figure 7.16: Melody of “Manteca”
The clave is always present in one way or another, even if not played with the actual
“claves.” It can be present in the rhythmic patterns of other instruments such as the
timbales, güiro or bongo. The following are examples of two Chucho’s compositions that
evidence the treatment of the clave within his melodies. It is important to note that the
original recordings of “Mambo Influenciado” and “Bacalao con Pan” had no clave, but the
rhythm section implies it. The next fragment is from the intro of “Mambo Influenciado,”
as played by the bass and piano.

50
Figure 7.17: The imaginary Clave in “Mambo Influenciado”
Figure 7.18: The Imaginary Clave in “Bacalao con Pan” (Horn Section)
51
In his personal interview with the author Chucho expressed how important it is for
him to follow the clave concept when he composes. However, he also said that musicians
are sometimes so strict about the clave that they forget to make the music accessible for
the audience.53 Related to that, Mauleón states that Chucho had the ability to frame the
rhythms of African-derived, clave-based folk music in distinctive and extraordinary ways.
As important as the clave might be, it is always the melody that the audience remembers
and enjoys most.
Chucho’s music crossed multiple cultural and stylistic boundaries. He
experimented with the traditional elements of Afro-Cuban music, consciously attempting
to modernize the popular music in Cuba. He searched beyond the realm of Cuban folk
genres as the band also explored swing, bebop, rock, funk, Brazilian samba, Argentinian
tango, and many more that were not necessarily ruled by the concept of the clave. This
unconfined approach towards rhythm was one of the features that brought Cuban music
from the confines of dancing and on to the concert stage. This parallels the artistic growth
of American jazz, where swing dancing gave way to bebop, fusion, and extended concert
works for the concert hall.
53
CHAPTER 8
BATÁ DRUMS
The batá drums are the most important instruments of santería, as noted by authors
Gerard and Sheller. 54 The sacred music of santería is also known as Regla de Ocha.55 The
three African drums arrived in Cuba with the Yoruba, Congo and Dahomean tribes, also
known as lucumí, bantú and arará. These enslaved communities found the way to preserve
elements of their musical expressions, both sacred and secular.56 They also were the key
channels of the new music that would emerge and developed in Cuba. Author Rebeca
Mauleón dated the early 1800’s as the exact period when the instruments were introduced
in Cuba.57 The main function of the batá drums is to talk to the orishas and establish some
type of communication with their devotees.58 Their patterns are intended to imitate tonal
changes and speech patterns of the Yoruba dialect.
The Cuban batá ensemble is three dual headed hourglass-shaped drums that come
in three sizes: the Iyá (largest), the Itótele (middle), and the Okónkolo (smallest.) Both
heads of each drum are played to sum a total of six sounds converging at the same time
during the performance. The largest head of each drum is called énu (Yoruba word for
“mouth”), and the small head is known as anus or chachá. Author Fernando Ortiz explains
54
Charley Gerard and Marty Sheller, Salsa!: The Rhythm of Latin Music (Crown Point, IN: White Cliffs
55
Santeria is based on the beliefs of the Yoruba people of Nigeria and the worship of deities known as
orishas. It is also a combination of Roman Catholicism and Yoruban polytheism and cosmology.
56
57
Mauleón, 67.
58
The orishas are the gods of “Santería”, practiced by the slaves in Cuba.
52
53
that the lowest note out of the six heads is played by the énu from the Iyá, while the highest
pitch is produced by the chachá of the Okónkolo.59
He also describes the techniques used to perform on these instruments. The
performer hits the drum with the palm of the hand, either on the middle, center, or border
of the head, producing various pitches. Specific techniques to perform involve also the
internal part of the fingers depending on the desired tonality or key center. In the religious
ceremonies it is customary for one individual to play each drum. In Irakere, Oscar Valdés
pioneered the technique of tying the drums together with thick ropes, enabling one
musician to play all three drums at once.
Within the santería ceremony, the batá drums can be played unaccompanied, or
accompanying a singer or dancer. Specific rhythms are associated with the orishas, with
their mandatory tempos and dynamic ranges. According to Sheller and Gerard, only men
are allowed to play these instruments, and the performers of batá drums are called
“tamboleros” or “bataleros.” The leader of the ensemble, known as “akpuatakí” plays the
Iyá and has the predominant solo role. He is responsible for guiding the other drummers.
The Itótele, or middle drum, follows the lead of the Iyá, and the Okónkolo, which is the
smallest drum, requires the least amount of expertise, as it is assigned specific ostinato
patterns. Usually, a beginner batalero learns the Okónkolo first, then the Itótele, and finally
the Iyá.
All performers must memorize a great number of rhythmic patterns, as well as
dozens of worship songs, and must be devotees of the Yoruba religion. As indicated by
59
Fernando Ortiz, Africanía de la Música Folklórica de Cuba (La Habana, Cuba: Editora Universitaria,
1965), 371.
54
Cuban musicologist and author Fernando Ortiz, the unconsecrated drums, such as the ones
used by Oscar Valdés with Irakere, are known as “aberikulá,” and their pitches may be
regulated to allow performances within a musical group, contrary to the sacred drums
which are built to a fixed pitch.
It is important to note that composer Gilberto Valdés first used the batá drums in
1937 to record “Tambó.”60 Mauleón also echoes Acosta’s findings stating that in 1968,
guitarist and composer Sergio Vitier utilized them in his ensemble ORU. 61However, it was
Chucho and Oscar Valdés who brought the instruments to the general public by giving
them a leading role in Irakere. It was the first time most people in Cuba, and eventually
around the globe, learned of the existence of these instruments which were previously
utilized only in sacred private religious ceremonies.
From 1973 onward, the batá drums became one of the most identifying features of
Irakere. Oscar Valdés, singer and percussionist of the band, brought a new idiosyncratic
sound and identity to the band through the performance of the batá drums. Oscar eventually
left the band to create “Diákara,” a respected jazz-fusion project. Other percussionists who
continued the Oscar Valdés’s legacy with Irakere were Miguel Angá, and Adel Gonzalez.
It is worth mentioning that the current percussion section working with Chucho for more
than fifteen years is formed by Yaroldy Abreu and Dreiser Durruthy. They are members of
the Award-winning projects “The Afro-Cuban Messengers” and “Jazz Batá.”
60
61
Mauleón, 56.
55
The Rhythms and Pitches of the Batá Drums
Ortiz continues the investigations made by Gaspar Agüero into the sacred batá
drums. As stated by them, all batá drums produce seven pitches, some of them repeated,
and one “noise.”62 For example, the Iyá produces two pitches and one noise as explained
next. In the énu, when played in the center of the head with four fingers of the right hand,
it produces the F note located below the staff on bass clef.63 See figure 8.1
Figure 8.1 a: Iyá Pitches
The F note located on the fourth line of the staff in bass clef is produced by the
“batalero” playing on the border of the chachá, (small drumhead) with the index finger of
the left hand.
62
“Noise” refers to an unclear pitch or muted sound.
63
The four fingers are pinky finger, ring finger, middle finger and index.
56
Figure 8.1 b: Iyá Pitches
A secondary, muted pitch is produced when the chachá is tapped with four fingers
of the left hand. See figure 8.1 c
Figure 8.1 c: Iyá Pitches
The Itótele, second of the batá drums, produces three sounds. Hitting the énu (large
drumhead) with three fingers of the right hand produces the F sound located one octave
higher than the sound of the Iyá from figure 8.1 a. The C harmonic also sounds.64
64
The three fingers are pinky finger, ring finger and middle finger.
57
Figure 8.2 a: Itótele Pitches
When three fingers remain in contact with the énu after the hit, a F# with an
accompanying C# harmonic is produced.
Figure 8.2 b: Itótele Pitches
When hitting the chachá of the Itótele with four fingers of the left hand, and Ab
note is produced.
Figure 8.2 c: Itótele Pitches

58
On the Okónkolo drum two sounds are produced. On the énu, four fingers produce
the bass clef F and the accompanying C harmonic.
Figure 8.3 a: Okónkolo Pitches
On the chachá of the Okónkolo, the sound D above the F sound from figure 8.1 b
is achieved after the drumhead is hit with the fingers from the left hand as demonstrated in
figure 8.3 b.
Figure 8.3 b: Okónkolo Pitches
The figure 8.4 shows all the pitches previously mentioned, produced from the three
batá drums as explained by Ortiz and Agüero.65
65
59
Figure 8.4: All the Pitches Produced by the Batá Drums
According to Ortiz, the intonation on the batá drums changes depending on the size
of the drumheads and the climatic conditions. Low temperatures or humid climatic
conditions flatten the pitch on the drums, while higher temperatures will cause the pitch of
the instrument to go sharp. Agüero compares the range of the batá drums with other groups
of instruments, establishing the similarities of the Iyá with the acoustic bass, bassoon or
tuba; the Itótele with the clarinet, the cello, bass, saxophone and trumpet, while the
Okónkolo was related to the violin, oboe, and flute. As a result, the function of the batá
drums is not only rhythmic, but melodic.
In an interview on February 20th, 2020 Chucho confirmed to the author that he and
Oscar Valdés worked together to investigate and adapt some of the sacred patterns of the
60
batá drums into Cuban jazz even before the group was formally created.66 The composition
“Changó,” by Chucho, features two combined batá drums patterns called “Changó” and
“Chachalokafun.” The “Changó” variation has three rhythmic cells. Ortiz points out that
the Itótele drum is the one interacting and “speaking” with Changó.67 Customarily, this
pattern is permitted to be performed only in the private sacred ceremonies among the
devotees of the Yoruba religion.
The batá drums are generally notated on the staff with both pitches and rhythms
(figures 8.5 and 8.6). On each of the three drums the énu is played with the right hand and
produces the lower pitch. The chachá is played with the left hand and produces the higher
pitch.
Figure 8.5: Melodic Notation for Batá Drums
66
67
Changó is a major deity, god (orisha) in the Yoruba religion. Represent the fire and lightning.
61
Figure 8.6: Rhythmic Notation for Batá Drums
Changó
Ortiz and Agüero made exact transcriptions of the rhythm “Changó.” The Okónkolo
plays a repeated rhythmic cell, while the Iyá and the Itótele are allowed some variations.
The following example (figure 8.7) reflects one of the variables on the Itótele drum.
Figure 8.7: The Itótele in “Changó” (Both Hands)
If one separates each hand’s pattern on two staves the rhythm of each hand becomes
clearer. See figure 8.8.

62
Figure 8.8: The Itótele in “Changó” (Separate Hands)
The Okónkolo plays a constant eighth note rhythm throughout the song or “call.”
Figure 8.9: The Okónkolo in “Changó”
On the Iyá, three rhythmic cells can be employed, as shown in figure 8.10. The
performer can interact with the Itótele, using these patterns at will.
63
Figure 8.10: The Iyá in “Changó”
The representation of the three batá drums with their six drumheads playing the
rhythm of “Changó,” looks as follows.
Figure 8.11: All Three Batá Drums in “Changó”

64
The triplet rhythm is a predominant cell of the batá rhythms, and all patterns and
polyrhythms originated from it. The following are eight examples of some of the variations
one can find between the Itótele and the Iyá. The rhythmic possibilities derived from the
triplets were extensively used by Chucho when writing for Irakere and will be exhibited in
the analysis of the selected horn passages. The arrows indicate when the new rhythm aligns
with the triplet.
Figure 8.12: Triplets

65
The following symbols are commonly used to notate the particular techniques of
striking a batá drum.68
Figure 8.13: Batá Drums Notation Symbols
Chachalokafun
This pattern is ordinarily played in a medium to up tempo. It is not a sacred pattern
associated with a particular religious ceremony or orisha.69 It is well demonstrated in
Chucho’s composition “Changó.” The following figures demonstrate the fundamental
rhythm and two possible variations.70
68
Jerome Goldschmidt, Laurent Peckels and Alex Greenwood, Percussion Tutor Book, 141, accessed
March 11, 2020, http://www.percussiontuttor.com.
69
Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood, Percussion Tutor Book, 7, accessed March 11, 2020,
http://www.percussiontuttor.com.
70
Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood, Percussion Tutor Book, 141-144.
66
Figure 8.14: Chachalokafun Basic Pattern
In the following example, the Iyá and Itótele converse with one another, adding
some variations on the Iyá and Okónkolo. This variation would occur randomly, creating
both suspense and expectation for the listener.
Figure 8.15: Conversations Between the Iyá and Itótele (Chachalokafun)

67
In this section, there are four variations in total. Three of them are on the Iyá (measures 3
to 5), and one on the Okónkolo (measure 6).
Figure 8.16: Independent variations on the Iyá and Okónkolo (Chachalokafun)

CHAPTER 9
CUBAN POPULAR MUSIC
Chucho Valdés’ groundbreaking work with Irakere combined jazz, funk, rock,
fusion, classical European genres, folkloric rhythms of African origin and Cuban popular
music into a fresh and unique individual style. The result was a cohesive expression that
still defies categorization. According to Chucho’ own words, it is arduous even for him to
classify Irakere’s musical style because they merged so many musical genres, mainly from
the African nations such as Nigeria, Congo, Senegal, Cuba and the United States. He also
highlights the importance of the work made by Mario Bauzá, Chano Pozo, Bebo Valdés,
Machito’s Afrocubans, and Dizzy Gillespie, considering them as the founding fathers of
Afro-Cuban music or Cubop. Acosta also remarks about the permanent cultural connection
that existed between Cuba and the United States, highlighting Irakere’s leading role in the
development of so-called Latin jazz in Cuba71
Following are examples of the rhythmic figures of selected Cuban popular music
styles adopted by Chucho and Irakere. According to Mauleón, it was common for Chucho
to adapt specific elements of both African folk genres and Cuban popular music, and to
distribute the parts among the band, primarily the rhythm section and the horn players.72
This listing displays notated fragments of popular rhythms featured in the music of
Chucho. The purpose is to provide the reader with an accessible reference guide,
71
Leonardo Acosta Cubano Be Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba (Washington and
72
Sher Music, 2018), 81-82.
68
69
particularly to those interested in understanding and adopting Afro-Cuban rhythms into
their own music.
Afro. As described by Peckels, Greenwood and Goldschmidt, Afro is a rhythm that
was popular during the 1940’s and is rarely heard today in its original form. The speed of
the tempo is slow to medium, never fast. It is commonly used as an introduction or interlude
of a tune. Traditionally, Afro is played on timbales or conga drums. Modern versions are
performed on the drum set.73 Mauleón also points out that Afro is a hybrid form of Cuban
popular music derived from distinctive rhythms played on the sacred batá drums.74
73
Jerome Goldschmidt, Laurent Peckels and Alex Greenwood, Percussion Tutor Book, 10, accessed
February 25, 2020, http://www.percussiontuttor.com.
74
70
Figure 9.1: Afro. Version by Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood
The clave pattern can be written in two different ways depending on the tempo or
composer’s preference.
71
Figure 9.2: Slow Tempo Clave
Figure 9.3: Fast Tempo Clave
Cha-Cha-Chá. A rhythm that was originated from the son montuno or
improvisational section of the danzón. Enrique Jorrín, Cuban composer and violinist, is
credited as the creator of the genre.75 The first cha-cha-chá composition ever recorded was
titled “La Engañadora.” Figure 9.4 offers a closer analysis. A bass line typical of the style
was added to demonstrate the relationship of the güiro, congas and timbales to the bass.
The fourth beat of every bar is an important anchor for the rhythm. The cha-cha-chá
developed within the danzón and evolved enough to become a separate musical and dance
tradition. It became one of the most popular genres in Cuban music.76 It is noted by Charles
and Sheller that the name cha-cha-chá came from the sounds produced on the floor by the
75
Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood, Percussion Tutor Book, 15.
76
Mauleón, 181.
72
dancers. The charanga instrumentation that accompanied the style, and popularized by
Antonio Arcaño, consisted of strings, flute, bass, güiro, timbales and conga drum.77
Figure 9.4: Cha-Cha-Chá. Version by Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood
Mozambique. A rhythm derived from the Cuban conga style created by Pedro
Izquierdo aka “Pello el Afrokán.” The mozambique has been adopted in the United States
by musicians such as Eddie Palmieri and Manny Oquendo.78 The mozambique version
77
Media Company, 1989), 75.
78
Mauleón, 185.
73
presented in this dissertation became popular in New York, and is usually performed with
conga drums, timbales and two cowbells.79
Figure 9.5: Mozambique. Version by Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood
Pilón. A style of dance music created in Cuba by composer Enrique Bonne, and
later popularized by singer Pacho Alonso around 1960’s. The rhythm refers to the
machinery used to grind coffee beans by hand. Pilón is also a town in Southeastern Cuba.80
79
Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood, 17.
80
Mauleón, 186.
74
Figure 9.6: Pilón. Version by Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood
Conga. A style of Cuban percussion ensemble music and dance used for “carnival”
or “street festivities.” There are two principal styles, one from Habana, known as “conga
Habanera.” The other is from Santiago de Cuba and is called “conga Santiaguera.” It is
important to note that the original versions of the conga played in Santiago de Cuba feature
five to seven different type of cowbells of different sizes, therefore the pitch changes from
one to another. When all the cowbells are present, the merging of the syncopated rhythmic
cells is described as the characteristic sound of the conga.

75
Figure 9.7: Conga. Version by Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood

76
Figure 9.8: Conga (Bells). Version by Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood
El Danzón. The official musical genre and dance of Cuba. It was developed out of
the French contredanse, the creole contradanza, and habanera.81 Miguel Faílde, regarded
as the father of the danzón, composed the first one in 1879, titled “Las Alturas de Simpson.”
Authors Charley and Sheller state that the danzón is the matrix from which the mambo and
the cha-cha-chá developed. They also state that what differentiates the danzón from its
81
Mauleón, 183.
77
predecessors was the addition of a third section, typically the mambo or cha-cha-chá, and
the use of the “cinquillo.” 82
Figure 9.9: Cinquillo in Danzón
The contradanza, a line dance from which the danzón originated, was structured in
two repeated sections of 2/4 time. The instrumentation for this genre was associated with
the “French charangas” or “charanga,” and featured violins, string bass, the Cuban wooden
flute, güiro and timbales. A few years later composer, arranger and pianist Antonio María
Romeu added the piano as a regular member of the ensemble. The following examples
illustrate the rhythmic patterns found in the danzón, as illustrated by Madrid and Moore.83
82
See Chapter 6.
83
Alejandro L. Madrid, and Robin D. Moore, Danzón: Circum-Caribbean Dialogues in Music and Dance
(New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2013), 71-73.
78
Figure 9.10: Basic Cuban Pattern in the First Part of the Danzón (A Section) 84
Figure 9.11: Montuno Section of Danzón (Based on the Cha-cha-chá) and Guaguancó
Rumba 85
84
The cross (+) over the note head indicates a rim shot on the timbal. Lower and higher notes on the
timbales indicate shifts between the two drumheads.
85
Madrid and Moore, Danzón: Circum-Caribbean Dialogues in Music and Dance, 73.
79
Rumba. Rumba is a type of popular or secular music that was created in La Habana,
the capital of Cuba, and in Matanzas, one of the countries’ provinces. As implied by Roy,
the rumba is an authentic representation of Afro-Cuban cultural traditions, and embraces
not only music, but dance, instrumental improvisation, and singing.86 Furthermore,
Sublette describes the rumba as the most rhythmically sophisticated non-sacred music in
Cuba.87 Originally, objects such as spoons, the back of chairs, cabinet drawers or any
wooden surface helped to carry the rhythm, as noted by Madrid and Moore.88 They also
state that the word “rumba” refers to street music performed by percussionists and singers
in parks, street corners, and casual gatherings. People who play rumba are called
“rumberos” and the performance is known as “rumbón.”
By 1930, there were several Cuban songs that became a hit among the population
in the United States, especially in New York. Americans started referring to those songs as
“rhumbas” and the bands that performed the style were known as “rhumba orchestras.”
Contrary to the folkloric rumba originated in Cuba, the American rhumba was easy to
follow and understand both melodically and rhythmically. As a result, musicians from the
two countries referred to the “rhumba with H” to distinguish the style popular in the United
States from the rhythmically complex and percussion driven form originated in Cuba.89
86
Maya Roy, Cuban Music: From Son and Rumba to The Buena Vista Social Club and Timba Cubana,
trans. Denise Asfar and Gabriel Asfar (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2002). 49-50.
87
Ned Sublette, Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo (Chicago, Ill: A Cappella, 2004),
272.
88
Madrid and Moore, Danzón: Circum-Caribbean Dialogues in Music and Dance, 61.
89
Madrid and Moore, 61.
80
There are three main types of rumba: guaguancó, columbia, and yambú. According
to Mauleón, the first known rumba style was the yambú, which is the slowest and most
elegant in its dance interpretation. By the end of 19th century, the guaguancó and the
columbia developed.90 The three styles are identified as a “complex” or musical style
grouped and classified altogether as rumba. Mauleón also points out that in a rumba
ensemble, the song begins with the claves to establish the tempo, backed by the drums and
percussion. Following that, the lead vocalist sings one or two verses, sometimes in
harmony with another vocalist, while the conga players maintain a steady pattern.
African musical elements found in rumba include syncopation, improvisation,
polyrhythm, repetition, and call-and-response. Rumba represents Cuban cultural
authenticity, and it keeps evolving from one generation to the next. As asserted by author
Ned Sublette rumba is a synthetic Cuban tradition.91 The percussionists in Irakere found
the way to represent the patterns in the more authentic way, but also created their own
signatures versions.
It bears repeating that the authentic Cuban rumba is composed of three different
percussion driven dances and rhythmic cells called yambú, guaguancó and columbia.
Yambú. A dance in 4/4 with Spanish lyrics. It is the slowest-tempo dance, and the
least complicated of the three styles of rumba. The yambú was originally played on cajones
90
Mauleón, 78.
91
Sublette, Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo, 267.
81
(box drums).92 The son clave was used instead of the rumba clave. Nowadays most
performers use the rumba clave.93
Figure 9.12: Yambú. Version by Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood
Columbia. The rumba columbia is the most African sounding out of the three types
of rumba. It is danced by a solo male dancer. Its time signature is 6/8 and the tempo is fast.
92
Sublette, 270.
93
Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood, Percussion Tutor Book, 63-64.
82
Unlike the yambú, the lyrics of the columbia is mainly in Nigerian dialects (sometimes
elements of Congo, Abakúa or Lucumí chants).94
Figure 9.13: Columbia. Version by Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood
Guaguancó. The guaguancó appeared in the first decade of the twentieth century,
in the provinces of Matanzas and Habana, as noted by Roy.95 She also indicates that
94
Isabelle Leymarie, Cuban fire: the story of salsa and Latin jazz (London: Continuum, 2002), 30.
95
Roy, Cuban Music: From Son and Rumba to The Buena Vista Social Club and Timba Cubana, 49-50.
83
guaguancó combines elements of the yambú and columbia, and it is also the most
frequently performed and the most popular of the rumbas. The basic rhythm is set by the
claves in 2-3 direction, and the tempo is faster than yambú. Also, as stated by Sublette, the
guaguancó is characterized by the use of the conga drums instead of cajones, and it was
born from the yambú.96 Guaguancó is well known outside of Cuba in many of its variables,
rather than in its original style.
Figure 9.14: Guaguancó. Version by Goldschmidt, Peckels and Greenwood
96
Sublette, 270.
CHAPTER 10
CUBAN TRADITIONAL PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS
To better understanding of the score and annotated rhythms, the following is a
general description of Cuban percussion instruments used in popular dance bands and
adopted by Chucho Valdés and Irakere:
The bongos or bongó. This is a percussion instrument created in Cuba in the 19th
century. It consists of two small, high-pitched drumheads joined by a wooden slat. Like
the conga, the bongos are made of wood. Modern models are also made of fiberglass. The
bongos are commonly tuned with metallic keys, a fourth or a fifth apart. Held between the
knees or sometimes also mounted on a metallic stand, they are played with the tip of the
fingers.97 Also, the bongos are often called bongó. They emerged as the main instrument
in the Cuban son and Salsa music. They remain as one of the most important percussion
instruments in all Latin music.98
Maracas. Hand-held rattles or shakers of indigenous origin found throughout the
Americas.99 The individual who plays these instruments are called “maraqueros,” and can
improvise complex rhythms. The right-hand leads and marks the accents. The maracas, as
also described by Leymarie, are seed-filled gourds with handless. They are mostly used in
Cuban music genres such as cha-cha-cha, bolero, and changüí.100
97
Isabelle Leymarie, Cuban fire: the story of salsa and Latin jazz (London: Continuum, 2002), 41.
98
Rebeca Mauleón, Decoding Afro-Cuban Jazz: The Music of Chucho Valdés & Irakere, 181.
99
100
Leymarie, Cuban fire: the story of salsa and Latin jazz, 41.
84
85
Figure 10.1: Example of a Basic Maraca Pattern
Conga. The conga drum, known as “tumbadora” in Cuba, evolved from the Congo
ngoma drums, which arrived in La Habana around the 17th century. Chano Pozo, who along
with Dizzy Gillespie created Afro-Cuban jazz, was comfortable using up to five or six
conga drums in his performances. They are played with the palm of each hand, and each
conga produces a different pitch. Metallic keys are the common tools used to tune them,
usually a second, a fourth, or a fifth apart; although in former times their tension was
adjusted using the heat of a flame. They are also held between the legs or mounted on a
stand for a louder sound. The congas produce several timbres described as closed, open,
or slap.101 In addition to hardwood, the conga can also be made from fiberglass. They have
become one of the most predominant percussion instruments in the world.102
Claves. A Cuban idiophone consisting of two rounded, polished sticks.103 They are
made of wood, and the correct way to play them is by striking one against the other. Usually
the “male” is the one that strikes against the “female,” which is held in the cupped left
hand. As mentioned by Venezuelan bandleader Edmundo Ros, and cited by Leymarie, the
101
Leymarie, 39.
102
Mauleón, 182.
103
Mauleón, 182.
86
one who plays the claves in a group is the most important member of the band. She
continues asserting that the performer’s timing must be perfect and has to be heard above
the entire band. In order to highlight the importance of the claves within a group, Leymarie
recalled Tito Puentes, who once said, “It’s amazing what those two little sticks can do!”
Güiro. A serrated gourd scraper played with a stick. Their roots are indigenous and
used in popular dance music throughout Latin America.104
Cowbell. A clapperless metallic bell usually played by the “bongocero” or
“performer of the bongó” on the montuno sections of the tune.105
Woodblock. A piece of wood, also called catá. It is mounted horizontally on a stand
and serves as a key anchor in rumba ensembles. It is used to play rhythmic cells or clave
patterns.106 The woodblock was created in China.107
Chékere. A beaded gourd instrument of African origin used in Cuban sacred
music.108
Timbales. Set of Cuban drums, generally two snare drums mounted on a metallic
stand and played with sticks. They may include several small percussion instruments such
as cowbells, woodblocks, and ride cymbals. The individual who performs this instrument
is as important as the jazz drummer. They define the dynamics of the band by creating
patterns and textures and are responsible for signaling the band during decisive transitions.
In many contemporary bands, the timbales may be integrated into a drummer’s set. Along
104
Mauleón, 184.
105
Leymarie, 41.
106
Mauleón, 181.
107
Leymarie, 39.
108
Mauleón, 182.
87
with the congas and the bongos, the timbales are an essential component of the percussion
section of salsa bands.109 For the bolero, the sticks generally strike the metallic side of the
drums. The timbales play an accompanying rhythm known as “cáscara” (shell) as shown
in figure 10.2.110 The cáscara pattern is used in popular dance styles such as the guaracha,
cha-cha-chá and son montuno, and can be played with both the 3-2 clave and 2-3 clave.
Figure 10.2: Example of the Cáscara in Timbales 111
Figure 10.3: Cáscara in 2-3 Clave with One of the Timbales “Cáscara” Patterns
109
Mauleón, 188.
110
Leymarie, 39.
111
88
Figure 10.4: Cáscara in 3-2 Clave
Figure 10.5: Cáscara Variations
Figure 10.5 a: Cáscara Variations

CHAPTER 11
TRANSCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF “STELLA, PETE AND RONNIE”
In this chapter the horn passages of “Stella, Pete and Ronnie,” and “Changó” are
presented for further rhythmic and harmonic analysis. Chucho Valdés wrote these pieces
exclusively for the horn section of Irakere. As previously mentioned, Irakere’s initial horn
section consisted of Paquito D’ Rivera on alto saxophone, Carlos Averhoff on tenor
saxophone, and Jorge Varona and Arturo Sandoval on trumpets. They were characterized
by their ability to perform comfortably up-tempo passages while maintaining a compact
and cohesive sound. As described by Chucho, due to their advanced instrumental
technique, he was challenged to write complex musical content.
Chucho’s early horn arrangements were deemed too easy by the players. At their
request, Chucho began to write longer and more challenging passages, utilizing bebop
language. He increased the range for trumpet players, especially the lead trumpet, and
demanded an agile technique from the saxophonists. Their daily regimen included two-
hour horn sectionals before rehearsing with the entire group. Chucho recalled that the level
of synergy increased considerably each week, as the routine of daily practice fostered an
unprecedented level of virtuosity and cohesiveness, above anything deemed realistic or
even possible by that time.
Irakere’s horn section certainly became the main attraction of the group. The horn
passages Chucho wrote exclusively for them functioned as the central themes of the
compositions, opposed to the common practice of the jazz big bands which featured shorter
soli passages within the arrangements. Chucho advised that the passages were meant to be
89
90
practiced with the same diligence as advanced classical etudes, not to be sight-read. The
performers obliged with many hours of concentrated drilling. The complex rhythmic
syncopations at extreme up-tempos made these horn passages impossible to be executed at
sight, although it should be noted that Chucho singled out trumpeter Arturo Sandoval and
saxophonist Paquito D’ Rivera as being extraordinary sight readers who amazed him with
their prowess.
“Stella, Pete and Ronnie”
Chucho composed numerous pieces while working with Irakere. One of these is
entitled “Stella, Pete and Ronnie,” written in 1988. While not a true contrafact112 this
particular composition features the same chord progression of the standard song “I’ll
Remember April,” by Gene de Paul, but with an altered form.
“I’ll Remember April” is a 48-bar form, with 16 measures per section. “Stella, Pete,
and Ronnie,” is a 32 bar-form comprised of the A and B sections only. Chucho wrote and
dedicated this song to Ronnie and Stella, owners of the renowned London jazz club Ronnie
Scott’s, where Irakere was often asked to perform. This reflects the close friendship
between Chucho and the late jazz saxophonist and entrepreneur Ronnie Scott.
“Stella, Pete and Ronnie” was recorded live in September 1990 at Ronnie Scott’s
Jazz Club in England and was released in 1995 as part of the album Irakere Felicidad on
the record label “Jazz House (UK).” The record contains six compositions. “Stella, Pete
and Ronnie” is the opening track of the album, with a duration of seventeen minutes and
thirty-five seconds. The musicians performing on the album are Carlos del Puerto on bass,
Miguel “Angá” Diaz on percussion, Adalberto Lara on trumpet, César López on alto
112
A contrafact is a new melodic composition written over the chord progression to a preexisting tune.
91
saxophone, Carlos Emilio Morales on guitar, Juan Munguía on trumpet, Enrique Plá on
drums, Oscar Valdés on percussion and vocals, Orlando “Valle” Maraca on flute, and
Javier Zalba on baritone saxophone.113
The following example shows the transcribed melody of “Stella, Pete and Ronnie,”
as performed by the horn section of Irakere. Further analysis is presented afterward.
113
AllMusic.com. All Music Official Website. Accessed March 15, 2020.
https://www.allmusic.com/album/felicidad-mw0000174482/credits.
92
Figure. 11.1: Transcription of “Stella, Pete and Ronnie” in Concert Key

93
94
95
96
Rhythmic Analysis
Chapter 6 contains an explanation of the different Afro-Cuban rhythmic cells that
constitute the foundation of today’s Cuban popular music. Some of those are identified and
analyzed in the present chapter.
The clave employed by Chucho on “Stella, Pete and Ronnie” is the 3-2 guaguancó
or rumba clave as demonstrated on the first four measures of the tune.
Figure 11.2: The Guaguancó Clave from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 1-4
The next examples (figures 11.3 – 11.12) illustrate some rhythmic patterns/ claves
found in selected measures of the composition that are usually performed in various Afro-
Cuban musical genres and executed by different instruments within the percussion section.
97
Figure 11.3: Mozambique Conga Pattern from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 5-6
Figure 11.4: Yambú Conga Pattern from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 9-12
98
Figure 11.5: Cowbell 2 Conga Pattern from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm.15-16
Figure 11.6: Amphibrachs Pattern from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” m. 20

99
Figure 11.7: Habanera Pattern from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” m. 29
Figure 11.8: Cinquillo Pattern from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 33-34
100
Figure 11.9: Timbales “Cáscara” Patterns from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 35-38
Figure 11.10: Son Clave (3-2) from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 55-56
Figure 11.11: Clave (3-2) from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 57-58
101
Figure 11.12: Timbales “Cáscara” Pattern from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 84-87
Figure 11.13: Pilón Güiro Pattern from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 101-104
Harmonic and Melodic Analysis
The jazz harmonic development in Cuban jazz music is credited to Chucho’s vision
and musical approach. He learned numerous American jazz standards by ear, transcribed
solos, and deeply explored jazz harmony, orchestration, and composition techniques.
Cuban dance music is characterized by the richness of its rhythm, more so than by
advanced harmonic concepts. Much of the harmonic content is based on the first, fourth
102
and fifth degrees (I- IV- V), as demonstrated in the “descargas” popularized by bassist
Cachao. The” descargas” or “Cuban jam sessions” were tunes derived from the “Son
Montuno,” a national dance rhythm that served as a platform for Cuban musicians to foster
creativity through instrumental improvisations.
Chucho studied the works of American jazz icons such as Thelonious Monk, Duke
Ellington, Bud Powell, Oscar Peterson, Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker, as well as
classical musicians such as Bach, Rachmaninov, Chopin and Mozart, in addition to grow
up surrounded by the music of santería. This enabled him to understand, develop, and
incorporate the bebop language and advanced technique into the melodies of his music,
especially the horn passages. Chucho innovated Cuban music for generations to come,
helped to establish an awareness of jazz harmony among fellow musicians, and fostered
new techniques for soloists, arrangers and composers.
The following excerpts demonstrate harmonic and melodic approaches used by
Chucho on “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” For that purpose, additional assistance was obtained
from the book of author, jazz saxophonist, and educator Gary Keller.114
Pentatonic and Hexatonic Scales
Chucho uses a hexatonic scale as a melodic device on the Gma7#11 chord in the
first two A sections of his composition. Keller defines a “pentatonic scale” as a five-note
scale formed by joining together five consecutive ascending fifths or descending fourths,
whereas the “hexatonic scale” is six notes in the same configuration. A pentatonic scale is
also a major scale minus the tritone interval (fourth and seventh), whereas the hexatonic
114
Gary Keller, The Jazz / Chord Scale Handbook: A Comprehensive Organizational Guide to Scales and
Chords Found in Jazz and Contemporary Music (Germany: Advance Music, 2002).
103
scale is a major scale minus the fourth scale degree. The following example demonstrates
use of the A major pentatonic scale, or, if the last note of the passage is included, the D
hexatonic scale. These note choices suggest the G Lydian mode (fourth mode of the D
major scale).115 The scale highlights the #11 of the chord and does not include the root (G),
which creates a feeling of edginess or “lift.”
Figure 11.14: A Pentatonic/D hexatonic Scale in “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 1-4
The next fragment (figure 11.15) utilizes the B “minor” pentatonic scale (B-D-E-
F#-A) in a descending direction culminating on the note B. This could be considered the
“relative minor pentatonic scale,” being the pentatonic scale played from the sixth degree
of the major pentatonic, and creates a minor sonority due to the flatted third and seventh.116
The B minor pentatonic is equivalent to the D “major” pentatonic scale (D-E-F#-A-B).
115
Keller, The Jazz / Chord Scale Handbook: A Comprehensive Organizational Guide to Scales and
Chords Found in Jazz and Contemporary Music, 30-31.
116
Keller, 88.
104
Figure 11.15: Minor Pentatonic Scale in “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 15-16
In measures 17-24 Chucho creates melodic and rhythmic contrast by following four
bars of wide intervals (primarily fourths and fifths) in syncopated rhythm with four bars of
narrow intervals (primarily 2nds and 3rds) in continuous eight notes:
Figure 11.16: Melodic Contrast in “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 17-24
Measures 23 and 24 demonstrate three harmonic/melodic devices:
1. Diminished major 7th chord as a precursor the major 7th. The chord is voiced as a
A major triad over the Bb tonic (VII/I), with the melody outlining the upper structure triad.
105
2. Triad to triad resolution across the two chords, A triad moving to and F triad.
According to Keller, the organization of the extensions of chords into triad upper structures
is very useful to create resonant chord voicings and romantic melodic structure. He also
states that the use of triad upper structures in jazz can be traced on the works of Duke
Ellington and also demonstrated in the improvisations of trumpeter Bix Beiderbecke in
1920’s. The concept was further developed in the compositions and improvisations of the
obebop era.117
3. Minor pentatonic that outlines the color tones of the Bb major 7th chord
(3,5,7,9,13). These color tones are also expressed as a D minor 7th upper structure chord.
Figure 11.17: VII/I Upper Structure, Minor Pentatonic and Triad Resolution in “Stella,
Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 23-24
The following example demonstrates the use of a minor pentatonic scale on the
dominant 7th chord, G# minor pentatonic from the parent scale of E major.
117
Keller, 96.
106
Figure 11.18: Relative Minor Pentatonic Scale in “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 30-31
Measures 41 and 42 demonstrate the use of an ascending chromatic scale
interspersed between augmented fourths and perfect fifths.
Figure 11.19: Chromatic Ascending Line in “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 41-42
Figure 11.20 Ascending Parallel Whole Tone Scales Separated by a Fourth Interval.
“Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 47-48

107
Gary Keller states that the chromatic scale can be divided into three eight-note
diminished scale systems based on the minor third interval, or four equal divisions of the
octave. Each scale is formed by alternating whole and half steps. It may also be viewed as
two minor tetrachords a tritone apart.118 See figure 11.21.
Figure 11.21: Diminished Scale in “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 69-72
The Bebop Dominant Scale, as explained by author, musician and educator David
Baker, is spelled 1-2-3-4-5-6-b7-♮7-1. When played up or down form the root, 3rd, 5th, or
7th of the chord it allows all tones of the dominant chord to fall on the beat, which provides
a solid harmonic identity to the line. The scale is also used on the related minor seventh
chord (ii-7) and the half-diminished seventh chord in the relative minor key VII-7b5.119
118
Keller, 78.
119
David Baker, How to Play Bebop (Alfred Publishing Co., Inc, 2005), 1.
108
Figure 11.22: The Bebop Dominant Scale in “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 92-93
Measures 84-88 show a repeated melodic sequence, first with the major 3rd then the
minor 3rd . The flattened third (Bb) in measures 88 and 90 defines the minor tonality of the
scale/chord.
Figure 11.23: Repetition of Melodic Sequence on G Major/Minor in “Stella, Pete and
Ronnie.” mm. 84-91
The next fragment demonstrates an ascending melodic pattern using the same
rhythmic cell. When the sequence reaches the highest note (D) in measure 77, the intervals
109
widen, and the melody reaches down and up more quickly before returning to the climax
note to finish the phrase.
Figure 11.24: Melodic/Rhythmic Motivic Development in “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.”
mm. 73-78
Typical Bebop Phrases in “Stella, Pete and Ronnie”
The best improvisers study the jazz language by learning, repeating, and
transforming what the fathers of the genre created. An analysis of the relationship between
the improvised line and the harmony is made and the passage is practiced in all twelve
keys. Patterns or “licks” remain an essential tool for musicians to develop instrumental
technique while fostering intellectual understanding of the genre.
Many books and methods have been produced to guide educators and students in
learning the jazz language. Common jazz patterns are constructed from segments of
transcribed solos, while other licks may be created specifically with the intention of
110
creating new musical shapes, modern intervallic approaches, or to cross the boundaries of
established jazz theories.
The jazz patterns in figure 11.23 through figure 11.35 are extracted from the melody
of “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” The author’s goal is to contribute to the existent literature by
incorporating several patterns and phrases extracted from the work of a Cuban jazz
composer, offering a new perspective on rhythm, as compared to the commonly practiced
eight-note patterns well known to American jazz musicians. For Cuban musicians a strong
sense of rhythm is the primary driver of their musical culture and practice. Chucho
demonstrates the adaptation of typical American jazz phrases to the rhythmic language of
Cuba. Studying these will enhance an improviser’s rhythmic skill and make the
individual’s practice more interesting, as well as developing confidence in musical settings
beyond typical American jazz “swing.”
The phrases are presented first in the original key, then transposed to a different
key for better intellectual and aural understanding. Applying this method to a number of
phrases from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie” would be highly beneficial in developing a melodic
vocabulary for the Cuban rhythmic language.
Figure 11.25: Bebop Phrase #1 from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” m. 15

111

112

113
Figure 11.33: Bebop Phrase #9 from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie.” mm. 70-72
114
115
For those who may wish to practice, the author offers in Appendix A the transposed
line from “Stella, Pete and Ronnie” in the keys of Eb and Bb. It should be noted that Chucho
never intended for the line to be performed on the keyboard or the bass!
CHAPTER 12
TRANSCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF “CHANGÓ”
“Changó”
Composed in 1988, “Changó” is one of the most popular songs Chucho Valdés
wrote for Irakere. The song was released in 2004 as part of the album entitled Irakere 30
Años, the group’s last official recording. The album was released on the Cuban record label
Egrem is comprised of eight compositions. “Changó” is the seventh track, with a duration
of five minutes and fifty-four seconds. The personnel was César López and Roman Filiú
on alto saxophones (César plays the solo), bassist Jorge Reyes, Yaroldy Abreu on the batá
drums and timbales, Adel González on conga drums, Enrique Plá on drums, Carlos Morales
and Jorge Luis Chicoy on guitars, Germán Velazco on tenor saxophone, Basilio Márquez
and Alexander Abreu on trumpets, and Chucho as the pianist and producer.120
The word Changó refers to an orisha, or god of the Yoruba religion in Nigeria. The
song highlights the orisha Changó and follows the call and response patterns typical of
their religious ceremonies. Chucho inserted certain sacred elements into this performance
for secular use such as the use of the batá drums, sacred chants and Abakuá grooves. The
triplet (derived from the batá drums patterns) is the predominant rhythmic figure on the
main groove of 6/8.
In those ceremonies, either the chorus or percussion section interacts with the singer
via call and response.121 The batá drums and conga drums are the main instruments. The
specific rhythm in “Changó” is known as “Chachalokafun.”
120
Discogs Official Website. Accessed March 18, 2020. https://www.discogs.com/Irakere-30-
A%C3%B1os/release/4512512.
121
Charley Gerard and Marty Sheller, Salsa!: The Rhythm of Latin Music , 57.
116
117
Paralleling this framework, “Changó” begins with a horn fanfare followed by a
chant sung in Yoruba dialect (mm. 1-4). The sequence repeats three more times, and
becomes increasingly frenetic (mm.6-7 and 9-10). The fourth fanfare serves as the
introduction to the main body of the piece and the entrance of the rhythm section (m.16).
The horn section enters with the main theme at letter A. The main theme is twenty-three
measures in roughly A A’ B form (eight, six, and eight bars respectively). This is followed
by two open solos over chord changes that include the A section plus and added 12-bar
“bridge” (or additional section), that concludes with a horn sendoff. After the solos the
piece returns to the theme at m. 20 and jumps to the coda at m.53. The overall form of the
piece would be considered “through-composed.”

118
Figure 12.1: Transcription of “Changó” in Concert Key

119
120
121
Rhythmic Analysis
The rhythmic subdivision in “Changó” is the triplet. The specific rhythmic figure
represents the god Changó (as explained in Chapter 8) and is played on the batá drums.
The following examples juxtapose melodic phrases from “Changó” with selected
triplet patterns presented in Chapter 8, figure 8.12. The pattern is shown on the bottom staff
and the melodic figure on the top.
Figure. 12.2: Triplet pattern #6 in “Changó” m. 20
Figure. 12.3: Variation of Triplets #5 in “Changó” m. 24

122
Figure. 12.4: Variation of Triplets #1, 4, 5 and 7 in “Changó” m. 36
Partial 12/8 and 6/8 clave patterns of the wemba clave, the columbia clave, and the
yoruba clave are also present in measure 21, as demonstrated in figure 12.5.
Figure. 12.5: Partial Columbia, Wemba and Yoruba Claves in “Changó.” m. 21

123
Figure. 12.6: The Left Hand Itótele Rhythmic Cell in “Changó” as Demonstrated in
Figure 8.8, Chapter 8. m. 25
The first half of the 3-2 son clave, written in double time, is referenced in measure 55.
Figure. 12.7: 3-2 Clave in “Changó.” m. 55
Chachalokafun (Chapter 8, figure 8.14) is a rhythm originated by percussionists in
Cuba. According to Dreiser Durruthy, the “batalero” in Chucho’s current band, the batá
drum rhythm performed in “Changó” is known as “Chachalokafun.” it is influenced by the
various rhythmic cells found in the religious ceremonies celebrated in Cuba. The following
124
example demonstrates how the rhythmic figure played by the Itótele (medium size batá
drum) on Chachalokafun would fit in a selected passage of “Changó.”
Figure. 12.8: Chachalokafun “Itótele Pattern” in “Changó.” m. 69
The rhythm Chucho played on “Changó” is the rhythmic cell dedicated to the orisha
“Changó” in the traditional Yoruban ceremony. It is produced on the Itótele (medium size
drum batá) as shown in the “Batá Drums,” chapter 8.
The following example shows the rhythmic cell as performed by the batalero on
the Itótele. The “x” represents the left hand and produces the lowest note on the énu
(biggest drumhead of the batá drum), while the slashes represent the right hand, and
produces the highest pitch on the chacha (smallest drumhead).

125
Figure. 12.9: Itótele Rhythmic Cell in the Changó Rhythm
What follows is the rhythmic cell used by Chucho on the keyboard, while the staff
below shows the melody played by the horn section in measures 61-62. The downbeats
(marked with arrows) are played on the second and fourth beat, same as the hi-hat in
American jazz (swing).
Figure. 12.10: Keyboard Comping Rhythm in “Changó.” mm. 61-62

126
Harmonic and Melodic Analysis
The most noticeable feature of “Changó” are the unison passages performed by the
entire ensemble, including percussion. The only figure not in unison is the theme played in
harmony by the horn section in measures 19-26. It could be a possibility that “Changó”
was the first Cuban jazz piece that presented such a high level of technical difficulty for
the entire ensemble. Carlos Del Puerto became the principal figure among Cuban bassists
because of his ability to perform the difficult repertoire of Irakere. He is considered by to
be the first virtuoso electric bassist in Cuba, and has influenced several generations on the
instrument. Del Puerto played unison lines with the horn section on numerous occasions.
However, it was “Changó” that ranked him as a top instrumentalist and innovator, who
brought the electric bass to the forefront in Cuban popular music.
The first four measures of “Changó” show a sequence of suspended chords,
starting and ending on a Dsus9 chord. The first two bars are an ascending progression of
diatonic thirds, and the third bar is a descending G# diminished chord. See figure 12.11.
Figure. 12.11: Sequence of Suspended Chords in “Changó.” mm. 1- 4

127
The first rapid unison passage is comprised of the tones of the F hexatonic scale,
aligned to reflect the D minor tonality, resolving to a D major chord with the introduction
of an F#.
Figure. 12.12: D Minor Pentatonic in “Changó.” mm. 6-7
Other melodic devices such as pentatonic scales, arpeggiated triads, diatonic
enclosures, and parallel whole tone scales are also used.
Figure. 12.13: Arpeggiated Major Triads in “Changó.” mm. 13-14
Figure. 12.14: Two Consecutive Diatonic Enclosures in “Changó.” m. 30

128
Figure. 12.15: Parallel Whole Tone Scale in “Changó.” mm. 31-33
For those who may wish to practice, the author offers the transposed line from
“Changó” in the keys of Eb and Bb. See Appendix B. It should be noted that the line is
performed in unison by the entire ensemble.

CHAPTER 13
CONCLUSION
Chucho Valdés and Irakere made significant contributions to the development of
jazz in Cuba. The merging of American bebop and jazz-rock with folkloric African
rhythms and traditional Cuban dance genres resulted in an unprecedented concept that
modernized and redefined Afro-Cuban jazz. They were pushed to develop a virtuoso
instrumental technique as well as the ability to solo over modern chord changes at the level
of the great American masters. Under the leadership of Chucho, the horn players also
investigated sophisticated polyrhythms, metric modulation, and the clave. They are
considered to be the principal innovators of Afro-Cuban jazz.
This document focuses on two exceptionally challenging pieces composed by
Chucho Valdés for Irakere that raised the bar for instrumental proficiency, and dictated the
standard for students and professionals across the country. Each member of Irakere became
the principal musical references on their respective instrument. The role of Irakere and its
horn section in Cuba could be compared to the influence of American musicians such as
Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Miles Davis, and John Coltrane. After Irakere, most
Cuban jazz groups adopted the model of two trumpets, alto and tenor saxophone. Likewise,
arrangers began to write long, difficult passages for the horn sections as a matter of course.
Chucho Valdés’ music for Irakere was unique and unprecedented. His pioneering
efforts centered around pairing the previously secretive Batá drums and Yoruba chants with
traditional Cuban percussion instruments and dance music. To this Afro-Cuban core he
added jazz influenced melody and harmony alongside American popular instruments such
as drum set, electric piano and synthesizes, electric bass, and electric guitar. The resulting
129
130
music, technically advanced and performed to the highest standards by players of
extraordinary talent and skill, fostered an historic transformation within Afro-Cuban jazz.
APPENDIX A
“Stella, Pete and Ronnie” in the Key of Eb
131
132
133
134
135
“Stella, Pete and Ronnie” in the Key of Bb

136
137
138
APPENDIX B
“Changó” in the Key of Eb
139
140
141
142
“Changó” in the Key of Bb

143
144
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Acosta, Leonardo. Descarga número dos: El jazz en Cuba 1950-2000. La Habana:

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Ake, David, Charles Hiroshi Garrett, and Daniel Goldmark, eds. Jazz/Not Jazz: The Music
and Its Boundaries. California: University of California Press, 2012.
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12, 2019. http:// http://jazzprofiles.blogspot.com/2017/04/irakere.html.
Charley, Gerard, and Marty Sheller. Salsa!: The Rhythm of Latin Music. Crown Point, IN:
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Times Company, 2015. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/02/arts/music/chucho-valdes-
the-pianist-reflects-on-irakere-and-his-career.html
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Music and Dance. Oxford University Press, 2014.
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A Study of Afro-Cuban Jazz as Pioneered by

Please do not remove this page

A STUDY OF AFRO-CUBAN JAZZ AS PIONEERED BY CHUCHO VALDÉS AND

Aldo Houari Salvent

Submitted to the Faculty

Coral Gables, Florida

A doctoral essay submitted in partial fulfillment of

A STUDY OF AFRO-CUBAN JAZZ AS PIONEERED BY CHUCHO VALDÉS AND

Aldo Houari Salvent

Gary W. Keller, M.M., Co-Chair Martin Bejerano, M.M., Co-Chair

John Hart, B.M. Stephen J. Guerra, D.M.A.

Abstract of a doctoral essay at the University of Miami.

Although there is a substantial amount of educational material addressing jazz

List of Figures ..........................................................................................................................v

Need For Study .................................................................................................6

Purpose Of The Study ......................................................................................7

Research Questions ..........................................................................................7

2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................9

Source Material ..............................................................................................19

Data Analysis .................................................................................................20

Implications of the Study ...............................................................................21

4 CHUCHO VALDÉS ............................................................................................22

6 IRAKERE AND THE AFRO-CUBAN TRADITIONS ......................................32

Afro-Cuban Rhythmic Cells ............................................................................33

7 THE CLAVE ........................................................................................................38

8 BATÁ DRUMS ....................................................................................................52

9 CUBAN POPULAR MUSIC ..............................................................................68

10 CUBAN TRADITIONAL PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS .............................84

11 TRANSCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF “STELLA, PETE AND RONNIE” 89

“Stella, Pete And Ronnie” .............................................................................90

Rhythmic Analysis ........................................................................................96

Harmonic And Melodic Analysis ................................................................101

Pentatonic and Hexatonic Scales .................................................................102

Typical Bebop Phrases in “Stella, Pete And Ronnie” .................................109

12 TRANSCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS OF “CHANGÓ” ........................................116

Rhythmic Analysis ......................................................................................121

Harmonic And Melodic Analysis ................................................................126

APPENDIX A – “Stella, Pete and Ronnie” in the Key of Eb .........................................131

Stella, Pete and Ronnie” in the Key of Bb ..........................................135

APPENDIX B – “Changó” in the Key of Eb ...................................................................139

“Changó” in the Key of Bb ..................................................................142

Figure 6.1: Tresillo .................................................................................................................33

Figure 6.2: Conga Rhythm .....................................................................................................34

Figure 6.3: The Clave Pattern.................................................................................................34

Figure 6.4: Cinquillo ..............................................................................................................35

Figure 6.5: Danzón Rhythm / Bass Line ................................................................................35

Figure 6.7: Rhythmic Cell Used by Bassists ..........................................................................36

Figure 6.8: African Rhythm (Performed with 6/8 Feel) .........................................................37

Figure 6.9: Afro-Caribbean Rhythmic Cells ..........................................................................37

Figure 7.2: Son Clave In 2/4 ..................................................................................................40

Figure 7.4: The 2-3 Clave.......................................................................................................41

Figure 7.5: The Guaguancó Clave ..........................................................................................41

Figure 7.6: The Columbia Clave ............................................................................................42

Figure 7.7: The Wemba Clave ...............................................................................................42

Figure 7.8: The Yoruba Clave or 6/8 Clave ...........................................................................42

Figure 7.9: The Abakuá Clave ...............................................................................................42

Figure 7.10: Claves in 12/8 or 6/8 ..........................................................................................43

Figure 7.11 a: Cross Rhythm in 6/8 .......................................................................................44

Figure 7.11 b: Cross Rhythms in 6/8 ......................................................................................44

Figure 7.12: Excerpt of Misa Negra .......................................................................................45

Figure 7.14: The Imaginary Clave in Tanga ..........................................................................47

Figure 7.15: Intro Of “Manteca” ............................................................................................48