Tutor-marked Assignment 1

TCC222/05 Operating Systems

Name : Nazrin Bin Jamaluddin

Student ID : 040050323

Class Code : 4OPS1

Contact No : 0134363937

Email : Nazrin.Jamaluddin@wdc.com

Submission Date : 24 March 2015

Tutor : WONG KIM YEN

Course Coordinator: TAN CHOO JUN

No. of Pages : 11
(Including this)
Question 1

Paging

The contiguous memory allocation can make the memory wastage whether internal or

external fragmentation. The memory not fully utilize. To prevent this problem, non-

contiguous memory allocation method need to be implement. The first method called

Paging.

In paging, the physical memory is divided into equal size of blocks called frames.

Logical memory divided into equal blocks called pages. Below is the basic diagram for

paging. The page size is 1 byte. Size physical memory is 7.

Logical address located in Logical memory. For execution the process, it must move

from logical to physical memory. Here we can see the page 0 located at frame 1. For

example, page 3, the frame is 7, so in physical memory, it located at the last in frame table. A

few pages can be the same single process. Each page require one frame.

User will see Logical memory as a contiguous blocks of memory but in fact the frames are

stored in different address in physical memory

 Figure 1.1 Basic diagram of Paging Method

According to Tutorialsoint (2010), with paging the problem of external fragmentation

solved. All the process (from logical to physical memory) can allocate into physical memory

because the equal size of page and frame. Not like contiguous allocation, the partition size is

various. 7. Not a good explanation. By right, internal fragmentation happens when a fixed

size block of memory says 32 kb allocated to a process but it only used up of 23 kb of memory

where 9 kb of memory are wasted. Because paging is using fixed size block which can lead to

internal fragmentation for unused memory,

Segmentation.

A program is a collection of segments. A segment is a logical unit such as main

program function, method, object, stack, and arrays. Each process is divided into segment.
Refer figure below. Logical address in segmentation consists of a two tuple, <segment-

number, offset>.

Figure 1.2: Every process divided into segment in logical memory.

The segment table(maps two-dimensional physical addresses) contain limit and base

for every segment. Base is the starting physical address while limit is the length of the

segment. Segment-table base register (STBR) show the location in physical memory.

Segment-table length register (STLR) show the segment used by program. Below is the

location of segment in physical memory.

 Figure 1.3: Every process divided into segment in logical memory

Offset must be greater than 0 and less than segment limit. Otherwise, OS trap this and

produce error refer to Gitam (2011). While internal fragmentation still occur in Paging,

Segmentation able to eliminate it. Unlike Paging, segment have varies sizes and can fit into

frame without left unused space.

Question 2

a) First In, First Out (FIFO) algorithm

1 3 3 5 1 1 8 3 8 9 9 9
 1 1 1 8 8

3 3 3 9

5 5 5

Page faults = 5

b) Belady’s anomaly algorithm

Belady’s anomaly is a phenomena when increasing the number of page frames can

increase the page faults. Below is the result if page frames is 4.

1 3 3 5 1 1 8 3 8 9 9 9

1 1 1 1 9

3 3 3 3

5 5 5

8 8

Page faults = 5

So, the conclusion for Belady’s anomaly in this reference string = if increase frame, it

not help to increase page fault.

c) Optimal algorithm

1 3 3 5 1 1 8 3 8 9 9 9
 1 1 1 8 8

3 3 3 9

5 5 5

Page faults = 5

d) Least Recently Used (LRU) algorithm

1 3 3 5 1 1 8 3 8 9 9 9

1 1 1 1 1 9

3 3 8 8 8

5 5 3 3

Page faults = 6

Question 3

Contiguous allocation

As we know, in a storage devices, there are many physical blocks. Every block has a

size in bytes. File firstly stored in logical block, then it will map into physical block. In

Contiguous allocation, there are many contiguous block in the disk. OS will allocate the

blocks into a file. Based on UIC University (2013) as the block is adjacent, so it not required

a lot of time to reading one block to another block. So the time taken to access the files is

faster.
 Each file contain the address of starting block and the size of file.

Figure 3.1: Every process divided into segment in logical memory

The sequential and direct access are efficient for this method. For sequential access, it

refer to starting block and next block as sequence until it find the data need to be accessed. It

will start back from beginning if need to go to other blocks. While for direct access, the read

and write operation will go directly (not one by one) to the block based on the start block and

length of block (size of file).

External fragmentation may occur. The operating system should maintain a list of free

holes (unused block) and then select the appropriate hole by implement best fit or first fit

algorithm. When the file allocated, the free disk space broken into little pieces. So, the next

file cannot fit into the free small blocks.

The other problem is how to specify the future space for file. To solve this, need some

initial guessing. If the file become larger than guessing, it can be move to other disk area

called overflow.
 Linked Allocation

Because users not quite know how the file size can grow or, Linked list is a solution.

The arrangement of block scattered, but connect each other using links. University of Regina

(2014) mentioned that the directory maintain the first block and last block of the file. From

figure below, every block have the next address of block until end.

Figure 3.1: Every block pointing the next address of block.

The advantage is free space management system. No wastage space that can suffer

from external fragmentation. No more problem to specify the future space for file as the link

for next address can go to any free block. The file can grow as it want until disk space is full.
 The disadvantage is it only support for sequential access. The example, if the read and

write operation access the 20th of block of a file, operation must begin at the start address

back. Same concept like sequential access. So it take a time. Besides that, a single damaged

pointer can make the whole file cannot be accessed.

Indexed allocation

The best allocation method is indexed allocation. Tong (2010) said indexed allocation

support for direct access because placing all the pointer into 1 place called index block. The

example for figure below. The index block for file moo located at block 8. In block 8, there

are pointer next address. So the operation can access file directly. No external fragmentation.

However, indexed allocation suffers from wastage of space. An entire index block is

to be allocated even if only one or two pointers to actual blocks are stored in it. Every file

needs to have an index block, so the index block must be as small as possible to reduce

wastage of space. If the index block is too small, it will not be able to store pointers to all the

blocks of a large file.

Figure 3.2: indexed allocation fo3 3 files.
References

Tutorialspoint 2010. “Operating System - Memory Management.” Tutorialspoint. March 10.

Accessed March 14, 2015.

http://www.tutorialspoint.com/operating_system/os_memory_management.htm

Gitam University 2011. “Segmentation.” Gitam. November 25. Accessed March 15, 2015.

http://www.gitam.edu/eresource/comp/gvr(os)/8.5.htm

UIC University 2013. “Main Memory.” UIC. July 19. Accessed March 15, 2015.

http://www.cs.uic.edu/~jbell/CourseNotes/OperatingSystems/8_MainMemory.html

University of Regina 2014. “Files Systems, Physical View (Disk Allocation Methods).”

University of Regina. November 15. Accessed March 16, 2015.

http://www2.cs.uregina.ca/~hamilton/courses/330/notes/allocate/allocate.html

IGNOU 2009. “DISK ALLOCATION METHODS.” IGNOU. August 11. Accessed March

16, 2015. https://webservices.ignou.ac.in/virtualcampus/adit/course/cst101/block4/unit4/

cst101-bl4-u4-06.htm

Tong, Lai Yu 2010. “File Systems.” California State University. April 24. Accessed March

16, 2015. http://cse.csusb.edu/tongyu/courses/cs460/notes/file.php