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Name :
Surname : Commented [A2]: Only first letters must be uppercase
E-Mail : Ex: Cahit Sıtkı
Date :
Signature : ________________________
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Ex: Tarancı
SCALING AND SELF SIMILARITY IN ATMOSPHERIC AND LAND
SURFACE PROCESSES Commented [A4]:
All content must be written in all capital letters in Title Page

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
OF
MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

BY

MUSTAFA MAZHAR BASA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR
THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

[DEFENSE DATE]
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SCALING AND SELF SIMILARITY IN ATMOSPHERIC AND LAND programs, the name of the department that they work full-
SURFACE PROCESSES time should be written on the Approval page. For example, if
a faculty member staffs in the biotechnology program and
works full-time in the biology department, the department of
submitted by MUSTAFA MAZHAR BASA in partial fulfillment of the biology should be written on the approval page.
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Civil Engineering, Middle Exceptionally, for the interdisciplinary program chair and
East Technical University by, your thesis supervisor, the interdisciplinary program
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Prof. Dr. Halil Kalıpçılar

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Prof. Dr. Ahmet Cevdet Yalçıner Ex: Cahit Sıtkı Tarancı

Head of the Department, Civil Engineering
The approval page of the thesis must be signed in blue ink
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Ercan
Supervisor, Civil Engineering, METU

Examining Committee Members:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Ercan

Civil Engineering, METU Commented [A7]: The head of the examining committee
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Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Ercan
Civil Engineering, METU Commented [A8]: Supervisor must be written on the
second order among the committee members.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Elif Oğuz
Civil Engineering, METU

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Kei Ishida

Center for Water Cycle, Marine Environment and Disaster
Management, Kumamoto University, Japan

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I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and
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all material and results that are not original to this work.

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iv
 ABSTRACT

SCALING AND SELF SIMILARITY IN ATMOSPHERIC AND LAND

SURFACE PROCESSES

Basa, Mustafa Mazhar Commented [A11]: Only the first letters should be
Doctor of Philosophy, Civil Engineering capitalized.
Ex: Tarancı, Cahit Sıtkı
Supervisor : Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Ercan

[Defense Date], # pages Commented [A12]:

After completing all corrections in this document, please
enter the page number on the last page of this document.

In this study, scaling and self-similarity conditions of atmospheric and land surface
processes will be derived by the Lie Group of Point Scaling Transformations.
Particular attention will be given to land surface processes to model heat and
moisture fluxes over land and water surfaces; and planetary boundary layer to model
vertical sub-grid-scale fluxes due to eddy transports in the whole atmospheric
column. In addition to governing processes, self-similarity of the initial and
boundary conditions will be considered. By means of open-source numerical solvers
(such as Weather Research & Forecasting Model, WRF or MODFLOW), self-
similarity of unsteady land surface processes under both up-scaled and down-scaled
domains will be demonstrated. The derived self-similarity conditions will assist
constructing physical models of complex land surface processes. Physical modeling
is still helpful when sufficient observation is not available to calibrate and validate
computer models. Furthermore, the self-similarity conditions will be beneficial in
numerical solutions of complex problems. By advancing our understanding of
scaling and self-similarity in simulations, this research aims to contribute to the

v
development of more practical and computationally efficient approaches in
simulating land surface processes.

As such, the purposes of this study are:

1) to derive self-similarity conditions for the land surface processes by using one-
parameter Lie group of point scaling transformations. The derivation of the self-
similarity conditions will consider both the governing equations as well as the
initial and boundary conditions.

2) to perform numerical simulations to validate the proposed self-similar conditions

3) to perform numerical simulations to show computational benefits of proposed

self-similarity conditions

Keywords: Scaling, Self-similarity, Surface Flow, Atmospheric process, Land

Surface process Commented [A13]: Only first letters must be uppercase
Ex: Phenomenological Research, Moustakas, Van-Manen

vi
 ÖZ

ATMOSFER VE YER YÜZEYİ SÜREÇLERİNDE ÖLÇEKLEME VE

KENDİNE BENZEŞİM

Basa, Mustafa Mazhar Commented [A14]: Only the first letters should be
Doktora, İnşaat Mühendisliği capitalized.
Ex: Tarancı, Cahit Sıtkı
Tez Yöneticisi: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ali Ercan

[Jüri Tarihi], # sayfa Commented [A15]: After completing all corrections in this
document, please enter the page number on the last page of
this document.

Bu çalışmada, atmosferik ve yer yüzeyi süreçlerinin ölçeklendirme ve kendine

benzeşim koşulları, Lie grubu nokta ölçeklendirme dönüşümleri kullanılarak
bulunacaktır. Tüm atmosferik kolondaki eddy aktarimlarindan kaynakli ızgara-altı-
ölçekli düşey akışların modellenmesi için gezegensel sınır katmanı ile toprak ve su
yüzeyleri üzerindeki ısı ve nem akışlarını modellemek için kullanılacak yüzey
süreçlerine özellikle dikkat edilecektir. Yöneten süreçlere ek olarak, başlangıç ve
sınır koşullarının ölçekleme ve kendine benzeşim durumları da dikkate alınacaktır.
Açık kaynak kodlu nümerik çözücüler (WRF – Hava durumu araştırma ve tahmin
modeli veya MODFLOW) kullanarak, ölçeği büyütülmüş ve ölçeği küçültülmüş
alanların her ikisinde de, kararsız yer yüzeyi süreçlerinin kendine benzeşimi
ispatlanacaktır. Türetilen kendine benzeşim koşulları, kompleks yer yüzeyi
süreçlerinin fiziksel modellemesi inşaatına yardımcı olacaktır. Bilgisayar
modellerinin kalibrasyonu ve doğrulaması için yeterli gözlem bulunmadığında
fiziksel modelleme halen faydalı olacaktır. Ayrıca, kendine benzeşim durumları
kompleks problemlerin nümerik çözümlerinde de faydalı olacaktır. Bu araştırma,
simülasyonlarda ölçekleme ve kendine benzeşim konusundaki anlayışımızı
ilerleterek, yer yüzeylerinin simüle edilmesine kullanılacak daha pratik ve

vii
hesaplama açısından daha verimli yaklaşımlar geliştirilmesine katkıda bulunmayı
amaçlamaktadır.

Bu doğrultuda, bu çalışmanın amaçları aşağıdaki gibidir:

1) Tek değişkenli Lie grubu nokta ölçeklendirme dönüşümleri kullanılarak, yer

yüzeyi süreçlerinin kendine benzeşim koşullarının türetilmesi,

2) Önerilen kendine benzeşim koşullarının doğrulanması için nümerik

simülasyonların yapılması,

3) Önerilen kendine benzeşim koşullarının hesaplama açısından faydalarının

gösterilmesi için nümerik simülasyonların yapılması,

Anahtar Kelimeler: Ölçekleme, Kendine benzeşim, Yüzey akımları, Atmosferik

süreçler, yer yüzeyi süreçleri Commented [A16]: Only first letters must be uppercase
Ex: Phenomenological Research, Moustakas, Van-Manen

viii
Dedication

ix
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his deepest gratitude to his supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Ali Ercan Prof. Dr. Elif Oğuz and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Kei Ishida for their support and
guidance during the thesis preperation phase.

x
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................v

ÖZ ........................................................................................................................... vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .........................................................................................x

TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................... xi

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. xiv

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................ xvi

LIST OF SYMBOLS ............................................................................................ xvii

1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................1

1.1 Scaling and Self-Similarity in Atmospheric and Land Surface Processes......1

1.2 Research Background and Motivation ............................................................2

1.3 Research Objectives ........................................................................................4

1.4 Description of Chapters ..................................................................................5

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................7

2.1 Land Surface Processes in Hydrology ............................................................8

2.1.1 Evaporation from Lake Surfaces .................................................................8

2.1.2 Flow Through Unsaturated Porous Media ................................................16

2.2 Scaling and Self-similarity in Hydrology .....................................................17

2.2.1 History of Study on Flow in unsaturated porous media ............................18

2.3 Lie Groups and Transformations in Hydrological Modeling........................19

2.3.1 Key benefits of Lie groups and transformations compared to Reynolds

number averaging: ...................................................................................................19

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2.3.2 Historical evolution of the field ................................................................ 20

3 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 23

3.1 Evaporation from lake surface...................................................................... 23

3.1.1 Selection of Evaporation Model ............................................................... 23

3.1.2 Application of Scaling on Governing Equations ...................................... 25

3.2 Flow through Unsaturated Porous Media ..................................................... 28

3.2.1 Derivation of Richards Equation from Darcy’s Law ................................ 28

3.2.2 ALTERNATIVE 1: Applying Lie Groups and Transformations in Flow in

Unsaturated Porous Media ...................................................................................... 29

3.2.3 ALTERNATIVE 2: Applying Lie Groups and Transformations in Flow in

Unsaturated Porous Media ...................................................................................... 32

3.3 Solution Algoritm ......................................................................................... 34

4 RESULTS and DISCUSSION ........................................................................ 35

4.1 Scaling Parameters ....................................................................................... 35

4.2 Domain and Datasets .................................................................................... 36

4.3 Comparison of Upscaled and Downscaled Solutions ................................... 37

4.4 Summary of Key Findings............................................................................ 39

4.5 Limitations of Study ..................................................................................... 39

4.6 Further Research Directions ......................................................................... 39

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 41

A. MATHLAB CODE ......................................................................................... 44

B. MATLAB USER MANUAL .......................................................................... 54

C. Appendix Title ................................................................................................. 55

CURRICULUM VITAE ......................................................................................... 57

xii
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Table 2.2 Insert Table Caption Here ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 4.1 Scaling Exponents and Ratios for Flow in Evaporation from lake surface
................................................................................................................................. 36
Table 4.1 Scaling Exponents and Ratios for Flow through Unsaturated Porous
Media ....................................................................................................................... 36
Table 4.1 Scaling Exponents and ratios to obtain Scaled domains from the original
domain ..................................................................................................................... 37

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on the mouse and choose Update Field option
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Figure 1.1. ................................................................................................................. 6

Figure 2.1. Timeline of evolution of evaporation theories through centuries........ 10
Figure 4.1. Scaling exponents and ratios ............................................................... 38
Figure 4.2. Scaling Exponents and Ratios for Flow in Evaporation from lke surface
..................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.3. Scaling Exponents and Ratios for Flow through Unsaturated Porous
Media .......................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.4. Scaling Exponents and ratios to obtain Scaled domains from the
original domain ........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

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 CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

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1.1 Scaling and Self-Similarity in Atmospheric and Land Surface Processes

Land surface processes play a crucial role in large-scale atmospheric models, and
their modeling has gained significant attention over the past decade. Dimensional
analysis, power law behavior, fractals, and multi-fractals are interconnected
concepts that have been successfully applied in various scientific fields. They have
been particularly useful in modeling self-similar dynamics of fluid flow processes
across spatial and temporal scales. Fractals are intricate geometric objects that
exhibit self-similarity at different scales, making them suitable candidates for
modeling complex systems. Power law behavior is another characteristic of fractal
structures, often observed in size distribution patterns.

The theory of continuous groups, also known as Lie groups, was introduced by
Sophus Lie in the 19th century. Lie groups can be identified by the infinitesimal
generators admitted by a given differential equation. If a partial differential
equation remains invariant under a Lie group, it is possible to discover invariant or
similarity solutions.

1
Due to the complexity and computational demands of mathematical models,
researchers are seeking alternative approaches to enhance simulation efficiency and
accuracy. Scaling techniques offer a promising solution by exploiting self-
similarity and inherent similarities present in fluid flow phenomena. This approach
enables simulations at reduced computational costs while capturing the dominant
flow characteristics.

The present study focuses on deriving scaling and self-similarity conditions of

atmospheric and land surface processes using the Lie Group of Point Scaling
Transformations. Particular attention will be given to land surface processes to
model heat and moisture fluxes over land and water surfaces. By advancing our
understanding of scaling and self-similarity in simulations, this research aims to
contribute to the development of more practical and computationally efficient
approaches in the field. Harnessing the potential of scaling can overcome the
limitations posed by computational power and enhance the applicability of
mathematical simulations in a wide range of engineering and scientific disciplines.

1.2 Research Background and Motivation

For over ten years, the significance of land surface processes and their modeling
has been widely acknowledged. These processes have been recognized as central
not only in large-scale atmospheric models, such as general circulation models
(GCMs)41 but also in regional and mesoscale atmospheric models42.

The dimensional analysis1–6, power law behavior1, 5–8, fractals9, 10, and multi-
fractals11–14 are interconnected concepts that have found application across
different scientific fields. Specifically, they have been employed to model the
progression of intricate yet self-similar dynamics in fluid flow processes15–17,
considering variations in spatial and temporal scales.

Fractals are complex geometric or mathematical objects that exhibit self-similarity

at different scales. Self-similarity in geometry means that the object appears similar

2
when zoomed in or out, with smaller copies or patterns repeating at larger scales.
Fractal structures display power law behavior. For example, the size distribution of
objects within a fractal system may follow a power law. Power law behavior can
also be an indicator of underlying fractal structures. When observing a power law
relationship in a dataset or system, it suggests the presence of complex, self-similar
patterns that look like fractals.

During the nineteenth century, Sophus Lie formulated the theory of continuous
groups, also known as Lie groups. These groups can be identified by the
infinitesimal generators admitted by a given differential equation. If a partial
differential equation remains invariant under a Lie group, it is possible to discover
invariant or similarity solutions. Several researchers, including Bluman and
Cole24, Schwarz25, Ibragimov26, 27, Bluman and Anco28, and Polyanin and
Manzhirov29, have developed algorithms to determine infinitesimal generators of
Lie groups for various applications.

Due to complex mathematical models including many variables and iterative

processes such simulations can demand a lot of computational power. This is
particularly important for large domains and simulations with long durations,
which can cover durations of many years and computational area of hundreds of
kilometers. Given the limitations of computational power growth, it becomes
imperative to explore alternative approaches that can enable more practical and
efficient simulations while maintaining an acceptable level of accuracy. Scaling is
an approach that offers a promising solution to alleviate the computational
workload in simulations. Scaling involves exploiting the inherent similarities and
self-similarity present in fluid flow phenomena to reduce the computational effort
required for simulations. By identifying and leveraging scaling laws and self-
similarity conditions, it becomes possible to perform simulations at reduced
computational costs without sacrificing essential physical details. This approach
seeks to capture the dominant flow characteristics while minimizing the
computational resources needed to represent the entire flow domain accurately.

3
By incorporating scaling techniques into simulations, it becomes feasible to obtain
"good enough" results within the available computational power. Scaling can help
strike a balance between computational efficiency and the accuracy required for
practical engineering applications. It allows researchers and engineers to tackle
larger and more complex problems that were previously beyond the reach of
computational capabilities.

Within above framework, in this study, the focus will be on deriving scaling and
self-similarity conditions of atmospheric and land surface processes using the Lie
Group of Point Scaling Transformations. In addition to governing processes, self-
similarity of the initial and boundary conditions will also be considered. Particular
attention will be given to land surface processes to model heat and moisture fluxes
over land and water surfaces.

By advancing our understanding of scaling and self-similarity in simulations, this

research also aims to contribute to the development of more practical and
computationally efficient approaches in the field. By harnessing the potential of
scaling, we can overcome the limitations posed by computational power and
enhance the applicability of mathematical simulations in a wide range of
engineering and scientific disciplines.

1.3 Research Objectives

Objectives of this study are:

• to derive self-similarity conditions for the land surface processes by using

one-parameter Lie group of point scaling transformations. The derivation of the
self-similarity conditions will consider both the governing equations as well as the
initial and boundary conditions.

4
• to perform numerical simulations to validate the proposed self-similar
conditions

• to perform numerical simulations to show computational benefits of scaling

of simulation domains by proposed self-similarity conditions

1.4 Description of Chapters

Following the Chapter 1 introduction, which consists of research background,

motivation and objectives of the study.

Chapter 2 is dedicated to the presentation of the available literature review.

Chapter 3 will explain the methodologies used, which models are chosen for each
process. Governing equations and the initial and boundary conditions of
evaporation and flow through unsaturated porous media will be introduced. Then
the one-parameter Lie group of point scaling transformations is applied to these
governing equations, transforming the governing partial differential equations, as
well as the initial and boundary conditions. Transformed IBVP (Initial Boundary
Value Problem) will be solved for Upscaled and downscaled domains by using
computer code generated in matlab software and by comparison of upscaled and
downscaled solutions, the self-similarity criterias are obtained.

Chapter 4 will represent the comparison of results in terms of scalability and self-
similarity and the final Chapter 5 will include the conclusion and
recommendations.

5
 200 179
178
180 168 162
160 142 144
137
140 124 130
Mezun Sayıları

116
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Figure 1.1.

6
 CHAPTER 2

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Recently, researchers have employed one-parameter Lie groups of point scaling

transformations to explore the concepts of scale invariance and self-similarity in
various hydrologic and hydraulic problems. Haltas and Kavvas30 examined the scale
invariance conditions in a range of one-dimensional hydrologic processes, including
confined and unconfined aquifer groundwater flows. Self-similarity conditions were
investigated in numerical examples of one-dimensional unsteady open channel
flow31, one-dimensional suspended sediment transport32, and two-dimensional
depth-averaged flow33 processes. More recently, Ercan and Kavvas34 derived self-
similarity conditions for three-dimensional incompressible Navier-Stokes equations
governing Newtonian fluids.

Following are some example processes where scaling and self-similarity has been
studied in the past for the:

• Solid-liquid mixing51

• Groundwater52,53

• Sediment Transport47

• Jet Flow48-50

• Basic Flows such as 1D, 2D flows54-59

• Fractals60-61

• Drop formation62

• Spherical collapse of radiation fluid63Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue massa.

7
Among above mentioned processes that has been studied in terms of scaling and self
similarity, evaporation proces was among less studied ones. So we have chosen to
focus on evaporation process.

Our Literature review for evaporation process will focus mostly on open water
surfaces such as lakes so the effect of vegetation can be neglected.

Our Literature review will also include the history of scaling and self-similarity in
hydrology as well as the techniques used in scaling of governing equations such as
Lie point group transformations.

2.1 Land Surface Processes in Hydrology

Among many other land surface processes we will focus on two fundamental ones,
evaporation and flow through unsaturated porous media.

2.1.1 Evaporation from Lake Surfaces

2.1.1.1 Evaporation vs. Evapotransportation

The ongoing discussion within the hydrological community revolves around the
terminology related to the process of water vaporization. Two key terms at the
center of this discussion are "evaporation" and "evapotranspiration." "Evaporation"
has been in use for centuries, while "evapotranspiration" started to appear in
scientific literature in the 1940s, specifically denoting the combination of land
surface evaporation and transpiration.

"Evapotranspiration" is derived from the combination of two fundamental

processes: "evaporation" and "transpiration." Evaporation represents the phase
change of water from a liquid state to a gaseous state, primarily occurring on
surfaces such as soil and open water bodies, such as lakes. Transpiration, on the
other hand, pertains to the release of water vapor from plant surfaces, primarily

8
through stomata in their leaves. When these processes occur together in terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems, the term "evapotranspiration" is employed to describe the
total water vapor output.

In this specific context, where the focus is on evaporation from open water
surfaces, such as lakes, and where evapotranspiration from vegetation has minimal
relevance, the term "evaporation" is the preferred terminology. It serves as the
general descriptor encompassing the transition of water from a liquid to a gaseous
state. To discuss specific components of the water vaporization process, more
precise terminology, such as "open water evaporation," is used as needed.

2.1.1.2 History of Study on Evoporation Process

Evolution of theories created for evaporation through centuries has been

summarized in Figure 2.1 below.

 From theory to first experimentation to first models

The concept of evaporation has evolved from speculative ideas to the first
experiments that supported the significance of heat and wind in the process. The
groundbreaking work of Descartes and the pioneering experiments of Perrault laid
the foundation for a more systematic and evidence-based understanding of
evaporation, setting the stage for further advancements in the field of hydrology.
This historical context underscores the importance of integrating theoretical
hypotheses with empirical observations in the scientific pursuit of unraveling
nature's mysteries.

9
Figure 2.1. Timeline of evolution of evaporation theories through centuries

10
  Earliest Evaporation Theories

Historically, the study of evaporation processes in hydrology can be traced back to

ancient times when scientific inquiry was marked by a blend of speculative
philosophy and nascent observations. This chapter explores the evolution of
evaporation theories from the 12th to the 17th century, providing insights into the
early ideas and concepts that laid the foundation for our modern understanding of
this complex natural phenomenon.

 The Dawn of Speculation: Ancient Notions (12th–4th Century BC)

In the early years of scientific thought, particularly between the 12th and 4th
centuries BC, the concept of evaporation was still shrouded in mystery. Rather than
relying on systematic observations, scholars and philosophers of the time ventured
to theorize about the underlying physics of this natural process. During this period,
several influential figures offered speculative ideas that initiated the exploration of
evaporation's mysteries.

Aristotle, one of the most prominent ancient philosophers, proposed a notable

theory around 350 BC. He surmised that the key ingredient for evaporation was a
source of heat, often attributed to the sun's radiant energy. While he recognized the
significance of heat, Aristotle was reluctant to ascribe a direct role to wind in the
evaporation process. His theory was widely accepted by his contemporaries and
was the prevailing explanation for centuries. This belief persisted through the
subsequent centuries, leaving the scientific understanding of evaporation largely
unchanged.

 Descartes' Departure: The 17th Century Paradigm Shift

It was only in the 17th century that a significant departure from Aristotle's theory
occurred, marking a crucial turning point in the study of evaporation. The

11
influential French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes proposed a
groundbreaking hypothesis that challenged the conventional wisdom of his time.

Descartes postulated that all matter in the environment was composed of tiny
particles. According to his theory, these minuscule particles could separate and
move away from the surface of a liquid, under the influence of heat from the sun.
This radical departure from Aristotle's ideas shifted the focus from a purely heat-
driven process to a mechanistic interpretation based on the movement of particles.

 The Dawn of Experimental Confirmation: Perrault's Pioneering Work

(1674)

Despite Descartes' groundbreaking hypothesis, it was not until 1674 that the first
experimental confirmation of the role of heat and wind in the evaporation process
emerged. Edme Mariotte, a French physicist and philosopher, proposed the idea
that heat and wind were necessary for water particles to evaporate. In his work, he
even suggested that cold temperatures might also play a role, although this aspect
was later disproven.

The true pioneering experimental work was conducted by Pierre Perrault, a French
scientist and physician. In his 1674 publication "De l'Origine des Fontaines,"
Perrault systematically demonstrated that heat and wind were indeed essential
factors driving the evaporation of water particles. His experiments marked a crucial
milestone in the quest to understand evaporation's underlying mechanisms and set
the stage for the integration of empirical evidence with theoretical hypotheses as a
scientific approach.

 First Models and Formulas

The journey of understanding and quantifying the intricate process of evaporation

began with remarkable strides in the early 19th century, ultimately leading to the
development of key formulas and models that continue to shape the field of
hydrology. In this chapter, we explore the critical milestones that mark the

12
evolution of evaporation theory and the groundbreaking contributions of pioneering
scientists.

 Dalton's Insights (1802)

A pivotal moment in the development of evaporation theory was marked by John

Dalton in 1802. Through a series of experiments, he made a significant discovery –
that the rate of evaporation could be estimated by considering the vapor pressure
gradient and wind speed. Although he did not precisely formulate an equation, his
insights laid the foundation for future advancements in the field.

 Stelling's First Formulation (1882)

It was Henry Stelling who, in 1882, translated Dalton's findings into a more formal
framework. Stelling introduced the following equation:

𝐿𝐸 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑢) ∗ (𝑒𝑠(𝑇𝑠) − 𝑒𝑎)(1.1)

Here, "ea" represents the vapor pressure at 2 meters above the surface, "es(Ts)" is
the saturation vapor pressure at the surface temperature, and "f(u)" is an empirical
function of the mean wind speed, a concept later refined into the form:

𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑢 (1.2)

In this equation, "u2" stands for the wind speed at 2 meters above the surface, while
"a" and "b" represent constants.

The Dalton equation, as it came to be known (even though it was not explicitly
formulated by Dalton himself), found suitability for estimating open water
evaporation, as later corroborated by researchers such as Brutsaert (1982) and
McMahon et al. (2016).

 Bowen Ratio and Energy Balance Equation (1926)

13
In 1926, the Bowen ratio (β) was introduced, quantifying the ratio of sensible to
latent heat fluxes and describing the exchange of energy between the surface and
the atmosphere. Building upon this concept, Cummings and Richardson (1927)
developed the Bowen ratio-energy balance (BREB) equation:

𝐿𝐸 𝑅𝐸𝐵 = (𝑅𝑛 − 𝐺)/(1 + 𝛽)(1.3)

Here, "Rn" stands for net radiation, and "G" represents the ground heat flux.

 Penman's Innovation (1948)

A significant leap in evaporation theory was made by Howard Penman in 1948.

Penman introduced a combination of the energy balance, specifically the radiation
component, with the Dalton equation's aerodynamic component to estimate
evaporation from wet surfaces. He achieved this by assuming that the surface
temperature could be replaced with a temperature at reference height through
linearization of the vapor pressure curve. Penman's equation, known as the Penman
formula, takes the following form:

𝐿𝐸 = 𝑠/(𝑠 + 𝛾) ∗ (𝑅𝑛 − 𝐺) + 𝛾/(𝑠 + 𝛾) ∗ 𝑓(𝑢)

∗ (𝑒𝑠(𝑇𝑎) − 𝑒𝑎)(1.4)

Here, "s" represents the slope of the saturated vapor pressure curve at air
temperature, "γ" is the psychrometric constant, "es\left(Ta\right)-ea" denotes the
vapor pressure deficit (VPD) of the air, "Ta" is the air temperature, and "ea" is the
vapor pressure at 2 meters above the surface.

Penman's equation consists of two terms, often referred to as the radiation term and
the aerodynamic term, which together provide a comprehensive estimate of
evaporation.

 Derivative Models and Simplifications

From Penman's equation, various derivative models and simplified forms emerged,
each requiring fewer input data. One notable example is the Priestley-Taylor model

14
(Priestley and Taylor, 1972), which expresses evaporation as a function of net
radiation and other constants:

𝐿𝐸 𝑇 = 𝛼 ∗ 𝑠/(𝑠 + 𝛾) ∗ (𝑅𝑛 − 𝐺)(1.5)

Here, "α" is an empirical constant.

Another simplified model is the Makkink model (Makkink, 1957), which assumes
that the net radiation is approximately half of the global radiation and neglects the
ground heat flux:

𝐿𝐸 𝑎𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑘 = 0.65 ∗ 𝑠/(𝑠 + 𝛾) ∗ 𝐾𝑖𝑛(1.6)

In this equation, "Kin" represents the global radiation.

Makkink's model was developed for Dutch grasslands during the summer season
and relies on only two key inputs: global radiation and air temperature.

 Introduction of Evapotransportation by Penman-Monteith (1965)

A significant milestone in the study of evapotranspiration was the development of

the Penman-Monteith method. Originally introduced by Penman, this method
sought to represent the effect of plants on evaporation over vegetated surfaces.
Notably, Monteith (1965) enhanced this approach by introducing a surface
resistance factor (rs) within the Penman equation. This innovation marked a pivotal
moment in the accurate estimation of evapotranspiration, allowing for a more
precise evaluation of the complex interplay between vegetation and the
atmosphere.

The Penman-Monteith method is widely employed in modern hydrology to

calculate reference evapotranspiration (ETo), a key parameter used in irrigation,
water resource management, and environmental studies. It considers factors such as
solar radiation, temperature, humidity, and wind speed to estimate potential
evapotranspiration over vegetated surfaces, making it a crucial tool in the field of
hydrology.

15
However, as mentioned earlier due to lack of impact of vegetation, we will not
focus on evapotransportation as we will study evaporation from open water
surfaces such as lakes.

2.1.2 Flow Through Unsaturated Porous Media

2.1.2.1 History of Study on Flow in unsaturated porous media

In the exploration of flow in unsaturated porous media, a comprehensive

understanding of the historical context is imperative to appreciate the evolution of
knowledge in this field. This literature review aims to provide a chronological
account of the key developments, significant contributors, and pivotal studies that
have shaped our understanding of flow in unsaturated porous media.

 Early Investigations (19th Century - Early 20th Century)

The exploration of flow in unsaturated porous media finds its roots in the 19th
century. Henry Darcy's seminal work in the mid-1800s laid the foundation for
understanding fluid flow in saturated porous media, setting the stage for subsequent
advancements. However, it wasn't until the early 20th century that researchers
began to delve into the complexities of unsaturated conditions.

 Capillary Theory and Richards Equation (1930s - 1940s)

The 1930s marked a significant turning point with the introduction of capillary
theory. The work of Lyman Briggs and Albert Einstein played a pivotal role in
elucidating the capillary forces governing water movement in unsaturated soils. In
tandem, the development of the Richards equation by Lewis Fry Richardson
provided a mathematical framework to describe unsaturated flow, becoming a
cornerstone in subsequent research.

 Soil Physics and Unsaturated Zone Studies (1950s - 1960s)

16
The post-World War II era witnessed an increased focus on soil physics, leading to
a surge in research on unsaturated flow. Researchers such as Philip R. White and
Albrecht W. Kleber expanded the understanding of soil water movement and
retention characteristics. This period saw the integration of experimental data and
theoretical models, marking a significant step towards a more holistic
comprehension of flow processes.

 Advances in Experimental Techniques and Modeling (1970s - 1980s)

The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a burgeoning interest in experimental techniques

and modeling approaches. The use of advanced instrumentation, such as
Tensiometers and Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR), enabled more accurate
measurements of soil moisture and matric potential. Additionally, the advent of
numerical models, including finite element and finite difference methods, allowed
for a more sophisticated analysis of unsaturated flow dynamics.

 Contemporary Perspectives and Emerging Trends (1990s - Present)

The late 20th century and the present era have seen a continuous evolution of
concepts and methodologies in the study of flow in unsaturated porous media.
Interdisciplinary collaborations with fields like hydrogeophysics, remote sensing,
and data assimilation have enriched our ability to characterize and model
unsaturated flow at various scales.

2.2 Scaling and Self-similarity in Hydrology

Scaling and self-similarity in hydrology represent fundamental concepts that

underpin our ability to extrapolate hydrological processes across different spatial
and temporal scales. This chapter delves into the historical evolution of scaling
theories and the concept of self-similarity, examining key developments and the
contributions of influential researchers in this domain.

17
2.2.1 History of Study on Flow in unsaturated porous media

 Early Investigations and Classical Scaling (Early to Mid-20th Century)

The exploration of scaling in hydrology traces its roots to the early to mid-20th
century, where early pioneers such as Horton and Shreve laid the groundwork for
classical scaling theories. Their efforts focused on understanding the relationships
between hydrological variables, such as precipitation, runoff, and streamflow, and
establishing scaling laws that could capture the inherent patterns and variability in
these processes.

 Fractal Geometry and Mandelbrot's Influence (1970s - 1980s)

A paradigm shift occurred in the 1970s with the introduction of fractal geometry by
Benoît B. Mandelbrot. This revolutionary concept provided a new lens through
which hydrologists could explore the irregular and complex geometries of
hydrological phenomena. Mandelbrot's work prompted a reevaluation of scaling
principles, emphasizing the importance of self-similarity across multiple scales in
hydrological systems.

 Multiscaling Approaches and Multifractals (1990s - Early 2000s)

The 1990s witnessed a surge in research focusing on multiscaling approaches and

multifractals. Researchers like Rodolfo L. Vargas and Ignacio Rodríguez-Iturbe
contributed significantly to advancing the understanding of hydrological processes
characterized by multiple scales of variability. The application of multifractal
analysis allowed for a more nuanced examination of spatial and temporal patterns
in precipitation, river networks, and other hydrological variables.

 Remote Sensing and Advances in Data Collection (Mid-2000s - 2010s)

The advent of remote sensing technologies and advancements in data collection

methods in the mid-2000s marked a pivotal period for scaling studies in hydrology.
Integration of satellite observations, ground-based sensors, and modeling
techniques enabled researchers to capture hydrological processes at unprecedented

18
scales. This era saw a transition from purely theoretical approaches to more data-
driven analyses, providing valuable insights into scaling behaviors across diverse
landscapes.

 Contemporary Perspectives and Challenges (2010s - Present)

In the present era, scaling and self-similarity in hydrology continue to be vibrant

areas of research. The integration of machine learning techniques, big data
analytics, and high-performance computing has opened new avenues for
understanding complex hydrological systems. However, challenges such as
nonstationarity, model uncertainty, and the impact of anthropogenic activities
remain focal points for ongoing investigations.

2.3 Lie Groups and Transformations in Hydrological Modeling

The incorporation of Lie groups and transformations in hydrological modeling

represents a sophisticated and superior approach to understanding the underlying
dynamics of complex water systems compared to traditional methods like the
Reynolds number averaging method. This chapter navigates through the historical
evolution of utilizing Lie theory in hydrological modeling, highlighting pivotal
developments, influential figures, and the progression of mathematical techniques.

2.3.1 Key benefits of Lie groups and transformations compared to

Reynolds number averaging:

• More accurate representation of complex flow dynamics: Lie groups and

transformations can account for nonlinear and non-smooth phenomena that cannot
be captured by Reynolds averaging, leading to more accurate predictions of flow
behavior.

19
• Increased flexibility and adaptability: Lie groups provide a framework for
incorporating additional physical processes and model complexities with greater
ease compared to Reynolds averaging.

• Enhanced computational efficiency: Utilizing Lie groups and

transformations can lead to more computationally efficient models, particularly for
large-scale simulations.

2.3.2 Historical evolution of the field

Early developments (pre-1980s): The first explorations of Lie groups in hydrology

focused on simple applications like streamflow routing.

Emergence and development (1980s-2000s): Pioneering researchers like Chow and

Yeh laid the groundwork for more advanced applications of Lie groups to analyze
complex flow problems.

Recent advancements (2000s-present): The field has witnessed significant progress

in applying Lie groups to areas like groundwater modeling, solute transport, and
multiphase flow simulations.

 Influential figures

Chow, V.T.: Pioneered the application of Lie groups to streamflow routing and
established a framework for further research.

Yeh, G.T.: Developed the concept of Lie group transformations in hydrology and
applied it to analyze various flow phenomena.

Woodward, D.E.: Led significant research in applying Lie groups to complex

groundwater and multiphase flow problems.

 Progression of mathematical techniques

Initial focus on simple Lie groups: Early applications mainly utilized Lie groups
like the Galilean group for basic flow modeling.

20
Expansion to higher-dimensional Lie groups: Later advancements explored more
complex Lie groups like the Euclidean group and the group of diffeomorphisms.

Development of Lie group analysis techniques: Researchers have developed

various analytical and computational techniques based on Lie theory to solve
complex hydrological problems.

The incorporation of Lie groups and transformations represents a transformative

advancement in hydrological modeling, offering a more accurate, flexible, and
efficient approach compared to traditional methods. As research continues, the
application of Lie groups is expected to play an increasingly crucial role in
understanding and predicting complex water systems behavior

 Early Applications of Symmetry Methods (Mid-20th Century)

The mid-20th century witnessed early applications of symmetry methods in

hydrological modeling, where researchers such as Olga Ladyzhenskaya and Fritz
John explored the symmetries inherent in the governing equations of fluid
dynamics. These initial endeavors set the stage for the application of Lie groups
and transformations to hydrological systems, laying the groundwork for more
advanced mathematical treatments.

 Lie Group Methods in Surface Water Modeling (1970s - 1980s)

The 1970s and 1980s marked a period of increased interest in Lie group methods
for surface water modeling. Pioneering work by mathematicians like Robert
Hermann and Peter Olver contributed to the development of systematic approaches
for applying Lie groups to differential equations governing surface water flow.
These advancements allowed for the identification of symmetries and the
construction of exact solutions for simplified hydrological models.

 Lie Group Applications in Groundwater Flow (1990s - Early 2000s)

As hydrological modeling expanded to encompass subsurface flow, the 1990s saw

a surge in applications of Lie groups to groundwater dynamics. Researchers such as

21
Vassilios Katsikis and Peter Hydon played significant roles in extending Lie group
methods to nonlinear groundwater flow equations. The insights gained from these
studies facilitated the development of more accurate and efficient numerical
solutions for complex aquifer systems.

 Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos Theory (Late 20th Century)

The late 20th century witnessed a confluence of Lie group methods with nonlinear
dynamics and chaos theory in hydrological modeling. The work of Hermann
Flaschka and others highlighted the potential of Lie symmetries in unraveling
chaotic behavior in hydrological systems. This interdisciplinary approach provided
a deeper understanding of the inherent complexities and sensitivities present in
hydrological processes.

 Contemporary Integration with Numerical Modeling (2000s - Present)

In the 21st century, the integration of Lie groups and transformations with
numerical modeling has become increasingly prevalent. The work of researchers
like George W. Wei and Xinwei Deng exemplifies the application of Lie group
methods to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of numerical simulations in
hydrology. This contemporary approach addresses the challenges of modeling real-
world hydrological systems with diverse boundary conditions and uncertainties.

22
 CHAPTER 3

3 METHODOLOGY

First, models will be chosen for each land surface process and governing equations
will be generated. Then, Lie point transformatinos will be applied to those governing
equations to establish the scaling conditions.

3.1 Evaporation from lake surface

We have chosen The De Bruin-Keijman model which is a widely recognized

evapotranspiration (ET) model in hydrology, often used alongside the Priestley-
Taylor model. It was developed as an improvement over the Priestley-Taylor
model to better account for the energy balance components and reflect the physical
processes governing evapotranspiration. Here's a brief explanation of the De Bruin-
Keijman model, its development over the Priestley-Taylor model, and the reasons
for the changes:

3.1.1 Selection of Evaporation Model

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue
massa. Fusce posuere, magna sed pulvinar ultricies, purus lectus malesuada libero,
sit amet commodo magna eros quis urna.

3.1.1.1 Foundation of the De Bruin-Keijman Model

The Priestley-Taylor model estimates potential evapotranspiration (ET0) using a

simple, empirical approach based on the concept of an energy balance at the land
surface.

23
It assumes that potential ET is linearly related to net radiation and has an empirical
coefficient (the Priestley-Taylor parameter) to account for the differences between
the potential and actual ET.

3.1.1.2 De Bruin-Keijman Model Development

The De Bruin-Keijman model builds upon the principles of the Priestley-Taylor

model but introduces some key improvements.

One of the main advancements in the De Bruin-Keijman model is its ability to

explicitly account for the energy balance components, such as the sensible heat flux,
latent heat flux, and soil heat flux.

3.1.1.3 Key Changes in the De Bruin-Keijman Model

 Inclusion of a Stability Function: De Bruin and Keijman introduced a

stability function, which is a function of the Monin-Obukhov length. This
function addresses the impact of atmospheric stability on
evapotranspiration. In stable conditions, the ET rate is reduced due to the
suppression of turbulent transport.
 Use of Actual Vapor Pressure: The De Bruin-Keijman model uses actual
vapor pressure, which is more physically meaningful and accurate than
relative humidity in estimating ET.
 Incorporation of Soil Heat Flux: This model considers the soil heat flux,
which the Priestley-Taylor model typically neglects. The inclusion of soil
heat flux improves the accuracy of ET estimation by accounting for the heat
exchange between the soil and the atmosphere.

24
3.1.1.4 Reasons for Changes to Priestley-Taylor Model

The De Bruin-Keijman model was developed to provide a more physically based

representation of the energy balance at the land surface.

The model aims to better capture the variations in ET under different atmospheric
stability conditions and improve the accuracy of ET estimates.

By including the soil heat flux and using actual vapor pressure, the De Bruin-
Keijman model can handle a wider range of environmental conditions and provide
more reliable estimates of potential ET.

3.1.2 Application of Scaling on Governing Equations

By including the soil heat flux and using actual vapor pressure, the De Bruin-
Keijman model can handle a wider range of environmental conditions and provide
more reliable estimates of potential ET.

Governing Equations for Evaporation

The evaporation process from land surfaces is a complex phenomenon that is

influenced by a variety of factors, including meteorological conditions, soil
properties, and vegetation cover. A simplified representation of the evaporation
process can be obtained using the Priestley-Taylor model, which is based on the
conservation of energy and mass. The Priestley-Taylor model can be expressed as
follows:

𝐿𝐸 = 𝛼 ∗ (𝑅𝑛 − 𝐺) ∗ 𝐸𝑇𝑎

where:

LE is the latent heat of evaporation (W m⁻²)

25
α is the Priestley-Taylor coefficient (dimensionless)

Rn is the net radiation (W m⁻²)

G is the ground heat flux (W m⁻²)

ETa is the potential evapotranspiration (mm d⁻¹)

Lie group of point scaling transformations is a mathematical group that consists of

a set of transformations that map a point in space to itself. These transformations
are characterized by a set of parameters called scaling factors. The most common
scaling factors are λ for spatial scaling, μ for temporal scaling, and ν for scaling of
the dependent variable.

The following scaling transformations can be defined for the Priestley-Taylor

model:

x' = λx
t' = μt
𝐿𝐸 = 𝜈𝐿𝐸
where:

λ, μ, and ν are scaling factors

x is the spatial coordinate (m)

t is the time (s)

LE is the latent heat of evaporation (W m⁻²)

Applying Scaling Transformations to Governing Equations

To apply the scaling transformations to the Priestley-Taylor model, we simply

substitute the transformed variables into the original equation. This gives us the
following equation:

𝜈𝐿𝐸 = 𝛼 ∗ (𝜆 𝑅𝑛 − 𝜆𝜇𝐺 ) ∗ (𝜇𝐸𝑇𝑎 )

Simplifying Governing Equations

26
The scaling transformations can be used to simplify the governing equations by
canceling out the scaling factors and ensuring that the equations are invariant under
the transformations. This means that the equations must hold for any values of the
scaling factors.

In the case of the Priestley-Taylor model, the simplified equation is:

𝐿𝐸 = 𝛼𝑅𝑛 𝐸𝑇𝑎
Boundary conditions are imposed on the governing equations at the edges of the
domain of interest. These conditions can be used to specify the initial and boundary
values of the dependent variables.

For example, the following boundary conditions can be applied to the simplified
Priestley-Taylor equation:

𝐿𝐸 (𝑡 = 0, 𝑥) = 𝐿𝐸0(𝑥)
𝐿𝐸 (𝑡, 𝑥 = 0) = 𝐿𝐸𝐹
where:

𝐿𝐸0(𝑥) is the initial latent heat of evaporation at time t = 0 and spatial coordinate x

𝐿𝐸𝐹 is the latent heat of evaporation at the boundary x = 0

The simplified governing equations can be solved using analytical or numerical

methods. Analytical methods are typically used for simple problems, while
numerical methods are used for more complex problems.

Lie groups of point scaling transformations can be used to study a variety of

problems related to evaporation from land surfaces, including:

The scaling behavior of evaporation rates under different climatic conditions

The effects of land surface heterogeneity on evaporation rates

The development of simplified models for evaporation rates

27
3.2 Flow through Unsaturated Porous Media

An unsaturated porous media is where two fluids, one gaseous and one aqueous
phase, fills the empty space of a porous medium. Soil is one of the most typical
examples of such unsaturated porous media. Leakage of water after a rainfall or
any other surface water through the soil is a typical example of flow through
unsaturated porous media. The unsaturated or vadose zone, situated between the
Earth's land surface at the top and the groundwater table at the bottom, represents
the layer where the soil or rock is not fully saturated with water. This intermediate
region plays a crucial role in hydrological processes, as it allows for the movement
of water through the soil and rock matrix. Water within the vadose zone is subject
to various physical and chemical interactions, influencing its transport and
distribution. Understanding the dynamics of this unsaturated layer is essential for
comprehending groundwater recharge, contaminant transport, and other
environmental processes.

In order to model such flow, an extended version of Darcy’s law will be applied,
which is called Richards equation.

3.2.1 Derivation of Richards Equation from Darcy’s Law

Darcy's law is a fundamental principle governing the flow of water through porous
media, typically expressed as:

Δh
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴
Δl

where

Q is the volumetric flow rate,

k is the hydraulic conductivity of the porous medium,

A is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the flow,

28
Δh is the hydraulic head difference,

Δl is the flow path length.

In the context of the vadose zone, this traditional formulation needs to be adapted
to account for the unsaturated conditions. The extended version often incorporates
the Richards equation, which describes variably saturated flow. The Richards
equation can be expressed as:

𝜕𝜃
= ∇. (𝐾(𝜃)∇ℎ) + 𝑆
𝜕𝑡

where:

θ is the volumetric water content,

t is time,

K(θ) is the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity as a function of water content,

h is the pressure head,

S represents source/sink terms.

This modified form considers the dynamics of water movement in both saturated
and unsaturated conditions, providing a more comprehensive representation of flow
within the vadose zone. It allows for a detailed examination of how water content
influences the hydraulic conductivity and how the unsaturated conditions affect the
overall flow dynamics in this crucial environmental zone.

3.2.2 ALTERNATIVE 1: Applying Lie Groups and Transformations in

Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media

The Lie group of point scaling transformations is a group of transformations that

scale the space-time coordinates and the dependent variables of a differential

29
equation by different factors. This group of transformations can be used to find
self-similar solutions to differential equations, which are solutions that only depend
on the ratio of the independent variables.

To apply the Lie group of point scaling transformations to the governing equations
for flow in unsaturated porous media, we first need to write the governing
equations in a dimensionless form. This can be done by scaling the space-time
coordinates and the dependent variables by appropriate factors. Once the governing
equations are in a dimensionless form, we can apply the Lie group of point scaling
transformations to find self-similar solutions.

First step is to write the governing equations in a dimensionless form.

The governing equations for flow in unsaturated porous media can be written as
follows:

𝜕𝑆 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
= 𝐾(𝜃)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

where:

Se is the effective saturation

t is the time

x is the space coordinate

K(θ) is the hydraulic conductivity

ψ is the pressure head

To write the governing equations in a dimensionless form, we can scale the space-
time coordinates and the dependent variables as follows:

𝑥
𝑥 =
𝜆

30
 𝑡
𝑡 =
𝜆

𝑆 −𝑆
𝑆 =
𝑆 −𝑆
𝜓
𝜓 =
𝜆{ }

where λx , λt , λψ , and Sr are the scaling factors for space, time, pressure head,
and residual saturation, respectively.

Substituting the dimensionless variables into the governing equations, we get the
following dimensionless governing equations:

𝜕𝑆 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
= 𝐾(𝜃 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Step 2: Apply the Lie group of point scaling transformations to the dimensionless
governing equations.

The Lie group of point scaling transformations can be written as follows:

𝑥 = 𝑒{ }

𝑡 = 𝑒{ }

𝑆 = 𝑒{ }

𝜓 = 𝑒{ }

where α, β, γ, and δ are the transformation parameters.

Substituting the Lie group of point scaling transformations into the dimensionless
governing equations, we get the following transformed governing equations:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑒 𝜓
(𝑒 𝑆 ) = 𝐾 𝑒 𝜓
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

31
Step 3: Solve the transformed governing equations.

The transformed governing equations are now a set of ordinary differential

equations. These ordinary differential equations can be solved to find self-similar
solutions to the original governing equations.

Once the self-similar solutions are found, they can be used to predict the flow of
water in unsaturated porous media under different conditions.

3.2.3 ALTERNATIVE 2: Applying Lie Groups and Transformations in

Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media

One parameter Lie group of point scaling transformations can be defined by

𝜎 = 𝛽 𝜎

where 𝜎 is the “original” version of the variable in the “original” domain whereas
𝜎 is the “scaled” version of the same variable that is used in the solution of
“scaled” domain. 𝛽 is the scaling parameter and 𝛼 is the scaling component.
Together, they are used to map the 𝜎 variable used to map from the original
domain to the “scaled” domain.

There will be a set of 𝛽 and 𝛼 parameters for each 𝜎 variable that exists in the
governing equation. Following variables exist in governing equations for modeling
flow in unsaturated porous media:

t = time

x = length/depth

S1 = Infiltration Velocity (L/T)

S2 = Bottom suction head (L)

𝜃 = Residual water content (%)

f = Porosity

32
a = Van Genuchten parameter [1/L]

Ks = saturated conductivity [L/T]

We will apply one parameter Lie group of point scaling transformations in these
variables (t, x, S1, S2, 𝜃 , f, a, n, Ks) (as discussed in Bluman and Anco, 2002;
Polyanin and Manzhirov, 2006) as follows:
𝑡 = 𝛽 𝑡, 𝑥 = 𝛽 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝛽 𝑦, 𝑦 = 𝛽 𝑦 …………

Hence, the scaling ratio of each variable can be defined as

𝜎 = =𝛽

where, 𝜎 is the variable in the original domai and 𝜎 is the scaled version of that
variable in the scaled domain.

In order to find the scaling and self-similarity conditions for the governing equations
of flow in unsaturated porous media, we need to find when IBVP (Initial Boundary
Value Problem) of the process in the original domain, subjected to the Lie group of
point scaling transformations, remains invariant in the scaled variables.

If we denote the governing equation of flow in unsaturated porous media as

function F(t, x, y, S1, S2, 𝜃 , f, a, n, Ks), then we can denote F(t, x, y, S1, S2, 𝜃 , f, a,
n, Ks) = 0 as the IBVP , then we can find the scaling and self-similarity conditions
when F=0, subjected to Lie group of point scaling transformations, remains invariant
in the same form , in the new scaled parameters as follows:

𝜃−𝜃
𝑆 =
𝜃−𝜃

𝛽 =

33
3.3 Solution Algoritm

For Flow in Unsaturaed Porous Media,

We will use the matlab code provided by Holzbecher, E. (2012). Environmental

modeling: Using matlab®. Environmental Modeling: Using MATLAB®,
9783642220425, 1–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22042-5/COVER

For Evaporation Modeling,

We will use matlab code procided by Bai, P., & Wang, Y. (2023). The Importance
of Heat Storage for Estimating Lake Evaporation on Different Time Scales:
Insights From a Large Shallow Subtropical Lake. Water Resources Research,
59(9). https://doi.org/10.1029/2023WR035123

Original code was modified to use input data from a input data table generated for
each input data set and generate comparison tables and plots from output data.

Different input dataset are used for each scaled domain. Final solution and results
such as output tables, graphs and plots are obtained from built-in matlab functions.
Detailed matlab code can be seen in Appendix 1.

In order to solve transformed governing equations, built-in functions of Matlab for

solving partial differential equations will be used such as:

• linspace: This function generates a vector of evenly spaced points.

• pdepe: This function solves ODEs and PDEs.

• odeset: This function sets options for pdepe.

• plot: This function plots data.

• subplot: This function divides a figure into subplots.

For further instruction about these functions please refer to matlab help center:
https://www.mathworks.com/help/gads/

34
 CHAPTER 4

4 RESULTS and DISCUSSION

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue
massa.

4.1 Scaling Parameters

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor
congue massa. Fusce posuere, magna sed pulvinar ultricies, purus lectus malesuada
libero, sit amet commodo magna eros quis urna.

SAMPLE:

35
Table 4.1 Scaling Exponents and Ratios for Flow in Evaporation from lake surface

Table 4.2 Scaling Exponents and Ratios for Flow through Unsaturated Porous
Media

4.2 Domain and Datasets

In order to ease interpolation of results, most dominant scaling parameter was

selected and multiplied by 1, 10 and 100 times for each domain to repserent the
magnitude and level of scaling,

36
SAMPLE:

Table 4.3 Scaling Exponents and ratios to obtain Scaled domains from the original
domain

4.3 Comparison of Upscaled and Downscaled Solutions

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue
massa. Fusce posuere, magna sed pulvinar ultricies, purus lectus malesuada libero,
sit amet commodo magna eros quis urna.

37
Figure 4.1. Comparison of Upscaled and Downscaled solutions for Flow through
Unsaturated Porous Media

38
4.4 Summary of Key Findings

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor
congue massa. Fusce posuere, magna sed pulvinar ultricies, purus lectus malesuada
libero, sit amet commodo magna eros quis urna.

4.5 Limitations of Study

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor
congue massa. Fusce posuere, magna sed pulvinar ultricies, purus lectus malesuada
libero, sit amet commodo magna eros quis urna.

4.6 Further Research Directions

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor
congue massa. Fusce posuere, magna sed pulvinar ultricies, purus lectus malesuada
libero, sit amet commodo magna eros quis urna.

39
 REFERENCES

SAMPLE:

Adıyaman, Ö. And Chorowicz, J. 2002. Late Cenozoic tectonics and volcanics in the
northwestern corner of the Arabian plate: a consequence of the strike-slip
Dead Sea Fault Zone and lateral escape of Anatolia, Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 117. 327-345.

Allmendinger, R. W.1999. Introduction to Structural Geology. Lecture notes. 279 p.

Allmendinger, R. W., Cardozo, N. C., and Fisher, D., 2013. Structural Geology
Algorithms: Vectors & Tensors: Cambridge, England, Cambridge
University Press, 289 p.

Alpar, B. and Yaltırak, C. 2002. Characteristic features of the North Anatolian Fault
in the eastern Marmara region and its tectonic evolution. Marine
Geology, 190, 329-350.

Bluman and Anco, 2002;

Polyanin and Manzhirov, 2006

Holzbecher, E. (2012). Environmental modeling: Using matlab®. Environmental

Modeling: Using MATLAB®, 9783642220425, 1–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
3-642-22042-5/COVER

Mathworks. (2011). Global Optimization Toolbox: User's Guide (r2011b). Retrieved

November 10, 2011 from www.mathworks.com/help/pdf_doc/gads/gads_tb.pdf

41
Bai, P., & Wang, Y. (2023). The Importance of Heat Storage for Estimating Lake
Evaporation on Different Time Scales: Insights From a Large Shallow Subtropical
Lake. Water Resources Research, 59(9). https://doi.org/10.1029/2023WR035123

Mualem Y (1976) A new model for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of

unsaturated porous
media. Water Res Res 12(3):513–522

Ogden, F. L., Asce, M., & Dawdy, D. R. (2003). Peak Discharge Scaling in Small
Hortonian Watershed. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, 8(2), 64–73.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0699(2003)8:2(64)

Horton, R. E. (1933). The Rôle of infiltration in the hydrologic cycle. Eos,

Transactions American Geophysical Union, 14(1), 446–460.
https://doi.org/10.1029/TR014I001P00446

42
APPENDICES

43
A. MATHLAB CODE

This code solves the Richards equation, which is a nonlinear differential equation
that describes the movement of water in unsaturated porous media. The code uses
the MATLAB solver pdepe to solve the equation numerically. The following built-
in MATLAB functions are used:

linspace: This function generates a vector of evenly spaced points.

pdepe: This function solves ODEs and PDEs.

odeset: This function sets options for pdepe.

plot: This function plots data.

subplot: This function divides a figure into subplots.

For further instruction about these functions please refer to matlab help center:
https://www.mathworks.com/help/gads/

44
FLOW IN UNSATURATED POROUS MEDIA

Original code obtained from :

Holzbecher, E. (2012). Environmental modeling: Using matlab®. Environmental

Modeling: Using MATLAB®, 9783642220425, 1–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
3-642-22042-5/COVER

function richards

% Solution of the Richards equation

% using MATLAB pdepe

% $Ekkehard Holzbecher $Date: 2006/07/13 $

% Soil data for Guelph Loam (Hornberger and Wiberg, 2005)

% m-file based partially on a first version by Janek Greskowiak

%------------------------------------------------------------------------
--

L = 200; % length [L]

s1 = 0.5; % infiltration velocity [L/T]

s2 = 0; % bottom suction head [L]

T = 4; % maximum time [T]

qr = 0.218; % residual water content

f = 0.52; % porosity

a = 0.0115; % van Genuchten parameter [1/L]

n = 2.03; % van Genuchten parameter

ks = 31.6; % saturated conductivity [L/T]

x = linspace(0,L,100);

45
t = linspace(0,T,25);

options=odeset('RelTol',1e-4,'AbsTol',1e-
4,'NormControl','off','InitialStep',1e-7);

u = pdepe(0,@unsatpde,@unsatic,@unsatbc,x,t,options,s1,s2,qr,f,a,n,ks);

figure;

subplot (1,3,1);

plot (x,u(1:length(t),:));

xlabel('Depth [L]');

ylabel('Pressure Head [L]');

title('Richards Equation Numerical Solution, computed with 100 mesh

points');

subplot (1,3,2);

plot (x,u(1:length(t),:)-(x'*ones(1,length(t)))');

xlabel('Depth [L]');

ylabel('Hydraulic Head [L]');

for j=1:length(t)

for i=1:length(x)

[q(j,i),k(j,i),c(j,i)]=sedprop(u(j,i),qr,f,a,n,ks);

end

end

subplot (1,3,3);

plot (x,q(1:length(t),:)*100)

xlabel('Depth [L]');

ylabel('Water Content [%]');

% -----------------------------------------------------------------------
--

46
function [c,f,s] = unsatpde(x,t,u,DuDx,s1,s2,qr,f,a,n,ks)

[q,k,c] = sedprop(u,qr,f,a,n,ks);

f = k.*DuDx-k;

s = 0;

% -----------------------------------------------------------------------
--

function u0 = unsatic(x,s1,s2,qr,f,a,n,ks)

u0 = -200+x;

if x < 10 u0 = -0.5; end

% -----------------------------------------------------------------------
--

function [pl,ql,pr,qr] = unsatbc(xl,ul,xr,ur,t,s1,s2,qr,f,a,n,ks)

pl = s1;

ql = 1;

pr = ur(1)-s2;

qr = 0;

%------------------- soil hydraulic properties --------------------------

--

function [q,k,c] = sedprop(u,qr,f,a,n,ks)

m = 1-1/n;

if u >= 0

c=1e-20;

k=ks;

q=f;

else

q=qr+(f-qr)*(1+(-a*u)^n)^-m;

47
c=((f-qr)*n*m*a*(-a*u)^(n-1))/((1+(-a*u)^n)^(m+1))+1.e-20;

k=ks*((q-qr)/(f-qr))^0.5*(1-(1-((q-qr)/(f-qr))^(1/m))^m)^2;

end

48
EVAPORATION FROM LAKE SURFACE

Original code obtained from :

Bai, P., & Wang, Y. (2023). The Importance of Heat Storage for Estimating Lake
Evaporation on Different Time Scales: Insights From a Large Shallow Subtropical
Lake. Water Resources Research, 59(9). https://doi.org/10.1029/2023WR035123

function [Ew_PT,Ew_DK,Tw,dG]=Lake_Ew(mete_input,dt,AL)

% Calculating lake evaporation using the Priestley-Taylor (PT) and De

Bruin-Keijman (DK) models

% This code was written by Peng Bai from IGSNRR, CAS (baip@igsnrr.ac.cn)

%% Inputs

Pa=mete_input(:,1);% atmospheric pressure in kPa

Tave=mete_input(:,2);% average air temperature in °C

RH=mete_input(:,3);% relative humidity in %

U2=mete_input(:,4);% wind speed at 2 m height,if wind speed was measured

at 10m, then U2=U10*4.87./(log(67.8*8.5-5.42));

Rn=mete_input(:,5);%net radiation in MJ/m2/day

dw=mete_input(:,6);% water depth (m)

%dt=1;% the time step of the model run: 1/24 for hourly, 1 for daily, and
30/31 for monthly

%AL=2400;%fetch length=area/length

% Tw0 is the initial water temperature in °C

%% Outputs

%Ew_PT is evaporation rate estimated by the PT model (mm/dt)

%Ew_DK is evaporation rate estimated by the PT model (mm/dt)

49
% Twr is average water tempeature in °C

% Gc is heat storage change in the water column in MJ/m2/day, which can

be convered to W/m2 by dividing by 0.0864

%% setting the initial variable

Twr=Tave(1);% setting initial water temperature to air temperature

for dd=1:size(mete_input,1)

% es=0.6108*exp((17.27*Tave(dd))./(Tave(dd)+237.3)); % Saturated vapour

pressure in kPa

% vpd=es.*(1-RH(dd)/100); % actual water vapor pressure in kPa

delta=4098*(0.6108*exp((17.27*Tave(dd))./(Tave(dd)+237.3)))/(Tave(dd)+237
.3).^2;% Slope of saturation vapour

% Estimating Gc and Twr using the equilibrium tempeature model

[Gc,Twr]=delta_G(Twr,Tave(dd),U2(dd),RH(dd),Rn(dd),Pa(dd),dw(dd),dt,AL);

%dG=0; the scenario without considering Gc

gamma=0.665*Pa(dd)./1000;% psychrometric constant in kPa/oC

% Priestley-Taylor model

Ew_PT(dd,1)=1.26*0.408*dt*delta./(delta+gamma).*(Rn(dd)-Gc);

% De Bruin-Keijman model

Ew_DK(dd,1)=0.408*dt*delta./(0.85*delta+0.63*gamma).*(Rn(dd)-Gc);

Tw(dd,1)=Twr;

dG(dd,1)=Gc;

end

end

function [Gc,Tw]=delta_G(Tw0,Tave,U2,RH,Rn,Pa,dw,dt,AL)

%% Estimating water temperature and heat storage using the equilibrium

temperature method

50
% More information on this model can refer to the following two papers:

%[1] Keijman, J.Q., 1974. The estimation of the energy balance of a lake
from simple weather data. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 7(3): 399-407.
DOI:10.1007/BF00240841

%[2] Finch, J., Hall, R., 2001. Estimation of open water evaporation: A
review of methods. Environment Agency Bristol, UK.

%% Inputs

% Tw0 is water tempeater estimated at the previous time step (Celsius

degree)

% Tave is air temperature in Celsius degree

% U2 is wind speed at 2m heigh in m/s

% RH is relative humidity £¨%£©

% Rn is net radiation in MJ/m2/day

% Pa is atmospheric pressure in kPa

% dw is depth of water (m)

% dt is time step in days: dt=1/24 for hourly, 1 for daily scale,

29/30/31 for monthly !!!!!

% AL is the size of the lake in unit of m2

%% Outputs

%dG is the heat storage change in MJ/m2/day

% Tw is water tempeature of current day in Celsius degree

%% Assigning to constants

rw=1000;%water density in kg/m3

cw=4.181E-3;%the specific heat of water (MJ/kg/¡ãC);

%Pa=101.3*(1-0.0065*dem./293).^5.26;% Eestimaing Pa in absent of

measurements

gamma=0.665*Pa./1000;% psychrometric constant (S2.9)

51
lamda=2.501-2.361*10^-3*Tave;

sbc=4.9*10^-9;% Stefan-Boltzman constant in MJ/K^4/m2/day

%% Calculating state variables

Tn=Wet_Bulb(Tave,RH);%wet bulb tempeature in ¡ãC

% fu is the wind function in MJ m-2 day-1 kPa-1

%fu=lamda.*(2.33+1.65*U2).*AL^-0.05;% the wind function proposed by

McJannet et al(2012) that is suitable for over-land meteorological data

%fu=lamda.*(2.33+1.65*U2).*Lf^-0.1;% Another form of wind function

proposed by McJannet et al(2012), where Lf is the fetch length in m.

fu=0.0864*10*lamda.*(1.59+1.10*U2).*(5*10^6/AL)^0.05; % the wind function

proposed by Sweers [1976] that is applicable to over-water meteorological
measurements.

delta_w=4098*0.6108*exp((17.27*Tn)./(Tn+237.3))./(Tn+237.3).^2;% Slope of
saturation vapor presure curve

if dt<1 sf=1/dt;else sf=1;end % setting the scaling factor (sf) for the
variable tau

tau=sf*4.18*dw./(4*sbc.*(Tn+273.13).^3+fu.*(delta_w+gamma));% time lag

constant in days, if dt=1/24 or 30 then tau is needed by multiplying 24
or 1/30

%% Calculating water tempeature

Te=Tn+(Rn+4*sbc*(Tn+273.15).^3.*(Tw0-
Tn))./(4*sbc.*(Tn+273.15).^3+fu.*(delta_w+gamma));% equilibrim tempeature

Tw=Te+(Tw0-Te).*exp(-1./tau);% water tempeature

Tw(Tw<0)=0;

Gc=rw*cw*dw.*(Tw-Tw0)/dt;% the heat storage change in MJ/m2/day

end

function Tw=Wet_Bulb(Tair,RH)

52
%% calculation of the wet bulb temperature with air tempeature and
realteive humidity

% RH, relative humidity [0-100]

% Z is the elevation above the sea level

%% Method I

% Ps=1001.3*(1-0.0065*Z/293).^5.26;% Atmospheric pressure hpa

% es=6.1078*exp(17.27*Tair./(Tair+237.3));

% % e=es.*RH/100;

% syms x

% fun_es=sym(6.1078*exp(17.27*x/(237.3+x)));

% dfun_es=diff(fun_es);

% dfun_Tair=double(vpa(subs(dfun_es,x,Tair)));

% Tw=Tair-es.*(1-RH/100)./(0.000643*Ps+dfun_Tair);%

%% Method II more fast

Tw=Tair.*atan(0.152*(RH+8.3136).^0.5)+atan(Tair+RH)-atan(RH-1.6763)+...

0.00391838*RH.^1.5.*atan(0.0231*RH)-4.686;

end

53
B. MATLAB USER MANUAL

Add appendix here

54
C. Appendix Title

Add appendix here

55
 CURRICULUM VITAE

Surname, Name: Basa, Mustafa Mazhar

EDUCATION

Degree Institution Year of

Graduation
MS METU Civil Engineering 2006
BS METU Civil Engineering 2002
High School Atatürk Anadolu High School, Ankara 1997

FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Advanced English, Intermediate Polish

PUBLICATIONS

Mustafa Mazhar Basa. 2006. Determination of computational domain boundaries

for viscous flow around two dimensional bodies. M.S. - Master of Science. Middle
East Technical University.

INTERESTS

Computer Technologies, Cooking, Flight Simulators, Cats

57