2/11/24, 10:54 AM What are learning theories and why are they important for learning design?

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Home > Learning theories > What are learning theories and why are they important for
learning design?

What are
learning
theories and
why are they
important
for learning 11 minute read
design? This is the first in a series of posts
looking at learning theories and how
they can inform the design of
blended and online learning in
Higher Education.

This opening post begins with some definitions

of ‘learning’ and ‘learning theories’. I then
highlight nine major learning theories. In
subsequent posts, I will provide concise
summaries and analyses of each theory.
Following this, I present a table which compares
the pedagogic properties of these theories. Next, I
look at how learning theories can inform learning
design and teaching practice. After that, I discuss
how we can assess how useful a learning theory
might be to inform our teaching practice. Finally,
I consider if we need learning theories which
specifically address digital technologies and
online learning.

Some definitions of learning

There is no one definition of learning that is
universally accepted by theorists, researchers
and educators (Schunk, 2020). I find the following
definitions most useful.
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Ambrose et al. (2010) adapt Mayer (2002) to define

learning as “a process that leads to change, which
occurs as a result of experience and increases the
potential for improved performance and future
learning”. For Brown et al. (2014), learning means
“acquiring knowledge and skills and having them
readily available from memory so you can make
sense of future problems and opportunities.”
Sweller et al. (2011) write that “If nothing has
changed in long-term memory, nothing has been
learned.”

Schunk (2020) writes that “learning is an

enduring change in behaviour, or in the capacity
to behave in a given fashion, which results from
practice or other forms of experience”. He also
adds that learning “involves acquiring and
modifying knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs,
attitudes and behaviours” and that “people learn
cognitive, behavioural, linguistic, motor, and
social skills”.

Lefrançois (2019) states that learning is “is an

invisible, internal neurological process”. His view
is that learning involves relatively permanent
changes in disposition (the inclination to
perform) and capability (knowledge or skills
required to do something) as a result of
experience. It is not always possible to directly
observe changes in disposition and capability.
Therefore to assess whether learning has
occurred, some type of performance is required.

What are learning theories?

Harasim (2017), states that “a theory is an
explanation for why something occurs or how it
occurs”. She defines a learning theory as a theory
which aims “to help us to understand both how
knowledge is created and how people learn”
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knowledge is created and how people learn .
Lefrançois (2019) writes that a learning theory
aims to “systematise and organise what is known
about human learning”. He argues that a robust
learning theory seeks to explain behaviour, to
predict it and even to shape or change learner
behaviours.

Many theorists contend that all learning theories

fall within one of two groups based on
epistemology. There are theories based on
an objectivist epistemology (Behaviourism,
Cognitivism and Connectivism) or
a constructivist epistemology (Constructivism
and Online Collaborative Learning). Harasim
(2017) argues that most theories fall into one of
two categories: scientific (hypothesis-driven or
experimental theories) and social or critical
theories. These categories reflect the broader
theoretical discourse of ‘hard’ science (STEM)
versus ‘soft’ social science theories and
quantitative versus qualitative scientific
research. This divide is still present in
educational discourse, but there are increasing
efforts to lessen it.

Most learning theories have “an empirical

element and a formalised way of study, analysis
and conclusion” (Harasim, 2017). They establish a
language and discourse which influence both
educational research and practice. However, they
have limitations, as learning is a complex
phenomenon. Learning theories cannot provide
complete and definitive answers to pedagogic
questions, but they can improve our
understanding of how people learn.

It is also worth noting that these theories did not

evolve in a linear progression and that the newest
theories do not supersede earlier ones: “the
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What are learning theories and why are they important for learning design?

earliest theories continue to have a profound

influence on current theories and research”
(Lefrançois, 2019).

Nine key learning theories

Learning theories have a long history dating back
to the Greeks. There are dozens of learning
theories which seek to address how children and
adults learn. See 100 learning theorists (Clark,
2020) and the comprehensive learning-
theories.com website if you are interested in
exploring this range of theories further.

Given this long history and the broad spectrum of

learning theories, in this series of posts I will be
focussing on what I consider to be the nine most
relevant theories for designing blended and
online learning for Higher Education:

Behaviourism
Cognitivism / Information Processing Theory
Constructivism and social constructivism
Social Cognitive Theory and social learning
Theories of motivation and self-regulated
learning
Connectivism
Online Collaborative Learning (OCL)
Multimedia learning theories
Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)

My choice of these nine theories stems from a

synthesis of three major books on learning
theories: Schunk (2020), Lefrançois
(2019) and Harasim (2017). Additional research
sources were Bates (2019), Bower (2017),
the Instructional Design.org website (Culatta &
Kearsley, n.d.), the Plan B website (Clark, 2020)
and the Simply Psychology website (Mcleod, n.d.).
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A note on Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)

I have included Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) as a
distinct theory even though it is a cognitivist
theory. The reason for this choice is that there is a
global CLT research community which has
generated significant research which is worth
exploring in more detail. Findings from CLT are
also very relevant to the design of digital and
online learning. Interestingly, two of the key
learning theories sources I am using (Harasim,
2017) and (Lefrançois, 2019) make no reference at
all to CLT. However, in the UK, Professor Dylan
Wiliam has stated that he thinks CLT “is the
single most important thing for teachers to
know” (Wiliam, 2017).

What are the pedagogic properties

of the major learning theories?
The table below is adapted from a table by Bower
(2017), who based his on one devised by Conole et
al. (2004). I have used a slightly different set of
learning theories to Bower, and I have used
additional properties. As Bower (2017) notes the
ratings assigned are “coarse generalizations, and
there may be quite a variety of possibilities along
each polarity for each pedagogy, depending on
how the teacher and students engage in the task.”
He also points out that understanding these
pedagogic properties can be useful for helping
teachers to think through which technologies are
most suitable for a given approach. For example
“if the activity is to be completed socially rather
than individually, then technologies with
communication capabilities will most likely be
required. If students are to produce a final
product, then a technology that enables creative
output will often be needed” (Bower, 2017).

C
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Comparative table showing the pedagogic
properties of nine major learning theories.

Learning View of View of

theory knowledge learning

Objectivist vs Information
constructivist acquisition
vs active
task-based
learning

Behaviourism ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

Cognitivism ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

Constructivism ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

Social
Cognitive ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄
Theory

Motivation and ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

self-regulation

Connectivism ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

Online
Collaborative ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄
Learning

Multimedia
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learning ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

theories

Cognitive Load ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

Theory

How can learning theories inform

learning design and teaching
practice in Higher Education?
Schunk (2020) argues that the central purpose of
learning theories is to improve teaching and that
“effective teaching requires that we determine
the best theoretical perspectives for the types of
learning we deal with and their implications for
teaching”. Harasim (2017) also takes the view that
learning theories should not exist purely as high-
level abstractions; theories are integral to
educational practice. An understanding of
learning theories can help educators to “reflect on
their practice, improve upon, reshape and refine
their work, and contribute to advancing the
discipline” (Harasim, 2017). Theories also provide
a link between educational research and
practices providing “tools to organize and
translate research findings into
recommendations for educational practice”
(Schunk, 2020). They can also “provide a basis for
judging the accuracy and usefulness of beliefs”
(Lefrançois, 2019).

Harasim (2017) makes the point that each

learning theory is associated with particular
pedagogies and learning technologies. Bates
(2014) also argues that “the choice of or
preference for one particular theoretical
approach will have major implications for the
way that technology is used to support teaching”.
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way that technology is used to support teaching .
Schunk (2020) suggests that teachers need to ask
the question ‘How does learning occur?’ and that
whatever answer they come up with will inform
lesson design, teaching practices and student
activities. Ultimately, teachers use learning
theories (consciously or not) and their related
educational approaches and technologies to
design, develop and deliver effective learning
experiences.

The challenge of applying learning theories

to educational practice
However, making use of learning theories is not
always straightforward. Harasim (2017) cites
Robert Calfee (2006), who argued that
“educational psychology continues to struggle
with the most appropriate relation to practice …It
can come across as highly theoretical and
detached from the practicalities of everyday
teaching and learning”. Calfee also highlighted
that “theoretical discussion is mainly focused on
the teaching of children in the age range of 3-18
rather than on adults”. Schunk (2020) notes that
historically there has been a disconnect between
the domain of educational psychology and the
practice of teaching. Most learning theorists have
been psychologists carrying out experimental
and lab-based research. Whereas most educators
have been “primarily concerned with directly
applying teaching methods to classrooms and
learning environments”. The experience gained
whilst teaching is still important because “theory
without experience can be misguided because it
may underestimate the effects of situational
factors” (Schunk, 2020).

Learning theories and epistemology

Different theories of learning reflect diverse
views and beliefs on the origin, nature and limits
fk
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of knowledge. Bates (2014) states that “every
teacher starts from some epistemological or
theoretical position, even if it is not explicit, or
even if the teacher is not fully aware of their
beliefs”. Harasim (2017) also thinks that all
teachers hold “some perspective on how to teach
(and concomitantly, even if unconsciously, a
perspective on how people learn)”. Therefore
teachers may have different views as to how best
to teach. For example, Pugsley (2011) sees the
roles of educators “more as facilitators of
learning, rather than imparters of knowledge”. In
contrast, Hirsch (2016) and proponents of direct
instruction argue that knowledge and curricula
are fundamental to education.

Alongside the role of individual beliefs, Bates

(2014) argues that each academic discipline has
an agreed consensus about what constitutes valid
knowledge within that subject domain. Harasim
(2017) also highlights the role of disciplinary
knowledge communities: “Deciding what to study
when we seek to explain how people learn or
deciding how to teach depends upon our
disciplinary beliefs and perspectives”.

How can we assess how useful a

learning theory might be to inform
our pedagogic thinking and learning
designs?
For Wheeler (2015), a robust theory “stands the
test of time and continues to provide adequate,
generalisable explanations.” Lefrançois (2019)
makes the point that evaluating theories is not
always about assessing whether they are right or
wrong. Instead, he suggests that they can be
assessed mainly by how useful they are to
educational practice.

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Bates (2014) notes that some form of empirical

evidence supports some theories such as
Behaviourism whereas other theories such as
Connectivism do not have a strong basis in
evidence. He also notes that why people base
their teaching on a given theoretical approach “is
as much about values and beliefs about
knowledge as it is about the effectiveness of each
theory” (Bates, 2014).

Harasim (2017) considers how we assess the value

of learning theories to our teaching practice. She
quotes Entwistle et al. (2010) who state that “It is
not sufficient for a pedagogical theory simply to
explain how people learn; it also has to provide
clear indications about how to improve the
quality and efficiency of learning”. Entwistle at al.
(2010) suggest assessing how useful a learning
theory might be to educational practice by
asking:

Is the theory derived from research data or

observations in an educational context?
Does the theory have direct practical
implications for teaching and learning [in the
particular context in which you are working]?
How realistic and practical are the suggestions?
Can the aspects identified as affecting learning be
readily changed [by the teacher]?
Is the theory presented in clear language which is
understandable to teachers?
Will the theory spark off new ideas about
teaching?

Lefrançois (2019) also offers questions for

evaluating ‘good’ learning theories. Many of his
questions overlap with Entwistle al. (2010).
Additional questions which I find helpful are:
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Can the theory be used for predicting as well as

for explaining?
Is the theory internally consistent?
Are there any unverifiable assumptions?

I will be using these nine questions to evaluate

each of the nine learning theories which I have
selected for this series of blog posts.

Do we need learning theories which

specifically address digital
technologies and online learning?
The field of instructional design from 1945
onwards made use of behaviourist thinking with
its focus on the systematic design of instruction
based on concrete and discrete learning steps.
Early learning theories did not specifically
address digital technologies. However,
behaviourist learning theory continued its
development from the 1950s onwards alongside
the invention and eventual widespread use of
computers. Harasim (2017) describes the
‘mechanisation’ of the instructional process and
recounts the rise of learning technologies such as
“teaching machines, programmed instruction,
computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and,
eventually, courseware and massive open online
courses (MOOCs)”.

The development of computers and the model of

learners mentally processing information (just as
computers process information) influenced
cognitivist learning theories. Cognitive scientists
developed educational technologies such as
intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) and AI “in an
attempt to mimic or replicate the human mind
through computer programs” (Harasim, 2017).
From this brief history, we can see that links
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What are learning theories and why are they important for learning design?

between learning theories and technologies have

existed over the last 75 years.

Harasim (2017) observes that in the field of online

learning there is often an over-emphasis on
training teachers in the use of specific tools and
technologies, “but a theory-informed approach to
transforming our educational practice remains
elusive”. She critiques the view that new
technologies have led to transformational
pedagogies and notes that the most common
practice amongst educators has been “to merely
add technology onto traditional ways of
teaching”.

Furthermore, she argues that the Internet has not

led to a qualitative transformation of learning but
merely quantitative changes such as
improvements in speed of delivery and increases
in scale to deliver education to higher numbers of
people. She concludes that the field of online
learning “lacks a theoretical framework to guide
educational design, pedagogies and use of online
technologies”. Wheeler (2015) suggests that
educators should question whether older
theories are still useful, “but we should also ask
whether the newer theories add anything
significant to our understanding of learning in
new digital contexts.”

Connectivism is a learning theory focussed on

technology and achieved some traction in the
early 2000s. However, arguably it isn’t a fully
formed learning theory, and it has very little to
say about how people learn using technology.
Online Collaborative Learning theory (Harasim
2012), is a more recent constructivist theory
which focuses on the use of technology “to
increase and improve communication between
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teacher and learners” (Bates, 2015).

I am not convinced that we need a learning

theory which specifically addresses digital
technologies as this seems to be a very
deterministic way of thinking. For me, learning is
fundamentally about people rather than
technology. Many of the existing learning
theories can inform designing for learning with
digital technologies. As Harasim (2017) suggests,
we need to reflect more on how these theories
can inform our pedagogic approaches and
teaching practices in the context of the
opportunities afforded by online technologies.

Conclusion
Learning theories are critical because they “help
us to understand both how knowledge is created
and how people learn” Harasim (2017). While
evaluating theories is not always about assessing
whether they are right or wrong, Lefrançois (2019)
suggests that they can be mainly assessed by how
useful they are to educational practice. Teachers
make use of learning theories (consciously or
not) and their related pedagogic approaches and
technologies to design, develop and deliver
effective teaching and learning experiences. As
we design for learning, we need to be aware that
our theoretical starting points will inform our
teaching practices, choice of learning
technologies and the kinds of activities we
provide to our students.

The next post in this series is an interactive

learning theories timeline showing the historical
evolution of the nine theories I am focussing on.
This timeline highlights critical theoretical ideas
and provides links to key books and research
papers.
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References
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Bates, T. (2014). Learning theories and online

learning | Tony Bates. Retrieved 4 May 2020, from
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Bates, T. (2015). 2.3 Objectivism and

behaviourism. In Teaching in a Digital Age. Tony
Bates Associates Ltd.
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Posted by:
Thomas H on 01 Oct 2020

Category:
Learning theories

Tag:
learning theories

Posted by Thomas H
Learning Designer at the University of
London. Interested in Learning Design,
Learning Experience Design,
Instructional Design, Multimedia
learning, Educational research, and
Open education.

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