ETIC 211 - ETHICS
➔ Karl Jasper: “Philosophy is a discipline in which
OVERVIEW & INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
Philosophy and Branches of Philosophy
Why do we need to study Philosophy?
➔ The big question: If nobody gets rich studying
philosophy why bother with it anyway?
➔ Humans (naturally curious) tend to engage questions like:
◆ What is the meaning of life?
◆ Is there such a thing as absolute truth?
◆ What is just? How do I live morally?
◆ What is beautiful?
◆ Is there a formula to think critically?
◆ What is time and space?
➔ These human fundamental questions are under the domain
of philosophy.
➔ Relatively a philosopher studies human beings, society,
religion, language, God, plants, and many others.
➔ Etymological meaning:
◆ Philosophy came from the Greek word philia
(love) and Sophia (wisdom). Thus, Philosophy is
the “Love of Wisdom.”
Origin of Philosophy
➔ The first philosophers came from ancient Greek
civilization.
➔ They asked:
◆ What makes us all connected to each other?
◆ What makes us one?
◆ What underlies everything that exists?
The First Philosophers from Ancient Era
➔ Thales – the first noted philosopher in western history,
said that everything is related to each other because
everything that exists contains water.
➔ Anaximander – “the Boundless” as the origin of all that
is.
➔ Anaximenes – he postulated that all things originate from
eternal motion, along with the apeiron, as the originating
cause of the world.
Meaning/Notion of Philosophy from
Different Philosophers
➔ Heraclitus: “Thinking [Philosophy?] is a sacred disease”
➔ Socrates: “Philosophy starts through doubt and wonder.”
➔ Aristotle: “Philosophy is a science which inquires into
the ultimate causes, reasons and principles of all things in
the light of reason alone.” (Metaphysics, book 7)
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questions are more important than answers and which
every answer paves a way to another question.”
➔ Arthur Schopenhauer: “The two main requirements for
philosophizing are: firstly, to have the courage not to keep
any questions back; and secondly, to attain a clear
consciousness of anything that goes without saying so as
to comprehend it as a problem.”
➔ Merleau-Ponty: ". . .philosophy is merely an elucidated
experience."
➔ William James: "Philosophy is the unusually stubborn
attempt to think clearly."
➔ Ludwig Wittgenstein: “All philosophy is a 'critique of
language.”
➔ Karl Marx: “The philosophers have only interpreted the
world in various ways; the point, however, is to change
it.”
➔ Jurgen Habermas: “Philosophy is. . . clarification of
very general structures of hypotheses.”
➔ Friedrich Nietzsche: “Philosophy is this tyrannical drive
itself, the most spiritual will to power.”
➔ Georg Hegel: “To comprehend what is the task of
philosophy, for what is reason.”
➔ Michel Foucault: “What is philosophy after all? If not a
means of reflecting on not so much what is true or false
but on our relation to truth? How, given that relation to
truth, should we act?”
Branches of Philosophy
1. Metaphysics
➔ One of the key concepts in understanding
philosophies.
➔ Concerned with reality and existence
➔ Asks: What is the nature of reality?
➔ Subdivided into two categories:
◆ Ontology: what is the nature of existence.
◆ Cosmology: origin and organization of the
universe/
➔ Principles of Metaphysics:
◆ Time does not exist.
◆ Past, present and future are all happening
simultaneously.
◆ What we think, we create.
◆ Our beliefs create our reality.
2. Epistemology
➔ From the Greek episteme, “knowledge, science” +
“logos” or theory of knowledge.
➔ The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature,
source, scope (limitations), and validity of
knowledge.
➔ How knowledge is related to truth, belief, and
justification.
 ETIC 211 - ETHICS
➔ The means of production of knowledge.
➔ Skepticism about different knowledge claims
◆ James Frederick Ferrier (1808-1864)
➔ Epistemological Questions:
◆ What is knowledge?
◆ How is knowledge acquired?
◆ What do people know?
◆ How do we know what we claim to know?
◆ How can we differentiate truth behind
falsehood?
◆ Can our senses be trusted?
3. Logic
➔ May be defined as the science which directs the
operations of the mind in the attainment of truth.
➔ Reasoning is the concern of the logician
➔ The term logic comes from the Greek work logike
and was coined by Zeno, the Stoic (c.340-265BC)
➔ Religious and Conventional Logic
4. Aesthetics
➔ The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature
and appreciation of art, beauty, and good taste. It
has also been defined as “critical reflection on art,
culture and nature”.
➔ Aesthetics derives from the Greek “aisthetikos”,
meaning “of sense perception”.
➔ As a branch of philosophy, students should consider
the importance of aesthetics because of the following:
◆ It vitalizes our knowledge.
◆ It helps us to live more deeply and richly.
◆ It brings us in touch with our culture.
Ethics and Morality
MORALITY
➔ From the Latin moralitas meaning "manner,
character, proper behavior“. It is the conduct or rules
that a person or community adheres to, believing
these things to be, morals refer mainly to guiding
principles, in some sense, obligatory. It gives us rules
for everyday life and it is practical.
◆ Examples: Being honest, respecting others,
keeping a promise etc.
ETHICS
➔ Refers to specific rules and actions, or behaviors,
sometimes a critical reflection of “morals”. It is also a
philosophical reflection about the nature of the good
life, of right action, of duty and obligation. It is
theoretical.
◆ Examples:
● I have in mind the key golden rule: “don't do
to the others what you don't want for you”
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● I wonder what is more important morally
speaking, the intention that inspires an act or
the results that we obtain with it.
● I reflect on values, wondering if the value of
authenticity is better than the value of
friendship.
Branches of Ethics
1. Normative Ethics - This branch deals with how
individuals can know the correct moral action they should
take. Philosophers - such as Socrates and John Stuart Mill
- are included in this branch of ethics.
2. Meta-Ethics - This branch seeks to understand the nature
of ethical properties and judgments, such as if truth values
can be found and the theory behind moral principles.
3. Applied Ethics - This is the study of applying theories
from philosophers regarding ethics in everyday life. For
example, this area of ethics asks questions such as "Is it
right to have an abortion?" and "Should you turn in your
friend at your workplace for taking home office
supplies?"
4. Moral Ethics - This branch questions how individuals
develop their morality, why certain aspects of morality
differ between cultures, and why certain aspects of
morality are generally universal.
5. Descriptive Ethics - This branch is more scientific in its
approach and focuses on how human beings operate in the
real world, rather than attempting to theorize about how
they should operate.
ETHICS AND MORALITY
Basic Principles of Ethics
➔ ETHICS - Greek word “ethos = custom or convention,
or the spirit of community”.
➔ Moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the
conduct of an activity (Oxford dictionary, 2014)
➔ The branch of philosophy that deals with morality. Ethics
is concerned with distinguishing between good and evil in
the world, between right and wrong human actions, and
between virtuous and non virtuous characteristics of
people (The American dictionary of Cultural Literacy,
2005).
◆ Autonomy - independent, free and self directing i.e.
the state of ‘self determination’.
 ETIC 211 - ETHICS
◆ Non-maleficence - avoiding and preventing harm to
all persons.
◆ Beneficence - to provide benefit or advantage to all.
◆ Justice - fairness and equity to all.
Moral Agent
➔ A moral agent is a person who has the ability to discern
right from wrong and to be held accountable for his or her
own actions.
➔ Moral agents have a moral responsibility not to cause
unjustified harm.
➔ Traditionally, moral agency is assigned only to those who
can be held responsible for their actions.
Human Act and Act of Man
➔ Human acts are those acts preceded by free will.
➔ Human act is done with full knowledge and full consent
of the will and with full and unhampered freedom of
choice.
➔ Human act is either moral or immoral
◆ Examples: Telling a lie, being honest, slander, being
respectful etc...
➔ Act of man: It is not dependent on intellect and will.
➔ It is instinctive. It is done normally by a moral agent. It
has no moral value.
◆ Examples: sleeping, talking, urinating, yawning.
Freedom
➔ Liberalism upholds the preservation of individual rights
and stresses the role of the government in protecting these
civil liberties.
➔ Libertarianism believes that the individual, not the
government, is the best judge in upholding and exercising
rights.
➔ Socialism considers freedom as the freedom to acquire
economic resources and the ability to work and act
according to one’s desires.
➔ Existentialism: Freedom is Exercised through Choices
◆ Existentialists argue that freedom should not only be
conceived as an idea or notion.
◆ Freedom is something that is exercised through our
choices. When a person exercises his freedom, he
becomes real.
◆ The main tenet of existentialism is that we are the
authors of our own lives; it is the author who creates
the turning points in every story or plot twist.
◆ If we take responsibility over our own lives, then we
can say that those plot twists are not the products of
fate or destiny, but of our own choices.
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➔ Freedom as Choosing for Oneself that Leads to
Personality Consolidation.
◆ Main precursor of this movement is Soren
Kierkegaard (1813-1855)
◆ Accordingly, freedom is related to our capacity to
choose; and “in choosing, the personality is
consolidated.”
➔ Freedom means exercising our capacity to make
decisions, choose our life path and direct the course of our
lives through our own steering.
➔ Genuine freedom is acted upon, it requires a lot of daily
work.
Natural Rights vs. Legal Rights
➔ Natural rights refers to innate rights of a person such as
the right to life. These rights are considered universal and
alienable.
➔ Legal rights are rights that are based on society’s
customs and laws, and are enacted by legislation and
enforced by a government.
Human Agency
➔ refers to the capacity of a person to act and exert control
over his or her behavior.
Human Freedom
➔ Human freedom is expressed in two ways:
1. Free will – is the capacity to choose from alternative
courses of action or decision.
2. Free action - freedom to perform an action without
any obstacle or hindrance.
SOURCES OF EXTERNAL AUTHORITY
Law, Religion & Culture
1. LAW - A RULE OF CONDUCT
➔ These rules of conduct are just and obligatory. They
are promulgated by legitimate authority (typically by
the Legislature). They are of common observance and
benefit.
➔ The science of moral laws based on the rational
nature of man. These moral laws govern his free
activity for the realization of his individual and social
ends. They are, by their very nature, demandable and
reciprocal.
 ETIC 211 - ETHICS
Law
➔ In the Philippines, Filipinos are constrained to obey the
laws of the land as stated in the country's criminal and
civil codes.
➔ The term positive law refers to the different rules and
regulations that are posited or put forward by an authority
figure that require compliance
2. RELIGION – FAITH AND BELIEF
➔ From a religious perspective, however, things look
very different.
➔ Judaism and Christianity teach that the world was
created by a loving, all-powerful God to provide a
home for us. We, in turn, were created in his image,
to be his children.
➔ Thus, the world is not devoid of meaning and
purpose. It is, instead, the arena in which God’s plans
and purposes are realized. What could be more
natural, then, than to think that morality is a part of
the religious view of the world, whereas the atheist’s
world has no place for values?
Divine Command Theory
➔ In the major theistic traditions, including Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam, God is conceived as a lawgiver
who has laid down rules that we are to obey.
➔ Morally right means commanded by God and morally
wrong means forbidden by God.
➔ If we are to live as we should live, we must follow God’s
laws
Religion and Moral Issues
➔ The connection between morality and religion is an
immediate, practical matter that centers on particular
moral issues. It doesn’t matter whether right and wrong
are defined in terms of God’s will or whether moral laws
are laws of nature.
➔ Whatever the merits of such theories, there are still the
moral teachings of one’s religion about particular issues.
The teachings of the Scriptures and the church are
regarded as authoritative, determining the moral positions
one must take.
3. CULTURE - NORM
➔ Demonstrate the way a group thinks, their practices,
or behavioral patterns, or their views of the world
➔ Culture could be based on shared ethnicity, gender,
customs, values, or even objects.
➔ Norms that you are used to are neither right nor
wrong, just different.
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Cultural Relativism
➔ Cultural Relativism holds that the norms of a culture reign
supreme within the bounds of the culture itself.
➔ Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to our
own standards of what is right or wrong, strange, or
normal. Instead, we should try to understand the cultural
practices of other groups in their own cultural context.
SOURCES OF INTERNAL AUTHORITY
Subjectivism, Psychological Egoism & Ethical Egoism
1. SUBJECTIVISM
➔ The starting point of subjectivism is the recognition
that the individual thinking person (the subject) is at
the heart of all moral valuations.
ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM
➔ The basic thought of Ethical Subjectivism is the idea
that our moral opinions are based on our feelings and
nothing more.
➔ In other words, what is morally right or wrong is
determined by an individual's personal feelings,
opinions, or cultural norms.
2. EGOISM
➔ An ethical theory that asserts that individuals should
act in their self-interest and seek to maximize their
own well-being or happiness. It is a self-centered
ethical perspective.
PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
➔ Human beings are naturally self-centered, so all our
actions are always already motivated by
self-interest.”
➔ This theory describes the underlying dynamic behind
all human actions. As a descriptive theory, it does not
direct one to act in any particular way.
➔ Instead, it points out that there is already an
underlying basis for how one acts.
➔ The ego or self has its desires and interests, and all
our actions are geared toward satisfying these
interests.
 ETIC 211 - ETHICS
3. ETHICAL EGOISM
➔ It differs from psychological egoism in that it does
not suppose all our actions are already inevitably
self-serving.
➔ Instead, ethical egoism prescribes that we should
make our own ends, our own interest, as the single
overriding concern.
➔ We may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but
we should do that only if it ultimately benefits us.
➔ Major advocates of Egoism created her own ethical
theory name Objectivism is Ayn Rand
◆ Many works such as Atlas Shrugged and The
FountainHead.
◆ “Can't say the word “I love you” without saying
I first”
NON-RELIGION
➔ “A Free Man's Worship” - Bertrand Russell,
➔ Described this scientific view of the world as one where
human existence is the result of random processes, with
no inherent purpose.
➔ According to this view, life's hopes, fears, and beliefs are
outcomes of chance events, and nothing can extend an
individual's life beyond death.
➔ Russell suggests that all human achievements are
ultimately destined to be forgotten in the vastness of a
universe that will eventually decay.
➔ This perspective, while not universally accepted,
challenges the idea of a higher purpose and underscores
the idea of confronting the apparent meaninglessness of
existence.
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Model for Ethical Decision Making
1. GATHER THE FACTS
➔ Frequently ethical dilemmas can be resolved simply
by clarifying the facts of the case in question. In
those cases that prove to be more difficult, gathering
the facts is the essential first step prior to any ethical
analysis and reflection on the case. In analyzing a
case, we want to know the available facts at hand as
well as any facts currently not known but that need to
be ascertained. Thus one is asking not only “What do
we know?” but also “What do we need to know?” in
order to make an intelligent ethical decision.
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2. DETERMINE THE ETHICAL ISSUES
➔ The ethical issues are stated in terms of competing
interests or goods. It’s these conflicting interests that
actually make for an ethical dilemma. The issues
should be presented. a ______versus _________
format in order to reflect the interests that are
colliding in a particular ethical dilemma. For
example, in business ethics there is often a conflict
between the right of a firm to make profit and its
obligation to the community. In this case, the
obligation pertains to the environment.
3. WHAT ETHICAL PRINCIPLES HAVE A BEARING
ON THE CASE
➔ In any ethical dilemma, there are certain moral values
or principles that are central to the conflicting
positions being taken. It is critical to identify these
principles, and in some cases, to determine whether
some principles are to be weighted more heavily than
others. Clearly, biblical principles will be weighted
the most heavily. There may be other principles that
speak to the case that come from other sources.
There may be constitutional principles or principles
drawn from natural law that supplement the biblical
principles that come into play here. The principles
that come out of your mission and calling are also
important to consider.
4. LIST THE ALTERNATIVES
➔ Part of the creative thinking involved in resolving an
ethical dilemma involves coming up with various
alternative courses of action. Although there will be
some alternatives that you will rule out without much
thought, in general the more alternatives that are
listed, the better the chance that your list will include
some high-quality ones. In addition, you may come
up with some very creative alternatives that you had
not considered before.
5. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH THE
PRINCIPLES
➔ At this point, the task is one of eliminating
alternatives according to the moral principles that
have a bearing on the case. In many instances, the
case will be resolved at this point, since the principles
will eliminate all alternatives except one. In fact, the
purpose of this comparison is to see if there is a clear
decision that can be made without further
deliberations. If a clear decision is not forthcoming,
then the next part is the model that must be
considered. At the least, some of the alternatives may
be eliminated by this step of comparison.
 ETIC 211 - ETHICS
6. WEIGH THE CONSEQUENCES STAGE DESCRIPTION CONTENT SOCIAL
➔ If the principles do not yield a clear decision, then a PERSPECTIVE
consideration of the consequences of the remaining
available alternatives is in order. Both positive and Stage 1 The first stage Right is a This stage
negative consequences are to be considered. They Punishm is literal takes an
should be informally weighed, since some positive ent characterized obedience to egocentric
consequences are more detrimental than others. and by a view that rules and point of view,
Obedien right action is authority, a person at
7. MAKE A DECISION ce to behave avoiding this stage does
➔ Deliberations cannot go on forever. At some point, a according to punishment, not consider
decision must be made. Realize that one common social and not the interests of
element in ethical dilemmas is that there are no easy acceptable doing others and
and painless solutions to them. Frequently the norms physical does not relate
decision that is made is one that involves the least imposed by harm. What two points of
number of problems or negative consequences, not some is right is to view. Actions
one that is devoid of them. authority avoid were justified
figure (e.g., breaking in terms of
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development parent, rules, to physical
teacher) in obey for consequence
order to avoid obedience’s rather in terms
➔ Lawrence Kohlberg punishment sake and to of
◆ A professor of psychology in Harvard University is a avoid psychological
prominent moral development theorist, but his physical interests of
thinking grew out of Jean Piaget’s writing on damage to others.
children’s intellectual development. His theory is people and Authority’s
descriptive, rather than, proven facts. authority. perspective is
◆ Kohlberg presumes that there are six stages of moral Thus, follow confused with
development that people go through in much the and obey one’s own.
same way as infants learned first to roll over, to sit, to because of
crawl, to stand and finally to walk. Kohlberg clearly the
emphasized the following system of his theory: consequence
i. Everyone goes through each stage in the of
same order, but not everyone goes through punishment
all the stages and, and due to
ii. A person at one stage can understand the superior
reasoning of any stage below him but cannot power of
understand more than one stage above. authorities

➔ These correlates, especially the latter one, are important

when it comes to assessing the nature of disagreement
about ethical judgment. Perhaps the easiest way to STAGE DESCRIPTION CONTENT SOCIAL
remember them is by different kinds of justification PERSPECTIVE
involved in each stage. There are three levels in his theory
and each level is divided into stages. The schema will Stage 2 Is What is This stage
show the stages of moral development. Individu characterized right is takes a
al by a view that following concrete
and right behavior rules when it individualistic
Pre-Conventional Level Instrume means acting is to perspective. A
ntal in one’s own someone’s person at this
➔ Pre-conventional because individuals do not yet speak as Exchang best interests. immediate stage separates
members of society, instead they see morality as e interest. his own
something external to themselves. Right is interests and
acting to points of view
meet one’s from those of
interests and authorities and
needs and others. The

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 ETIC 211 - ETHICS
letting person means the individual
others do the integrates or having good interests.
same. Right relates motives and
is also what conflicting interpersona
is fair, that individual l feelings
is, what is interests to such as
an equal one another empathy,
exchange, a through love, trust,
deal, an instrumental concern.
agreement. exchange of
The reason service, need
for doing for others and
what is right other’s STAGE DESCRIPTION CONTENT SOCIAL
is to serve goodwill. PERSPECTIVE
one’s own Perhaps
needs/intere through Stage 4 Is What is This stage
sts in a fairness giving Law and characterized right is differentiates
world where each person Order by abiding by fulfilling societal point
one must the same the law and one’s own of view from
recognize amount. respecting duty to interpersonal
that other authority and which one agreement or
people have performing had agreed. motives. A
their one’s duty so The reasons person at this
interests as that social for doing stage takes the
well. order is what is right viewpoint of
maintained. are to keep the system,
the which defines
institutions roles and
Conventional Level going as a rules, and
whole. individual
relations in
➔ It speaks on isolated individuals rather than as members terms of one’s
of the society. It sees individuals exchanging favors, but own place in
there is still no identification with the values of the the system.
family/community.

STAGE DESCRIPTION CONTENT SOCIAL

PERSPECTIVE Post-Conventional Level

Stage 3 Characterized It sees what This stage

➔ Moral decisions are generated from the rights, values, or
Mutual by an attitude is right is takes the
principles that are or that could be agreeable to all
and which one living up perspective of
individuals composing or creating a society designed to
interpers seeks to do according to the individual
have fair and beneficial practices.
onal that will gain the in relationship
conformi the approval expectations to other
ty of others. by people individuals. STAGE DESCRIPTION CONTENT SOCIAL
that are Thus, a person PERSPECTIVE
close to in this stage is
them, like aware of the Stage 5 Is What is This stage
the family, shared Social characterized right is the takes a
community. feelings, Contract by thinking awareness ‘prior-to-socie
Being good agreement and and about a of the fact ty’
and having expectations Individu society in a that people perspective. It
good that take al rights very hold a means that
behavior primacy over theoretical variety of individuals are
way, stepping values and aware of the

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 ETIC 211 - ETHICS
back from opinions values and STAGE DESCRIPTION CONTENT SOCIAL
PERSPECTIVE
their own that most rights prior to
established values and social
society and rules are attachment Stage 6 Is The right This stage
considering relative to and contract. Universa characterized action on takes the
the rights and one’s group. The person l Ethical by an attitude this stage is perspective
values of the The reason integrates Principle of respect for guided by that a person
society ought for doing perspective by s universal universal takes a stand
to uphold. what is formal principle and ethical in view of
right, is in mechanism of the demands principles, moral
general, agreement, of individual particularly principles
feeling contract, conscience. law; social from which
obligated to objective agreements social
obey the impartiality, are usually agreements
law, because and due valid are derived on
one has process. because they which they are
made a are anchored grounded.
social to
contract to principles.
make and When law
abide by perhaps
laws for the violates the
good of all universal
and to principle
protect their one often
own rights acts in
and the accordance
rights of with the
others. Like, principle.
family, The
friends. One principle of
is concerned equality,
that laws justice,
and duties respect and
be based on others.
a rational These are
calculation not only
of the values but
overall regarded as
‘utility’. principles
‘The that are used
greatest in order to
good for the generate
greatest decisions.
number’.