RATIONAL THINKING ▣ Logic primarily deals with validity.

Introduction to Philosophy Truth Vs. Validity

What is philosophy? TRUE : All human beings are mortals.

It is derived from Philos= Greek All girls are mortals.

for love, and Sophia= wisdom. A All girls are human beings. INVALID

philosopher is a lover of wisdom, VALID: All flying objects have wings.

the good use of human knowledge. All fishes are flying objects.

Good Use of Money is Wisdom All fishes have wings. NOT TRUE

What are some branches of Philo? VALID: All metals are heat conductors.

▣ Logic- correct thinking All coins are metals.

▣ Ethics- rightness or wrongness of human act All coins are heat conductors. TRUE

▣ Metaphysics- essence and properties of being What is acceptable thought?

▣ Aesthetics- appreciation of the arts ▣ It is verifiable by science.

▣ Cosmology- physical universe ▣ It is not self- contradictory.

▣ Theodicy- existence and operations of God ▣ It follows a logical flow, like causality.

▣ Epistemology- theory of knowledge Example of Logical Flow

Logic Aids Ethics ▣ If it rains, then the ground will get wet.

What is philosophical method? What is a logical argument?

▣ Philosophy presents things in the abstract, ▣ All thoughts can be used in making an
essential and rational ideas. When reasoning, it argument.
proceeds through non-concrete truths.
▣ An argument is taking a particular stand or
▣ Science, on the other hand, investigates on judgment based on rules of logic.
concrete realities. Philosophy aids it, and other
▣ An argument is not sound if it violates any rule.
studies, by providing general principles.
What is reasoning?
Abstract Vs. Concrete
▣ It is the process of drawing an acceptable
Humanity
conclusion from pre-stated assumptions or
What is studied in Logic? premises.

▣ Logic is the most basic Philosophy, and is ▣ It is either inductive, from particular premises
commonly termed the grammar of Philo. resulting in a general conclusion, or deductive,
from general premises to particular conclusion.
▣ Logic is concerned with correct thinking.
Logic is more on deduction.
▣ Correct thinking is based on truth and validity.
What are the divisions of Logic?
- truth is the concrete reality of anything
▣ Aristotelian is the most common logic known.
- validity is conformity with rules governing
It analyzes the parts and processes of
sound thought
 argument as they are presented verbally.  Based on the given EXAMPLES, what can we
say about ETHICS?
▣ Symbolic or mathematical logic presents
arguments in symbols. Rules followed are  Do we have universal standard of ETHICS?
Aristotelian.
 Theories of Ethics
What is an example of logical reasoning?
1. Hedonism
P 1: All human beings are rational animals.
2. Stoicism
P2: The president is a human being.
3. Epicureanism
C : The president is a rational animal.
4. Situationism
▣ P1 and P2 are the premises, C is the conclusion.
5. Power Ethics
▣ Since this example follows all rules of Logic, this
reasoning is valid and thus, logical 6. Humanistic Ethics

What is an example of illogical reasoning? 7. Thomistic Ethics

P2: A flying mammal is a bat. 8. Filipino Centripetal Ethics

P1: All bats are hitting instruments.

C: A flying mammal is a hitting instrument.  HEDONISM

,  Gk. (hedone “pleasure” and hedys “sweet”) is an

ethical doctrine, which claims that pleasure is
The example is illogical as it makes use of an equivocal the norm of morality
term (bat has two meanings), a violation of logical
terms.  Ang kasiyahan ay siyang sukatan ng moralidad

Logic is a very useful tool!  Pleasure in this context, is the satisfaction of

desire; hence, the greater the pleasure, the
Using it in our daily dealings make things clear and better
understandable. Avoiding it or violating it makes
communication vague or unacceptable.
Desire may be either:
LET’S BE ALWAYS LOGICAL … and SANE!
 Intellectual
THANK YOU FOR LISTENING and LEARNING WITH ME…
 Aesthetic
-- Ed L. Silva, 240822
 Physical
 Basic Concept of Ethics
 Intellectual Pleasure
 From the Greek word “ethos” which means
“character” - Derives from one’s discovery of truth, the formulation
of certain theory, or the final resolution of a particular
 Also known as “moral philosophy”
problems that involves intellectual deliberation
 It refers to the moral principles of right and
 Aesthetic Pleasure
wrong
- Refers to one’s disinterested feeling of
 The goodness and badness of one’s action
beholding a beautiful thing or scenery and
 Theories of the good are two basic types: appreciating a work of art
theistic (God) & philosophical (reason)
 - It is so unique in itself that it is characterized by
the feeling of awe and disinterestedness, as
opposed to sensuous pleasure w/c is coupled
with the wish
- Physical Pleasure
- Means the satisfaction of sensuous or sexual desire
 Aristippus (400BC)
 Founder of the pleasure principle
 Taught that the pleasure is the one and only
good, hence it must be the basis for moral
judgment
 Whatever act that gives pleasure is good, hence
it must done under all circumstances; whatever
act that gives pain is bad, hence it must be
avoided as much as possible
 We have to follow the pleasure principle in
order to avoid pain which causes suffering
 The hedonist’s formula for a happy life is “ eat,
drink and be merry, for tomorrow you die”
 “Kumain, uminom at magpakasaya ka pagkat
bukas ay mamamatay ka”
 Brihaspati Lanka
 Indian Philosopher
 In Lanka’s view, we have to live life as it is for
life is beautiful
 We have to enjoy life for we live only once;
after this life, no more
 “Eat, drink and be merry, for you only have one
life to live”
 “Kumain, uminom at magpakasaya ka, pagkat
minsan ka lang mabubuhay”
 4 Human Values :
1. Wealth (artha)
2. Pleasure (kama)
3. Obligation (dharma)
4. Spiritual Release (moksa)
“Only kama or sensual pleasure is the real end, while
artha or wealth is regarded as the means to attain that
end”
 The true moksa is death itself, for when we die
we shall be liberated (from all pains and
suffering)
 STOICISM
 Stoicism was one of the new philosophical
movements of the Hellenistic period. The name
derives from the porch (stoa poikilê) in the
Agora at Athens decorated with mural
paintings, where the members of the school
congregated, and their lectures were held
 As an ethical doctrine, STOICISM considers
apathy or indifference to pleasure as the moral
norm.
 STOICS
 They are the advocates who are known for their
exemplary patience, self-sacrifice,
perseverance, forbearance, and long-suffering
attitude
 APATHEIA
 State of imperturbability which is attainable
through apathy or indifference to pleasure
 Self- discipline
 Self discipline is very significant in the moral
development of an individual
 The most difficult individual to discipline is
oneself, so to the stoics say
 But once a person learns to discipline himself,
then he can discipline all that are supposed to
be disciplined
 EPICTETUS
 A former Roman slave who was one of the
enormously influential teachers of stoicism,
Epictetus (50-130 A.D) professed that the
greatest virtue is peace of mind it is the
priceless wealth that a person can ever possess
 Epictetus taught a philosophy of mental
detachment which, if rigorously followed,
 enables us to harness, and master our desires,  Epicureanism
rather than be enslaved by them
 Founder: Epicurus (341-270 B.C.)
 Examples:
 Athenian Philosopher
 We should not allow others to disturb
 Speaking of the noblest aim of philosophy,
our peace of mind so that we will not be
enslaved by them Epicurus pointed to Ataraxia, or peaceful and
tranquil life
 Huwag tayong papayag na ligaligin ng
 Epicureanism
iba kung ayaw natin maging alipin nila

 According to Epictetus, most of the misery of  Epicureanism professes moderate pleasure as

life comes from within; it comes from our the moral norm
refusal to accept our part of it; but once we  It is the intermediate pleasure doctrine
accept our handicaps, our misfortunes, they can between hedonism and stoicism
be withstood thus, we have to accept the
inevitable  Hedonism teaches an all-out pleasure norm of
morality
 LUCIUS SENECA
 Stoicism an indifference pleasure or no pleasure
 Another faithful adherent of stoicism was Lucius at all
Annaeus Seneca (1-65 A.D.) born in Cordoba,
Spain but studied and taught in Rome during  Epicureanism
the period of the Roman dictators
Three (3) causes of pain:
 He is also known as a practical moral teacher, a
• Excessive use
kind of spiritual guide or a physician of the soul
• Abuse
 Seneca’s main philosophical aim was to lead
men toward virtue, especially moral courage • Non-use of bodily organs
and fortitude so as to men brace themselves
against the onslaught of adversities
- Too much as well as nothing at all causes pain
 MARCUS AURELIUS
- To avoid pain, one should observe moderation
 Well-described as “by nature a saint and a sage, in all undertakings
by profession a warrior and a ruler”
 Epicureanism
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) was
emperor of Rome, stoic philosopher, and one of  Epicurus considered prudence as the highest
the noblest figures of antiquity virtue which enables an individual to govern
and discipline himself by the use of reason.
 His teachings of tranquility are priceless gems of Intelligence choice and practical wisdom are
human knowledge that are worth bequeathing needed to measure pleasures against pains
to posterity

 Marcus Aurelius taught that things do not and

cannot touch the soul for they are external and “Accepting pains that lead to greater pleasures
immovable; but our troubles come only from and rejecting pleasures that lead to greater pains” (De
the opinion which is within Lacy 1967:4-5)

 That is to say, if we can control our opinion  Epicureanism

about things, we cannot be upset or perplexed  Epicurus’ two kinds of pleasure:
by anything
  Dynamic pleasure – accompanied by
pain like sexual love, gluttony, fame,
and drinking
 Passive pleasure – not accompanied by
pain like friendship, philosophical
conversation, playing with kids
 Epicureanism
 Founder: Epicurus (341-270 B.C.)
 Athenian Philosopher
 Speaking of the noblest aim of philosophy,
Epicurus pointed to Ataraxia, or peaceful and
tranquil life
 Epicureanism
 Epicureanism professes moderate pleasure as
the moral norm
 It is the intermediate pleasure doctrine
between hedonism and stoicism
 Hedonism teaches an all-out pleasure norm of
morality
 Stoicism an indifference pleasure or no pleasure
at all
 Epicureanism
Three (3) causes of pain:
• Excessive use
• Abuse
• Non-use of bodily organs
- Too much as well as no thing at all causes pain
- To avoid pain, one should observe moderation
in all undertakings
 Epicureanism
 Epicurus considered prudence as the highest
virtue which enables an individual to govern
and discipline himself by the use of reason.
Intelligence choice and practical wisdom are
needed to measure pleasures against pains
“Accepting pains that lead to greater pleasures
and rejecting pleasures that lead to greater pains” (De
Lacy 1967:4-5)
 Epicureanism
 Epicurus’ two kinds of pleasure:
 Dynamic pleasure – accompanied by
pain like sexual love, gluttony, fame,
and drinking
 Passive pleasure – not accompanied by
pain like friendship, philosophical
conversation, playing with kids
 SITUATIONISM
 Joseph Fletcher is an American Protestant
medical doctor, situationism is also known as
contextualism or situation ethics
He mentions the three approaches to morality:
 Legalism
 Antinomianism, and
 Situationism
Situationism- is Fletcher's preferred approach to the
problem of morality
-this ethical theory states that the moral norms depend
upon a given situations
Three types of love:
1. Eros
2. Philia
3. Agape
Erotic love- means sexual love which normally relates
man to a woman
 it may also exist between a tomboy and
another woman or between a gay and
another man
Filial love- refers to the affection that binds a parent to
his or her child, a brother to his sister, a brother to his
brother or a sister to his sister
Agapeic love- refers to one’s care and concern and
kindness towards others
  5. POWER ETHICS
 Power Ethics, in general, claims that:
“might is right”
 Might in this context is taken as force,
strength and capacity to rule
 It also means power, influence, control
and domination
  THRASYMACHUS
 Plato mentioned the mightiest views of
thrasymachus the sophist, in one of his
dialogues
 “What is right or just is nothing but the interest
of the stronger” (taylor1984)
 An act promotes the interest of the stronger, it
is just and right and any act that weakness him
or her is wrong and unjust
 Rulers and the strong one dictate what is just or
unjust and right or wrong the ruler's authority is
absolute and it does not compromise
 
 FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE
 Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), a German
philosopher and poet is credited for the
development of power ethics in modern
philosophy
 He taught that inherent in every individual,
regardless of race and clime has the will to
power or the will to dominate
• Nietzsche has had great intellectual and political
influence around the world
 Christianity and Morality:
• In The Antichrist, Nietzsche fights against the
way in which Christianity has become
an ideology set forth by institutions like
churches, and how churches have failed to
represent the life of Jesus
• Finds it important to distinguish between the
religion of Christianity and the person of Jesus
 Nietzsche cited two types of morality namely,
the master morality and the slave morality
 The former is the morality of the strong the
virile and the strong willed
 Exploitation is a consequences of the power will
to the life ;passive submission is the opposite of
this will to life
 Master morality and Slave morality:
 Some of the contrasts in master vs. slave
morality include:
• "good" and "bad" interpretations vs. "good"
and "evil" interpretations
• "aristocratic" vs. "part of the 'herd'"
• determines values independently of
predetermined foundations (nature) vs.
determines values on predetermined,
unquestioned foundations (Christianity)
Philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment
of our intelligence by means of language -Ludwig
Wittgenstein
 Humanistic Ethics
-Known under various names such as endemonism,
perfectionism, self-realizationism, or self-
actualizationism, humanistic ethics claims that self-
realization is the true standard of morality
 Self-realization
- is understood as self-fulfillment ,fullness
of life, and full development of all functions
of an individual
 Aim of Self-realization Ethics
-is the development of the entire self, and
the greatest good
 Good - is reverence for life, all that
enhances life, growth, and the unfolding of
self
 Evil- is all that retards growth, stifles life,
narrows it down and cuts it into pieces
 Aristotle - is regarded as the foremost
proponent of the ethical school of thought
known as self-realizationism, which is
exclusive found in Nicomachean Ethics
 named after his son Nichomachus to whom
the book was dedicated
 Man possesses a threefold nature:
 Vegetative
 Sentient
 Rational
 Human being are rational animals.
 The full realization of their vegetative and
sentient nature keeps them longing for more
lasting satisfaction
 Food, shelter and sex are insufficient to
quench their thirst for self-realization
 Rational- is the highest, richest and supernal
form of self-realization stems from the full
cultivation of man’s highest nature
 Man highest nature is to be found in the
realm of the mind, in the intellectual
dimensions of life which is distinctively
human
 THOMISTIC ETHICS
 St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
 13th century profound Italian philosopher
and theologian
 ‘the source of moral law is reason itself’
 reason recognizes the basic principle “Do
good, avoid evil” Gawin ang mabuti,
iwasan ang masama
 Thomists
 out the act
 right reason or the voice of reason (tinig ng
katuwiran) as the moral norm
 “The good must be done, and evil, avoided”
 What is the good?
 Filipino Centripetal Ethics
 Morality refers to the people’s using the
self as the center, basis or gauge of moral
judgments, of good & evil
 Centripetal here means “tending to wards
the center” from the Latin Centrum, a
“center”, and peto or petere , “to seesk”
 It can be regarded as person-centered or
self- oriented approach to morality
 The self or pagkatao becomes a balance of
moral valuations
 This concept of morality revolves around
the golden rule & the nonjudgmental
 St. Thomas asserts the human good is that
which is suitable to and proper for human
nature. Thus, whenever an act is suitable to
human nature as such, then it is good and it
must be done; whenever it is not proper to
human nature, however, then it is evil and it
must be avoided
 Ang gawaing karapatdapat sa kalikasang
tao ay mabuti; ang gawaing hindi
karapatdapat dito ay masama
 Three natural inclinations:
 Self-preservation- just dealing with others,
and propagation of our species
 Self-destruction- urges us to care for our
health, not to kill ourselves or put ourselves
in danger
 Self-immolation- putting oneself in
unnecessary jeopardy are by nature evil
 Seven Circumstances cited by St. Thomas
 Who?
 - has something to do with the
special quality, prestige, rank or
excellence of the person involved in
the moral act.
 What?
 - refers to the quality or quantity of
the moral object
 Where?
 - denotes the place where the act
occurs
 By what means?
 - refers to the means used in carrying
 Why?
 - the end or purpose is considered as
a circumstance affecting the goodness or
badness of the action
 How?
 - indicates the manner in which the
action is done
 When?
 - refers to the time element involved
in the performance of an action, not only
with regard to quantity but to quality as well
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