Epistemology - Theory of knowledge and justification

A priori knowledge - reasoning

Epistemology
Dr. Marlon P. Tuiza
September 26

Epistemology - originated from 2 greek words: “episteme” and “logos”

- science and theory of knowledge, studies origin and knowledge of
knowledge.

Justified True Belief - if an individual claims to know something, then the claim must
be true; the individual must believe it and he must be justified in
believing it.

Edmund Gettier - debunked “Justified True Belief”.

- showed that the traditional account was insufficient for knowledge and
does not give us certainty, thereby calling for the need of a fourth
condition.
- a person can believe something, yet does not know it, but no one can
claim to know something without believing it.

Divisions of Epistemology

Empiricism
- A theory opines that knowledge of any kind is a product of perception
- experiences are ultimately reducible to physical evidence
- empiricists believe in the priority of sense experience to reason

A Posteriori - knowledge after experience

David Hume - A strong advocate of empiricism

- “If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics; for
instance, let us ask, does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning
quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning
concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames:
for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion.”

John Locke - rejects innate ideas the same way Hume reject metaphysical ideas
- Believes that human mind is tabula rasa (clean slate)
- stated that all ideas come from sensation or reflection
- nothing enters into the human mind without first passing through the senses
 Simple ideas - individual products of experiences as conceived by the sense.
Complex ideas - formed through a combination of various simple ideas through the
power of the mind.

Rationalism
- holds that knowledge comes from reason
- advocates the reality and priority of A Priori (knowledge acquired without the
aid of senses)

Plato - Well known rationalist. Made distinction between Physical World and
Intelligible World.
- Theory of Divided Line
- Divides reality into 2 levels:
1. Intelligible world occupying the higher level - world of pure knowledge,
rationality, thought, and the Forms
2. Visible world occupying the lower level - world of opinion, belief,
imagination, things, shadows, and images.

Rene Descartes - Another rationalist

- he refuted the posistion of the empiricists claiming that it is unreliable.
- believes that reason alone can furnish a person with the certainty of
knowledge.

Methodic Doubt - ability to attain certainty of knowledge. “Reject absolutely

false everything concerning which I could imagine the least ground of doubt”
- since to doubt is to think, it follows that though is irrefutable and it takes
only an existing being to think.
- cogito ergo sum - I think therefore, I exist

Theories of Justification
- One of the conditions for accepting a belief as true is that such a belief must
have a justifier.
- a justifier would be the availability of proof, evidence or reason given in support
of a claim.
- offers a comprehensive and legitimate account for beliefs.
- For a claim to pass as knowledge, it must first be true and indubitable.

Correspondence Theory
- It holds that a fact is an agreement, a harmony or correspondence of a state
of affairs with the real world.
- For a state of affairs to be true, it must exist and be verifiable.
Roderick Chisholm
p=q then q=p, if and only if p and q occurs
believers of p are believers of q and vice versa
Coherence Theory
Coherentism - holds that a statement is true if there is coherence or agreement
between the statement and a systematic body of statements already known to be
true.

Laurence BonJour - “beliefs are justified by virtue of their coherence with each
other”
Ernest Sosa - is of the view that a belief is justified if and only if it has a place
within a system of beliefs that is coherent and comprehensive.

- epistemic justification is a holistic notion rather than a hierarchical one as

implied in foundationalism.
- Coherence is a matter of consistency.
- coherentism is viewed as a denial of foundationalism

Foundationalism
- self-justifying and self-referential beliefs that give justificatory support to
other beliefs.
- essential principle of foundationalism as earlier stated is the supposistion that
there are foundational or basic knowledge from which other non-basic claims are
determined.

Okoye - stated that 2 things are required for foundationalist claim to stand:
1. There should be an account of known basic beliefs that are indubitable
2. There should be an epistemic assent to what we believe

Rene Descartes - it is not simply for aesthetic reasons that a building is rebuilt,
because some buildings are rebuilt and modified necessarily in light of the fact
that their foundations are defective.

Problems of Epistemology
The Challenge of Skepticism

Skepticism
- deny the possibility of certainty in epistemic claims.
- the tendency of not being easily satisfied with superficial evidence and striving
to accpet only incorrigible beliefs that are absolutely certain.

Richard Rorty - “the central problem of modern epistemology is the problem of

knowing whether our inner representations were accurate, the problem of
knowing how the mind can faithfullly represent or mirror an external reality.”
 Gorias - claims that no one can know anything at all, believing the knowledge if
impossible.
St. Augustine - if someone says we cannot know anything for certain, we should
ask him if he is certain about his claims.
- show that it is contradictory to hold that knowledge is absolutely impossible.
Immanuel Kant - things in themselves are forever inaccessible to the human
mind.

The problem of Appearance and Reality

- The way the world apprears to us most times is not what it really is.
- If this is the case, what guarantee do we have for our claims to knowledge
no matter the epistemic orientation we hold.

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Logic - most basic Philosophy
- concerned with correct thinking
- based on truth and validity
- primarily deals with validity

Truth - concrete reality of anything

Validity - conformity with rules governing sound thought

Truth vs. Validity

Acceptable Thought - Verifiable by science

- self-contradictory
- follows a logical flow, like causality
ex. If it rains, then the ground will get wet

What is a logical argument

- argument is taking a praticular stand or judgement based on rules of
logic.
- argument is not sound if it violates any rule.

Reasoning - process of drawing an acceptable conclusion from pre-stated

assumptions or premises.

Inductive - particular premises resulting in a general conclusion

Deductive - general premises to particular conclusion
Logic - is more in deduction
What are the divisions of Logic?
Aristotelian - most common logic
- analyzes the parts and processes of arguement as they are
presented verbally.
Symbolic or mathematical logic - presents arguements in symbols.

What is an example of logical reasoning?

P 1: All huan beings are rational animals.
P2: The president is a human being.
C : The president is a rational animal.
▣ P1 and P2 are the premises, C is the conclusion.

▣Since this example follows all rules of Logic, this reasoning is valid and thus,
logical

What is an example of illogical reasoning?

P2: A flying mammal is a bat.
P1: All bats are hitting instruments.
C: A flying mammal is a hitting instrument.
,
The example is illogical as it makes use of an equivocal term (bat has two
meanings), a violation of logical terms.

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METAPHYSICS

Etymological definition - Meta-physika (transcending the physical)

ORIGIN & FINALITY

Creationism - Theory of creation
- Teaches that the world is created by GOD
- Creation - production of something out of nothing in itself &
nothing it its subject matter
- God created the world on his own volition

Materialism - States that everything in the universe is reducible to matter and

can be explained in terms of physical laws
- Claims that everything is made up of matter even as everything
comes from matter and goes back to matter.
- Matter is the origin and finality of everything
 - Leucippus & Democritus
- 4 basic elements (soil, fire, air & water) are made up of an infinite numb
of particles or units called atoms; that is to say, they are clusters of
changless atoms.
- Nature consist of two things; space & atoms
- Space - which is vacuum
- Atoms - move or float in space & their motions lead them to form
object we perceive
- All things that begins will have to end
- After birth follows death

Pantheism
- nothing comes to nothing (like materialism)
- from Greek “pan” all or everything & “theos” God
- Argues that God created the world out of himself
- The universe came from God & so the universe is divine
- The world is God & God is world
- God is the universe & universe is God
- God is nature & nature is God
- Everything is God & God is everything

- Plotinus (205-270 AD)

- Professed that there exists of supreme being which the principle
& the fountain head of all things
- This supreme being is called the one or unity
- The world is divine
- The finality of human existence is unity to God

- Erigena (19th century)

- John Scotus Erigena
- Irish thinker
- Taught that God created the world out of himself
- Before creation, God had a complete pattern of the world in his mind
- Then, light is radiated from its source so the world was radiated from
God
- The universe & God are one
- God is in creation & his creation is in him
- The universe is thus an expression of thought of God & therefore
cannot exists apart from him
 - Spinoza (1632 - 1677)
- Benedict “Baruch” Spinoza
- Jewish rationalist & metaphysician
- Taught that there is only one substance, one basic stuff which constitutes
the entire universe
- That substance is infinite, self-caused, self-existent & self-determined; he
God!
- His idea of finality of human existence is the same w/ Plotinus &
Erigena

Marxism
- Founded by Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)
- socio-philosophical doctrine w/c believes in the eternity of matter
- Matter was the first thing in existence
- There can be no matter w/out motion & no motion w/out matter
- Motionless matter is an illusion
- The ultimate meaning of life, or the finality of human existence, is
not found in the principles of religion
- Religious principles only aggravate human suffering
- Religion in an opium for the people
- The ultimate meaning of life is attainable only in a classless society
where we shall experience true freedom, justice & equality

Pessimism
- Advocated by German philosopher named Arthur Schopenhauer
- States that this world is the worst possible one
- Ang daigdig ay isang buhay impiyerno
- There is no ultimate solution to suffering but he wrote
(Schopenhauer) about partial or temporary solutions, namely: music,
art, compassion & altruism
- Suicide is no solution to human suffering, it will only aggravate it
- “man should never expect a God to come to his rescue, for the
presence of evil & human suffering in the world contradicts the
existence of an allegedly all-wise, all-good, all-powerful, & all-just
God”

Optimism
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 - 1716), the outstanding modern
philosophical optimist
- This is the best of all possible worlds
- He believed in God who, being absolutely perfect in power, wisdom &
goodness
Relative Optimism
- Albert the Great
- States that the world is neither the best nor the worst of all
possible
- It could not be the worst possible one, for it were, it would be
contrary to the supreme goodness of the creator
- Hold that the world is relatively the best
- The man can either make or unmake the world
- Man can make or build the world or destroy it

Ying Yang Polarity

- Doctrine w/c is found in Chinese school of thought, particularly
Taosim & Confucianism
- Teaches that there are two cosmic forces or principles that undlie
all things & the universe as a whole :the yin & yang
- Yin - negative/female/dark
- Yang - positive/male/bright
- Polarity is not an opposition but a balance of nature

Gulong ng Palad
- Cyclic concept of nature
- cyclic change

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ETHICS
- from gk word which means “character”
- also known as moral philosophy

THEORIES OF ETHICS
1. Hedonism
- Gk (hedone “pleasure” and hedys “sweet”) is an ethical doctrine,
which claims that pleasure is the norm of morality.
- pleasure in this context, is the satisfaction of desire; hence, the
greater the pleasure, the better.

Desire may be either:

Intellectual - involves intellectual deliberation
Aesthetic - appreciating a work of art
Physical - sexual desire
 Aristippus (400BC)
- Founder of the pleasure principle
- pleasure is the one and only good, hence it must be the basis for moral
judgement
- act that gives pleasure is good, hence it must done under all circumstances;
whatever act that gives pain is bad, hence it must be avoided as much as
possible

Brihaspati Lanka
- Indian Philosopher
- In Lanka’s view, we have to live life as it is for life is beautiful
- We have to enjoy life for we live only once; after this life, no more.
- “Eat, drink and be merry, for you only have one life to live.”
4 HUMAN VALUES
- Wealth (artha)
- Pleasure (kama)
- Obligation (dharma)
- Spiritual Release (moksa) - true moksa is death itself

2. Stoicism
- the name derives from the porch (stoa poikile) in the Angora at
Athens decorated with mural painitngs.
- considers APATHY or INDIFFERENCE to pleasure as the moral norm.
Stoics - advocates who are known for their exemplary patience, self-
sacrifice, persevereance, forbearance, and long-suffering
attitude.
APATHEIA - State of imperturbability which is attainable through
apathy or indifference to pleasure
- Stoics philosophy in life is the direct opposite of the hedonists.
- Accordingly, a person who can control himself can control all that are
supposed to be controlled; and one who can conquer himself can
conquer all that are supposed to be conquered

Epictetus - former Roman slave who was one of the enormously influential
teachers of stoicism
- Epictetus taught a philosophy of mental detachment which, if
rigorously followed, enables us to harness, and master our
desires, rather than be enslaved by them
- In this light following Epictetus philosophy, one can still remain
serene even upon the death of a loved one
- According to Epictetus, most of the misery of life comes from
within; it comes from our refusal to accept our part of it;
 Lucius Annaeus Seneca - studied and taught in Rome
- Practical moral teacher, a kind of spiritual guide or a physician of the soul
- Seneca’s main philosophical aim was to lead men toward virtue, especially moral
courage and fortitude so as to men brace themselves against the onslaught of
adversities
- First is his philosophy of moral courage and misfortune: No evil or misfortune
can defeat and discourage the spirit of a stalwart man
- According to Seneca “the thing that matters, is not what you bear but how you
bear it”

Marcus Aurelius - Well-described as “by nature a saint and a sage, by profession a warrior
and a ruler”
- emperor of Rome, stoic philosopher, and one of the noblest figures of antiquity
- His teachings of tranquility are priceless gems of human knowledge that are
worth bequeathing to posterity
- For mental peace does not depend upon wealth, power, or sex, but upon the
quality of your thoughts; the same is true with happiness

3. Epicureanism
- Founder: Epicurus
- Athenian Philosopher
- Speaking of the noblest aim of philosophy, Epicurus pointed to Ataraxia, or
peaceful and tranquil life.
- Epicureanism professes moderate pleasure as the moral norm
- It is the intermediate pleasure doctrine between hedonism and stoicism
- Hedonism teaches an all-out pleasure norm of morality
- Stoicism an indifference pleasure or no pleasure at all

Three (3) causes of pain:

- Excessive use
- Abuse
- Nonuse of bodily organs

Epicurus’ two kinds of pleasure:

Dynamic pleasure – accompanied by pain like sexual love, gluttony, fame, and
drinking.
Passive pleasure – not accompanied by pain like friendship, philosophical c
onversation, playing with kids.

Ethical guidelines for moral decisions.

Three kinds of desire:
- Natural and necessary
- Natural but unnecessary
- Unnatural and unnecessary

Two fears that stand on the way of attaining mental peace:

- Fear of gods
- Fear of death
4. Situationism
- Joseph Fletcher is an American Protestant medical doctor,
situationism is also known as contexualism or situation ethics

He mentions the three approaches to morality:

- Legalism
- antinomianism, and
- situationism

- The legalistic approach prescribes certain general moral

prescriptions, laws, or norms by which to judge, determine, and
settle the rightness and wrongness of human judgements or
decisions

- The antinomian approach, on the other hand, frees the Christian

from the obligations of the moral law in which case there are no
absolute precepts or moral principles by which to be guided in
making decisions

- Situationism- is Fletcher's preferred approach to the problem of

morality.
- this ethical theory states that the moral norms depend upon a
given situations

Three types of love:

*Eros - means sexual love which normally relates man to a
woman
*Philia - refers to the affection that binds a parent to his or
her child, a brother to his sister, a brother to his brother
or a sister to his sister
*Agape - refers to one’s care and concern and kindness towards
others.

5. Power Ethics
- “Might is right”
- It also means power, influence, control and domination

Thrasymachus - What is right or just is nothing but the interest of

the stronger
- An act promotes the interest of the stronger, it is just and
right and any act that weakness him or her is wrong and unjust
- Rulers and the strong one dictate what is just or unjust and
right or wrong the ruler's authority is absolute and it does not
compromise
 - The weak ones or the subordinates have no choice but to obey and
to follow.
- Regarded as morally wrong are act of disobedience, resistance,
revolt and disloyalty to the ruler
Friedrich Nietzche (1844-1900) - a German philosopher and poet is
credited for the development of power ethic in modern philosophy
- He taught that inherent in every individual, regardless of race and
clime has the will to power or the will to dominate

6. Humanistic Ethics
- Known under various names such as endemonism, perfectionism,
self-realizationism, or self-actualizationism, humanistic ethics claims
that self-realization is the true standard of morality
- Good - is reverence for life, all that enhances life, growth, and the
unfolding of self
- Evil – is all that retards growth, stifles life, narrows it down and
cuts it into pieces

Aristotle - Is regarded as the foremost proponent of the ethical school

of thought known as self-realizationism, which is exclusive found in
Nicomachean Ethics named after his son Nichomachus to whom the
book was dedicated
- Self-realization – is the highest good attainable by man

7. Thomistic Ethics
- St. Thomas Aquinas
- reason recognizes the basic principle “Do good, avoid evil”
- ‘the source of moral law is reason itself’

Three natural inclinations:

Self-preservation
- just dealing with others, and propagation of our species

Self-destruction
- urges us to care for our health, not to kill ourselves or put
ourselves in danger

Self-immolation
- putting oneself in unnecessary jeopardy are by nature evil

8. Filipino Centripetal Ethics