INTRODUCTION 5.

Interpretation- is the assignment of meanings to various

concepts, symbols, or objects under consideration
What is Philosophy? 6. Speculation- the forming of a theory or conjecture
I. What does it mean?
Etymology: IV. Branches of Philosophy
What is Philosophy as a TERM/WORD?
The term “philosophy” comes from the Greek language. It consists A. Metaphysics-study of being in General
of two words: Explores the fundamental nature of reality and being
Philos-friend, or philia, philein- love, affection
Sophos-learned scholar, sage 1. Ontology- study of being as being/ being qua being
Sophia- wisdom, knowledge, talent Existence Objects Properties
WISDOM = APPLIED KNOWLEDGE Space and Time
KARUNUNGAN VS. KAALAMAN Cause and Effect
Real Definition: Questions:
-is the science of all things by their ultimate principles and causes, as What is real?
known by the light of natural reason alone. What is reality?
“The Unexamined Life is not worth living.” (Socrates) What is reality like?
'In the Theaetetus, Socrates says : What is being?
“ Wonder is the feeling of a Philosopher, and Why is there being rather than nothing?
Philosophy begins in Wonder”. 2. Epistemology-study of being as knowledge
( Plato, Theaetetus, 155 B. Benjamin Jewett in vol. 7of Great Books, Explores the nature and limitations of knowledge
p. 519 ) Definition of knowledge
II. Methods of Philosophy:
Philosophy arises out of wonder, out of curiosity, out of 2.1 Critics- study of being as knowledge (substance)
desire to learn, and to understand things. Philosophy is a process of Investigates how knowledge is obtained
analysis, criticism, interpretation and speculation Explores the relationship between belief, truth and knowledge
1. Analysis- process of breaking a complex topic or substance into
smaller parts in order to gain a better understanding of it Questions:
2. Synthesis- formation of something complex or coherent by What is knowledge?
combining simpler things How is knowledge acquired?
3. Antithesis- proposition that is the diametric opposite of some How do we know what we know?
other proposition
4. Criticism- is a process of commenting or giving a judgment, even if 2.2 Logic-study of being as knowledge (form), study of correct
it’s positive or negative inferential thinking

1
A. Deductive-from general to specific Examples of Theological Beliefs:
B. Inductive-from specific to general Agnosticism-uncertain about God’s existence or at least hold that
God’s existence is unknowable
Rules for Thinking Atheism- God’s existence is nihil
The systematic principles (or rules) for thinking rationally. Theism-belief in the existence of God
Inferences are made by construction of Arguments Pantheism -God is the Universe and the Universe is God.
Rules of Logic determine which arguments are VALID and which are There is no distinction between God and the universe (nature).
FALLACIES Some forms of Buddhism are examples of pantheism.
Questions: Panentheism -God is in the Universe and the Universe is in God
What is a logical argument? God is more than the Universe.
What are the different kinds of syllogisms? God and the Universe are connected but not identical.
How can we validate the truth of propositions?
Is that reasoning sound? 4. Cosmology/ Philosophy of Science
Is that statement true? Study Concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and
Is that conclusion valid? implications of science.
Empirical Verification
3. Theodicy/Philosophy of Religion Inductive Logic
Branch of philosophy concerned with questions regarding religion Objectivity of the Observer
Nature & Existence of God Questions:
Theology (study about God, existence of God is certain) vs. What is the World made of?
Theodicy (opinion or judgments about God, existence of God is What is the natural world?
speculated) How should we study nature?
Examination of Religious Experience What methods are useful in the study of nature?
Analysis of Religious language and texts Can science establish Natural Laws which are absolute (true
Relationship between Religion and Science everywhere and for everyone)?
Questions: What are the limits of scientific knowledge?
Does God exist?
What is God? 5. Philosophical Anthropology/ Rational Psychology
What is the nature of the relationship between God and humans? A discipline within philosophy that seeks to unify the several
Is God active in the world? How? empirical investigations of human nature in an effort to understand
Is there life after death? individuals as both creatures of their environment and creators of
What is the relationship between Religion and Ethics? ...Religion and their own values.
Science? Human condition
The mind-body problem

2
Free will What laws are good and necessary?
The search for meaning How should law be enforced?
Cultural diversity
Ethics, and morality 3. Economics-theoretical study of material wealth, an inquiry into
Questions: the nature and causes of the wealth of nations
What is our place in the grand cosmic scheme? How do we fit into Questions:
the vastness of existence? What constitutes a “market”?
Why are we here? What drives our actions, desires, and aspirations? Are there alternative institutions for modern economic activity?
Can we subject humanity to systematic examination? Is it possible to What roles can the state play in promoting efficiency, equity,
understand our essence, behaviors, and motivations through well-being, productivity, or growth within economic development?
rigorous analysis?
B. Axiology- study of value of being, study of values 4. Mathematics-study of the value of numbers; science of quantity,
space, structure and change.
1. Ethics-study of good and evil, a philosophical study on the Questions:
morality (goodness or badness) of human actions (conduct) Is mathematics a discovery of pre-existing truths, or do we invent
Questions: mathematical concepts?
How should we live? What are the axioms and logical principles that underpin
What is good and evil? mathematical systems?
What is the best way to live? Does mathematics have a direct correspondence to the physical
What is Justice? world? Why does mathematics, which often begins with abstract
Is right and wrong the same everywhere or different everywhere? concepts, turn out to be so effective in describing natural
phenomena?
2. Politics/Political Philosophy-study of the dynamics of power
Explores the relationship between citizens and governments 5. Linguistics-study of language, specifically language form,
Liberty language meaning, and language in context
Legal Justice Questions:
Property Ownership What is the essence of meaning in language? How do words and
Citizen's Rights sentences convey thoughts and relate to reality?
System of Law Can language shape our perception of the world? Is meaning
independent of language, or are they intricately intertwined?
Questions: 6. Aesthetics-study of beauty, science of quality
How should the government be organized? Sensori-Emotional Values
What makes a government legitimate? Explores the nature of beauty, art, and taste with the creation and
Who decides who the leaders should be? appreciation of beauty

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 Questions: Not possible of complex and possible of complex and
What is beauty? immaterial Term immaterial Term
What is art?
What is the value of beauty and art?
Who should judge what is beautiful or artistic? Abstraction: mental process of grasping the formal features,
How should art and beauty be judged? essence, nature or “whatness” of a thing.
Aesthetics
A. Formal-formal features and qualities e.g. color, shape, and
Is this “Art”?
texture of an object.
Levels of Beauty:
B. Total- apprehension of the universal whole from particular
Cute🡪 Pretty🡪 Beautiful🡪Grand🡪Sublime
objects e.g. Man is a Rational Animal
Rational- Specific difference (differentia), Animal- Genus (Genera) =
What is Thinking?
Man (Species)
Thinking is a purposeful, organized cognitive process that we use to
make sense of our world.
Concept, idea, word, and term-One of our basic mental operations
Types of Thinking
Critical and Creative is simple apprehension. Our intellect apprehends or abstracts the
nature or essential qualities (essence) of the things we perceive. The
What is Critical Thinking? product of this mental function is called concept. Hence, we have a
“Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively concept of a dog, for instance, which refers to our intellectual image
and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, or grasp of an animal called a dog.
and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, Though some logicians and epistemologists regard concept
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, and idea as synonymous, the two have distinct meanings in the
as a guide to belief and action. “ sense that concept is made up of ideas.
- Michael Scriven & Richard Paul A word is the simplest unit of written or spoken language. It
is the fundamental medium of communication. Without words,
sentences and statements cannot be constructed. When employed
I. Mental Act: Simple Apprehension to express an idea or group of ideas (concept), a word or group of
Phantasm: sensible image in the imagination that represents the words (phrases) is called a term. A term is the oral or written
material features of the thing or object. representation of an idea or group of ideas (concept). It is also the
basic component of a statement.The proposition The former
Phantasm Concept president of the Philippines is a woman, for instance, contains two
Particular Universal terms: the former president of the Philippines and woman. Woman
Changeable Fixed (constant) is a word used to express an idea. This is an example of a simple
Found in the Imagination Found in the Intellect

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term, that is, a single word term. The phrase the former
vice-president of the Philippines is a group of words used to express
an idea or concept. This exemplifies a complex term—a term which
is a group of words representing one concept. While terms are
automatically words, words are not necessarily terms. In the
statement above, is is a word but is not a term. Many other words
have no referents, and hence are words but not terms, such as or,
only, from, through, out, etc.Word therefore is not synonymous with
term for not all words are terms. And as distinct from concept, word
is made up of letters whereas concept is made up of ideas.
Intension (Comprehension) and Extension of Term
Our mind has the ability and function to abstract the common
qualities or features present in some things perceived by our
senses. In our observation, for example, we see some animals
exhibiting distinct attributes common to all alike. We cluster the
more noticeable of these characteristics into a concept—for
instance, that of a dog. Every time we encounter an animal
displaying such qualities, we term it a dog. The set of attributes or
traits that members of a term possess is called the intension or
comprehension of a term. Dog, for example, is an animal, a
mammal, a living organism, a sentient being. The intension includes
not only the essential qualities but also those deducible from them.
Being an animal, a dog, for instance, can multiply. Being a living
organism, someday it will die. Extension of a term, on the other
hand, refers to the totality of individuals or classes to which the
intension is applicable. Dalmatians, canines, etc., and any literal dog
are extensions of the simple term dog.
Many philosophers are now using the words connotation and
denotation to signify intension and extension respectively.
The intension and extension of terms are inversely related to
each other. The greater the intension of a term, the lesser its
extension, and vice-versa. A young dog for instance, stands as an
intension of the term puppy. If we add Dalmatian to the intension,
then the extension is reduced for it does not involve non-Dalmatian
puppies. If we further increase the intension by adding newly born,
the extension then decreases all the more for it now excludes those
young Dalmatian dogs that are not newly born. Logically therefore,
if we lessen the intension, the result would be the increase in the
extension.
Rules of Comprehension and Extension:
1. Comprehension cannot be increased or decreased without
changing the meaning of the term
2. Extension can be increased or decreased without changing the
meaning of the term
3. As Comprehension increases, Extension decreases and vice versa
their relationship is inversely proportional
Comprehension Extension
Substance Spirits, Minerals, Plants, Animals, Men
Material Substance Minerals, Plants, Animals, Men
Living Material Substance Plants, Animals, Men
Sentient Living Material Substance Animals, Men
Rational Sentient Living Material Substance Men
Some Epistemological Schools:
Realism-the viewpoint which accords to things which are known or
perceived an existence or nature which is independent of whether
anyone is thinking about or perceiving them
Idealism-Deals with reality as spirit or consciousness and whatever
that exists are chiefly mental or ideas and abstraction and laws are
fundamental in reality and not in sensory things.
Ex. Phenomenological Method of Husserl
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Empiricism-Means that what is true and real are those that are
confirmed by actual experience.
Ex. “The Mind is a Tabula Rasa (Blank slate)”-John Locke
Rationalism- Means that what is true and real are those that are
confirmed by reason or intuition.
Ex. “Cogito Ergo Sum” (I think therefore I exist!)-Rene Descartes
Skepticism-the attitude of doubting knowledge claims set forth in
various areas
Term is a sensible conventional sign expressive of a concept.
Sensible: the spoken or written words are sensible, that is, they are
perceivable through the senses.
Conventional: this is said by distinction from natural signs. A natural
sign is one whose connection with the object it manifests is given by
nature: e.g. smoke is a natural sign of fire; heavy dark clouds, of rain.
A conventional sign is one whose connection with the thing it
manifests is provided by common understanding or agreement,
which is usually tacit; e.g. the flag of a nation.
Sign: This is something that manifests another object, aside from
itself. If it manifests only itself, it is not a sign.
Expressive of a concept: the term expresses immediately the
concept. However, since the concept is essentially expressive of the
object, its sign, which is the term, is also expressive of the object.
SIGNS
a. Formal sign – one that manifests an object from its likeness or
resemblance to it: e.g., a photograph is a formal sign of the physical
appearance of a person, or a thing, from the resemblance it bears to
the physical appearance of the latter. (concept)
b. Instrumental sign – one which manifests an object from any
other connection it bears to the latter, aside from resemblance: e.g.,
footprints, flag, and insignia. (term)
Kinds of terms:
In these various classifications of terms, a term might receive a
place in each of the classes since categorizations are based on
different aspects:
According To Comprehension:
Terms may be concrete, or abstract. Aside from this, term may also
be:
a. Generic: when it expresses the common constituent or the
common essential feature of the object. E.g., a hammer is TOOL; a
man is an ANIMAL.
b. Specific: when it expresses the distinctive constituent or the
distinctive essential feature of the object. E.g., man is a RATIONAL
animal.
According to quantity/extension:
Singular, Particular, Universal, and Collective Terms
a. A term is singular if it refers to only one individual or thing. The
indicators of singularity are:
1. proper nouns/ proper names, such as Tokyo, Michael
Jordan, Air Force One
2. superlatives, such as the best actor, the most corrupt
official, the highest scorer
3. demonstrative adjectives/pronouns, such as this book, that
room, that teacher, this student
4. personal pronouns, I, he, you, she, her, etc. (as long as they
definitely stand for one specific person)
5. the definite article “the”/specific modifiers such as, the
lady in red
b. A term is particular if it stands for an indefinite part of a whole. In
Logic, a term is considered particular if it represents “at least one
but not all” of the individuals composing a class. The following
indicates particularity:
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 1. Explicit: carry particular quantifiers from indefinite pronouns
and adjectives
o indefinite pronouns/adjectives (some, many, several, few,
most, certain) e.g. some singers, several songs, many
questions, few answers
o indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ used in particular contexts,
e.g. a helicopter, an airplane
o number modifiers, e.g. 7 dwarfs, 2 princesses
o modifiers such as majority, almost all, generally all, nearly
all, e.g. majority of the congressmen, almost all
administrators, generally all believers
o Subject terms in propositions that are true to only some of
the denotations of the term, e.g. Belgians are religious;
Men have a sense of chivalry.
2. Implicit: do not quantify particular terms but are implied in
the term.
o Affirmative eg. only some, at least some
o Negative eg. only some are not, at least some are not
c. A term is general or universal if it refers to all individuals signified
by the term. The following indicates universality:
1. universal affirmative quantifiers (explicit) such as, all, each,
every, any, everything, everyone, anything, anyone,
whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever, whoever, e.g. all
countries, every citizen, each blogger, any amount, anything
new, whatever answer
2. universal negative modifiers (explicit) such as, no, none, no
one, nothing, nobody, never, etc., e.g. no American, nothing
small, nobody wise
3. indefinite articles ‘a’ and ‘an’(implicit) (when taken to refer
to all denotations of the term), e.g. A man is a rational
being.
d. A term is collective if it refers to a group of individuals considered
as a single unit. Collective nouns such as audience, committee,
crowd, flock, government, jury, gang, and orchestra are collective
terms. A collective term may be universal, (e.g. squad, all squads,
every squad), particular (e.g., some family, several crowds), or
singular (e.g. this jury).
Collective term is not applicable to the objects taken singly
and individually, unless used figuratively. The term family, as an
example, is collective, since it is predicable of the family members
taken collectively, and not individually.
According to quality:
affirmative and negative
a. A term is affirmative or positive if it expresses what is real, true,
or essential of a thing, e.g. existence, life, and optimism. A term is
also affirmative when it affirms the presence of desirable traits, e.g.
just, honest, and active.
There are two kinds of affirmative term: 1) positive in form,
positive in meaning (the above-mentioned examples fall under this
kind); and 2) negative in form, positive in meaning, e.g. blameless,
spotless, unblemished, untarnished, infinite, immortal, guiltless
b. A term is negative if it indicates the non-appearance of some
trait, e.g. unjust, sickly, inactive, death, immorality.
There are two kinds of negative term: 1) negative in form, negative
in meaning, e.g. unjust, inactive, immoral, impotent; and 2) positive
in form, negative in meaning, e.g. mistake, death, evil, oppression,
chaos.
According to Origin:
Immediate and Mediate
a. Immediate terms are formed through direct perception of things.
e.g. bag, pencil, ball pen, yellow paper, cellphone
b. Mediate terms are formed indirectly, that is, through the
mediation of other ideas.
e.g. God, soul, spirit, universe
According to the nature of referents/relation to its objects:
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 Concrete, Abstract, Logical, and Null
a. A term is concrete/real/objective if its referent is tangible or can
be perceived by the senses.e.g. tree, chalk, spoon, belt, pants, arms.
Concrete term also refers to that which indicates a quality or
characteristic as inherent in a subject. eg.: black, big, tall.
b. A term is abstract if its referent is intangible or can be understood
only by the mind and cannot be perceived by the senses. e.g.
freedom, democracy, faith, love, patriotism, compassion, sacrifice.
Abstract term also refers to the quality or characteristic considered
independently from the subject in which it inheres. e.g. blackness,
redness, kindness
c. A term is logical/mental/ideal if it was formulated to serve as
linguistic device to aid learning. e.g. copula, subject, predicate,
velocity, momentum, phylum, square root of a negative number
d. A term is null or empty/imaginary/subjective if it has no actual
or real referents but is only imaginary. e.g. unicorn, fairy, elf, dragon,
batman, spiderman, superman, x-men, dragon
According to relation:
Compatible and Incompatible (Contradictory, Contrary, Relative, and
Privative)
a.Compatible terms are terms that can coexist in a subject, that is,
there is no logical obstacle for them to be present in a subject at the
same time.
e.g. tall and handsome, dark and rich, slowly and surely, simple and
elegant, sweet and sour
b. Incompatible terms are terms that cannot coexist in a subject for
they rule out each other. The following are kinds of incompatible
terms:
1. Contradictory terms are two terms, one of which negates the
other. Contradictories are so mutually exclusive that there is no
middle ground or third possibility between them.
e.g. edible – non-edible; being – nothing; existent – non-existent;
life – lifeless
2. Contrary terms are terms that belong to the same class but deny
each other. Between these terms, there is/are middle ground/s.
When some said that her girlfriend is not black, it is not safe to
conclude that he must be white, for he may be brown or yellow.
White and black therefore are contrary (not contradictory) terms.
Other examples: elated—depressed, hard—easy, hot – cold, happy –
sad, long – short, genius—idiot.
3. Privative terms are terms wherein one indicates the presence of a
quality or perfection while the other signifies the absence or lack of
it.
e.g. good – evil, truth—falsity, health – sickness, wealth – poverty,
sight – blindness
4. Correlative terms are two opposed terms wherein one cannot be
understood without the other.In their meaning, they imply
reference to one another.
e.g. husband – wife, interviewer – interviewee, parent – child,
master – servant, teacher – pupil, leader – follower
According To Meaning:
Univocal, Equivocal, Analogous and Metaphorical
a. Univocal or homologous: term bearing the same meaning as
applied to several individuals. E.g. man, cat, scientist, student, etc.
Pedro is a man. Juan is a man. Man is taken as a
univocal/homologous term.
b. Analogous: term expressing kindred meanings. The Greek word
analogy means associated meaning. It may be analogous:
1. BY PROPORTION or by the association of the objects to which the
term is applied. It is also known as a logical analogy. e.g., the term
HEALTHY is analogous by proportion, when applied to a man as
subject of health, to climate as factor and to color as sign of health.
2. BY PROPORTIONALITY, or by virtue of the kindred similarity of
the conceptual and formal reasons denoted. It is also known as
metaphysical analogy. e.g., between the goodness of a mother and
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the goodness of a pair of shoes, between the 1/3 of 27 and the 1/3
of 9. Lungs are man and gills are to fish.
The formal reasons of things are intrinsic to them, the said similarity
of proportionality is said to be intrinsic, by distinction from the
external or physical similarity of things.
3. BY ABSOLUTENESS- refers to the primary and absolute quality of
a thing
e.g. man is a mortal being
4. BY RELATIVENESS- refers to a secondary and relative quality of a
thing
e.g. ball is a round body
c. Equivocal: term outwardly or apparently the same, but expressing
different meanings. The Latin original equivocal denotes sameness
as to term only. The term may be equivocal:
1. In pronunciation only. E.g., sweet and suite; week and weak; sun
and son; hens and hence; key and quay.
2. In writing only. E.g., bow [bou] means inclination of head, with or
without bending the body and bow [bō] which means weapon
shooting arrow; dingy (rowboat or dirty).
3. In both pronunciation and writing. E.g., ball (spheroid or dance);
bat (animal, or club); club (weapon, group, or building); ring (circular
device or sound).
d. Metaphorical: term transferred from its proper meaning or object
and applied to something else, on account of the latter’s
resemblance to the former and to denote such resemblance. E.g.,
the king of animals; henpecked husband; tomboy; hand of hand;
school head.
According to Components (Composition):
Simple and Complex
a. Simple term -a single word representing a thing
e.g. man, dog
b. Complex or multiple term- is a group of words which refer to one
thing or kinds of things taken together as one unit
e.g. a rational sentient living material substance=man
According to Significance of the Terms
a. Significant-stands for the essence, nature or characteristics of a
thing.
e.g. beautiful, big, healthy, copula
b. Non-Significant Terms- does not stand for the essence, nature or
characteristics of a thing.
e.g. demonstrative pronouns-this, that etc. proper nouns- Mr. Cali
(not necessarily a softdrink), Mr. White (not necessarily having a
white complexion)
According to Function
a. Principal-is a term that expresses the main object
e.g. The love of God (love is the principal term), The lady from
Iloilo (lady is the principal term)
b. Incidental- term that expresses some qualifications about the
main object.
e.g. The love of God (God is incidental), The lady from Iloilo (Iloilo
is incidental)
c. Explicative Incidental- term that expresses some features of the
main object
e.g. Students, who are poor, would not want a tuition fee
increase. (Poor is a feature of the students)
d. Restrictive Incidental-term that signifies limitation of the
extension of the term
e.g. Only you can make the world seem bright. (you signifies 1
person being compared with others)
e. Categorematic- terms relating to a word or symbol having an
independent meaning apart from the context of other words or
symbols.
e.g. love, son, true etc.
f. Syncategorematic - is a word that cannot serve as the subject or
the predicate of a proposition, and thus cannot stand for any of
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Aristotle's categories, but can be used with other terms to form a
proposition. Words such as 'all', 'and', 'if' are examples of such terms
Predicaments refer to the set of fundamental ideas in terms of
which all other ideas can be expressed. This is otherwise known as
categories or first intentions. Predicaments are applied to universal
concepts by which other concepts can be expressed or classified.
“What is Certain in life is uncertainty itself.” –Bertrand Russell
2 types of Predicaments:
1. Substance-it is that which has its existence not in another but
in and for itself. It is defined without reference to a subject.
Examples: Hospital, Medicines, Blackboard; chalk; book
2. Accident- refers to everything added to a substance as a
further determination.
Examples: blue; big; soft; triangular
Types of Accidents:
1. Quantity- the modification of a substance as regards the effect
of having extension and divisibility. Examples: 200 pounds, six feet, 2
kilometers, ten centimeters
2. Quality- the formal determination of a substance, which may
be a habit, disposition, capacity or the form and figure of a thing.
Examples: charming, hot, smooth
3. Relation- the manner in which substances refer to each other.
Examples: Student, teacher, principal, son, fiancée
4. Action- the production of an effect in another. Examples:
teaching, coaching, directing, dancing
5. Passion- the reception of an effect from another. Examples:
was seen, was taught, being heard
6. When (Time) - the situation in time. Examples: last night,
tomorrow, today at 7 a.m.
7. Where (Place) – the position in space. Examples: here, there,
Quezon City, at school, in the classroom room, at the hospital
8. Posture- the determination of the substance as to the
disposition of its parts
Examples: sitting, lying, standing
9. Habit – the determination of the substance as to the external
appearance or outfit.
Examples: in a black dress, in brown shoes, covered by a blanket
Predicables refer to the kind of relations, which may be obtained
between a term and the subject of which it is predicated.
Predicables are also known as second intentions.
Types of Predicables
1. Genus- a universal idea which expresses a part of the essence
of a thing, that part which is common with other species in the
same class.
Examples: A lake is a body of water. , Man is an animal, A syrup is a
medication.
2. Specific Difference- a universal idea which expresses a part of
the essence of a thing, that part which differentiates it from that of
other species.
Examples: A lake is water surrounded by land. , Man is rational, A
syrup is a concentrated sugar solution
3. Species- a universal idea that expresses the complete essence
of a thing. Adding the specific difference to the genus constitutes it.
Example: A lake is a body of water surrounded by land, Man is a
rational anima, A syrup is a medication dissolved in concentrated
sugar solution
4. Property – a universal idea that expresses an attribute that
belongs to the thing by
natural necessity.
Examples: A lake is a body of freshwater. Man is capable of speech.
A syrup is sweet
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5. Logical Accident – a universal idea that is not a part of the
essence of a thing but something that belongs to the thing not by
natural necessity but by contingency.
Examples: The lake is large, calm, and picturesque. , Peter is tall,
dark and handsome, A syrup may contain flavoring to make
medication more palatable
Definition
Definition is the process of laying down the meaning of a
term or an idea by giving its predicaments and predicables. It is the
process of specifying the idea being signified by the term through
the manifestation of its conceptual features or nature. Ex. Man is a
rational animal.
Rules of Definition:
1. The definition must be brief
2. The definition must be clearer than the term that is being
defined
3. The definition must be positive (affirmative) as far as possible.
4. The definition must be adequate
5. The definition must not contain the term or feature of the term
being defined
6. The definition must be not be circular
7. The definition must be convertible with the term being defined.
Kinds of Definition
1. Nominal Definition or Stipulative definition. The type of
definition in which meaning are taken from the term itself. It is done
by:
a. Pointing out the object meant or by giving examples. The
meaning of the term is recreated using memory or by undergoing
simple apprehension or by enumerating objects that falls under its
categories
Example: House- bungalow, nipa hut, mansion
Medication- Pill, Capsule, Extract, Suppository
b. Etymological definition. The meaning of the term is taken from
the derivation or origin of the term.
Example: Psychology – from the terms “psyche” which means
“mind” and “logos” which means “study” . It is therefore the study
of the mind
c. Definition by Synonym. The meaning of the term is given by
giving a familiar term that has similar meaning
Example: Liliputan- small
2. Real Definition. The type of definition in which the meaning or
essence or nature of the term is externally manifested. This is done
through:
a. Genus and Specific deference. The genus which is the essential
feature of a thing which it possesses in common with other things in
a group is presented together with the essential feature of a thing
which makes it unique from other members of the group in order to
point out to a particular species.
Example: Man is a rational Animal or an embodied
spirit
Ethics is a philosophical study of the
morality of human acts
b. Genetic Definition. A definition that presents and explains the
process or the origin of a thing.
Example: An analysis is the process of breaking down the parts of a
whole and establishing the relationships of the parts to other parts
and to the whole
c. Causal Definition. It is a definition that presents the
efficient cause (who made it) and the final cause ( for what it was
made)
Example: A thermometer is a device that is used to measure the
body’s Temperature
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d. Descriptive Definition. It is the process of presenting the features 2. Compare the two concepts
and the physical characteristics of a thing. 3. Make perception of the two concepts
Example: A hospital is a building with relatively adequate 4. Pronounce the agreement or disagreement
facilities to treat the and care for the sick Kinds of Judgment:
● Immediate (Intuitive)
Division ● Mediate (Inferential)
Division is the systematic enumeration of the component parts of a ● Analytical
whole. ● Synthetical
3 types of Division: ● A Priori
1. Physical Division- the enumeration of the quantitative parts of ● A Posteriori
a quantitative whole. Ex. Man has head, arms, body, legs etc. Proposition
2. Logical Division- the breaking up of a logical whole into its - the product of judgment.
logical parts. Ex.: Man is white, yellow, brown, or black. - a statement that affirms (asserts) or denies (negates) something
3. Metaphysical Division- the breaking up of a thing to its - all propositions are sentences but not all sentences are
essential constituents into genus and specific difference. propositions
Ex. Man is a rational animal.
Classification Parts of a proposition:
Classification is the systematic arrangement of major divisions SUBJECT
and subdivisions. Classification starts from the less general to a - the one spoken of: the one about whom or of which something is
more general grouping of things. It is considered the reverse of affirmed or denied.
division. It is the process of putting together things of similar PREDICATE
characteristics. - is what is affirmed or denied of the subject.
COPULA (Peter Abelard- Latin Logician who discussed insightfully
the role of the copula in the categorical propositions and conditional
propositions or “consequences”.)
- links the subject with the predicate; a verb to be: is, am, are
(affirmative) and is not, am not, are not (negative)
II. Mental Act: Judgment
Judgment
Reduction of the Proposition to their Logical Forms:
- is the mental act which affirms or denies something.
1. The subject term (that is affirmed or denied) must have an
-Truth and Falsity lies in Judgment
appropriate quantifier. E.g. all, every, some, few, most, none, this,
that, those etc.
Truth- mind corresponds to reality or are congruent
Prerequisites of Judgment
1. Apprehend the two concepts

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2. The copula (that which separates or joins the subject and the
predicate and for affirmation or denial) must be made apparent in
the proposition. E.g. is, is not, am, am not, are and are not.
3. The predicate (that which is affirmed or denied in/ of the
subject) must contain modifiers such as phrases, clauses,
adjectives or particles to express logical forms.
Several student radicals have not traveled to Red China.
several student radicals are not [travelers] to Red China.
We saw the zarzuela and did not enjoy it.
Some times that we saw the zarzuela are not times that we
enjoyed.

Examples: NOTE: for the purpose of Logic, tenses are irrelevant. The copula
1. He eats watermelons. "is" should be taken in a tenseless sense; its past and future forms
Reduced form: He (subject) is (copula) the person who eats are usually considered part of the predicate.
watermelons (predicate). In this connection, it is important to note that number, in the
grammatical sense, is irrelevant also to logic.
2. Dogs bark.
Reduced form: All dogs (subject) are (copula) animals that bark Kinds of Proposition:
(predicate).
I. Categorical
3. What a wonderful Friday evening! A. Existential or Factual Categorical
Reduced form: This Friday morning (subject) is (copula) wonderful B. Predicational Categorical
(predicate). a. simple
Other Examples: 1. According to quality
Shakespeare wrote the drama Macbeth. ● Affirmative or Positive
Shakespeare is the dramatist of Macbeth. ● Negative
Shakespeare is the author of the drama Macbeth.
No crocodiles fly. 2. According to quantity
No crocodiles are flyers. ● Universal
All crocodiles are not flyers (animals that fly). ● Particular
None of the guests came. ● Singular
No guests are guests who came.
No guests were people who came. 3. According to quality and quantity combined
All guests are not the people who came. ● A (Universal, Positive)
Some broken hearts can be mended. ● E (Universal Negative)
Some broken hearts are mendable things. ● I (Particular, Positive)
A dog barked furiously last night. ● O (Particular Negative)
A dog is an animal which barked furiously last night.

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4. According to Relation with Reality
● True
● False
5. According to Origin or Formation
● Immediate
● Mediate
b. compound (overtly multiple)
● copulative
● relative
● adversative
● causal
● explicative
c. complex (covertly multiple)
● exclusive
● exceptive
● comparative
● reduplicative
● modal
● inceptive
● desitive
● apodictical
● problematical
II. Hypothetical
A. Conditional
B. Disjunctive
a. Strict
b. Broad
C. Conjunctive Logical Diagram of Categorical Propositions:

1. Proposition A (All S are P) e.g. Cats are animals; All cats are
animals.

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2. Proposition E (No S is P) e.g. No animal is a plant; All animals are
not plants.

Quantity of the Predicate Term and the Distribution of the

3. Proposition I (Some S is P) e.g. Some bananas are yellow. Proposition Terms:

1. The predicate of the proposition is always singular when it

stands for one definite individual or group.
2. The predicate of the affirmative proposition is always particular
unless it is singular.
3. The predicate of the negative proposition is always universal
unless it is singular.

S DISTRIBUTION PREDICATE
U UNDISTRIBUTED DISTRIBUTED
B
J DISTRIBUTED A E
E
4. Proposition O (Some S is not P) e.g. Some cops are not bad. C UNDISTRIBUTED I O
T

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LOGIC-Ideogenesis
Mental Acts and their Features:
1ST ACT 2ND ACT 3
R

A
C
T
NAME Simple Judgment Reasoning
Apprehensio
n
MENTAL Concept Mental Sentence Argument
PRODUCT

LINGUISTIC Term Declarative Sentences Paragraph

EXPRESSION

EXAMPLES “Man”, Socrates is a man. All men are mortal.

“Mortal” Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

STRUCTURA None, unitary Subject Term, Predicate Premises, Conclusion

L PARTS Term

QUESTION What it is. Whether it is. Why it is.

ANSWERED

ASPECT OF Essence Existence Cause

REALITY

GOOD Clear True Valid

WHEN
HOW TO Definition of No one way. Rules of Logic
ACHIEVE terms
BAD WHEN Unclear False Invalid, Fallacious
QUESTION What do you What is your point? Why? (Prove it)
TO mean? (Define (State your conclusion.)
HABITUALLY your terms)
ASK

LOGICAL Predicability Predication Inference

ISSUE

16
III. Mental Act: REASONING

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