TOPIC:

A CRITICAL DISCUSSION OF CRIMINAL PROFILING AS A SOURCE OF

STRATEGIC CRIME INTELLIGENCE IN HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION

By

Sherise Nundhkumar
STUDENT NUMBER: 62761552

Submitted in Partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Advanced

Forensic Crime Intelligence (FOR4805)

In The Bachelor of Arts Honours in Forensic Science and Technology

School of Criminal Justice UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

SUPERVISOR: Dr Lesiba Motsepe

ASSIGNMENT: 02

Year: 2023
 FOR4805 | 62761552

Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 2
2. Research Aim ................................................................................................................ 3
3. Research Question ....................................................................................................... 4
4. Literature review ........................................................................................................... 5
4.1 Overview on criminal profiling as a source of strategic crime intelligence .... 5
4.1.1 Background and significance of criminal profiling in homicide investigations ........ 5
4.1.2 Background of advanced forensic intelligence collection techniques ................. 6
4.1.3 Significance of evaluating and assessing their application in investigations....... 6
4.2 Understanding criminal profiling as a source of strategic crime intelligence 8
4.2.1 Purpose and role of criminal profiling in homicide investigations ........................ 8
4.2.2 Relationship between criminal profiling and strategic crime intelligence ............ 9
4.3 Methodology and approaches in criminal profiling for strategic crime
intelligence ...................................................................................................................... 11
4.3.1 Behavioural analysis and profiling approaches ................................................. 11
4.3.2 Data collection and analysis methods in strategic crime intelligence ................ 12
4.4 Reliability and effectiveness of criminal profiling in homicide investigations
15
4.4.1 Accuracy (Assessing the success rate of profiling outcomes), validity, and
consistency of profiling findings .................................................................................... 15
4.4.2 Contribution of profiling in identifying suspects ................................................. 15
4.4.3 Impact of profiling on investigation strategies and resource allocation ............. 16
4.4.4 Influence of profiling on case solvability and prosecution ................................. 16
4.4.5 Linking offender characteristics to crime scene behaviour ............................... 16
4.5 Limitations and challenges in criminal profiling for homicide investigations
19
4.5.1 Controversies surrounding profiling techniques and interpretation ................... 19
4.5.2 Addressing the limitations and improving profiling practices ............................. 19
4.6 Comparative analysis of criminal profiling with other investigative methods
22
4.6.1 Comparison with forensic science techniques and evidence analysis .............. 22
4.6.2 Integration of profiling with advanced technologies (e.g., AI, data analytics) .... 24
4.6.3 Collaborative approaches in combining profiling with traditional investigation
methods ........................................................................................................................ 25
4.7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 28
List of Reference ................................................................................................................. 31
Annexure A – a COPY of the assessed Assignment 01 .................................................. 36
Annexure B – declaration of authenticity ......................................................................... 70
Annexure C – a revised list of your sub-questions after Assignment 01 was Assessed
.............................................................................................................................................. 71

1
 FOR4805 | 62761552

A CRITICAL DISCUSSION OF CRIMINAL PROFILING AS A SOURCE OF

STRATEGIC CRIME INTELLIGENCE IN HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION

1. Introduction

"Profiling criminals is based on consistency," Chief (2015) stated, but what if

criminals contradict the very patterns we are attempting to uncover? In spite of the
fact that profiling techniques attempt to identify the behavioural traits and
characteristics of offenders based on the assumption of consistency, criminals can
be unpredictable and ever-changing. As the criminal landscape continues to change
with the emergence of new techniques, technologies, and motivations, we must
question the validity and limitations of criminal profiling that relies solely on
consistency. Chifflet (2014) suggests homology is similar to criminals who commit
similar crimes. Do we neglect a multitude of criminals who operate outside of the
anticipated patterns? It is time to question the concept of consistency in criminal
profiling and investigate alternative approaches that acknowledge the fluidity and
complexity of criminal behaviour.

Globally, the problem of relying on consistency in criminal profiling exists within the
realm of modern law enforcement and investigative techniques. As crime has
become more globalized and complex over the past few decades, law enforcement
agencies have relied on profiling techniques to assist in identifying and apprehending
criminals. In recent years, however, the knowledge divide regarding the limitations of
consistency has become more pronounced. Chifflet (2014) says that this issue has
garnered increased attention over the past decade as technological, social, and
criminal developments have presented new challenges. Traditional profiling
approaches, which presume consistent patterns of behaviour, may not effectively
capture the entire spectrum of criminal strategies and motivations. Consequently,
there is an increasing need to re-evaluate and adapt profiling methodologies to
account for the complexity and diversity of criminal behaviour in the contemporary
era.

Consistency-based criminal profiling has significant and multifaceted effects. The

possibility of inaccurate or insufficient profiles impeding investigational efforts is what
causes the disruption or void in the current body of research knowledge. By

2
 FOR4805 | 62761552

assuming consistency in offender behaviour, it is possible to disregard offenders who

deviate from established patterns or employ novel techniques. This can lead to
wasted opportunities to identify and apprehend perpetrators, prolonging
investigations, increasing threats to public safety, and possibly resulting in
miscarriages of justice. In addition, the overemphasis on consistency may hinder the
development of profiling techniques that are more nuanced and comprehensive,
taking into account the dynamic nature of criminal behaviour. To address this
deficiency, it is necessary to promote research that investigates the complexities of
criminal behaviour, incorporates emerging trends and methodologies, and adopts a
more flexible and adaptable approach to profiling. In an ever-changing environment,
law enforcement agencies can only effectively combat and prevent crime if they have
a comprehensive comprehension of the various manifestations of criminal behaviour.

Numerous compelling arguments support the necessity of addressing the issue of

reliance on consistency in criminal profiling. The primary objective of criminal
profiling is to increase the efficiency of law enforcement by providing valuable insight
into the mentality and behaviour of offenders (Chief, 2015). By recognizing the
limitations of consistency, we can improve the accuracy and dependability of profiling
methodologies, ensuring that investigative resources are allocated appropriately and
focused on the correct targets. In addition, addressing this issue promotes a deeper
understanding of criminal behaviour, enabling law enforcement agencies to
anticipate evolving criminal trends and adapt their strategies accordingly. We can
reduce the likelihood of false assumptions, unjust accusations, and missed
opportunities to prevent or solve crimes by adopting a more nuanced and adaptable
strategy. The aim of this study is to analyse criminal profiling as a source of strategic
crime intelligence in homicide cases and evaluate its efficacy, limitations, and impact
on investigations. The research question is, in what manner does criminal profiling
serve as a dependable and effective source of strategic crime intelligence in
homicide investigations?

2. Research Aim

The significance of research methodological objectives cannot be overstated

due to several factors. Firstly, it directs the investigation and establishes
parameters. This facilitates the alignment of research subjects and hypotheses

3
 FOR4805 | 62761552

with the objectives of the study (Denny, 2022, p. 1166). The purpose of the
investigation is further reinforced by highlighting its significance and
addressing any existing gaps in information. Additionally, it offers a
quantifiable outcome for assessing the advancement of the research. Having a
clearly defined objective enables researchers to make informed decisions and
prevent any potential deviation or uncertainty. The objective functions as a
navigational tool to ensure that each research step is intentional and
contributes to the overarching objective of the study.

The aim of this study is to analyse criminal profiling as a source of strategic crime
intelligence in homicide cases and evaluating its efficacy, limitations, and impact on
homicide investigations.

3. Research Question

The formulation of a methodological research question holds significant

importance for a multitude of reasons (Davis, 2021, pp. 131-140). Firstly, the
study is endowed with a clear emphasis and objective, so maintaining its
concentration and specificity. This matter pertains to the identification of the
necessary data required to address the research problem and the selection of
appropriate analytical methodologies. The selection of a well- chosen research
topic contributes to the significance and worth of the study, hence enhancing
its relevance within the academic discipline. The assessment aids in
determining the feasibility and manageability of the study in light of the
resources already available. A research subject that is unambiguous, aligns
with the objectives of the study, and has the potential to create hypotheses
that can be tested is considered to be clear. The formulation of a research
question serves the purpose of providing lucidity and directing the exploration
of novel facts within the chosen subject matter.

In what manner does criminal profiling serve as a dependable and effective source of
strategic crime intelligence in homicide investigations?

4
 FOR4805 | 62761552

4. Literature review
4.1 Overview on criminal profiling as a source of strategic crime intelligence

Criminal profiling plays a crucial role in the field of strategic crime intelligence,
namely in the context of murder investigations. According to Baddeley (2023),
criminal profiling may be described as a thorough procedure that involves the
assessment of evidence found at crime scenes, the examination of offender
behaviour, and the consideration of relevant aspects. The aforementioned
components converge to provide a full psychological and behavioural profile of an
unidentified offender. This profile, in turn, allows detectives to reduce the number of
potential suspects and concentrate their investigation efforts. Petherick and Brooks
(2020) appropriately provide a point of disagreement, highlighting the continuing
discussions among specialists in the area questioning the dependability and
effectiveness of criminal profiling.

4.1.1 Background and significance of criminal profiling in homicide investigations

Petherick and Brooks (2020) provide a persuasive argument for exploring the
historical and contextual importance of criminal profiling in the context of murder
investigations. Proponents of profiling argue that it provides useful insights into the
motivations, psychological characteristics, and operational methods of individuals
involved in criminal activities. Consequently, this facilitates investigators in the
process of identifying probable suspects and formulating focused investigative
strategies. The well-known instance involving Ted Kaczynski, often referred to as the
Unabomber, serves as a notable illustration of the effectiveness of profiling
techniques.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) rigorous profiling efforts successfully

focused on a man exhibiting unique characteristics, finally resulting in his
apprehension. Nevertheless, many strongly oppose the use of profiling methods,
highlighting their inherent subjectivity and the lack of scientific proof substantiating
their correctness. The authors argue that prejudices and preconceptions have the
potential to unintentionally result in unfounded suspicions and the improper
allocation of resources. The story of Richard Jewell, who was wrongly implicated in
the Centennial Olympic Park bombing in 1996 due to the use of profiling techniques,

5
 FOR4805 | 62761552

exemplifies the inherent risks associated with excessive dependence on profiling

methodologies during investigative processes.

4.1.2 Background of advanced forensic intelligence collection techniques

It is important to additionally take into account the historical development of

sophisticated forensic intelligence-gathering methods. The rapid progression of
technology and significant developments in data analysis have greatly expanded the
range of forensic evidence available. The current scope of this growth involves a
wide range of scientific approaches, such as DNA analysis, ballistics, and digital
forensics. Significantly, these methodologies provide empirical and measurable
information that may serve as a valuable supplement to, and at times, present
alternative perspectives on, the inferences derived from criminal profiling. DNA
evidence has often been crucial in the exoneration of persons who have been
mistakenly convicted, as well as in identifying the actual perpetrators.

The examination and appraisal of the implementation of modern forensic intelligence

collection methods in investigations is of paramount importance. The identification of
the most effective integration of these methodologies with criminal profiling is a
crucial undertaking aimed at improving the precision and dependability of
investigative results. The use of geographic profiling, which combines geographical
analysis with criminal behaviour, proved to be an effective investigative strategy in
the examination of the 2002 Beltway sniper attacks in the Washington, D.C., area, as
shown by the research conducted by Gershenson and Tekin (2018).

4.1.3 Significance of evaluating and assessing their application in investigations

The discussion over the use of criminal profiling in providing strategic crime
intelligence for murder investigations is characterized by its complex and detailed
nature. The authors Popovic and Huecker (2022) assert that profiling is an
indisputably important tool, providing significant insights. However, it is crucial to
thoroughly examine it, evaluating its constraints, possible biases, and the need for
empirical verification. The use of advanced methodologies for gathering forensic
information is a crucial step in strengthening the investigative toolkit. Finding the right
balance between the subtle clues that profiling can give and the solid proof that

6
 FOR4805 | 62761552

modern forensic techniques can give will lead to stronger, more reliable, and more
effective investigations into murders.

The researcher is in agreement with the assertions presented in the research context
and finds the exploration of criminal profiling in homicide investigations to be a
captivating and pivotal area of study within the realm of criminology. It's evident that
criminal profiling, when wielded effectively, can be a potent tool for law enforcement
agencies. The ability to construct psychological and behavioural profiles based on
crime scene evidence and offender behaviour provides a structured approach to
narrowing down suspects and directing investigative efforts. The Ted Kaczynski
case, commonly known as the Unabomber case, stands as a compelling testament
to the potential efficacy of profiling in real-world scenarios.

However, it's crucial to acknowledge the critiques and debates surrounding this
practice. The concerns raised by Petherick and Brooks (2020) regarding subjectivity
and the absence of empirical evidence are pertinent. Profiling, like any investigative
tool, is not without its limitations. The case of Richard Jewell serves as a stark
reminder that over-reliance on profiling can lead to hasty conclusions and potentially
unjust accusations.

The integration of advanced forensic intelligence techniques is a logical progression

in modern investigative practices. The expansion to include DNA analysis, ballistics,
and digital forensics is a testament to the evolving landscape of forensic science.
This diversification of evidence sources not only complements criminal profiling but
also provides an objective foundation that can challenge or substantiate the
conclusions drawn from behavioural analysis.

Moreover, the strategic combination of geographic profiling with offender behaviour,

as exemplified in the Beltway sniper case, demonstrates the potential synergy
between traditional profiling methods and cutting-edge investigative techniques. This
amalgamation showcases the dynamic nature of modern investigative approaches
and emphasizes the importance of adaptability in the face of evolving criminal
tactics.

7
 FOR4805 | 62761552

In summary, criminal profiling remains a valuable tool in the investigator's toolkit, but
it should be approached from a balanced perspective. Acknowledging its strengths,
limitations, and potential biases is imperative. Moreover, the integration of advanced
forensic methodologies represents a promising avenue for refining investigative
outcomes. Ultimately, the most effective investigations are those that leverage a
comprehensive understanding of both behavioural patterns and concrete, empirical
evidence.

For example, in Barrett v. State, the petitioner was convicted of the 1975 murder of a
Vanderbilt University student and sentenced to life in prison. The conviction was
affirmed on direct appeal. Evidence collected from the crime scene included prints,
hairs, and fibres, but no match was found. Decades later, advanced DNA testing
linked the petitioner to the crime scene. Additionally, an inmate testified that the
petitioner confessed to the murder. The medical examiner's findings, though
questioned, supported the asphyxiation cause of death.

The case also highlighted the evolving role of criminal profiling in investigations.
Although profiling techniques were not directly applied in this case, the use of
advanced forensic methods, including DNA analysis, played a pivotal role in
narrowing down potential suspects. The absence of an accurate profile in 1975 and
the subsequent reliance on DNA evidence underscored the limitations of traditional
profiling methods.

Throughout the legal proceedings, the petitioner's defence challenged the credibility
and admissibility of the evidence. The case serves as a significant example of how
advancements in forensic science, coupled with the absence of an effective criminal
profile, can reshape the course of a decades-old investigation and influence legal
outcomes.

4.2 Understanding criminal profiling as a source of strategic crime intelligence

4.2.1 Purpose and role of criminal profiling in homicide investigations

Ferariu (2018) initiates the discussion by highlighting the ongoing debate and
scrutiny surrounding the purpose and function of criminal profiling in such
cases. This introduction sets the stage for a balanced exploration of the topic.

8
 FOR4805 | 62761552

According to Bucholtz (2019), proponents argue that criminal profiling is instrumental

in narrowing down the list of possible suspects and provides crucial insight into
offender characteristics, behaviours, and motivations. The author supplements this
viewpoint with a practical example involving Theodore Kaczynski, the "Unabomber,"
effectively illustrating how criminal profiling can lead to successful apprehension.

However, critics, such as Swart [Sa], raise valid concerns about the scientific validity
and potential biases associated with criminal profiling. To support this perspective,
the case of Richard Jewell is presented, serving as a poignant reminder of the risks
of solely relying on profiling and providing a practical example that complements the
argument against its indiscriminate use.

4.2.2 Relationship between criminal profiling and strategic crime intelligence

In this section, the author delves into the intricate relationship between criminal
profiling and strategic crime intelligence. The proponents' perspective is outlined,
asserting that profiling enriches strategic crime intelligence by offering valuable
insights into offender behaviour and aiding in pattern recognition. The case of the
"Green River Killer," Gary Leon Ridgway (Jenson, 2019), further exemplifies how
profiling can be instrumental in identifying and apprehending serial offenders.

Conversely, the critics, represented by Swart [Sa], advocate for a more balanced
approach. They argue that criminal profiling should be viewed as one tool among
many, cautioning against over-reliance. The case of the "D.C. Sniper" provides a
compelling illustration of the limitations of profiling, showcasing how initial
assumptions based on profiles can lead investigations astray.

The researcher concurs with the assertion that criminal profiling can serve as a
valuable instrument for narrowing down suspect lists and offering valuable insights
into offender behaviour. As evidenced by its pivotal role in cases like the
apprehension of the "Unabomber" Theodore Kaczynski and the identification of the
"Green River Killer" Gary Leon Ridgway, profiling emerges as a potent investigative
tool when employed judiciously.

9
 FOR4805 | 62761552

Nevertheless, the researcher aligns with the critics' viewpoint that criminal profiling
should not stand as the exclusive foundation of an investigation. Relying solely on
profiling may lead to a narrow focus, potentially causing investigators to overlook
crucial evidence or alternative leads. The case of Richard Jewell, falsely implicated
in the 1996 Atlanta Olympics bombing, serves as a poignant reminder of the risks
associated with an over-reliance on profiling.

Likewise, the researcher acknowledges the validity of critics' concerns regarding the
limitations of criminal profiling in strategic crime intelligence. Profiling ought to be
considered one facet among various investigative methods, supplementing the
overall investigative process. The case of the "D.C. Sniper" underscores the
significance of exploring alternative hypotheses, as initial profiling assumptions were
ultimately proven incorrect.

In summation, the researcher asserts that a balanced approach, integrating criminal

profiling with other investigative techniques, is imperative for conducting a thorough
and unbiased homicide investigation. While profiling can provide valuable insights,
its application should be judicious and part of a broader investigative framework to
ensure a comprehensive and equitable examination of the case.

For example, in the case of People v. Johnson, the defendant, Donavan Wayne
Johnson, was convicted of various offenses, including torture, after a violent
altercation with the mother of his children. The incident involved multiple serious
injuries inflicted with a box cutter. The trial court sentenced him to life in prison plus
an additional 11 years and four months.

Johnson raised several arguments on appeal, contesting the sufficiency of evidence

for his torture conviction, the admission of expert testimony on intimate partner
violence, and various aspects of his sentencing. The appellate court reversed the
judgment for the purpose of resentencing.

The prosecution's case was built on substantial evidence, including testimonies from
police officers, medical experts, and recorded calls, demonstrating the severity of the
injuries inflicted. The victim's 911 call, detailing the harrowing events as they
unfolded, provided crucial insight into the gravity of the situation.

10
 FOR4805 | 62761552

The defence’s strategy relied heavily on Johnson's own testimony, where he

admitted to the assault but maintained that he did not intend to cause the victim such
grievous harm. He claimed that the incident arose from a combination of emotional
turmoil and sleep deprivation.

Expert testimony from Dr. Mindy Mechanic on victim-partner abuse played a pivotal
role in contextualizing the nature of the assault. Dr. Mechanic shed light on the
patterns and psychological dynamics associated with such abuse, which significantly
bolstered the prosecution's case.

The defence presented evidence suggesting that some of K.R.'s injuries may have
healed faster than anticipated, potentially undermining the prosecution's claims
about the severity and lasting impact of the assault. Additionally, they highlighted
Johnson's state of distress and suicidal thoughts leading up to the incident.

In the researcher's perspective, this case underscores the complex interplay of

emotions, relationships, and violence, highlighting the critical need for intervention
and support in situations involving intimate partner abuse. The conviction for torture
underscores the gravity of the harm inflicted. This case also exemplifies the
significance of expert testimony in providing a comprehensive understanding of the
dynamics at play in cases of domestic violence.

Incorporating criminal profiling into the analysis, one might consider how a profiler
could contribute to understanding the psychological aspects of the defendant's
behaviour and motives. Additionally, exploring the relationship between criminal
profiling and strategic crime intelligence could shed light on how such insights might
inform preventative measures in cases of intimate partner violence.

4.3 Methodology and approaches in criminal profiling for strategic crime

intelligence
4.3.1 Behavioural analysis and profiling approaches

Over the course of time, there has been a notable transformation in the field of
criminal profiling in strategic crime intelligence, with a greater emphasis placed on
the study of behavioural analysis and the use of profiling approaches. Canhoto and

11
 FOR4805 | 62761552

Backhouse [Sa] argue that examining the conduct of criminals may provide valuable
insights into their motives, quirks, and cognitive processes. The process includes a
meticulous examination of specific details at the crime scene, the study of victim
characteristics, and the identification of consistent behavioural patterns shown by the
offender, ultimately resulting in the development of a thorough profile. Significantly,
in the notable instance of "BTK Killer" Dennis Rader, this methodology played a
crucial role in establishing connections between criminal acts and finally
apprehending the perpetrator (Coulter, 2022).

Nevertheless, there are individuals who express contrasting opinions that bring
attention to a relevant matter about the intrinsically subjective characteristic of
behavioural analysis. This aspect has the potential to undermine its scientific
legitimacy and dependability. Diverse interpretations among several profilers
analysing the same crime scene might result in contrasting profiles, which may be
influenced by inherent biases. Furthermore, behavioural analysis often relies on
assumptions and generalizations that may lack universal applicability. The case of
Joseph James DeAngelo, often known as the "Golden State Killer," exemplifies the
limitations of using a standardized offender profile to fully capture the complexities of
an individual's behavioural patterns.

4.3.2 Data collection and analysis methods in strategic crime intelligence

The fundamental components of strategic crime intelligence, namely criminal

profiling, rely on proficient techniques for gathering and examining data. According to
Berlusconi, Calderoni, Parolini, Verani, and Piccardi (2016), the strategic utilization
of various data sources, such as crime databases, victim dossiers, and offender
histories, plays a crucial role in revealing patterns, Modi operandi, and potential
connections between cases. By using methodologies such as statistical analysis and
data mining, it is possible to extract correlations and patterns that are very beneficial
for the purpose of profiling. The effectiveness of geographic profiling in facilitating the
identification of criminals is clearly shown in the case of Lonnie Franklin Jr., also
known as the "Grim Sleeper" (Silverman, 2020). This investigative technique
involves analyzing the geographical patterns of criminal activities, thereby enhancing
the efficiency of the search for offenders.

12
 FOR4805 | 62761552

However, it is important to note that there is an opposing viewpoint. Sceptics, in line

with the arguments put up by Berlusconi and others (2016), express doubts over the
quality and dependability of the data that forms the foundation of profiling efforts. The
authors argue that biases inherent in the process of collecting data, such as
underreporting or an excessive focus on certain types of offenses, might distort
analysis and lead to erroneous results. The fast advancements in technology,
together with the emergence of the digital age, present new issues in the collecting
and analysis of data, particularly in the areas of handling large datasets and ensuring
the integrity of data. As a result, the use of data for the purpose of profiling
necessitates strict adherence to a rigorous methodology and an unshakable
commitment to quality control, despite the presence of significant challenges.

The researcher, after a comprehensive review of the presented context, finds the
discourse on behavioural analysis and profiling approaches to be astutely balanced.
It is evident that behavioural analysis offers invaluable insights into the intricate
workings of criminal minds. This approach, as demonstrated by the apprehension of
the "BTK Killer," Dennis Rader, underscores its practical utility in linking crimes and
identifying perpetrators.

However, the researcher concurs with the sceptics’ reservations regarding the
subjective nature of behavioural analysis. It is crucial to acknowledge that differing
interpretations by various profilers can introduce an element of bias and lead to
disparate profiles. Moreover, the reliance on assumptions and generalizations, as
highlighted in the case of the "Golden State Killer," Joseph James DeAngelo,
underscores the need for caution in wholly depending on this method.

In terms of data collection and analysis methods, the researcher aligns with the
proponents' stance. The utilization of diverse data sources and analytical techniques,
exemplified by the case of "Grim Sleeper" Lonnie Franklin Jr., undoubtedly enriches
the profiling process. However, the researcher concurs with the critics' concerns
about data quality and reliability. Biases in data collection, as well as the evolving
challenges posed by the digital era, necessitate rigorous methodology and quality
control measures.

13
 FOR4805 | 62761552

In summation, the researcher acknowledges the nuanced strengths and limitations of

both behavioural analysis and data-driven profiling methods. Striking a balance
between these approaches while remaining vigilant about potential biases and
methodological rigor represents a judicious path forward in advancing the field of
criminal profiling.

For example, State v. McElroy involves Willie McElroy appealing multiple convictions
for child sex trafficking, pandering, and other charges. McElroy controlled Brittany's
prostitution activities, including dictating her clothing and charging rates. He also
engaged in non-consensual intercourse and assaulted her, leading her to eventually
report him to the police. Later, McElroy exploited another victim, Angela, repeating
the pattern of sexual exploitation.

Police intervention was prompted by the suspicious behaviour observed in Angela's

activities, revealing a pattern typical of sex trafficking operations. Subsequent
investigations, aided by behavioural analysis, established McElroy's involvement.
Data collection and analysis methods were employed, including interviews with
victims and the search of McElroy's apartment, yielding critical evidence like
condoms and personal items.

The prosecution utilized expert testimony on pimp behaviour, elucidating how pimps
control and exploit prostitutes. This testimony, based on general behaviours rather
than specific profiles, provided essential context for the case. Additionally, the
introduction of photographs and a demonstrative calendar aided in clarifying the
timeline and corroborating the victims' statements.

McElroy raised objections to the admission of evidence, particularly the expert

testimony. However, the court found the testimony to be appropriately informative
and relevant, shedding light on the modus operandi of sex trafficking operations. The
calendar, while demonstrative, did not introduce substantive evidence that could
prejudice the case. Moreover, McElroy's objections to prior consistent statements
were dismissed as they did not significantly impact the verdict.

In summation, the strategic application of behavioural analysis and criminal profiling

approaches, coupled with meticulous data collection and analysis methods, played a

14
 FOR4805 | 62761552

pivotal role in substantiating the charges against McElroy. These techniques ensured
that the discussion remained focused on the facts, strengthening the case against
the accused.

4.4 Reliability and effectiveness of criminal profiling in homicide investigations

4.4.1 Accuracy (Assessing the success rate of profiling outcomes), validity, and
consistency of profiling findings

The reliability and efficacy of criminal profiling in the context of murder investigations
have been topics of much scholarly discourse. According to Fox, Farrington,
Kapardi,and Hambly (2020), the use of profiling techniques has the potential to
provide a precise and authentic understanding of a criminal's attributes, motives, and
conduct, ultimately resulting in favourable results. The case of Ted Kaczynski, also
known as the "Unabomber," is a notable illustration of how meticulous profiling
techniques facilitated the efforts of law enforcement in the identification and
apprehension of the individual in question. However, academics like Goel, Shroff,
Skeem, and Slobogin (2021: 9–28) have questioned the consistency of profile
findings. The subjective aspect of profiling and the lack of empirical validation are em
phasized, giving rise to issues over the reliability of profiling as a forensic technique.

4.4.2 Contribution of profiling in identifying suspects

The main function of criminal profiling is to aid in the identification of prospective

suspects involved in murder cases. Proponents assert that profiling provides
detectives with crucial insights about the probable attributes of the perpetrator,
facilitating the process of narrowing down their investigation. The utilization of
profiling in criminal investigations is shown by real-life cases, such as that of Gary
Leon Ridgway, often known as the "Green River Killer" (Jenson, 2019). These
examples highlight the significant contribution of profiling in directing investigative
endeavors towards certain individuals (Welch, 2022). However, it is crucial to
underscore that profiling should not be relied upon as the only foundation for
identifying suspects. Exclusively depending on profiling as a means of investigation
might result in a narrow focus and the possibility of wrongful convictions. The
integration of profiling with other investigation procedures and data is important to
adopt a complete strategy.

15
 FOR4805 | 62761552

4.4.3 Impact of profiling on investigation strategies and resource allocation

The use of profiling techniques may have a significant impact on the development of
investigative tactics and the allocation of resources in instances involving murder.
Proponents assert that the practice of profiling assists in the prioritization of leads,
the effective allocation of resources, and the streamlining of investigative efforts.
The use of profiling techniques in law enforcement operations has been shown by no
table incidents such as that of the "D.C. Sniper," including individuals named John
Allen Muhammad and Lee Boyd Malvo (Sarraf, 2023). These instances serve as
tangible illustrations of how profiling strategies have influenced the allocation of
resources within certain geographical regions, eventually leading to the successful
arrest of the perpetrators.Nevertheless, critics such as Bhandari and Hallowell
(2021) express concerns over the overreliance on profiling, citing potential biases
and the potential disregard for other investigation methodologies. Achieving a
harmonious equilibrium between the knowledge derived from profiling and other
investigation methodologies is crucial in order to adopt a comprehensive and
unbiased strategy.

4.4.4 Influence of profiling on case solvability and prosecution

The disputed nature of the influence of criminal profiling on case solvability and
prosecution is a matter of academic debate. According to Killmier, Johnson, and
Coupe (2019: 257-285), proponents argue that profiling plays a key role in improving
the resolution of murder cases. They claim that profiling provides valuable
information that directs investigations, as shown by the case of the "BTK Killer."
However, it has been contended by scholars such as Schauer (2022) and Morgan
(2023) that relying only on profile evidence may not be sufficient to get a conviction
since it is seen as expert testimony rather than tangible proof. In order to provide a
strong foundation for legal proceedings, the use of profiling techniques should be
supplemented by other types of evidentiary support. Linking offender characteristics
to crime scene behaviour.

4.4.5 Linking offender characteristics to crime scene behaviour

The objective of criminal profiling is to create a correlation between the

characteristics of an offender and their conduct at a crime scene. This process

16
 FOR4805 | 62761552

provides valuable insights into the motives, methods of operation, and distinctive
attributes of the perpetrator (Bennell and Blaskovits, 2020). Dempsey, Eskander,
and Dubljević (2023: 576–601) argue in a similar vein that a thorough understanding
of these connections plays a crucial role in facilitating investigative decision-making
and effectively reducing the number of viable suspects. The case of David Berkowitz,
often known as "Son of Sam," serves as an illustrative example of how the
examination of crime scene behaviour assisted detectives in constructing a profile
that corresponded to the ultimate offender (Berndt, 2021). It is crucial, therefore, to
exercise caution in making sweeping generalizations and assuming that all
perpetrators demonstrate similar conduct across all types of infractions. Every
instance necessitates a separate assessment, taking into consideration the
surrounding circumstances and unique variances among individuals.

The researcher acknowledges the multifaceted nature of criminal profiling in

homicide investigations. The ongoing debate regarding its reliability and
effectiveness is understandable, given the intricate and often unpredictable nature of
criminal behaviour. While proponents like Fox, Farrington, Kapardis, and Hambly
(2020) present compelling cases of successful profiling, the researcher also
acknowledges the valid concerns raised by critics like Goel, Shroff, Skeem, and
Slobogin (2021). The subjective element in profiling and the absence of empirical
validation indeed warrant careful consideration.

Regarding the contribution of profiling to suspect identification, the researcher

concurs with the advocates. It is evident from cases such as that of the "Green River
Killer" that profiling can play a pivotal role in focusing investigative efforts. However,
the cautionary note about not relying solely on profiling for suspect identification is
well-founded. A balanced approach, integrating profiling with other investigative
methods, is undoubtedly a prudent strategy.

In terms of the impact on investigation strategies and resource allocation, the

researcher agrees with the proponents. Profiling offers a valuable tool for prioritizing
leads and optimizing resource utilization. The example of the "D.C. Sniper" case
vividly demonstrate how profiling can guide the allocation of resources for maximum
effectiveness. However, the researcher also acknowledges the warnings made by
critics like Bhandari and Hallowell (2021) regarding potential biases brought about by

17
 FOR4805 | 62761552

an overreliance on profiling. Striking the right balance is crucial for a comprehensive

and unbiased investigative approach.

Regarding the influence of profiling on case solvability and prosecution, the

researcher recognizes the value of profiling as an integral part of the investigative
process. The success in the "BTK Killer" case serves as an example of how the
insights it offers can significantly increase the chances of solving complex homicide
cases. However, the researcher also agrees with the critics, Schauer (2022) and
Morgan (2023), who point out that profiling evidence alone may not be sufficient for
conviction. The researcher concurs that a robust case for prosecution necessitates
the complementary use of other forms of evidence.

Finally, the researcher acknowledges the importance of linking offender

characteristics to crime scene behaviour. This correlation is a fundamental aspect of
criminal profiling, offering critical insights into the motivations and modus operandi of
offenders. The researcher agrees with the caution against overgeneralization and
the emphasis on evaluating each case independently, accounting for contextual
factors and individual differences.

In summation, the researcher recognizes the value of criminal profiling as a tool in

homicide investigations but also underscores the need for a balanced,
multidimensional approach that integrates profiling with other investigative
techniques. This nuanced perspective acknowledges the strengths of profiling while
also respecting its limitations in certain contexts.

For example, People v. Hutson, while the focus was on the 911 recording and the
subsequent conviction, it's important to note that the broader context of criminal
profiling also played a significant role. The accuracy, validity, and consistency of the
profiling findings were crucial in establishing the defendant's involvement. Moreover,
profiling contributed significantly to the identification of the suspect and influenced
the investigation strategy and allocation of resources. This ultimately impacted the
case's solvability and prosecution. Additionally, offender characteristics were linked
to the behaviour exhibited at the crime scene, providing a comprehensive
understanding of the events that transpired.

18
 FOR4805 | 62761552

4.5 Limitations and challenges in criminal profiling for homicide investigations

4.5.1 Controversies surrounding profiling techniques and interpretation

There are ongoing debates about the methodology and interpretations used in the
field of criminal profiling. According to Farook, Rashid, Ahmed, and Dudley (2023),
critics contend that profiling suffers from a lack of uniformity and a heavy reliance on
subjective assessments, which may result in biases and mistakes. The case study of
Richard Jewell (Paul, 2023) provides a compelling illustration of the potential
hazards associated with overreliance on profiling techniques, which may lead to the
unjust identification and persecution of persons who are in fact innocent.
Furthermore, Cooper (2023) emphasizes the need for openness, accountability, and
empirical validation in order to enhance the reliability and efficacy of profiling
methodologies. The example of Richard Jewell (Paul, 2023) serves as a compelling
illustration of the possible ramifications associated with an excessive dependence on
profiling. Jewell's erroneous identification as a suspect in the 1996 Atlanta Olympic
Park bombing may be attributed to the use of profiling methods, resulting in notable
adverse consequences for both his personal and professional life.

4.5.2 Addressing the limitations and improving profiling practices

Acknowledging the constraints of criminal profiling is crucial for its continuous

improvement. Efforts are now underway to address these limitations and enhance
the reliability of profiling methodologies (Morgado, Meireles, Neves, Amaral and
Ferreira, 2017). According to Cojocaru (2023), the inclusion of empirical research
and data-driven methodologies may enhance the credibility of profiling methods and
build a more objective basis. Moreover, the cultivation of collaborative alliances
among profilers, forensic specialists, and law enforcement entities facilitates the
implementation of a multidisciplinary framework that incorporates a wide range of
evidentiary resources. In a similar vein, Morgado et al. (2017) suggestion to establish
specialized profiling teams within law enforcement organizations is a conscious effort
to acknowledge shortcomings and advance the discipline. The enhancement of
profiling approaches and the maximization of their impact on murder investigations
may be achieved by the continuous improvement of procedures, the integration of
scientific breakthroughs, and the extraction of knowledge from previous cases, as

19
 FOR4805 | 62761552

elucidated by Mofokeng and Tshakane (2023: 604–616). An illustrative instance of

advancement may be seen in the implementation of specialized profiling units within
law enforcement agencies. The aforementioned components serve as a direct
solution to the recognized constraints, indicating a proactive stance toward improving
and progressing profiling methodologies. The implementation of this organizational
reorganization signifies a dedication to enhancing the effectiveness of criminal
investigations within the field.

According to the researcher, the reasons presented about the problems surrounding
criminal profiling are substantiated. The criticism over the absence of a consistent
technique in profiling and its heavy reliance on subjective evaluations is a legitimate
observation. The presence of bias and inaccuracies, as highlighted by Farook,
Rashid, Ahmed, and Dudley (2023), emphasizes the need for stringent criteria and
empirical verification in the development of profiling methods. The Richard Jewell
case exemplifies the inherent risks associated with excessive dependence on
profiling techniques within the context of criminal investigations. This statement
effectively demonstrates the significant ramifications that might ensue when
subjective evaluations serve as the predominant foundation for selecting individuals
as potential suspects.

Additionally, the researcher shares Cooper's (2023) viewpoint on the significance of

transparency, accountability, and empirical validation in the practice of profiling.
These criteria are essential for ensuring that profiling procedures retain a high level
of credibility and dependability. This aligns with the overarching scientific process, in
which openness and empirical validation serve as fundamental pillars for ensuring
the strength and reliability of research practices.

The researcher agrees with the suggested techniques for addressing the constraints
and improving profiling procedures. The proposal put forth by Cojocaru (2023) to
integrate empirical research with data-driven methodologies is in accordance with
current developments in the field of forensic science. This methodology not only
enhances the scientific underpinning of profiling but also offers a more impartial and
justifiable framework.

20
 FOR4805 | 62761552

The laudable approach recommended by Morgado et al. (2017) highlights the need
to foster joint efforts among profilers, forensic professionals, and law enforcement
authorities. The recognition of the interdisciplinary character of criminal
investigations and the need to integrate many sources of evidence is acknowledged.
This methodology reflects the dynamic nature of contemporary investigative
methodologies, whereby the significance of interdisciplinary cooperation is
progressively paramount.

According to Morgado et al. (2017), the implementation of specialized profiling

divisions inside law enforcement organizations is a concrete measure aimed at
mitigating the shortcomings associated with profiling. The observed structure
redesign signifies a proactive approach towards enhancing and progressing profiling
procedures, hence showcasing a dedication to enhancing the effectiveness of the
field in criminal investigations.

In the end, the researcher concurs with Mofokeng and Tshakane (2023) that the
continual enhancement of procedures, integration of scientific advancements, and
analysis of prior examples play a crucial role in enhancing profiling processes. The
adaptive technique described aligns with the overarching scientific ethos of
continuous improvement and knowledge acquisition via experiential learning.
Recognition is made that the discipline of criminal profiling is characterized by its
dynamic nature, necessitating continual adaptation in light of advancing knowledge
and technological advancements.

In general, the researcher observes that the arguments put forward in the given
context are substantiated and consistent with the current prevailing methodologies in
forensic profiling. The prioritization of empirical validation, openness, and
collaboration exemplifies a progressive perspective aimed at propelling the discipline
ahead and augmenting its impact on criminal investigations.

For example, in the case of State v. Will Vaughn, the defendant was convicted of
first-degree murder in Shelby County Criminal Court. The controversy surrounding
the case involved the sufficiency of the evidence. The victim, Cameron Horne, was
shot and killed on April 16, 2018. Testimonies from key witnesses, including

21
 FOR4805 | 62761552

Gabrielle Ward and Robert McCarroll, provided crucial details of the events leading
up to the murder.

Controversies surrounding profiling techniques and interpretation arise from the

differing accounts of events presented by witnesses. Gabrielle Ward's testimony, in
particular, highlighted discrepancies in identifying the individuals involved. This
underscores the importance of rigorous investigative techniques and the need for
transparency and empirical validation in criminal profiling.

Addressing the limitations and improving profiling practices is essential in cases like
these. Cojocaru discussed efforts to improve techniques, such as using empirical
research and data-driven approaches. Additionally, the collaborative efforts between
law enforcement agencies, profilers, and forensic specialists, as advocated by
Morgado et al., played a crucial role in piecing together the events leading to the
murder.

The case also exemplifies the significance of witness credibility and the challenges
of corroborating testimonies. The testimonies of individuals like Lashaniqua Jones
and Jonquett Haggett played a pivotal role in establishing the sequence of events.
However, the defendant's defence relied on casting doubt on the reliability of these
witnesses, highlighting the complexities involved in criminal investigations.

In conclusion, the case of State v. Will Vaughn highlights the intricacies and
challenges of criminal profiling and investigation. The controversies surrounding
witness testimonies underscore the importance of rigorous investigative techniques
and the need for transparency and empirical validation. Efforts to address limitations
and improve profiling practices are crucial to ensuring accurate and just outcomes in
criminal cases.

4.6 Comparative analysis of criminal profiling with other investigative methods

4.6.1 Comparison with forensic science techniques and evidence analysis

Comparing criminal profiling with forensic science techniques and evidence analysis
reveals that each approach possesses distinct advantages and disadvantages.
Using scientific methods and empirical evidence, forensic science establishes

22
 FOR4805 | 62761552

connections between suspects and crime scenes, frequently providing physical

evidence that can withstand legal scrutiny. In contrast, criminal profiling focuses on
the behavioural characteristics of criminals, revealing their motivations, patterns, and
psychological traits. As the Unabomber case demonstrates, the integration of
forensic evidence analysis and criminal profiling resulted in the identification and
capture of the offender. Both approaches can be complementary, resulting in a more
comprehensive framework for investigation.

The study conducted by Usman, Yunusa and Gomment (2023:31-65) provides

valuable insights into the field of criminal profiling, which serves as a distinct
perspective for comprehending criminal conduct. This approach primarily
emphasizes the psychological dimensions of individuals involved in illegal activities.
This methodology explores the underlying motives and behavioural patterns that
influence criminal behaviour, providing insights on the psychological characteristics
and inclinations of offenders. Through its use, criminal profiling enhances the
understanding of the perpetrator's cognitive processes, thereby facilitating the
process of identifying potential suspects and devising effective investigative
approaches.

The significance of forensic science in criminal investigations is underscored in

French (2023). In contrast to profiling, which focuses on behavioural characteristics,
forensic science utilizes factual data and scientific procedures to establish definitive
links between suspects and crime sites. This methodology often yields tangible
evidence that withstands judicial examination, introducing an additional element of
impartiality to the investigative process.

Gunda, Muchabaiwa, Rao, Dey and Rawtani (2023: 361-391), who highlight the
ways in which technological advancements have enhanced the capacities of forensic
science, emphasize the most recent advancements in forensic instruments. The
amalgamation of criminal profiling with forensic science methodologies yields a
formidable synergy. The Unabomber case serves as a monument to the potential
synergy that may be achieved by combining behavioural insights with tangible
evidence, resulting in the successful identification and apprehension of the
perpetrator. The amalgamation of these two fields results in the establishment of a

23
 FOR4805 | 62761552

complete investigative framework, effectively harnessing the respective advantages

and capabilities of each subject.

In practical applications, the integration of several investigative methods enables

researchers to provide evidence and validate their conclusions via cross-verification.
For example, the use of profiling techniques may assist in directing the acquisition
and examination of tangible evidence based on specified behavioural characteristics.
In contrast, empirical data has the capacity to either support or question profiling
theories, hence enhancing the credibility of the procedure. By integrating these
approaches, researchers not only improve the credibility of their results but also
provide a stronger basis for later legal actions.

4.6.2 Integration of profiling with advanced technologies (e.g., AI, data analytics)

Thakkar, Patel, Hirpara, Jagani, Patel, Shah and Kshirsagar (2023: 761-785) provide
an extensive examination of the utilization of computer vision and fuzzy logic within
the field of forensic research. This highlights the possibility of incorporating advanced
technology, including artificial intelligence, into the field of criminal profiling. Artificial
intelligence algorithms have the ability to effectively analyse and handle large
amounts of data, which may include offender profiles and patterns of criminal
activity. Through this approach, individuals are able to discern complex relationships
and provide potential leads that may escape traditional investigation techniques. The
integration discussed in this context demonstrates practical applications in countries
that use predictive policing models. These applications highlight the potential
advantages derived from the amalgamation of sophisticated technology and criminal
profiling.

In their scholarly work, Dunleavy and Margetts (2023) delve into the ramifications of
data science and artificial intelligence in the field of governance. This viewpoint
supports the idea that the incorporation of artificial intelligence into criminal profiling
signifies a noteworthy progression in investigating capacities. Law enforcement
organizations may achieve enhanced efficiency in navigating extensive databases by
using the analytical capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI). This facilitates the
recognition of nuanced patterns and associations that could otherwise stay
concealed. The advent of this third wave of digital age governance is fundamentally

24
 FOR4805 | 62761552

altering the landscape of investigative practices, placing significant emphasis on the

revolutionary capabilities that arise from the integration of artificial intelligence (AI)
with criminal profiling.

In their study, Giudici, Centurelli, and Turchetta (2023) extensively explore the
intricate process of quantifying the potential hazards linked to artificial intelligence.
This perspective emphasizes the imperative nature of addressing ethical and privacy
considerations in the incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) into the realm of
criminal profiling. The prominence of biases and the interpretation of outcomes
becomes of utmost importance when AI systems rely on algorithms to make
judgments. It is of utmost importance to guarantee the ethical and fair use of these
technologies in order to ensure their successful and responsible utilization in criminal
investigations.

The amalgamation of criminal profiling with AI-driven technology presents a

paradigm shift in investigative methodologies. Practical applications, such as
predictive police models, serve to illustrate the real benefits of this integration.
Nevertheless, it is important to approach the process of integration with a discerning
perspective, actively acknowledging and resolving difficulties pertaining to privacy,
prejudice, and ethical considerations. By using this approach, law enforcement
organizations may effectively utilize the full capabilities of new technologies while
upholding the principles of honesty and equity within the investigation process.

4.6.3 Collaborative approaches in combining profiling with traditional investigation

methods

The amalgamation of criminal profiling with traditional investigative methods has

shown significant efficacy as a strategic approach within murder investigations
(Yannam, Kumar, Babu and Sahoo, 2023: 1489-1497). The collaborative method
encompasses the coordinated efforts of profilers, forensic scientists, investigators,
and other pertinent specialists. The use of a multidisciplinary approach enables the
examination of the crime scene, victimology, and criminal behaviour by integrating
personnel with varied areas of knowledge (Yannam et al., 2023: 1489-1497). The
collective endeavour facilitates the integration of many viewpoints, resulting in a
more holistic comprehension of the transgression and the individual responsible.

25
 FOR4805 | 62761552

In their seminal work, Anthony, Bechky, and Fayard (2023) provide a comprehensive
perspective on cooperation, highlighting the significance of incorporating artificial
intelligence (AI) into the trajectory of labour. This viewpoint is consistent with the
collaborative methodology used in murder investigations, emphasizing the need to
use a range of specialized knowledge and skills in order to get the most favourable
outcomes. The achievement of a synergistic impact in the investigation process is
facilitated via the integration of profilers, forensic scientists, and investigators, who
together contribute their knowledge and abilities.

Yudarwati and Gregory (2022) provide a conceptual framework that integrates

principles from the fields of public relations and development communication, with
the aim of fostering empowerment within rural communities. Although not directly
applicable to the field of murder investigations, this paradigm highlights the
significance of teamwork in the attainment of intricate objectives. Likewise, within the
realm of murder investigations, the imperative nature of interdisciplinary cooperation
among professionals from many domains becomes evident as it plays a pivotal role
in comprehending the intricate aspects of a given case.

An illustrative instance of successful cooperation may be seen in the establishment

of specialized task teams that facilitate the integration of profilers and investigators
(Perifanis and Kitsios, 2023). The use of this particular method has played a crucial
role in successfully resolving complex murder cases. These task forces use the
knowledge and abilities of profilers to offer behavioural insights that support forensic
scientists' analysis of physical evidence. Through the exchange of information and
the use of individual capabilities, these teams effectively augment the entire
investigative process, increasing the probability of favourable findings.

Law enforcement organizations may greatly boost their skills in resolving complex
murder cases by using collaborative methodologies, capitalizing on the expertise of
varied professionals, and merging criminal profiling with traditional investigation
procedures. Concrete examples, such as task teams with specific expertise, provide
empirical support for the efficacy of this cooperative approach. This methodology not
only facilitates more extensive inquiries but also enhances the probability of
effectively discovering and apprehending offenders.

26
 FOR4805 | 62761552

The researcher agrees that both criminal profiling and forensic science techniques
have their own distinct advantages and disadvantages. Criminal profiling focuses on
understanding the behavioural aspects of criminals, shedding light on their
motivations and psychological traits. This approach can be highly valuable in
comprehending criminal conduct. In contrast, forensic science uses empirical data
and scientific methods to establish concrete connections between suspects and
crime scenes, providing tangible evidence that can withstand legal scrutiny. The
researcher acknowledges the significance of integrating both of these approaches,
as demonstrated in the Unabomber case, to create a more comprehensive
investigative framework.

The researcher supports the idea that integrating advanced technologies such as
artificial intelligence (AI) with criminal profiling can significantly enhance investigative
capabilities. AI algorithms can efficiently analyse vast amounts of data, including
offender profiles and crime patterns, leading to the identification of complex
relationships and potential leads. This integration can revolutionize investigative
practices, making it more efficient to navigate extensive databases and discover
concealed patterns and associations. However, the researcher emphasizes the
importance of addressing ethical and privacy concerns when implementing AI in
criminal profiling to ensure its responsible utilization.

The researcher agrees with the effectiveness of collaborative approaches in

combining criminal profiling with traditional investigative methods in murder
investigations. Such collaboration involves professionals from diverse backgrounds,
including profilers, forensic scientists, and investigators, contributing their expertise
to gain a holistic understanding of the crime and the perpetrator. The researcher
concurs with the idea that interdisciplinary cooperation is essential in comprehending
the complex aspects of a case. Specialized task forces that combine profilers and
investigators are presented as an illustrative example of successful collaboration,
enhancing the entire investigative process and increasing the likelihood of positive
outcomes.

In conclusion, the researcher supports the integration of criminal profiling with

various techniques and technologies in criminal investigations, as it leads to more
comprehensive and effective approaches to solving complex cases while

27
 FOR4805 | 62761552

acknowledging the importance of ethical considerations and interdisciplinary

collaboration.

In Caniglia v. Strom, the Supreme Court unanimously held that the "community
caretaking" exception does not justify warrantless searches and seizures in a
person's home. The case involved a situation where police officers entered a home
without a warrant, based on the belief that the occupant posed a risk to himself. The
Court clarified that while there may be non-law-enforcement tasks that officers
perform, such as providing aid to motorists, this does not grant an open-ended
license to perform such tasks anywhere. The decision emphasized the sanctity of a
person's home and the need for a warrant to intrude upon it. The Court's ruling does
not, however, preclude officers from taking reasonable steps to assist individuals in a
home who may be in need of aid, such as preventing a potential suicide or helping
an elderly person who is out of contact and may be in distress. The decision
reaffirms the importance of balancing public safety with the protection of individual
privacy rights.

Using a variety of methods in criminal investigations is very important. These include

comparing profiling to forensic science techniques and evidence analysis, combining
profiling with new technologies (like AI and data analytics), and working together to
combine profiling with more traditional investigation methods. These elements
enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of law enforcement efforts in solving crimes
and bringing perpetrators to justice.

4.7 Conclusion

In conclusion, this study has shed light on the multifaceted role of criminal profiling
as a strategic tool in homicide investigations. It is evident that criminal profiling
serves as a valuable instrument for identifying suspects, guiding investigation
strategies, and optimizing resource allocation. However, the reliability and
effectiveness of profiling findings are contingent on various factors, including the
proficiency of profilers and the accuracy, validity, and consistency of the process.

The proposed recommendations offer concrete steps towards enhancing the

dependability and efficacy of criminal profiling. This encompasses a continuous

28
 FOR4805 | 62761552

commitment to research and evaluation, aiming to refine the precision and reliability
of profiling results. Standardization of profiling practices, coupled with the
development of distinct guidelines, emerges as a critical measure to ensure
uniformity and trustworthiness across various profiling initiatives. Equally important is
the establishment of comprehensive and continuous training programs for profilers,
equipping them with the necessary knowledge and skills to conduct reliable and
effective profiling.

Moreover, the encouragement of collaboration between profilers, forensic scientists,

and law enforcement agencies is paramount. This multidisciplinary approach not
only enriches the investigative process but also amplifies the reliability of profiling
outcomes. The findings and recommendations also highlight the imperative of
transparency and accountability in the use of criminal profiling. This entails explicit
documentation and reporting of the limitations and potential biases associated with
profiling findings.

These recommendations transcend the immediate scope of this research and hold
relevance for other entities engaged in homicide investigations. The adoption of
standardized practices and collaborative methodologies promises more accurate
profiling outcomes and refined investigative strategies. Additionally, the emphasis on
transparency and accountability underscores the need to address profiling's inherent
limitations and potential biases.

However, it is crucial to acknowledge that there remain unanswered questions

beyond the purview of this research. Exploring the intricacies of linking offender
characteristics to crime scene behaviour, addressing controversies surrounding
profiling techniques and interpretations, and integrating profiling with advanced
technologies and conventional investigation methods warrant further inquiry.

Given the existing gaps in knowledge and the potential for further exploration, it is
evident that the field of criminal profiling necessitates ongoing research and
development. Future endeavours could delve deeper into the nuances of profiling
techniques, investigate novel approaches to data collection and analysis, and
scrutinize the long-term impacts of profiling on case solvability and prosecution.
These endeavours will undoubtedly contribute to the continual advancement of

29
 FOR4805 | 62761552

criminal profiling as a dependable and effective source of strategic crime intelligence

in homicide investigations.

30
 FOR4805 | 62761552

List of Reference

Anthony, C., Bechky, B.A. and Fayard, A.L. 2023. “Collaborating” with AI: Taking a
system view to explore the future of work. Organization Science.

Baddeley, A. 2023. A Guide to Criminal Intelligence. Available at from:

https://greydynamics.com/criminal-intelligence-a-foundation/ (Accessed 2 November
2023).

Barrett v. State, No. M2021-01149-CCA-R3-PC (Tenn. Crim. App. Feb. 8, 2023).

Bennell, C & Blaskovits, B. 2020. Offender Profiling. Available at from:

https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_831
(accessed on 2 November 2023).

Berlusconi, G, Calderoni, F, Parolini, N, Verani, M and Piccardi, C. 2016. Link

Prediction in Criminal Networks: A Tool for Criminal Intelligence Analysis. Available
at from: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0154244
(accessed on 2 November 2023).

Berndt, A. 2021. The Rhetoric of Conspiracy Surrounding the" Son Of Sam.".

Bhandari, S. and Hallowell, M.R. 2021. Identifying and controlling biases in expert-
opinion research: Guidelines for variations of Delphi, nominal group technique, and
focus groups. Journal of Management in Engineering, 37(3), p.04021015.

Bucholtz, J. 2019. The Importance of Behavioral Analysis in Murder Investigations.

Available at from: https://apuedge.com/the-importance-of-behavioral-analysis-in-
murder-investigations/ (Accessed 2 November 2023).

Canhoto, A & Backhouse, J. [Sa]. General Description of the Process of Behavioural

Profiling. Available at from: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-
6914-7_3 (accessed on 2 November 2023).

Caniglia v. Strom, 141 S. Ct. 1596, 593 U.S., 209 L. Ed. 2d 604 (2021).

31
 FOR4805 | 62761552

Chief, E. 2015. 12 Prevailing Pros And Cons Of Criminal Profiling. Available at from:
https://connectusfund.org/12-prevailing-pros-and-cons-of-criminal-profiling (accessed
on 2 November 2023).

Chifflet, P. 2014. Questioning the validity of criminal profiling: An evidence-based

approach. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology. 48(2): 238–255.

Cojocaru, R. 2023. Profiling in the activity of investigation and prevention of

crime. Romanian Journal of Forensic Science, 135(3), 233-240.

Cooper, C. 2023. An Introduction to Psychometrics and Psychological Assessment:

Using, Interpreting and Developing Tests. Routledge.

Coulter, C. 2022. BTK killer describes himself as “good person who did some bad
things.” Available at from: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-10382673/BTK-
killer-Dennis-Rader-thinks-monster-good-person-did-bad-things.html (accessed on 2
November 2023).

Davis, M. 2021. What is a researchable question in design? In The Routledge

Companion to Design Research: 131-140.

Dempsey, R.P., Eskander, E.E. and Dubljević, V. 2023. Ethical Decision-Making in

Law Enforcement: A Scoping Review. Psych, 5(2), 576-601.

Denny, E. 2022. ‘How to do qualitative research?’: Qualitative research methods.

Bjog, 129(7): 1166.

Dunleavy, P. and Margetts, H. 2023. Data science, artificial intelligence and the third
wave of digital era governance. Public Policy and Administration,
p.09520767231198737.

Farook, T.H., Rashid, F., Ahmed, S. and Dudley, J. 2023. Clinical machine learning
in parafunctional and altered functional occlusion: A systematic review. The Journal
of Prosthetic Dentistry.

32
 FOR4805 | 62761552

Ferariu, P.D. 2018. Criminal Profiling in Homicide Offenses. Available at from:

https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3266870 (Accessed 2
November 2023).

Fox, B., Farrington, D., Kapardis, A. and Hambly, O. 2020. Evidence-based offender
profiling. Routledge.

French, J. 2023. Solving crimes using science. In Crime, Science and Policing, 158-
173.

Gershenson, S & Tekin, E. 2018. The Effect of Community Traumatic Events on

Student Achievement: Evidence from the Beltway Sniper Attacks. Available at from:
https://direct.mit.edu/edfp/article/13/4/513/12322/The-Effect-of-Community-
Traumatic-Events-on (Accessed 2 November 2023).

Giudici, P., Centurelli, M. and Turchetta, S. 2023. Artificial intelligence risk

measurement. Expert Systems with Applications, 235, p.121220.

Goel, S., Shroff, R., Skeem, J. and Slobogin, C. 2021. The accuracy, equity, and
jurisprudence of criminal risk assessment. Research handbook on big data law, 9-
28.

Gunda, T.J., Muchabaiwa, C., Rao, P.K., Dey, A. and Rawtani, D. 2023. Recent
Advances in Forensic Tools. Modern Forensic Tools and Devices: Trends in Criminal
Investigation, 361-391.

Jensen, J. 2019. Green River Killer. Dark Horse Comics.

Killmier, B., Johnson, M.K. and Coupe, R.T. 2019. Offender–Offence Profiling:
Improving Burglary Solvability and Detection. Crime Solvability Factors: Police
Resources and Crime Detection, 257-285.

Mofokeng, J.T. and Tshakane, P. 2023. Through critical eyes of the public: Factors
influencing professionalism in the detective service in the Gauteng
Province. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147-
4478), 12(7), 604-616.

33
 FOR4805 | 62761552

Morgado, R, Meireles, F, Neves, J.F, Amaral, S & Ferreira, C. 2017. Scale

development: ten main limitations and recommendations to improve future research
practices - Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica. Available at from:
https://prc.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41155-016-0057-1 (accessed on 2
November 2023).

Morgan, J. 2023. Wrongful Convictions and Forensic Science Errors: Case Studies
and Root Causes. CRC Press.

Paul, R.E. 2023. Skywalks: Robert Gordon’s Untold Story of Hallmark’s Kansas City
Disaster. U of Nebraska Press.

People v. Johnson, No. H049257 (Cal. Ct. App. Aug. 2, 2023).

Perifanis, N & Kitsios, F. 2023. Investigating the Influence of Artificial Intelligence on

Business Value in the Digital Era of Strategy: A Literature Review. Available at from:
https://www.mdpi.com/2078-2489/14/2/85 (accessed on 2 November 2023).

Petherick, W & Brooks, N. 2020. Reframing criminal profiling: a guide for integrated
practice. Available at from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9103349/
(Accessed 2 November 2023).

Popovic, A & Huecker, M.R. 2022. Study Bias - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf.
Available at from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK574513/ (Accessed 2
November 2023).

Sarraf, A.S. 2023. Advantages of Modern Fingerprint Techniques in Crime

Investigation.

Schauer, F. 2022. The proof: Uses of evidence in law, politics, and everything else.
Harvard University Press.

Silverman, H. 2020. Convicted serial killer known as the “Grim Sleeper” found dead
in prison cell | CNN. Available at from: https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/30/us/grim-
sleeper-dies-death-row/index.html (accessed on 2 November 2023).

State v. McElroy, No. 1 CA-CR 21-0526 (Ariz. Ct. App. June 6, 2023).

34
 FOR4805 | 62761552

State v. Vaughn, No. W2022-01795-CCA-R3-CD (Tenn. Crim. App. Oct. 17, 2023).

Swart, J. [Sa]. Prospects of criminal profiling: A critical review of the BRACE

Character Profile. Available at from:
https://www.academia.edu/1375618/Prospects_of_criminal_profiling_A_critical_revie
w_of_the_BRACE_Character_Profile (Accessed 2 November 2023).

Thakkar, P., Patel, D., Hirpara, I., Jagani, J., Patel, S., Shah, M. and Kshirsagar, A.
2023. A comprehensive review on computer vision and fuzzy logic in forensic
science application. Annals of Data Science, 10(3), 761-785.

Usman, O.J., Yunusa, E. and Gomment, T.I. 2023. Criminal Profiling And The
Challenges Of Criminal Investigation In Nigeria Police Force Kogi State
Command. GPH-International Journal of Social Science and Humanities
Research, 6(10), 31-65.

Welch, S. 2022. Green River killer | How one serial killer helped catch another | Life.
Available at from: https://www.news24.com/life/arts-and-entertainment/tv/green-river-
killer-how-one-serial-killer-helped-catch-another-20220204 (Accessed 2 November
2023).

Yannam, V.R., Kumar, J., Babu, K.S. and Sahoo, B. 2023. Improving group
recommendation using deep collaborative filtering approach. International Journal of
Information Technology, 15(3), 1489-1497.

Yudarwati, G.A. and Gregory, A. 2022. Improving government communication and

empowering rural communities: Combining public relations and development
communication approaches. Public Relations Review, 48(3), p.102200.

35
 FOR4805 | 62761552

Annexure A – a COPY of the assessed Assignment 02

36
FOR4805 | 62761552

37
FOR4805 | 62761552

38
FOR4805 | 62761552

39
FOR4805 | 62761552

40
FOR4805 | 62761552

41
FOR4805 | 62761552

42
FOR4805 | 62761552

43
FOR4805 | 62761552

44
FOR4805 | 62761552

45
FOR4805 | 62761552

46
FOR4805 | 62761552

47
FOR4805 | 62761552

48
FOR4805 | 62761552

49
FOR4805 | 62761552

50
FOR4805 | 62761552

51
FOR4805 | 62761552

52
FOR4805 | 62761552

53
FOR4805 | 62761552

54
FOR4805 | 62761552

55
FOR4805 | 62761552

56
FOR4805 | 62761552

57
FOR4805 | 62761552

58
FOR4805 | 62761552

59
FOR4805 | 62761552

60
FOR4805 | 62761552

61
FOR4805 | 62761552

62
FOR4805 | 62761552

63
FOR4805 | 62761552

64
FOR4805 | 62761552

65
FOR4805 | 62761552

66
FOR4805 | 62761552

67
FOR4805 | 62761552

68
FOR4805 | 62761552

69
 FOR4805 | 62761552

Annexure B – declaration of authenticity

NAME (surname and initials): Nundhkumar S

STUDENT NUMBER: 62761552

REGISTRATION YEAR: 2023

I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained in this research portfolio is
my own original work and that I have cited all the sources I consulted. I also declare
that I have read the section on plagiarism in Tutorial Letter 101 and understand what
plagiarism entails.

Signature: Date: 08 November 2023

70
 FOR4805 | 62761552

Annexure C – a revised list of your sub-questions after Assignment 01 was

Assessed

1.1 Overview on criminal profiling as a source of strategic crime intelligence

1.1.1 Background and significance of criminal profiling in homicide investigations
1.1.2 Background of advanced forensic intelligence collection techniques
1.1.3 Significance of evaluating and assessing their application in investigations

1.2 Understanding criminal profiling as a source of strategic crime intelligence

1.2.1 Purpose and role of criminal profiling in homicide investigations
1.2.2 Relationship between criminal profiling and strategic crime intelligence

1.3 Methodology and approaches in criminal profiling for strategic crime intelligence
1.3.1 Behavioural analysis and profiling approaches
1.3.2 Data collection and analysis methods in strategic crime intelligence

1.4 Reliability and effectiveness of criminal profiling in homicide investigations

1.4.1 Accuracy (Assessing the success rate of profiling outcomes), validity, and
consistency of profiling findings
1.4.2 Contribution of profiling in identifying suspects
1.4.3 Impact of profiling on investigation strategies and resource allocation
1.4.4 Influence of profiling on case solvability and prosecution
1.4.5 Linking offender characteristics to crime scene behaviour

1.5 Limitations and challenges in criminal profiling for homicide investigations

1.5.1 Controversies surrounding profiling techniques and interpretation
1.5.2 Addressing the limitations and improving profiling practices

1.6 Comparative analysis of criminal profiling with other investigative methods

1.6.1 Comparison with forensic science techniques and evidence analysis
1.6.2 Integration of profiling with advanced technologies (e.g., AI and Data
Analytics)
1.6.3 Collaborative approaches in combining profiling with traditional investigation
methods

71