Master Thesis

Spatial Clustering of Crime and Its

Socioeconomic Correlates in Quezon
City, Philippines

by
Michaelangelo Severa

International Urban Development Program

International School of Urban Sciences
University of Seoul

December 2023
Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Background and context of the study ............................................................ 1
1.2. Statement of the problem .............................................................................. 2
1.3. Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................... 3
1.4. Research Objectives ...................................................................................... 4
1.5. Significance of the study ............................................................................... 5
1.6. Scope of the Study ........................................................................................ 6
1.7. Limitations of the Study................................................................................ 8
1.8. Conclusion .................................................................................................... 9
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................... 11
2.1. Crime Hotspots ........................................................................................... 12
2.1.1. Theories in Crime Mapping Research................................................. 14
2.1.2. Methods for Detecting Crime Hotspots .............................................. 15
2.1.3. Some Case Studies and Examples of Crime Hotspots in the Selected
Four Cities........................................................................................................... 17
2.1.4. Some Challenges and Future Directions in Crime Mapping............... 19
2.2. Major Factors Associated with Crime Patterns and Hotspots ..................... 22
2.2.1. Socioeconomic Factors ....................................................................... 24
2.2.2. Environmental Factors ........................................................................ 25
2.2.3. Spatial and Temporal Factors ............................................................. 27
2.2.4. Other Factors Associated with Crime Incidents.................................. 28
2.3. Understanding the Factors that Drive Crime Hotspots and Incidents in the
Philippines .............................................................................................................. 29
2.4. Synthesis and Identified Gaps in the Literature .......................................... 31
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 34
3.1. Data Collection ........................................................................................... 34
3.2. Data Preparation.......................................................................................... 35
3.2.1. Procedures for Enabling Spatial Attributes ......................................... 35

i
 3.2.2. Discussion on Any Necessary Data Transformation or Standardization
36
3.3. Exploratory Data Analysis .......................................................................... 37
3.4. Spatial Autocorrelation Analysis – Global Moran’s I................................. 38
3.5. Hotspot Analysis ......................................................................................... 40
3.6. Cluster and Outlier Analysis ....................................................................... 42
3.7. Geographically Weighted Regression Analysis .......................................... 44
3.8. Space-Time Mining .................................................................................... 46
3.9. Data Interpretation and Reporting............................................................... 48
3.10. Ethical Considerations ............................................................................ 50
3.11. Conclusion .............................................................................................. 52
4. Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 54

ii
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background and context of the study

Quezon City, the most populous city in the Philippines, has experienced

fluctuations in crime rates from 2019 to early 2023 (Quezon City Local Government,

2023). These fluctuations highlight the importance of studying the spatial distribution

of crime and its socioeconomic correlates to better understand the factors contributing

to crime in the city. The e-Crime Incident Recording and Analysis System (e-CIRAS)

records and analyzes crime incidents in Quezon City, providing valuable data for

understanding the city's crime patterns (Philippine National Police).

Spatial clustering of crime refers to the identification of areas with high

concentrations of criminal activity. By analyzing the spatial distribution of crime and

its socioeconomic correlates, researchers and policymakers can better understand the

factors contributing to crime and develop targeted interventions to reduce criminal

activity (Thomson, Espin, & Samuels-Jones, 2020). Some studies have used

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map and analyze crime patterns in the

Philippines. For example, a study conducted in Dumaguete City, Philippines, used

GIS to analyze property crimes such as carnapping, robbery, and theft incidents

(Barrera, Cagang, & Capistrano, 2013).

Socioeconomic factors, such as income, education, and employment, have

been found to be correlated with crime rates. In general, lower socioeconomic status

is associated with higher crime rates. By examining the spatial distribution of crime

1
and its socioeconomic correlates in Quezon City, researchers can identify patterns and

relationships that may help inform crime prevention strategies.

Some studies have used spatial analysis techniques to identify crime hotspots

and clusters. For example, the nearest neighbor hierarchical clustering technique has

been used to identify groups of incidents that are spatially close. Spatial regression

analysis has also been used to explore the relationship between crime rates and

demographic variables while accounting for possible spatial autocorrelation.

In Quezon City, it would be beneficial to conduct a study that combines

spatial clustering techniques with an analysis of socioeconomic correlates to better

understand the factors contributing to crime in the area. This could involve using GIS

to map crime incidents, exploring the relationship between crime rates and

socioeconomic factors, and identifying crime hotspots and clusters. By doing so,

policymakers and law enforcement agencies can develop targeted interventions to

address the underlying causes of crime and improve public safety in Quezon City.

1.2. Statement of the problem

There is limited research on the spatial distribution of crime and its

relationship with socioeconomic factors in Quezon City. This gap in knowledge

hinders the development of targeted interventions and effective crime prevention

strategies.

In general, the study seeks to answer the following questions:

1. What are the spatial patterns of crime in Quezon City, and how do they
relate to the socioeconomic factors in the area?

2
 2. Are there identifiable crime hotspots and clusters in Quezon City, and if
so, what are their characteristics?

3. How do socioeconomic factors, such as income, education, and

employment, correlate with the spatial distribution of crime in Quezon
City?

By addressing these questions, this study aims to provide a comprehensive

understanding of the spatial clustering of crime and its socioeconomic correlates in

Quezon City. The findings will contribute to the development of targeted

interventions and effective crime prevention strategies.

1.3. Purpose of the Study

The study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors

contributing to crime in the city by examining the spatial distribution of crime and its

relationship with socioeconomic factors. This understanding will help inform the

development of targeted interventions and effective crime prevention strategies,

ultimately improving public safety in Quezon City.

The specific objectives of the study are as follows:

1. To analyze the spatial distribution of crime in Quezon City using

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and spatial analysis techniques.
2. To identify and characterize crime hotspots and clusters in Quezon City,
focusing on the spatial clustering of specific crime types.
3. To examine the relationship between socioeconomic factors, such as
income, education, and employment, and the spatial distribution of crime
in Quezon City.
4. To provide recommendations for targeted interventions and effective
crime prevention strategies based on the findings of the study.

3
 The study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge on spatial

clustering of crime and its socioeconomic correlates. The findings will also be

valuable for policymakers and law enforcement agencies in Quezon City, as they can

use this information to develop targeted interventions and effective crime prevention

strategies to address the underlying causes of crime and improve public safety in the

city.

1.4. Research Objectives

The research objectives for this study on Spatial Clustering of Crime and Its

Socioeconomic Correlates in Quezon City, Philippines, are as follows:

1. To identify and characterize crime hotspots in the city and determine the
spatial clustering of specific crime types.
2. To investigate the association between high unemployment rates in
neighborhoods and the prevalence of crime hotspots.
3. To analyze temporal changes in the geographic distribution of crime and
detect the emergence of new hotspots.
4. To examine the presence of local spatial outliers in crime rates, such as
contrasting crime rates in neighboring areas.
5. To explore the influence of factors like income levels, education levels,
and proximity to public transportation on the spatial distribution of crime.
These research objectives aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of

the complex interplay between crime and its socioeconomic correlates in Quezon

City. By uncovering patterns and relationships between these factors, this research

will contribute to enhancing public safety and fostering a more secure environment

for the residents of Quezon City.

4
1.5. Significance of the study

The significance of this research study lies in its dual contribution to both the

theoretical understanding and practical applications in the field of criminology. By

focusing on the examination of the spatial distribution of crime and its intricate

relationship with various socioeconomic factors, the study is poised to enrich the

current body of knowledge pertaining to the complex dynamics between crime and its

socioeconomic determinants.

From a theoretical perspective, the study aims to delve deeper into the

contributing factors that lead to spatial clustering of crime and its ties with critical

socioeconomic factors, such as income levels, educational attainment, and

employment status. The study will extrapolate data and draw connections that can

supplement the development of innovative theories and models that accurately

describe the mechanics of crime in urban environments. This exploration has the

potential to pave the way for novel perspectives and hypotheses about urban crime

dynamics, contributing to a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the

subject matter.

In terms of practical implications, the findings generated by this study can

serve as a crucial resource for policymakers and law enforcement agencies in Quezon

City. By facilitating the identification of crime hotspots and unraveling the

socioeconomic influences that exacerbate these hotspots, the study offers a unique

opportunity for these stakeholders to devise targeted interventions and potent crime

5
prevention strategies. Such strategies, informed by a clear understanding of the

underlying causes of crime, can result in significant improvements in public safety.

Additionally, the insights from this study can shape the design and execution

of evidence-based policies and initiatives that directly address the root causes of

crime, such as social and economic disparities. By highlighting the need for strategies

that not only tackle crime but also promote community cohesion and resilience, the

study underscores the importance of a comprehensive approach to crime reduction.

1.6. Scope of the Study

The scope of this study encompasses the investigation of various measurable

indicators related to crime and socioeconomic factors within the geographical

boundaries of Quezon City. Law enforcement and public safety in the city are

maintained and controlled by the Philippine National Police (PNP), specifically the

Quezon City Police District (QCPD). The QCPD oversees police functions in the

area, which is divided into 16 Police Stations with component Police Community

Precincts. Their main objective is to enforce the law and prevent and control crimes,

ensuring public safety and internal security within the city.

In terms of time scope, this research will consider crimes committed in

Quezon City between January 2020 and March 2023. This period represents a recent

timeframe that could provide relevant and updated data on crime trends in the area. It

is essential to analyze crime patterns within this specific timeframe to ensure the

relevance of the study's findings and recommendations.

6
 The study will focus on the following research questions and their

corresponding required attributes or variables:

1. Are there areas of the city where high crime rates are not random but
form specific clusters (hotspots)?
- Crime incident counts per geographic unit (e.g., census tract, postal
code), normalized by the population size in each area to get crime
rates per unit of population.

2. Are certain types of crime clustered in specific areas?

- Count of specific types of crime incidents per geographic unit,
normalized by the population size or area of each unit, if possible.

3. Are neighborhoods with high unemployment rates also hotspots for

crime?
- Crime incident counts and unemployment rates per geographic unit,
with crime counts ideally normalized by the population size in each
area.

4. How does the geographic distribution of crime change over time? Are
there emerging hotspots?
- Crime incident counts per geographic unit for multiple time periods
(e.g., monthly, yearly), normalized by the population size in each
area, if possible.

5. Are there local spatial outliers in crime rates, i.e., areas of high crime
rates surrounded by areas of low crime rates (or vice versa)?
- Crime incident counts per geographic unit, normalized by the
population size in each area.

6. Is there a correlation between the spatial distribution of crime and other

factors like income levels, education levels, and proximity to public
transportation?
- Crime incident counts, income levels, education levels, and distance
to the nearest public transportation stop per geographic unit. Crime
counts should be normalized by the population size in each area, and
other variables should be appropriately normalized as well (e.g.,
average income, percent with a certain education level, etc.).

7
1.7. Limitations of the Study

The proposed study has several limitations that may affect the reliability and

generalizability of the results.

First, the study focuses on a specific geographical area, Quezon City, which

may limit the generalizability of the findings to other cities or regions. However, the

study's focus on Quezon City allows for a detailed examination of crime patterns and

socioeconomic factors within the Philippines urban context.

Second, the study considers crimes committed in the City between January

2020 and March 2023, which may not capture long-term trends or historical patterns

in crime and socioeconomic factors. Nevertheless, this timeframe provides relevant

and updated data on crime trends in the area, ensuring the relevance of the study's

findings and recommendations.

Third, the study relies on measurable indicators and available data for crime

and socioeconomic factors, which may not capture all relevant factors influencing

crime patterns in Quezon City. For example, unmeasured factors such as social

cohesion, informal social control, and neighborhood characteristics may also play a

role in shaping crime patterns.

Lastly, the dataset used in the study was collected during the pandemic,

which may have influenced the crime scenario in Quezon City due to lockdown

measures and other restrictions. As cities are now reopening for business, the crime

8
patterns and trends may have changed, and the findings from the study may not fully

reflect the current crime situation in the city.

In summary, the research remains relevant and valuable despite these

challenges. Although the study focuses on a specific geographical area, it considers a

limited range of crime types, relies on measurable indicators, and uses data collected

during the pandemic, it still provides important insights into the spatial patterns of

crime and their relationships with socioeconomic factors. By understanding these

patterns and relationships, the study can contribute to the development of more

effective crime prevention strategies and interventions, ultimately benefiting the

communities in Quezon City and potentially informing similar research in other urban

areas.

1.8. Conclusion

The background and context of the study on Spatial Clustering of Crime and

Its Socioeconomic Correlates in Quezon City, Philippines, have been provided. The

statement of the problem has been identified, emphasizing the need for a

comprehensive understanding of the spatial distribution of crime and its relationship

with socioeconomic factors. The purpose of the study and the research objectives

have been outlined, focusing on the investigation of crime hotspots, the association

between high unemployment rates and crime, temporal changes in crime distribution,

local spatial outliers, and the influence of factors like income levels, education levels,

and proximity to public transportation on crime patterns. The research questions that

will guide the study, the significance of the study in terms of its contribution to both

9
theory and practice, the scope of the study in terms of geographical and time

boundaries, and the limitations of the study, including the focus on a specific

geographical area, the selected timeframe, reliance on measurable indicators, and the

use of spatial analysis techniques, have also been presented.

Having established the foundation of the study in this introduction, the next

chapter will delve into a review of the relevant literature on spatial clustering of crime

and its socioeconomic correlates. This literature review will provide a comprehensive

understanding of the existing body of knowledge on the subject, identify gaps in the

literature, and inform the development of the study's methodology. By examining

previous research and theories on crime patterns, socioeconomic factors, and spatial

analysis techniques, the literature review will further contextualize the study and

provide a solid basis for the subsequent chapters on methodology, data analysis, and

discussion of the findings.

10
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

The Literature Review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the

existing body of knowledge on the subject. The review will be divided into two main

sections: the concept of crime hotspots and major factors associated with crime

patterns and hotspots.

In the first section, the concept of crime hotspots will be explored, including

an introduction to the topic, theories in crime mapping research, spatial-temporal

patterns, neighborhood theories, and psychological, social, or economic

characteristics associated with higher levels of criminal involvement. Various

methods for detecting crime hotspots, such as hotspot mapping, clustering, spatial

scan statistics, Geographic Information System (GIS) software, Spatial and Temporal

Analysis of Crime (STAC), and nearest neighbor analysis, will be discussed.

Additionally, case studies and examples of crime hotspots in selected cities, including

New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and London, will be presented. The section

will conclude with a discussion of challenges and future directions in crime mapping,

including varying factors in hotspot analysis, the gap between theory and practice,

perceived challenges in conducting hotspot mapping in the Philippines, and future

directions in crime mapping.

In the second section, major factors associated with crime patterns and

hotspots will be examined. This section will cover socioeconomic factors such as

income levels, education levels, and unemployment rates, as well as environmental

factors like land use and zoning, proximity to public transportation, and presence of

11
public spaces. Spatial and temporal factors, including seasonal and time-of-day

patterns and geographic distribution of crime events, will also be discussed. Other

factors associated with crime incidents, such as demographic characteristics (e.g., age,

gender, race), social disorganization, and community cohesion, will be explored.

Throughout this section, previous studies and methodologies used to identify these

factors in relation to crime will be highlighted.

2.1. Crime Hotspots

Crime hotspots are regions with a high concentration of criminal activity,

often depicted on maps. These areas are useful for researchers and analysts to study

the geography of crime (Crime hotspots, 2023). There are two ways to interpret crime

hotspots. To start, certain areas with higher crime rates are often referred to as

hotspots. Analytical techniques such as hotspot mapping, such as kernel density

estimation, and clustering methods like K-means clustering and hierarchical

clustering can be employed to pinpoint these areas. (He, Lai, Wang, Liu, & Deng,

2022). Then, crime hotspots help identify spatial-temporal patterns, enabling us to

make generalizations about both hotspot areas and the areas surrounding them (Crime

hotspots, 2023).

Studies have consistently shown that crime in cities tends to occur in specific

geographic areas, with most streets being relatively safe and only a small percentage

of blocks experiencing high levels of criminal activity. These areas are commonly

referred to as "hot spots," and can be identified using Geographic Information System

12
(GIS) software to track crime rates. Although hot spots can be a persistent issue, they

can be addressed through effective public safety measures.

Being able to identify crime hotspots is essential for enhancing public safety

measures. Through hot spot analysis, law enforcement can pinpoint areas with high

rates of crime, the types of criminal activity occurring, and the most effective

strategies for response (Gonzales, Schofield, & Hart, 2005). To conduct a thorough

hot spot analysis, there are several key factors to consider. These include the nature of

the analysis, spatial relationships, the type of crime being studied, time intervals,

potential barriers, the method of output display, and the software utilized. (Gonzales,

Schofield, & Hart, 2005). To avoid using arbitrary methods in hot spot analysis,

analysts should prioritize establishing a solid connection between theory and practice,

relying on a scientific foundation. This approach ensures more effective and accurate

analysis. (Gonzales, Schofield, & Hart, 2005).

This section will explore the concept of crime hotspots by discussing some

theoretical ideas of crime mapping, then the methods to which these theoretical

perspectives are applied. This paper will also present case studies to demonstrate the

practical application of these theoretical perspectives in identifying crime hotspots

and developing targeted policing strategies in the selected four major cities. Its

concluding part will also mention the challenges and future directions in crime

mapping, including the need to address varying factors in hot spot analysis and

establish a more vital link between theory and practice.

13
2.1.1. Theories in Crime Mapping Research

Crime mapping is a method used by crime analysts and researchers to detect

spatial patterns in criminal activity by utilizing location data about crime events

(Crime Mapping, 2023). As crime mapping tools and techniques continue to evolve,

so does the criminological theory aimed at understanding the geographical patterns of

crime (Crime Mapping, 2023). This section will provide an overview of several

theoretical perspectives used to crime mapping research.

1. Spatial-temporal Patterns. According to Ratcliffe (2010), crime

opportunities are not evenly distributed or randomly occurring in space and
time. With this knowledge, crime mappers can analyze spatial patterns and
gain a deeper theoretical understanding of the underlying processes that lead
to crime (Ratcliffe, 2010) (Cheng, et al., 2022). By studying spatial-temporal
patterns, crime mappers can pinpoint crime hotspots and develop effective
strategies for crime prevention (Ratcliffe, 2010).
2. Neighborhood Theories. Crime mapping employs neighborhood theories as
another theoretical perspective. These theories provide a broader view of
crime, covering larger areas and taking statistical data into account to identify
hotspots. According to these theories, certain neighborhoods have higher
crime rates due to their social and economic characteristics, such as high
poverty rates, low education levels, and widespread unemployment. Social
disorganization is also seen as a factor that can lead to higher crime rates. By
analyzing these factors, crime mappers can develop effective strategies for
preventing crime (Crime Mapping, 2023).
3. Psychological, Social, or Economic Characteristics Associated with
Higher Levels of Criminal Involvement. Studies in criminology suggest
that specific psychological, social, or economic characteristics are associated
with a higher probability of engaging in criminal behavior (Crime Mapping,
2023). It has been observed that people with lower levels of self-control,
empathy, and a tendency to take risks are more prone to engaging in criminal
behaviors (Crime Mapping, 2023) (Weisburd & McEwen, 2015). It is
important to note that social factors, such as peer pressure and exposure to
violence, may lead to an increased risk of criminal involvement. Additionally,
economic factors such as poverty and unemployment can also contribute to a
higher likelihood of criminal activity (Crime Mapping, 2023). By
understanding the psychological, social, and economic characteristics

14
 associated with higher levels of criminal involvement, crime mappers can
develop effective strategies for crime prevention.
To understand and prevent crime, crime mapping is a crucial tool. By

analyzing the spatial and temporal patterns of criminal activity, as well as the social,

psychological, and economic factors that contribute to it, crime mappers can identify

the root causes of crime hotspots and implement effective prevention strategies. In the

following section, we will explore various techniques for identifying areas with high

crime rates.

2.1.2. Methods for Detecting Crime Hotspots

In crime mapping, it is important to identify areas with high levels of criminal

activity, known as crime hotspots. Detecting these hotspots involves using various

methods that depend on the type of analysis required. This section outlines several

techniques that can be used to identify crime hotspots and develop effective crime

prevention strategies.

1. Hotspot Mapping. Identifying crime hotspots through hotspot mapping

is a dependable approach that utilizes kernel density estimation. This
statistical technique estimates the probability density function of a
random variable. In crime mapping, kernel density estimation plays a
crucial role in determining the density of crime events in a given
geographic area (He, Lai, Wang, Liu, & Deng, 2022). Based on the
resulting density estimate, areas with high crime intensity are identified
as crime hotspots. This method is commonly used to detect crime
hotspots and has proven effective in identifying hotspots for various types
of crime.

2. Clustering. Detecting crime hotspots involves clustering, which groups

crime events based on their spatial proximity. Two popular clustering
algorithms are K-means and hierarchical clustering. K-means partitions
data points into K clusters, where K is a user-defined parameter.
Meanwhile, hierarchical clustering forms a hierarchy of clusters.
Clustering is an effective technique for identifying areas with high crime

15
 intensity, even if they are not directly adjacent to each other (He, Lai,
Wang, Liu, & Deng, 2022).

3. Spatial Scan Statistics. Spatial scan statistics is a technique used to

detect crime hotspots through statistical testing. Circular or elliptical
windows of varying sizes and shapes are used to scan a geographic area.
Moving the window across the area, a statistical test is conducted at each
location to determine if there is a significant increase in the number of
crime events within the window. The areas with statistically significant
excesses of crime events are classified as crime hotspots.

4. Geographic Information System (GIS) Software. Crime mappers make

use of GIS software to pinpoint crime hotspots, enabling them to
visualize crime occurrences on a map and study their spatial distribution.
By creating hotspot maps, GIS software can effectively locate areas with
high crime intensity. Additionally, it enables spatial analysis, allowing
crime mappers to detect patterns in the spatial distribution of crime
events. (Mondal, Singh, & Kumar, 2022).

5. Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Crime (STAC). The STAC

technique is used to identify crime hotspots by combining spatial and
temporal analysis. This approach examines the spatial and temporal
distribution of crime incidents to locate areas with a high frequency of
criminal activity. STAC is an effective tool for detecting crime hotspots
because it can identify areas with high crime intensity that are not
necessarily adjacent, and it can also detect fluctuations in crime intensity
over time. Samuel Bates developed this technique in the early 1990s, and
it has since been used to identify regions with a high frequency of crime
(He, Lai, Wang, Liu, & Deng, 2022).

6. Nearest Neighbor Analysis. One approach to pinpointing crime hotspots

is through the nearest neighbor method, which determines areas with high
crime intensity by analyzing the proximity of crime incidents to each
other. This method involves calculating the distance between each crime
event and its nearest neighbor, ultimately identifying regions with a dense
concentration of crime events as potential hotspots (Gonzales, Schofield,
& Hart, 2005).

To sum up, identifying crime hotspots is a crucial aspect of crime mapping.

Several methods such as hotspot mapping, clustering, spatial scan statistics, GIS

16
software, STAC, and nearest neighbor prove to be useful in detecting crime hotspots.

By utilizing these techniques, crime mappers can pinpoint areas with high crime rates

and devise effective strategies for preventing them. The next section will delve into

case studies and real-life examples of crime mapping.

2.1.3. Some Case Studies and Examples of Crime Hotspots in

the Selected Four Cities

Maps can be used to visualize crime hotspots, which refer to areas with a

higher-than-average level of criminal activity. Through analyzing these hotspots,

researchers and analysts can examine geographic areas of crime and develop effective

strategies for crime prevention. Several cities have utilized crime mapping to identify

these hotspots and develop successful crime prevention strategies. In this section, we

will explore examples of effective hot-spot crime prevention models implemented in

four cities.

1. New York City

A research study conducted in New York City by Almuhanna, Alrehili,

Alsubhi, and Syed proposes a methodology for predicting spatio-temporal
criminal patterns within the city's neighborhoods. Their approach utilizes
a dataset from 2006 to 2019, which includes 2.2 million criminal records
pertaining to 25 different crime types.

A series of stages were involved in the methodology, beginning with

analyzing spatio-temporal crime data in New York City through
visualization, which is crucial for decision-making. Three classifiers were
then utilized, namely Support Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest
(RF), and XGBoost classifiers. Based on the analysis, XGBoost had the
highest number of accurate predictions, correctly classifying 22 out of 25
crime types, followed by Random Forest at 21 types, and SVM with the
lowest accuracy at 17 crime types.

17
 Overall, the study utilized spatio-temporal analysis to predict criminal
patterns in NYC neighborhoods. The XGBoost classifier outperformed
other models, making it a suitable option for detecting crimes in
neighborhoods. (Almuhanna, Alrehili, Alsubhi, & Syed).

2. Los Angeles

The Almanie et al. 2015 study delves into identifying spatial and
temporal criminal hotspots, with a particular focus on Denver and Los
Angeles. By analyzing crime data and utilizing data-mining models, the
report aims to pinpoint criminal hotspots in these areas. The Los Angeles
Crimes Dataset contains 14 attributes and 243750 instances, with 96% of
the crimes occurring in 2014. The report successfully achieved its goal by
utilizing the Apriori algorithm on both datasets to identify criminal
hotspots. In Los Angeles, the areas with the highest likelihood of crime
are 77th Street, Southwest, Pacific, N Hollywood, Southeast, Northeast,
and Van Nuys. The most frequent occurrence of crime takes place in 77th
Street on Mondays between 9 pm and 1 am. Crimes in both 77th Street
and Southwest areas occur every day, mostly between 8 am and midnight.
These findings can be useful in raising awareness about dangerous
locations and aiding agencies in predicting future crimes in specific
locations at particular times. (Almanie, Mirza, & Lor).

3. Chicago

In Chicago, spatial clustering is considered the most effective method for

detecting crime hotspots. This method groups crime events into clusters
based on their proximity, which helps identify areas with high crime
intensity even if they are not adjacent. This approach is especially useful
for analyzing crime data, which contains information on various crime
events such as their time and class.

Through the utilization of spatial clustering methods, it was discovered

that areas with elevated levels of criminal activity share certain traits,
including relatively modest incomes, a high prevalence of childhood
poverty, lower rental costs, and more single occupants. Conversely,
secure neighborhoods are marked by higher rental prices, low poverty
rates, a population with a solid educational background, and a greater
incidence of married residents. (Alqahtani, Garima, & Alaiad, 2019).

4. London

A recent study has examined the relationship between ambient population

measures and crime hotspots in London. The researchers used a
clustering method, known as the Gi* statistic, to identify significant

18
 clusters of crime based on different denominators (Malleson & Andresen,
Exploring the Impact of Ambient Population Measures on London Crime
Hotspots, 2016).

According to the study, the most suitable measure of the population-at-

risk for the Census is the workday population. Furthermore, it identifies
specific areas that demonstrate statistically significant rates when
utilizing both the ambient and residential population denominators. This
indicates an environmental background that serves as both a crime
generator and an attractor. Places that attract large numbers of people for
non-criminal purposes are known as crime generators, while areas used
specifically for criminal activity are known as crime attractors. Regions
that are predominantly residential and display hotspots under the ambient
population might have a higher proportion of crime attractors, which
stimulate crime, but fewer generators to attract a large volume of people.

In conclusion, crime mapping has proven to be an extremely useful tool in

various cities for identifying crime hotspots and creating effective crime prevention

strategies. Through hotspot mapping, clustering, spatial scan statistics, GIS software,

STAC, and nearest neighbor, crime mappers can detect high crime areas and devise

successful solutions. It's worth mentioning that crime mapping has been implemented

in major cities like New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and London, resulting in

significant reductions in crime rates.

2.1.4. Some Challenges and Future Directions in Crime

Mapping

Crime mapping has become a vital tool in preventing crime and has been

adopted by numerous cities to identify high-crime areas and develop effective crime

prevention strategies. Although it is valuable, there are still areas that require

improvement in the future of crime mapping. Some challenges that need to be

addressed include:

19
1. Varying Factors in Hot Spot Analysis

Analyzing hot spots in crime mapping is a complex task that poses

several challenges. Various factors such as the type of crime, analysis
focus, time intervals, software, output display, and barriers can impact the
results and make comparisons between studies difficult. To tackle this
challenge, crime mappers must be mindful of these factors and carefully
consider them during their analyses. Focusing on factors like the accuracy
and comprehensiveness of crime data, selecting appropriate spatial and
temporal scales, and using suitable statistical methods can help overcome
this challenge (Ratcliffe, 2010). Addressing these challenges is crucial for
improving the accuracy and usefulness of hot spot analysis in crime
prevention efforts.

2. The Gap between Theory and Practice

Although crime mapping has become popular among scholars and

practitioners, there is still a need to strengthen the connection between
theory and practice. (Weisburd & McEwen, 2015)It can be difficult to
merge the concepts of environmental criminology and crime analysis
because of the diverse range of approaches within their shared focus on
crime patterns and the environment (Wortley & Townsley, 2017).
Although there are common definitions and features, the environmental
viewpoint encompasses a wide range of perspectives. This makes it
challenging to establish a unified framework for environmental
criminology and crime analysis (ECCA). Nevertheless, by gathering top
theorists and practitioners in the field, ECCA can offer a thorough
comprehension of crime patterns and the environment. This leads to more
efficient tactics for decreasing victimization (Wortley & Townsley,
2017).

3. Perceived Challenges in Conducting Hotspot Mapping in the

Philippines

Conducting hotspot mapping and study in the Philippines presents several

challenges, including data quality and availability, cultural, social, and
political contexts, and technical and methodological issues. Accurate and
up-to-date data is crucial for effective crime mapping. However,
obtaining reliable data in the Philippines can be difficult due to
underreporting and inconsistencies in data collection. Furthermore, the
unique cultural, social, and political contexts of the country can influence
crime patterns and hotspot mapping. Therefore, it is essential for crime
mappers to consider these factors when developing and implementing
crime mapping techniques and strategies. (Taclay & Taclay, 2022).

20
 Despite these challenges, the adoption of GIS-based crime analysis tools by

the Philippine police, such as the La Trinidad Municipal Police Station, has shown

promise in providing better crime solutions and prevention schemes (Geospatial

World, 2012). These tools can help map crime density and inform appropriate actions

for law enforcement agencies. As the Philippines continues to embrace geospatial

technologies and invest in training local police personnel in crime mapping and

planning, the potential for effective crime prevention and management through

hotspot mapping and study is likely to increase.

Furthermore, advancements in crime mapping and analysis techniques also

include the use of machine learning algorithms and social media data to identify crime

hotspots and patterns (Shah, Nandish, & Manan, 2021) & (Wang, Yu, Liu, & Young,

2019). Machine learning algorithms can analyze large amounts of data and identify

patterns that may not be easily detected by humans (Shah, Nandish, & Manan, 2021).

Social media data can provide real-time information about crime events and help

crime mappers identify areas with high crime intensity (Shah, Nandish, & Manan,

2021), & (Bendler, Ratku, & Neumann, 2014). These advancements offer new

opportunities for improving the accuracy and effectiveness of crime mapping and

analysis, as well as informing the development of targeted interventions and crime

prevention strategies.

Future directions in crime mapping and analysis may include the integration

of machine learning algorithms, such as k-means clustering, to partition input data

and identify crime hotspots. Additionally, the use of social media data, such as

21
geolocated Twitter messages, can help researchers better understand the spatial

distribution of crime and the population at risk (Malleson & Andresen, Using Social

Media Data to Assess Spatial Crime Hotspots), (Wang, Yu, Liu, & Young, 2019).

These emerging trends in crime mapping and analysis can contribute to a more

comprehensive understanding of crime patterns and their underlying spatial processes

and factors, ultimately informing the development of more effective crime prevention

strategies and interventions (Shah, Nandish, & Manan, 2021), (Wang, Yu, Liu, &

Young, 2019), (Saeed & Abdulmohsin, 2023), (Yadav, Kumar, Bhatnagar, & Verma,

2019).

To sum up, crime mapping has become a crucial means of preventing crime.

It has been utilized in different cities to pinpoint crime hotspots and devise efficient

strategies for preventing crime. Nonetheless, there are still challenges and future

directions that need to be tackled in crime mapping. By addressing these issues and

exploring future possibilities, crime mappers can devise even more effective strategies

for preventing crime.

2.2. Major Factors Associated with Crime Patterns and

Hotspots

Crime patterns and hotspots refer to the spatial and temporal distribution of

criminal activities in specific areas. Understanding crime patterns and hotspots is

crucial for law enforcement agencies, policymakers, and researchers to develop

effective crime prevention strategies and allocate resources efficiently. High crime

concentrations characterize these hotspots and are often visualized using maps to help

22
researchers and analysts examine geographic areas of crime (Crime hotspots, 2023).

There are different techniques that have been devised to identify areas with high

crime rates, such as clustering and statistics-based methods (He, Lai, Wang, Liu, &

Deng, 2022). Identifying the factors associated with crime hotspots is essential for

understanding the underlying causes and developing targeted interventions to reduce

criminal activities. By examining several factors, such as socioeconomic,

environmental, spatial, and temporal aspects, researchers can gain insights into the

complex dynamics that contribute to the formation of crime hotspots. This knowledge

can then inform evidence-based policies and practices to reduce crime and improve

public safety (Chainey, Tompson, & Uhlig, 2008).

The subsequent sections of this study will delve deeper into the significant

factors associated with crime patterns and hotspots, including socioeconomic,

environmental, spatial, and temporal factors and other factors. These sections will

also discuss the methodologies used in previous studies to identify these factors,

providing a comprehensive understanding of the various aspects that contribute to

crime hotspots. As we explore these factors, it is essential to consider the connections

between the distinct aspects and how they may interact to influence crime patterns.

This integrated approach will enable us to understand the complex nature of crime

hotspots better and inform more effective crime prevention strategies. Understanding

the factors associated with crime hotspots is crucial for developing targeted

interventions and allocating resources efficiently. By examining the several factors

and their interactions, we can gain valuable insights into the complex dynamics that

23
contribute to the formation of crime hotspots and inform evidence-based policies and

practices to reduce crime and improve public safety.

2.2.1. Socioeconomic Factors

The influence of socioeconomic factors on crime patterns and hotspots is

substantial. In this part of the paper, we'll delve into the effects of different

socioeconomic factors on crime, such as income levels, education levels, and

unemployment rates. Furthermore, we'll examine earlier research and techniques used

to identify and evaluate these crime factors.

1. Income Levels

Income levels significantly affect the relationship between crime and

socioeconomic status. Research has shown that areas with lower income
levels tend to have higher crime rates (Kitchen, 2007). This can be
attributed to lower-income individuals having fewer resources and
opportunities, increasing stress, frustration, and criminal behavior.
Additionally, low-income neighborhoods may lack the infrastructure and
resources to prevent and address crime, exacerbating the issue effectively.

2. Education Levels

Education levels are another critical factor in crime and socioeconomic

status. Studies have found that areas with lower levels of education tend
to have higher crime rates (Kitchen, 2007). A lack of education can limit
an individual's employment opportunities and earning potential,
increasing poverty and crime rates. Furthermore, individuals with lower
levels of education may be less aware of the consequences of criminal
behavior and may be more susceptible to engaging in criminal activities.

3. Unemployment Rates

Studies indicate that there is a correlation between unemployment rates

and crime rates. It has been found that regions with elevated levels of
unemployment experience increased incidents of criminal activity (Anser,
Yousaf, Nassani, Alotaibi, & Kabbani, 2020). Unemployment can lead to
financial stress and feelings of hopelessness, which can contribute to

24
 criminal behavior. Additionally, unemployed individuals may have more
time, increasing the likelihood of engaging in criminal activities.

4. Previous Studies and Methodologies Used to Identify Socioeconomic

Factors

Numerous studies have examined the relationship between crime and

socioeconomic factors. One study conducted in Ottawa found a moderate
geographic relationship between crime and socioeconomic status, with
40% of socially disadvantaged areas also being high crime areas
(Kitchen, 2007). A study was conducted to explore the relationship
between socioeconomic and demographic indicators and crime rates
across 32 Mexican states. The findings indicated that economic growth,
wages, and unemployment were negatively associated with crime rates
(Anser, Yousaf, Nassani, Alotaibi, & Kabbani, 2020).

The studies commonly adopt methodologies that utilize geographic

information systems (GIS) to analyze spatial data and discover
correlations between crime and socioeconomic factors (Kitchen, 2007).
Researchers typically define neighborhoods according to census tracts
and examine various indicators, such as income, education, and
employment levels, to determine the relationship between crime and
socioeconomic status (Sackett, 2023).

2.2.2. Environmental Factors

The impact of environmental factors on crime patterns and hotspots is

significant and cannot be disregarded. This outline will explore the influence of

various environmental factors on crime, such as land use and zoning, proximity to

public transportation, and public spaces like parks and schools. Additionally, we will

review past studies and methodologies used to identify and analyze these crime

factors.

1. Land Use and Zoning

The way land is used and zoned has a big impact on where crime tends to
occur. Certain types of land use, such as alcohol outlets, clubs and discos,
cultural facilities, municipal housing, and commercial buildings, are
known to attract more crime than others (Sypion-Dutkowska & Leitner,

25
 2017). These land use types can create opportunities for criminal
activities and contribute to the formation of crime hotspots. Conversely,
other land use types, such as residential areas with solid social
organization and stability, may be associated with lower crime rates
(Sackett, 2023).

2. Proximity to Public Transportation

Public transportation can be associated with the occurrence of crime as it

provides increased accessibility and mobility for both potential victims
and offenders (Newton, 2014). As a city dweller, public transportation
can be a dependable and cost-effective substitute to owning a vehicle.
However, it can also make it easier for criminals to find and target
potential victims, and reduce the time needed to carry out unlawful
activities (Neiss, 2015). Research has shown that crime rates tend to rise
in areas surrounding public transit, with a greater number of robberies
taking place in regions with more public transportation options (Neiss,
2015). Therefore, the proximity to public transportation can be a
significant factor in crime occurrence.

3. Presence of Public Spaces

The design of public spaces, like streets and parks, can affect crime rates
by influencing the interactions between offenders, potential victims, and
supervisors. The environmental features within these spaces play a crucial
role in determining the timing and location of criminal activity (Huafang,
Liu, & Yue, 2022). According to the routine activity theory, street crimes
are influenced by environmental factors, and these crimes typically take
place on the streets (Huafang, Liu, & Yue, 2022). To reduce the risk of
crime, it's crucial to comprehend how the street environment and spatial
changes affect criminal activity (Huafang, Liu, & Yue, 2022).
Additionally, public spaces can provide opportunities for offenders to
observe potential victims and plan their crimes, making these areas more
susceptible to criminal activities.

4. Previous Studies and Methodologies Used to Identify Environmental

Factors

Numerous research studies have delved into the potential relationship

between environmental factors and crime rates. A study conducted in
Ottawa, for instance, found a moderate correlation between crime and
land use patterns, with specific categories of land use associated with
higher crime rates (Kitchen, 2007). Another study explored how mixed
land use can alleviate urban decline by minimizing tax delinquency in
single-family homes. This highlights the positive relationship between

26
 mixed land use and urban stability (Gu, Newman, Park, Lee, & Kim,
2019).

In conducting these studies, GIS is commonly utilized to analyze spatial

data and detect correlations between crime and environmental factors
(Kitchen, 2007). Researchers typically define neighborhoods according to
census tracts and examine various indicators, such as land use types,
proximity to public transportation, and public spaces, to determine the
relationship between crime and environmental factors (Sackett, 2023).

2.2.3. Spatial and Temporal Factors

The occurrence of crime is influenced by spatial and temporal factors, which

shape crime patterns and hotspots. This section of the outline will examine the impact

of different spatial and temporal factors on crime, such as seasonal and time-of-day

patterns, the distribution of crime events across geographic locations, and previous

studies that have identified these factors. For instance, a study conducted in the

Philippines found that crime-related incidents, particularly vehicular accidents, are

more likely to happen in the afternoon. These incidents are frequently observed in the

road networks of the central business district (Taclay & Taclay, 2022).

1. Seasonal and Time-of-day Patterns

Seasonal patterns in crime rates have been widely studied, with many
types of crimes showing fluctuations throughout the year (Lauritsen &
White, 2014). Environmental factors, such as temperature changes and
daylight hours, can influence crime rates, as can common activity patterns
associated with the beginning and end of the school year (Lauritsen &
White, 2014). As an example, incidents of household burglary and
larceny are often more prevalent during the summer months and decrease
during other seasons. However, motor vehicle thefts do not follow the
same seasonal trends (Lauritsen & White, 2014). Violent victimizations
also show seasonal patterns (Lauritsen & White, 2014).

Understanding crime rates requires careful consideration of time-of-day

patterns. Research has shown that crime rates tend to be higher on

27
 weekends and that this temporal change has a spatial component
(Andresen & Malleson, 2015).

2. Geographic Distribution of Crime Events

The geographic distribution of crime events is crucial in understanding

spatial patterns of crime. Studies have found that the spatial patterns of
various crime types differ from season to season (De Melo, Pereira,
Andresen, & Matias, 2017). Hotspot distributions have been observed for
violent and property crimes, with specific areas experiencing higher
crime concentrations (Cheng, et al., 2022). Research has also shown that
locations such as parks, streets, and other areas where people gather are
common for property crimes (Cheng, et al., 2022).

3. Previous Studies and Methodologies Used to Identify Spatial and

Temporal Factors

Several research studies have focused on analyzing the spatial and

temporal aspects of crime. In a particular study, routine activity theory
was utilized to elucidate the spatial trends of different types of crimes and
how they fluctuate across different seasons. (De Melo, Pereira, Andresen,
& Matias, 2017). A recent study analyzed crime patterns based on days of
the week, revealing distinct temporal patterns and a spatial component to
these changes ( (Andresen & Malleson, 2015).

These studies’ methods often involve spatial data analysis techniques,

such as hotspot mapping and spatiotemporal evolution analysis (Cheng, et
al., 2022). Researchers may also use global autocorrelation analysis to
determine appropriate distance intervals and time steps for constructing
crime spatiotemporal cubes (Cheng, et al., 2022).

2.2.4. Other Factors Associated with Crime Incidents

In addition to environmental, spatial, and temporal factors, other factors, such

as demographic characteristics and social disorganization also plays a significant role

in shaping crime patterns and hotspots. This section directs the impact of these factors

on crime.

1. Demographic Characteristics (e.g., Age, Gender, Race)

28
 Research has shown that there is a correlation between certain
demographic factors and crime rates. For instance, younger individuals
have a higher likelihood of engaging in criminal activities. Furthermore,
males and certain racial groups are perceived to account for a larger
portion of offenders (Gramlich, 2020). Low-income people are much
more likely than others to experience violent crime (Sackett, 2023). These
disparities may be influenced by neighborhood characteristics and
socioeconomic factors (Sackett, 2023).

2. Social Disorganization and Community Cohesion

Factors such as poverty, segregation, and inequality contribute to social

disorganization and can lead to higher crime rates (Sackett, 2023). Areas
with a higher concentration of disadvantages tend to have an increased
incidence of violent crime. (Sackett, 2023). In one hand, lower crime
rates are often associated with strong social organization, employment
opportunities for young people, stable residential areas, and a controlled
influx of immigrants (Sackett, 2023).

3. Previous Studies and Methodologies Used to Identify Demographic

and Other Social Factors in Crime

Various studies have explored the correlation between crime rates and
demographic factors like age, gender, and race in the context of social
disorganization. According to one study, crime rates tend to be higher
among certain racial groups, younger individuals, and males (Gramlich,
2020). Another study on serious and violent juvenile offenders
highlighted the differences in offending rates based on age, gender, and
race (Loeber & Farrington, 1998). In terms of social disorganization and
community cohesion, research has shown that age, gender, and race are
characteristics that can influence crime rates in certain areas (Schaefer,
2008). A study on criminal homicides in a prominent northern city
collected data on demographic factors and found associations between
these factors and crime rates.

2.3. Understanding the Factors that Drive Crime Hotspots

and Incidents in the Philippines

The interplay of factors associated with crime patterns and hotspots in the

Philippines involves a complex combination of socio-economic, crime opportunity,

temporal, and spatial factors. Understanding these factors is crucial for developing

29
effective crime prevention strategies and law enforcement interventions in the

country.

The Philippines' crime patterns and hotspots are largely shaped by socio-

economic factors like poverty, unemployment, and education. These factors affect the

spatial distribution of crime, with areas experiencing high levels of poverty and

unemployment being more prone to criminal activity. Crime opportunity factors, such

as the presence of easy-to-target locations, accessibility, and guardianship, also

contribute to the formation of crime hotspots. It's crucial to consider these factors

when analyzing crime patterns in the Philippines to develop effective targeted

interventions and prevention strategies.

Temporal factors, such as the variation in crime rates throughout the day,

week, and year, also influence crime patterns and hotspots. Understanding these

temporal patterns can help law enforcement agencies allocate resources more

effectively and efficiently. Spatial factors, including land use, urban design, and

neighborhood characteristics, further shape crime patterns and hotspots. Analyzing

these factors in the context of the Philippines can provide valuable insights into the

spatial distribution of crime and inform targeted interventions.

Case studies and applications in the Philippines demonstrate the potential of

hotspot mapping in addressing crime-related issues. For instance, crime hotspot

mapping in Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya, revealed spatial distribution patterns related

to various socio-economic and crime opportunity factors (Taclay & Taclay, 2022).

Another study detected potential illegal drug trafficking hotspots in Manila using a

30
fuzzy clustering approach (Aycardo & Tubay, 2017). These studies highlight the

importance of understanding the interplay of factors associated with crime patterns

and hotspots in the Philippines.

By considering these factors and their interactions, law enforcement agencies

and policymakers can develop more effective crime prevention strategies and

interventions tailored to the unique context of the country.

2.4. Synthesis and Identified Gaps in the Literature

The literature review has explored two main themes: the concept of crime

hotspots and major factors associated with crime patterns and hotspots. This synthesis

will discuss how these studies collectively contribute to the understanding of these

themes and identify any gaps or unresolved issues in the literature.

The Concept of Crime Hotspots. The literature on crime hotspots has

provided valuable insights into the theories in crime mapping research, methods for

detecting crime hotspots, and case studies and examples of crime hotspots in selected

cities. These studies have contributed to a better understanding of the spatial-temporal

patterns of crime and the factors that drive the formation of crime hotspots. However,

gaps remain in the literature, particularly in terms of the varying factors in hotspot

analysis, the gap between theory and practice, perceived challenges in conducting

hotspot mapping in the Philippines, and future directions in crime mapping. Further

research is needed to address these gaps and develop more effective methods for

identifying and addressing crime hotspots in diverse urban contexts.

31
 Major Factors Associated with Crime Patterns and Hotspots. The

literature on major factors associated with crime patterns and hotspots has examined

the role of socioeconomic factors, environmental factors, spatial and temporal factors,

and other factors such as demographic characteristics and social disorganization in

shaping crime patterns. These studies have provided valuable insights into the

complex interplay between these factors and crime, informing the development of

targeted interventions and effective crime prevention strategies. However, gaps

remain in the literature, particularly in terms of understanding the factors that drive

crime hotspots and incidents in the Philippines. Further research is needed to explore

the unique context of Quezon City and identify the specific factors that contribute to

the spatial clustering of crime and its socioeconomic correlates in this urban setting.

In conclusion, the literature review has provided a comprehensive

understanding of the existing body of knowledge on the spatial clustering of crime

and its socioeconomic correlates. However, gaps and unresolved issues remain in the

literature, particularly in terms of understanding the unique context of Quezon City

and the factors that drive crime hotspots and incidents in the Philippines.

With these unresolved issues, the study aims to address these gaps in the

following ways:

1. Varying factors in hotspot analysis: The study will examine the specific
factors contributing to the formation of crime hotspots in Quezon City,
considering the unique context of the city and exploring the interaction
between various factors, such as socioeconomic and environmental
variables.

32
2. The gap between theory and practice: By focusing on the spatial
clustering of crime and its socioeconomic correlates in Quezon City, the
study aims to provide practical insights that can inform the development
of targeted interventions and effective crime prevention strategies for
policymakers and law enforcement agencies in the city.

3. Perceived challenges in conducting hotspot mapping in the

Philippines: The study will address the challenges and barriers to
implementing hotspot mapping in the Philippines by employing
appropriate spatial analysis techniques and utilizing available data
sources for crime and socioeconomic factors in Quezon City.

4. Long-term trends and historical patterns: Although the study focuses

on a specific timeframe (January 2020 to March 2023), it will provide
valuable insights into the recent crime trends in Quezon City, which can
be used as a basis for further research on long-term trends and historical
patterns.

5. Unmeasured factors: While the study relies on measurable indicators

and available data for crime and socioeconomic factors, it acknowledges
the potential influence of unmeasured factors such as social cohesion,
informal social control, and neighborhood characteristics. The study will
consider these factors in the interpretation of the findings and discuss
their potential implications for crime prevention strategies.

33
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Data Collection

The primary data source for this study will be the Crime Information,

Reporting, and Analysis System (CIRAS) provided by the Philippine National Police

(PNP). This data source contains comprehensive information on crime incidents,

types of crime, and their corresponding geographic locations within Quezon City.

The criteria for data selection in this study include the following:

1. Relevance: The data should be relevant to the research questions and

objectives, focusing on crime incidents and their spatial distribution
within Quezon City.

2. Timeliness: The data should cover the specified timeframe of the study,
which is from January 2020 to March 2023.

3. Completeness: The data should provide sufficient information on crime

incidents, types of crime, and their corresponding geographic locations to
enable a comprehensive analysis of the spatial clustering of crime and its
socioeconomic correlates.

Data collection procedures for this study will involve the following steps:

1. Access the CIRAS data source provided by the Philippine National Police
(PNP).

2. Extract relevant data on crime incidents, types of crime, and their

corresponding geographic locations within Quezon City for the specified
timeframe (January 2020 to March 2023).

3. Organize the extracted data into a suitable format for analysis, such as a
spreadsheet or a Geographic Information System (GIS) software.

4. Normalize the crime incident counts by the population size in each

geographic unit (e.g., census tract, postal code) to obtain crime rates per
unit of population.

34
 5. Collect additional data on socioeconomic factors (e.g., income levels,
education levels, unemployment rates), environmental factors (e.g., land
use and zoning, proximity to public transportation, presence of public
spaces), and other factors (e.g., demographic characteristics, social
disorganization, community cohesion) from relevant sources, as needed,
to address the research questions and objectives.

3.2. Data Preparation

The data preparation process for the study involves several steps to ensure

that the data is clean, well-formatted, and suitable for analysis. After accessing the

CIRAS data source provided by the Philippine National Police (PNP) and extracting

relevant data on crime incidents, types of crime, and their corresponding geographic

locations within Quezon City for the specified timeframe (January 2020 to March

2023), the following steps will be taken:

1. Data cleaning: This step involves identifying and addressing any

inconsistencies, errors, or missing values in the data. For example,
duplicate records will be removed, and missing values will be either filled
in using appropriate methods (e.g., interpolation, mean imputation) or
excluded from the analysis, depending on the nature of the missing data
and its potential impact on the results.

2. Data formatting: The extracted data will be organized into a suitable

format for analysis, such as a spreadsheet or a Geographic Information
System (GIS) software. This may involve converting the data into a
standard format (e.g., CSV, shapefile) and ensuring that all variables are
consistently labeled and coded.

3.2.1. Procedures for Enabling Spatial Attributes

To enable spatial attributes in the data, the following procedures will be

followed:

1. Geocoding: The geographic locations of crime incidents will be

converted into spatial coordinates (e.g., latitude and longitude) using

35
 geocoding techniques, which involve matching the location information
(e.g., street addresses, postal codes) to a spatial reference system.

2. Spatial data integration: The geocoded crime data will be integrated with
other spatial data sources, such as census tracts or postal codes, to enable
the analysis of crime patterns in relation to various geographic units and
socioeconomic factors.

3. Spatial data projection: The spatial data will be projected into a suitable
coordinate system (e.g., Universal Transverse Mercator, Philippine
Reference System) to ensure accurate representation and measurement of
spatial relationships in the study area.

3.2.2. Discussion on Any Necessary Data Transformation or

Standardization

Data transformation or standardization may be necessary to ensure that the

data is suitable for analysis and to facilitate the comparison of variables with different

units or scales. Some possible data transformation or standardization steps include:

1. Normalization: The crime incident counts will be normalized by the

population size in each geographic unit (e.g., census tract, postal code) to
obtain crime rates per unit of population. This will allow for a more
meaningful comparison of crime patterns across different areas with
varying population sizes.
2. Standardization of socioeconomic variables: Socioeconomic variables,
such as income levels and education levels, may need to be standardized
to ensure comparability across different geographic units. This could
involve converting the variables into percentages, z-scores, or other
standardized measures.
3. Data transformation for statistical analysis: Some statistical tools, such
as Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR), may require the data to
be transformed or rescaled to meet the assumptions of the analysis
method. For example, log transformations or Box-Cox transformations
may be applied to address issues of non-normality or heteroscedasticity in
the data.

36
3.3. Exploratory Data Analysis

In the initial data exploration phase of the study on Spatial Clustering of

Crime and Its Socioeconomic Correlates in Quezon City, Philippines, descriptive

statistical analysis and data visualization techniques will be employed to gain a better

understanding of the data and identify any patterns or trends. These techniques may

include:

1. Descriptive statistics: Calculating measures of central tendency (e.g.,

mean, median, mode), dispersion (e.g., range, variance, standard
deviation), and distribution (e.g., skewness, kurtosis) for the variables of
interest, such as crime rates, income levels, education levels, and
unemployment rates.

2. Data visualization: Creating visual representations of the data, such as

histograms, box plots, scatter plots, and bar charts, to explore the
distribution and relationships between variables. Geographic
visualizations, such as choropleth maps and heat maps, will also be used
to display the spatial distribution of crime incidents and socioeconomic
factors across Quezon City.

3. Bivariate analysis: Examining the relationships between pairs of

variables, such as crime rates and income levels or crime rates and
proximity to public transportation, using correlation coefficients (e.g.,
Pearson's r, Spearman's rho) and scatter plots.

The preliminary findings from the exploratory data analysis will provide

insights into the overall patterns and trends in the data, as well as any potential

relationships between crime and socioeconomic factors in Quezon City. Some

possible preliminary findings may include:

1. Identification of areas with high crime rates or specific types of crime

clustered locations, suggesting the presence of crime hotspots.

37
 2. Observations of relationships between crime rates and socioeconomic
factors, such as income levels, education levels, and unemployment rates,
indicate potential associations between these factors and crime patterns.

3. Detection of spatial outliers in crime rates, revealing areas that are

unusually safe or dangerous compared to their surrounding
neighborhoods.

4. Insights into the geographic distribution of crime over time, highlighting

any emerging hotspots or changes in crime patterns.

3.4. Spatial Autocorrelation Analysis – Global Moran’s I

Global Moran's I is a statistical measure used to assess the presence of spatial

autocorrelation in a dataset. Spatial autocorrelation refers to the degree to which a

variable of interest (e.g., crime rates) is correlated with itself across space. A positive

Global Moran's I value indicates that similar values tend to be located near each other,

suggesting the presence of spatial clustering or hotspots. A negative value indicates

that dissimilar values are located near each other, suggesting a dispersed or

checkerboard-like pattern. A value close to zero indicates that there is no significant

spatial autocorrelation, and the variable is randomly distributed across space .

To compute the Global Moran's I statistic, the following steps are typically followed:

1. Define a spatial weights matrix, which represents the spatial relationships

between the geographic units (e.g., census tracts, postal codes) in the
study area. This matrix can be based on various criteria, such as
contiguity, distance, or inverse distance.

2. Calculate the deviation of each observation (e.g., crime rate) from the
mean value of the variable.

3. Multiply the deviations by the corresponding spatial weights and sum the
products.

38
 4. Divide the sum of the products by the sum of the squared deviations from
the mean.

5. The Global Moran's I statistic can be computed using various software

tools and packages, such as ArcGIS, GeoDa, or R (e.g., using the "spdep"
package) .

The interpretation of the Global Moran's I results depends on the value of the

statistic and its significance level (e.g., p-value). A statistically significant positive

value indicates the presence of spatial clustering or hotspots in the variable of interest

(e.g., crime rates), suggesting that areas with high (or low) values are more likely to

be located near each other. This finding can inform the identification of crime

hotspots and the development of targeted interventions and crime prevention

strategies.

A statistically significant negative value indicates a dispersed or

checkerboard-like pattern, suggesting that areas with high values are more likely to be

located near areas with low values, and vice versa. This finding can inform the

identification of spatial outliers and areas with unique crime patterns.

A non-significant value (i.e., close to zero) indicates that there is no

significant spatial autocorrelation, and the variable is randomly distributed across

space. This finding suggests that the spatial distribution of the variable may not be

influenced by underlying spatial processes or factors, and other analytical approaches

may be more appropriate for understanding the patterns in the data.

In the context of the study on Spatial Clustering of Crime and Its

Socioeconomic Correlates in Quezon City, Philippines, the Global Moran's I analysis

39
can help assess the overall spatial correlation between crime rates and other factors,

such as income levels, education levels, and proximity to public transportation,

providing insights into the spatial processes and factors that may be driving the

observed crime patterns in the city.

3.5. Hotspot Analysis

The Getis-Ord Gi* statistic is a local indicator of spatial association (LISA)

used to identify specific local hotspots or coldspots in a dataset. It measures the

degree of spatial clustering of high or low values for a given variable (e.g., crime

rates) in a specific location, considering the values of neighboring geographic units. A

statistically significant positive Gi* value indicates a local hotspot, where high values

are clustered together. A statistically significant negative Gi* value indicates a local

coldspot, where low values are clustered together. A non-significant Gi* value

suggests that the values in the area are randomly distributed.

To conduct the hotspot analysis using the Getis-Ord Gi* statistic, the

following steps are typically followed:

1. Define a spatial weights matrix, which represents the spatial relationships

between the geographic units (e.g., census tracts, postal codes) in the
study area. This matrix can be based on various criteria, such as
contiguity, distance, or inverse distance.

2. Calculate the Gi* statistic for each geographic unit, taking into account
the values of the variable of interest (e.g., crime rates) and the spatial
weights matrix.

3. Assess the statistical significance of the Gi* values using a permutation

approach or a normal approximation, which involves comparing the
observed Gi* values to a reference distribution generated under the null
hypothesis of no spatial autocorrelation.

40
 The hotspot analysis can be conducted using various software tools and

packages, such as ArcGIS, GeoDa, or R (e.g., using the "spdep" package).

The interpretation of the Getis-Ord Gi* results depends on the values of the

statistic and their statistical significance (e.g., p-values). Statistically significant

positive Gi* values indicate the presence of local hotspots, where high values of the

variable of interest (e.g., crime rates) are clustered together. These hotspots can

inform the identification of areas with high crime rates and the development of

targeted interventions and crime prevention strategies.

Statistically significant negative Gi* values indicate the presence of local

coldspots, where low values of the variable are clustered together. These coldspots

can inform the identification of areas with low crime rates and the development of

strategies to maintain or replicate these conditions in other areas.

Non-significant Gi* values suggest that the values in the area are randomly

distributed, indicating that the spatial distribution of the variable may not be

influenced by underlying spatial processes or factors.

In consideration of this study, the hotspot analysis using the Getis-Ord Gi*

statistic can help identify areas with high crime rates or specific types of crime

clustered locations, providing insights into the spatial processes and factors that may

be driving the observed crime patterns in the city.

41
3.6. Cluster and Outlier Analysis

The Anselin Local Moran's I statistic is a local indicator of spatial association

(LISA) used to identify local spatial clusters and outliers in a dataset. It measures the

degree of spatial autocorrelation for a given variable (e.g., crime rates) in a specific

location, considering the values of neighboring geographic units. A statistically

significant positive Local Moran's I value indicates a local cluster, where high values

are surrounded by high values (HH) or low values are surrounded by low values (LL).

A statistically significant negative Local Moran's I value indicates a local spatial

outlier, where a high value is surrounded by low values (HL) or a low value is

surrounded by high values (LH). A non-significant Local Moran's I value suggests

that the values in the area are randomly distributed, indicating no significant local

spatial autocorrelation.

To conduct the cluster and outlier analysis using the Anselin Local Moran's I
statistic, the following steps are typically followed:
1. Define a spatial weights matrix, which represents the spatial relationships
between the geographic units (e.g., census tracts, postal codes) in the
study area. This matrix can be based on various criteria, such as
contiguity, distance, or inverse distance.

2. Calculate the Local Moran's I statistic for each geographic unit, taking
into account the values of the variable of interest (e.g., crime rates) and
the spatial weights matrix.

3. Assess the statistical significance of the Local Moran's I values using a

permutation approach or a normal approximation, which involves
comparing the observed Local Moran's I values to a reference distribution
generated under the null hypothesis of no spatial autocorrelation.
The cluster and outlier analysis can be conducted using various software tools

and packages, such as ArcGIS, GeoDa, or R (e.g., using the "spdep" package) .

42
 The interpretation of the Anselin Local Moran's I results depends on the

values of the statistic and their statistical significance (e.g., p-values). Statistically

significant positive Local Moran's I values indicate the presence of local clusters (HH

or LL), suggesting that areas with similar values of the variable of interest (e.g., crime

rates) are located near each other. These clusters can inform the identification of areas

with high or low crime rates and the development of targeted interventions and crime

prevention strategies.

Statistically significant negative Local Moran's I values indicate the presence

of local spatial outliers (HL or LH), revealing areas that are unusually safe or

dangerous compared to their surrounding neighborhoods. These outliers can inform

the identification of areas with unique crime patterns and the development of

strategies to address these specific situations.

Non-significant Local Moran's I values suggest that the values in the area are

randomly distributed, indicating that the spatial distribution of the variable may not be

influenced by underlying spatial processes or factors.

The cluster and outlier analysis using the Anselin Local Moran's I statistic can

help identify local spatial clusters and outliers in crime rates, providing insights into

the spatial processes and factors that may be driving the observed crime patterns in

the city.

43
3.7. Geographically Weighted Regression Analysis

Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) is a spatial regression technique

that allows for the modeling of spatially varying relationships between a dependent

variable (e.g., crime rates) and one or more independent variables (e.g., income levels,

education levels, proximity to public transportation). Unlike traditional regression

models, which assume that the relationships between variables are constant across

space, GWR allows for the estimation of local regression coefficients that can vary

across the study area. This enables the identification of spatially varying relationships

and provides a more nuanced understanding of the factors influencing the dependent

variable in different locations.

The significance of GWR lies in its ability to account for spatial

heterogeneity in the relationships between variables, which can lead to more accurate

and informative models of spatial processes. By identifying spatially varying

relationships, GWR can inform the development of targeted interventions and policies

that address the specific factors driving the dependent variable in different areas.

To conduct a GWR analysis, the following steps are typically followed:

1. Prepare the data: Organize the dependent and independent variables in a

suitable format for analysis, such as a spreadsheet or a Geographic
Information System (GIS) software. Ensure that the data is clean, well-
formatted, and spatially referenced.

2. Specify the GWR model: Define the dependent variable (e.g., crime
rates) and the independent variables (e.g., income levels, education levels,
proximity to public transportation) to be included in the model. Select an
appropriate spatial weights matrix to represent the spatial relationships
between the geographic units in the study area.

44
 3. Estimate the GWR model: Use a GWR software or package to estimate
the local regression coefficients for each geographic unit, taking into
account the spatial weights matrix and the specified model.

4. Assess the model fit and diagnostics: Evaluate the goodness-of-fit of the
GWR model using measures such as the adjusted R-squared, the Akaike
Information Criterion (AIC), or the Bayesian Information Criterion
(BIC). Examine the diagnostics of the model, such as the residuals and
the local regression coefficients, to identify potential issues or areas for
improvement.

GWR can be conducted using various software tools and packages, such as

ArcGIS, GeoDa, or R (e.g., using the "gwr" or "spgwr" packages).

The interpretation of the GWR results involves examining the local

regression coefficients and their statistical significance (e.g., p-values) to identify

spatially varying relationships between the dependent variable (e.g., crime rates) and

the independent variables (e.g., income levels, education levels, proximity to public

transportation). Statistically significant positive or negative local regression

coefficients indicate that the independent variable has a significant positive or

negative relationship with the dependent variable in that specific location. Non-

significant local regression coefficients suggest that the independent variable does not

have a significant relationship with the dependent variable in that location.

By examining the spatial distribution of the local regression coefficients, it is

possible to identify areas where specific factors have a stronger or weaker influence

on the dependent variable. This information can inform the development of targeted

interventions and policies that address the specific factors driving the dependent

variable in different areas.

45
 The GWR analysis can help identify spatially varying relationships between

crime rates and factors such as income levels, education levels, and proximity to

public transportation. This information can contribute to a more comprehensive

understanding of the spatial processes and factors driving crime patterns in the city

and inform the development of more effective crime prevention strategies and

interventions.

3.8. Space-Time Mining

Space-time pattern mining techniques are used to analyze and identify

patterns in data that evolve over both space and time. These techniques are

particularly useful for studying phenomena, such as crime rates, that exhibit spatial

and temporal dependencies. By analyzing the spatial distribution of crime incidents

over multiple time periods, space-time pattern mining can help identify emerging

hotspots, trends, and changes in crime patterns, providing valuable insights for

developing targeted interventions and crime prevention strategies.

One common space-time pattern mining technique is the space-time cube,

which represents data in a three-dimensional structure with two spatial dimensions

(e.g., latitude and longitude) and one temporal dimension (e.g., time). Within the

space-time cube, various statistical and visualization methods can be applied to

identify patterns, such as clustering, hotspots, or outliers.

To conduct space-time pattern mining, the following steps are typically

followed:

46
 1. Prepare the data: Organize the crime incident counts per geographic unit
for multiple time periods (e.g., monthly, yearly), normalized by the
population size in each area, if possible. Ensure that the data is clean,
well-formatted, and spatially and temporally referenced.

2. Create a space-time cube: Convert the data into a three-dimensional

structure with two spatial dimensions (e.g., latitude and longitude) and
one temporal dimension (e.g., time).

3. Apply statistical and visualization methods: Use various methods, such as

clustering, hotspots, or outlier detection, to analyze the patterns within the
space-time cube and identify significant space-time trends or changes.

Space-time pattern mining can be conducted using various software tools and

packages, such as ArcGIS, QGIS, or R (e.g., using the "spacetime" or "stplanr"

packages).

The interpretation of the space-time pattern mining results involves

examining the identified patterns and trends within the space-time cube to gain

insights into the spatial and temporal dynamics of crime in the study area. Some

possible findings from the space-time pattern mining analysis may include:

Identification of emerging hotspots, where crime rates are increasing over

time in specific locations, suggesting the need for targeted interventions and crime

prevention strategies. Detection of changes in crime patterns over time, such as shifts

in the spatial distribution of crime incidents or the types of crime that are more

prevalent in certain areas. Insights into the relationships between crime rates and other

factors, such as income levels, education levels, and proximity to public

transportation, over space and time, informing the development of more effective and

context-specific crime prevention strategies.

47
 In short, the space-time pattern mining analysis can help identify how the

geographic distribution of crime changes over time and reveal any emerging hotspots

or trends in crime patterns. This information can contribute to a more comprehensive

understanding of the spatial and temporal processes driving crime in the city and

inform the development of more effective crime prevention strategies and

interventions.

3.9. Data Interpretation and Reporting

The interpretation of the results of the spatial analyses conducted in the study

on Spatial Clustering of Crime and Its Socioeconomic Correlates in Quezon City,

Philippines, involves examining the identified patterns, trends, and relationships

between crime rates and various socioeconomic factors. This process includes

assessing the statistical significance of the findings, as well as considering the spatial

and temporal context of the data.

To interpret the results, the following steps are typically followed:

1. Assess the statistical significance of the findings, such as the p-values, z-

scores, or other measures of significance, to determine whether the
observed patterns or relationships are likely to be the result of random
chance or are indicative of underlying spatial processes or factors.

2. Examine the spatial distribution of the findings, such as the locations of

crime hotspots, coldspots, or spatial outliers, to identify areas with high or
low crime rates and the potential factors driving these patterns.

3. Analyze the relationships between crime rates and socioeconomic factors,

such as income levels, education levels, and proximity to public
transportation, to understand how these factors may be influencing crime
patterns in different areas.

48
 4. Consider the temporal context of the data, such as changes in crime
patterns over time or the emergence of new hotspots, to identify trends
and inform the development of targeted interventions and crime
prevention strategies.

Conclusions were drawn based on the interpreted results by synthesizing the

findings from the various spatial analyses and considering their implications for the

research questions and objectives. This process involves:

1. Identifying the key patterns, trends, and relationships observed in the

data, such as the presence of crime hotspots, the clustering of specific
types of crime, or the association between crime rates and socioeconomic
factors.

2. Assessing the consistency and robustness of the findings across different

analyses and methods, such as the agreement between the results of
hotspot analysis, cluster and outlier analysis, and spatial regression
analysis.

3. Evaluating the potential explanations for the observed patterns and

relationships, taking into account the spatial and temporal context of the
data, as well as the relevant literature and theoretical frameworks.

4. Drawing conclusions about the spatial clustering of crime and its

socioeconomic correlates in Quezon City, Philippines, and identifying the
implications of these findings for the development of more effective
crime prevention strategies and interventions.

The findings of the study were reported in a clear, concise, and well-

structured manner, using appropriate visualizations, tables, and descriptive text to

communicate the results and their implications. The reporting process typically

involves:

1. Presenting the results of the spatial analyses, such as maps of crime

hotspots, coldspots, or spatial outliers, as well as tables or charts
summarizing the key findings and statistics.

49
 2. Describing the patterns, trends, and relationships observed in the data,
and explaining their relevance to the research questions and objectives.

3. Discussing the potential explanations for the observed patterns and

relationships, and providing evidence from the data, the literature, or the
theoretical frameworks to support these explanations.

Highlighting the implications of the findings for the development of more

effective crime prevention strategies and interventions, and providing

recommendations for future research, policy, or practice.

By following these steps, the study ensures that the findings are

communicated effectively & accurately, and ultimately contributing to the

development of more effective crime prevention strategies and interventions.

3.10. Ethical Considerations

It is essential to consider the ethical implications of handling crime data. The

following ethical considerations should be considered:

1. Data privacy and confidentiality: Crime data may contain sensitive

information about individuals, such as victims or perpetrators, as well as
specific locations where crimes occurred. It is crucial to ensure that any
personally identifiable information (PII) is anonymized or removed from
the dataset to protect the privacy and confidentiality of the individuals
involved. Additionally, the geographic locations of crime incidents
should be aggregated or generalized to a suitable level (e.g., census tracts,
postal codes) to prevent the identification of specific addresses or
properties.

2. Data security: The storage, processing, and sharing of crime data should
be conducted in a secure manner to prevent unauthorized access,
disclosure, or misuse of the information. This may involve using
password-protected files, encrypted storage systems, or secure data
transfer protocols.

50
 3. Data accuracy and quality: The accuracy and quality of the crime data
should be carefully assessed and maintained to ensure that the findings
and conclusions of the study are based on reliable information. This may
involve verifying the data sources, addressing any inconsistencies or
errors in the data, and documenting any limitations or uncertainties
associated with the data.

4. Ethical use of data and findings: The findings and conclusions of the
study should be used responsibly and ethically, with the aim of informing
the development of more effective crime prevention strategies and
interventions. The study should avoid sensationalizing or stigmatizing
specific areas, communities, or individuals based on the crime patterns
identified, and should instead focus on understanding the underlying
spatial processes and factors driving these patterns.

In the context of crime research, ethics principles can be applied in the

following ways:

1. Respect for persons. When conducting crime research, it is essential to

protect the privacy and confidentiality of individuals involved in the
study, such as victims, perpetrators, or community members. This can be
achieved by anonymizing personally identifiable information (PII) and
aggregating data at an appropriate geographic level. Additionally, if the
study involves interviews or surveys, informed consent should be
obtained from participants, and they should be informed of their right to
withdraw from the study at any time without any negative consequences.

2. Beneficence and non-maleficence. Crime research should aim to

provide valuable insights that can inform the development of effective
crime prevention strategies and interventions. However, researchers
should also be mindful of potential negative consequences, such as
stigmatizing specific areas or communities based on crime patterns. To
minimize potential harm, researchers should focus on understanding the
underlying spatial processes and factors driving crime patterns, rather
than sensationalizing or stigmatizing specific locations or groups.

3. Justice. In crime research, it is important to ensure that the benefits and

burdens of the research are fairly distributed among all stakeholders
involved. This may involve considering issues of equity and inclusiveness
in the selection of research participants, the allocation of resources, and
the dissemination of the research findings. For example, researchers
should avoid focusing solely on high-crime areas or specific demographic
groups, and instead aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of
crime patterns across different locations and populations.

51
 4. Integrity and transparency. Crime researchers should conduct their
studies with honesty, integrity, and transparency, ensuring that the
research methods, data, and findings are accurately and objectively
reported. This includes disclosing any potential conflicts of interest,
limitations, or uncertainties associated with the research, as well as being
open to scrutiny and feedback from peers, stakeholders, or the public. For
example, researchers should clearly describe the data sources, analytical
methods, and assumptions used in their study, and provide a balanced
interpretation of the results, acknowledging any limitations or alternative
explanations.

5. Compliance with laws and regulations. Crime research should comply

with all relevant laws, regulations, and guidelines related to the conduct
of research, the handling of data, and the protection of human rights and
the environment. This may involve obtaining any necessary permits,
licenses, or approvals from the relevant authorities or institutions, and
adhering to the principles of responsible research conduct. For example,
researchers should ensure that their data collection and analysis methods
comply with data protection and privacy regulations, and that their
research activities do not infringe on the rights or well-being of
individuals or communities involved in the study.

3.11. Conclusion

In this chapter, various steps and techniques involved in conducting the study

on Spatial Clustering of Crime and Its Socioeconomic Correlates in Quezon City,

Philippines were discussed. The chapter covered data collection, data preparation,

exploratory data analysis, and various spatial analyses, including spatial

autocorrelation analysis, hotspot analysis, cluster and outlier analysis, spatial

regression analysis, and space-time pattern mining. Additionally, the chapter

addressed data interpretation and reporting, as well as ethical considerations in crime

research.

The next chapter, "IV. Results and Discussion," will present the findings of

the spatial analyses conducted in the Methodology chapter. It will discuss the

52
identified patterns, trends, and relationships between crime rates and various

socioeconomic factors in Quezon City, Philippines. The chapter will also provide a

detailed interpretation of the results, drawing on the techniques and insights from the

Methodology chapter to explain the observed patterns and their implications for crime

prevention strategies and interventions. Furthermore, the next chapter will discuss the

limitations of the study and suggest directions for future research in the field of spatial

crime analysis.

53
4. Bibliography

Almanie, T., Mirza, R., & Lor, E. (n.d.). Crime Prediction Based On Crime Types
And Using Spatial And Temporal Criminal Hotspots. International Journal of
Data Mining & Knowledge Management Process, 5(4).
doi:https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1508.02050
Almuhanna, A. A., Alrehili, M. M., Alsubhi, S. H., & Syed, L. (n.d.). Prediction of
Crime in Neighbourhoods of New York City using Spatial Data Analysis.
2021 1st International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Data
Analytics (CAIDA). Riyadh.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1109/CAIDA51941.2021.9425120
Alqahtani, A., Garima, A., & Alaiad, A. (2019). Crime Analysis in Chicago City. 10th
International Conference on Information and Communication Systems
(ICICS). Irbid, Jordan. doi:https://doi.org/10.1109/IACS.2019.8809142
Andresen, M. A., & Malleson, N. (2015, July 2). Intra-Week Spatial-Temporal
Patterns of Crime. Crime Science, 4(12). doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s40163-
015-0024-7
Anser, M., Yousaf, Z., Nassani, A. A., Alotaibi, S. M., & Kabbani, A. (2020).
Dynamic linkages between poverty, inequality, crime, and social expenditures
in a panel of 16 countries: two-step GMM estimates. Economic Structures,
43. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s40008-020-00220-6
Aycardo, R. A., & Tubay, J. M. (2017). Crime Hot Spot Detection: A Case on Illegal
Drug. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/39908468/Crime_Hot_Spot_Detection_A_Case_o
n_Illegal_Drug_Trafficking_in_Manila_National_Capital_Region
Barrera, D., Cagang, S., & Capistrano, D. (2013). Spatial and Temporal Maps of
Reported Crimes in Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental, Philippines. PRISM,
18(1), 11-24. Retrieved from
https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/37777100/SPATIAL_AND_TEMPOR
AL_MAPS_OF_REPORTED_CRIMES_IN_DUMAGUETE_CITY__NEGR
OS_ORIENTAL__PHILIPPINES-libre.pdf?1432951115=&response-content-
disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DSPATIAL_AND_TEMPORAL_MAPS
_OF_REPORTED_CR.pd
Bendler, J., Ratku, A., & Neumann, D. (2014). Crime Mapping through Geo-Spatial
Social Media Activity. Building a Better World thorugh IS. International
Conference in Information System (ICIS).
doi:https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/301363221.pdf

54
Braga, A. A., Brandon, T., Papachristos, A. V., & Hureau, D. M. (2019, September
08). Hot spots policing of small geographic areas effects on crime. Campbell
Systematic Reviews, 15(3), 1-88. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1046
Chainey, S., Tompson, L., & Uhlig, S. (2008). The Utility of Hotspot Mapping for
Predicting Spatial Patterns of Crime. Security Journal, 21(1 and 2), 4-28.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.sj.8350066
Cheng, W., Rao, Y., Yang, J., Chen, Y., Peng, L., & Hao, J. (2022, August 31).
Identifying the Spatio-Temporal Characteristics of Crime in Liangshan
Prefecture, China. International Journal of Environmental and Public Health.
doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710862
Crime hotspots. (2023, March 25). Retrieved from Wikipedia:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_hotspots
Crime Mapping. (2023, 05 09). Retrieved from Criminal Justice: https://criminal-
justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology-research-methods/crime-mapping/
De Melo, S. N., Pereira, D. V., Andresen, M. A., & Matias, L. F. (2017, April 12).
Spatial/Temporal Variations of Crime: A Routine Activity Theory
Perspective. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative
Criminology, 62(7). doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X17703654
Gonzales, A. R., Schofield, R. B., & Hart, S. V. (2005). Mapping Crime:
Understanding Hot Spots. Office of Justice Programs. Washington, D.C.:
National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Retrieved from
https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/mapping-crime-understanding-hot-
spots
Gramlich, J. (2020, November 20). What the data says (and doesn’t say) about crime
in the United States. Retrieved from Pew Research Center:
https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2020/11/20/facts-about-crime-in-
the-u-s/
Gu, D., Newman, G., Park, Y., Lee, J., & Kim, J. (2019, April). Neighborhood
decline and mixed land uses: Mitigating housing abandonment in shrinking
cities. Land Use Policy, 505-511.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.02.033
He, Z., Lai, R., Wang, Z., Liu, H., & Deng, M. (2022). Comparative Study of
Approaches for Detecting Crime Hotspots with Considering Concentration
and Shape Characteristics. International Journal of Environmental Research
and Public Health, 19(21), 14350.
doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114350

55
Huafang, X., Liu, L., & Yue, H. (2022). Modeling the Effect of Streetscape
Environment on Crime Using Street View Images and Interpretable Machine-
Learning Technique. International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health, 19(21). doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192113833
Kitchen, P. (2007). Exploring the Link between Crime and Socio-Economic Status in
Ottawa and Saskatoon: A Small-Area Geographical Analysis. Research and
Statistics Division . Department of Justice Canada. Retrieved from
https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/csj-sjc/crime/rr06_6/rr06_6.pdf
Lauritsen, J. L., & White, N. (2014). Seasonal Patterns in Criminal Victimization
Trends. Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. Washington,
D.C.: Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved from
https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/spcvt.pdf
Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (Eds.). (1998). Serious and violent juvenile offenders:
Risk factors and successful interventions. Sage Publications.
Malleson, N., & Andresen, M. A. (2016). Exploring the Impact of Ambient
Population Measures on London Crime Hotspots. Journal of Criminal
Justice, 46, 52-63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.03.002
Malleson, N., & Andresen, M. A. (n.d.). Using Social Media Data to Assess Spatial
Crime Hotspots. Retrieved from
https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/53104062/Using_Social_Media_Data_t
o_Assess_Spatial_Crime_Hotspots-libre.pdf?1494606480=&response-
content-
disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DUsing_Social_Media_Data_to_Assess_
Spatia.pdf&Expires=1686910234&Signature=fh4Bo
Mondal, S., Singh, D., & Kumar, R. (2022). Crime hotspot detection using statistical
and geospatial methods: a case study of Pune City, Maharashtra, India.
GeoJournal, 5287-5303. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-022-10573-z
Neiss, M. (2015). Does Public Transit Affect Crime? The Addition of a Bus Line in
Cleveland. The Journal of Economics and Politics, 22(1). Retrieved from
https://collected.jcu.edu/jep/vol22/iss1/3
Newton, A. D. (2014). Crime on Public Transport. In G. Bruinsma, & D. Weisburd
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. New York:
Springer. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5690-2
Philippine National Police. (n.d.). Crime Information, Reporting, and Anaylysis
System (CIRAS). Retrieved 05 10, 2023, from
https://didm.pnp.gov.ph/images/james_vio/Crime_Information_Reporting_an
d_Analysis_System_CIRAS.pdf

56
Quezon City Local Government. (2023, April 2). Press Release. Retrieved from
https://quezoncity.gov.ph/: https://quezoncity.gov.ph/qcpd-reports-lower-
crime-rate-for-first-quarter-of-2023/
Ratcliffe, J. (2010). Crime Mapping: Spatial and Temporal Challenges. In Handbook
of Quantitative Criminology. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-77650-
7_2
Sackett, C. (2023, May 03). Neighborhoods and Violent Crime. Retrieved from
Evidence Matters:
https://www.huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/em/summer16/highlight2.html
Saeed, R., & Abdulmohsin, H. (2023). A Study on Predicting Crime Rates through
Machine Learning and Data Mining using Text. Journal of Intelligent
Systems, 32(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1515/jisys-2022-0223
Schaefer, R. T. (2008). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and society (Vol. 1). Sage.
Shah, N., Nandish, B., & Manan, S. (2021). Crime forecasting: a machine learning
and computer vision approach to crime prediction and prevention.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s42492-021-00075-z
Sypion-Dutkowska, N., & Leitner, M. (2017, March 8). Land Use Influencing the
Spatial Distribution of Urban Crime: A Case Study of Szczecin, Poland.
International Journal of Geo-Information, 6(3), 1-23. Retrieved from
https://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/6/3/74
Taclay, K. D., & Taclay, R. J. (2022). Spatio-temporal analysis of crime-related
incidents in Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya. AIP Conference Proceedings 2472,
050024 (2022). American Institute of Physics.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0092708
Thomson, R., Espin, J., & Samuels-Jones, T. (2020). Green Crime Havens: A Spatial
Cluster Analysis of Environmental Crime. Social Science Quarterly.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12773
Wang, Y., Yu, W., Liu, S., & Young, S. D. (2019, March 29). The Relationship
Between Social Media Data and Crime Rates in the United States. Social
Media + Society, 5(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051198345
Weisburd, D. L., & McEwen, T. (2015, July 12). Introduction: Crime Mapping and
Crime Prevention. Retrieved from SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2629850
Wortley, R., & Townsley, M. (2017). Environmental Criminology and Crime
Analysis: Situating the Theory, Analytical Approach and Application. In R.
Wortley, & M. Townsley (Eds.), Environmental Criminology and Crime
Analysis (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

57
Xiangyu, Z., & Tang, J. (2018). Crime in Urban Areas: A Data Mining Perspective.
Computers and Society, 20(1). Retrieved from
https://arxiv.org/abs/1804.08159
Yadav, N., Kumar, A., Bhatnagar, R., & Verma, V. (2019). City Crime Mapping
Using Machine Learning Techniques. In A. Hassanien, A. Azar, T. Gaber, R.
F. Bhatnagar, & M. Tolba, The International Conference on Advanced
Machine Learning Technologies and Applications (AMLTA2019) (pp. 656-
668). Springer, Cham. doi:DOI:10.1007/978-3-030-14118-9_65
Zhang, S., Sha, D., Dong, B., Ruan, S., Qiu, A., Li, Y., . . . Yang, C. (2020).
Spatiotemporal Patterns and Driving Factors on Crime Changing During
Black Lives Matter Protests. International Journal of Geo-Information, 9(11),
640. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi9110640

58