Ancient &medieval India

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ANCIENT &
MEDIEVAL HISTORY
THEMATIC
REPETITIVE TOPICS
DELHI
UPSC
SECRETS
Forewords
Chronology
Indus Valley Civilization
Vedic Age
Mauryan Empire
The Gupta Era
Harshvardhana
Pallavas
Arvind Kayande The Imperial Cholas
(Director, Delhi UPSC Secrets)
The Vijaynagara Empire
Delhi Sultanets
Yatharth Chaturvedi
The Mughal Empire
(V.P , Delhi UPSC Secrets) 1
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2
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3
S.
Topic Page
I
No
1 Chronology 5
2 Indus valley civilization 12
N 3
5
Vedic age
Buddhism
Jainism
19
25
39
D 6
7
Mauryan Empire
Gupta Empire
45
56
E 8
10
Harshavardhana
Pallavas
Cholas
71
74
79
X 11
12
13
Vijayanagara kingdom
Delhi Sultanate
Mughal Empire
88
97
111
4
Period (BC) Event
6000 Neolithic settlements in Baluchistan
4000-3000 Initial Indus valley settlements
2700 Time of Indus seals found at Kish in Mesopotamia
2500 Early period of IVC
Major period of IVC

2500-1750 Civilisation of the great cities in the Indus valley (Mohenjodaro and Harappa), in the Punjab
(Kalibangan) and Gujarat (Lothal)
1750-1500 Decline of IVC - Aryan Immigration
1500-1000 Early Rig vedic period, Settlement of the Aryans in the Punjab and the western Ganga-Yamuna Doab
1000 Iron period in India
Later Vedic Period; Settlement of the Aryans in the central and eastern Gangetic plains; emergence
1000-600
of jallapadas or territorial kingdoms; Painted Grey Ware (PGW) in the areas of Aryan settlement
817 Traditional date of the birth of Parsvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara
600 Beginning of 2nd urbanization of India, Rise of 16 Mahajanapadas
563-483 Period of Buddha
540-468 Period of Mahavira
542-413 Haryankas of Magadha
518 Gandhara and Sind satrapies of the Persian empire; Behistun inscription of Darius
413-364 Shisunaga Dynasty
364-321 Nanda Dynasty
327-325 Alexander comes to India
326 Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum) and defeat of Porus (Purushottarn)
321-184 The Mauryan Empire
305-303 Chandragupta Maurya's war with Seleucus Nikator
272-268 Ashokan war of succession
268-232 Ashoka's period
260-257 Kalinga's conquest
257 Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism (Via Upagupta)
250 3rd Buddhist council at Pataliputra; Buddhist missions in South Asia and the Hellenistic World
232-184 Later Mauryas
184-75 Sunga Dynasty (Pushyamitra-founder, Devabhumi-Iast Sunga)
182 Foundation of the Indo-Greek empire by Demetrius
166-150 Period of Menander
141 Saka's conquest of Bactria
94 Saka kings in North west India
75-28 Kanva Dynasty (Vasudeva-founder, Suserman-last Kanva)
Beginning of Vikrama samvat (era) by Vikramaditya of Ujjain; Azes I, the second Saka ruler in
58
north-western India
50 Emergence of Satavahanas in Deccan; King Kharavela of Kalinga (Hathigumpha inscription)

5
Period (AD) Event
20-46 Gondophernes, the greatest IndoParthian king in Taxila; St Thomas in India
Invasion of North-west India under Kujula Kadphises (Established Kushan Empire and united Yuechi
45
tribe)
46 Discovery of Monsoon winds by Hippalus (Greek sailor)
64 Chinese emperor Mingti sent agents to India for Buddhist texts
66 Arrival of Indian Buddhist monks, Kasyapa Matanga and Gobharana, in China
77 Pliny wrote Natural History
78 Saka Era begun (Under Kanishka)
78-110 Reign of Kanishka (Kushana Empire)
80-128 Gautamiputra Satkarni and Vasishtiputra Pulamayi (Satavahana Rule)
130-150 Rule of Rudraman I Satavahana
226 Sassanian dynasty established in Persia
250 Satavahana kingdom ended
320-335 Gupta Era begun under Chandragupta I
335-375 Samudragupta (Indian Nepoleon)
360 Sri-lankan embassy to Samudragupta's court
375-413 Chandragupta II reign + Peak of Sanskrit literature
405-411 Fabien or Fahan in India (During Chandragupta II)
413-455 Kumara-gupta I reign + Nalanda University
455-467 Skandagupta's rule + First Huna attacks
467-540 Decline of Gupta Era
500-527 Rule of Hunas (Mihirkula and Toramanna)
527 Mihirukula defeated by Yashodharman
543-755 Early Chalukyas (Badami)
560-903 Pallavas of Kanchipuram
606-647 Harshavardhana (Pushybhuti Dynasty)
622 Muslim Era (Hijra)
625 Pulakesin II (Chalukya) sent embassy to Persian king Khusrau II
630 Harshavardhana vs Pulakeshin II at Narmada river
630-643 Hiuen Tsang in India under Harsha (Later he visited Pallavas also)
630-1070 Eastern Chalukyas (Vengi Kingdom - Andhra, Odisha region)
634 Aihole Inscription of Pulakeshin II
642 Conquest of Badami by Narsimhavarmana I (Pallava) of Kanchi
643 Harsha's assembly at Prayag (5 years)
648 Bhaskaravarmana (Kamrupa) helped Wang Hiuen Tse in restroring Harsha's throne to Kannauj
675-685 Itsing/ Tsing at Nalanda University (Buddhist Pilgrimage)
700-728 Rule of Narsimhavarmana II of Kanchi (Pallava)
712 Arab conquest of Sindh
743-789 Santarakshita and Padmasambhava in Tibet (Buddhist Monks)

6
Period (AD) Event
753-973 Rashtrakuta Dynasty
760- 1142 Palas of eastern India
770- 810 Dharmapala, the greatest Pala, founded the Vikramasila University
783-1036 Gurjara-Pratiharas of northern India, founded by Vatsaraja of Rajasthan
788- 820 Sankaracharya (Advaitavada Philosophy)
835-885 Bhoja of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty
850 Capture of Tanjore by Vijayalayachola from the Pandyas
871- 1173 Imperial Cholas of Tanjore
883- 1026 Hindu Shahis of Punjab and Kabul
915- 927 Indra III, one of the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers; visit of al-Masudi (an Arab traveller) to his kingdom
916- 1203 Chandellas of Jejabhukti (Bundel khand); construction of Khajuraho temples
940- 967 Krishna III, another great Rashtrakuta ruler, and his defeat of the Cholas
950- 1195 Kalachuris of Tripuri in central India
973- 1189 Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani (Later or Western Chalukyas)
973- 1192 Chahamanas (Chauhans) of Sakambhari (Ajmer)
974- 1233 Paramaras (Pawars) of Dhar (Malwa)
974- 1238 Solankis (Gujrati Chalukyas) of Anhilwara (Kathiawar)
985- 1014 Reign of Rajaraj a chola; construction of the famous Silva or Brihadeesvara temple at Tanjore
1000- 1323 Kakativas of Warangal, Beta Raja I (founder), Prataparudradeva (last ruler)
1001 Battle of Waihind and defeat of Jaipal (Hindu Shahi ruler) by Mahmud of Ghazni
1001- 1026 Seventeen raids by Mahmud of Ghazni into India—sack of the Somnath temple in the last raid
1014- 1044 Reign of Rajendra Chola
1020- 1030 Al-Beruni in India
1022 Chola expedition to the Gangetic valley; defeat of Somavamsas of Orissa and the Palas of Bengal
1025 Chola naval expedition to Sri Vijaya and its conquest
1076 Merger of the Vengi kingdom with the Chola empire by Kulottunga I
Eastern Gangas of Orissa; construction of the Lingaraja and Jagannatha temples at Bhuvanesvar
1076- 1435 and Puri respectively by Anantavarman Choda Ganga (founder); construction of the Sun temple at
Konark in 1250 by Narasimha I (second Ganga)
1080- 1194 Gahadvalas of Kanauj
Reign of Vishnuvardhana, Hoyasala ruler; his patronage of Ramanuja; construction of the famous
1106- 1141
Hoysalesvara or Vishnu temple at Halebid
1118- 1205 Senas of Bengal; Vijayasena (founder); Lakshmanasena (last ruler)
1175 Muhammad of Ghur’s conquest of the Punjab
1178 Muhammad’s defeat by Mularaja II, the Solanki ruler of Gujarat
1189- 1311 Yadavas of Devagiri; founder Bhillama; last ruler— Ramachandra
1191 First battle of Tarain and Prithviraj’s victory over Muhammad
1192 Second battle of Tarain and Muhammad’s victory over Prithviraj
1194 Battle of Chandwar, murder of Jayachandra (Gahadvala ruler of Kanauj) by Muhammad

7
1202 Conquest of Bihar and Bengal by Bakhtiyar Khalji
1206 Death of Muhammad of Ghur and establishment of Delhi sultanate by Qutubud-din Aibak
1206- 1290 Slave Sultans of Delhi
1211- 1236 Reign of Iltutmish and consolidation of Turkish rule in north India
1216- 1323 Pandyas of Madurai
1221 Invasion of north-west India by Chengiz Khan
1228 Conquest of Kamarupa by Sukhapa, the first Ahom king
1231 Completion of the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi
1266- 1286 Reign of Balban
1288- 1293 Marco Polo (the Venetian traveller) in India
1290- 1320 Khaljis of the Delhi sultanate
1296- 1316 Reign of Alauddin Khalji and his reforms and conquests
1296- 1306 Mongol attacks and their repulsion by Alauddin
1309- 1311 Malik Kafur’s expedition into south India
1320- 1414 Tughluqs of Delhi
1325- 1351 Reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq
1327 Transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad
1329 Issue of copper token currency
1334- 1331 Sultanate of Madurai
1336- 1652 Vijayanagar empire
1336- 1342 Ibn Battutah’s stay in India (Moroccan traveller)
1337 Muhammad bin Tughluq’s expedition to Karajal
1339- 1561 Shahmiri dynasty of Kashmir
1345- 1538 Ilyas Shahi dynasty of Bengal
1347- 1518 Bahmani kingdom
1351- 1388 Firoz Shah Tughluq’s reign
1361 Firoz Shah’s invasion of Orissa (Jajnagar)
1389- 1301 Faruqi kingdom of Khandesh
1394- 1505 Sharqui kingdom of Jaunpur
1398 Timur’s invasion of India
1401- 1436 Ghurid dynasty of Malwa
1407- 1572 Kingdom of Gujarat under the Shahs
1414- 1451 Sayyids of Delhi
1420 Visit of Nicolo de Conti (Venetian traveller) to Vijayanagar
1429 Transfer of Bahmani capital from Gulbarga to Bidar by Ahmad Shah Wali
1435- 1542 Gajapatis of Orissa
1436- 1531 Khalji Sultans of Malwa
1438- 1468 Reign of Rana Kumbha in Mewar
1443 Abdur Razak’s (Persian) visit to India
1451- 1526 Lodhi Sultans of Delhi
8
1469 Birth of Guru Nanak
1481 Murder of Muhammad Gawan, of Bahmani kingdom, and beginning of its disintegration
1490- 1633 Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar
1490- 1686 Adil Shahis of Bijapur
1490- 1574 Imad Shahis of Berar
1498 Vasco da Gama in Calicut
1506 Transfer of capital from Delhi to Agra by Sikandar Lodhi
1509- 1528 Reign of Rana Sanga in Mewar
1509-1529 Reign of Sri Krishna Deva Raya; visits of Paes and Barbosa (both Portuguese) to Vijayanagar
1510 Conquest of Goa by the Portuguese
1518- 1687 Qutb Shahis of Golconda
1526 First battle of Panipat and defeat of Ibrahim Lodhi by Babur
1527 Battle of Khanwa and defeat of Rana Sanga by Babur
1528-1619 Barid Shahis of Bidar
1529 Battle of Ghagara and Babur’s defeat of Afghans under Muhammad Lodhi
1535 Visit of Nuniz (Portuguese) to Vijayanagar
1539 Battle of Chausa and first defeat of Humayun by Sher Shah
1540 Battle of Bilgram (or Kanauj) and second and final defeat of Humayun by Sher Shah
1540- 1555 Sur empire
1542 Birth of Akbar at Amarkot
1545 Battle of Kalinjar and death of Sher Shah Sur
1555 Reconquest of Delhi by Humayun
1556 Second battle of Panipat and defeat of Afghans under Hemu by Akbar
1556- 1605 Akbar’s reign
1556- 1560 Regency of Bairam Khan
1562 Akbar’s marriage with a princess of Amber
1564 Akbar’s abolition of the jizya and his victory over Rani Durgavati of Garhkatanga
1565 Battle of Talikota and destruction of the city of Vijayanagar
1569 Birth of Akbar’s eldest son, Salim, with the blessings of Salim Chisti
1571 Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri
1573 Introduction of dagh and chahra by Akbar; construction of Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri
1575 Battle of Tukaroi and defeat of Daud Khan of Bengal by Akbar
1576 Battle of Haldighati (or Gogunda) and defeat of Rana Pratap by Raja Man Singh of Amber
Introduction of the dahsala system in revenue administration; issue of the mahjar or the so-called
1579
‘infallibility decree’ by Akbar
1582 Proclamation of Tauhit-i-llahi or Din-illahi by Akbar
1589 Death of Todar Mal and Bhagwan Das
1595- 1600 Introduction of the dual rank (mansab) of zat and sawar
1602 Murder of Abul Fazl by Bir Singh Bundela at the instigation of Prince Salim
1605- 1627 Reign of Jahangir
9
1606 Rebellion of Prince Khusrau and execution of the fifth Sikh Guru Arjun by Jahangir
1608- 1626 Prime ministership of Malik Ambar of Ahmadnagar
1611 Nur Jahan’s marriage with Jahangir
1612 Annexation of Kooch Hajo to the Mughal empire
1615 Conclusion of peace with Mewar under Rana Amar Singh
1622- 1624 Rebellion of Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan)
1626 Rebellion of Mahabat Khan and temporary arrest of Jahangir
1627- 1658 Reign of Shah Jahan
1631 Death of Mumtaz Mahal
Imposition of treaties on Bijapur and Golconda by Shah Jahan

1636
Appointment of Aurangzeb as viceroy of the Deccan
1656 Annexation of Javli by Sivaji
1656- 1658 War of succession among the four sons of Shah Jahan
Battles of Dharmat (April) and Samugarh (May) in which Dara was defeated by Aurangzeb;
1658
imprison-ment of Shah Jahan by Aurangzeb (June) at Agra; coronation of Aurangzeb
1658- 1707 Aurangzeb’s reign
Battles of Khajwah and Deorai in which Dara was finally defeated; capture and execution of Dara;
1659
imprisonment of Murad (who was ultimately executed in 1661); murder of Afzal Khan by Sivaji
1660 Expulsion of Shuja from Bengal to Arakan; appointment of Mir Jumla as governor of Bengal
1661 Mughal capture of Cooch Behar
1662 Mir Jumla’s invasion of Assam and imposition of a treaty on Ahoms
1664 Sack of Surat by Sivaji
1665 Conclusion of the treaty of Purandhar between Sivaji and Jai Singh
1666 Death of Shah Jahan; Sivaji’s visit to Agra and escape
1668 Issue of new religious ordinances by Aurangzeb
1669 Revolt of the Jats under Gokia
1670 Second sack of Surat by Sivaji
1671 Revolt of Chatrasal Bundela
1672 Satnami rebellion; revolt of Afridis in the north-west
1674 Sivaji’s coronation and assumption of the title of chatrapati
1675 Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur (ninth Guru of the Sikhs)
1678 Death of Raja Jaswant Singh of Marwar
Reimposition of jizya by Aurangzeb; rebellion of Rathors of Marwar under Durgadas and Marwar
1679
campaign by the Mughals
1680 Death of Sivaji; rebellion of Prince Akbar
1681 Aurangzeb’s arrival in Deccan in pursuit of his rebellious son, Akbar
1686 Conquest and annexation of Bijapur
1687 Conquest and annexation of Golconda
1689 Capture and execution of Sambhaji by the Mughal commander Muqarrab Khan
1700 Death of Rajaram and accession of Sivaji II with Tarabai as regent
10
Death of Aurangzeb at Aurangabad; release of Shahu from Mughal captivity; beginning of civil war
1707
between Shahu and Tarabai
Battle of Khed and occupation of Satara by Shahu; coronation of Shahu as chatrapati and grant of
1708 the title of senakarte to Balaji Viswanath by him
Death of Guru Gobind Singh
1713- 1720 Peshwaship of Balaji Viswanath
1714 Final defeat and imprisonment of Tarabai by Shahu
Emperor Farukh Siyar's firman to East India Co. Appointment of Murshid Quli Khan as governor of
1717
Bengal
1719 Conclusion of an agreement between Balaji Viswanath and the Sayyid brothers
1739 Nadir Shah took Delhi and sacked it
Peshwaship of Baji Rao 1; beginning of the system of Maratha confederacy and northward expansion
1720- 1740
of the Marathas
1740- 1761 Peshwaship of Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb); further expansion of Maratha power and influence
1749 Death of Shahu and further strengthening of the position of the Peshwa
1761 Third battle of Panipat between Marathas and Afghans; death of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao
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11
Introduction Phases
The Indus River Valley Civilization existed between 3300- IVC is generally classified into 3 Phases/ Periods:
1300 BCE and is also known as the Harappan Civilization.
It was a broad region civilization which extended from Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE
modern-day North-east Afghanistan to Pakistan and Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE
Northwest India.
the Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE
Significant discoveries from this civilization include
standardized weights and measures, seal carving, and
metallurgy with copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
The civilization likely ended due to geographic factors,
climate change and migration.
Discovery
Till 1920, the relics of the civilization were
found only in the Indus valley region;
therefore, it was known as the Indus
civilization.
In 1920-21, the Harappan civilization was
discovered in the excavations by Daya
Ram Sahani (at Harappa) and by R. D.
Banerjee (at Mohenjo Daro).
In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of
the ASI, announced the discovery of IVC.
Geography
The discoveries and over 1400 various settlements indicate
a total extent of about 1400(N-S) x 1600 (E-W) km of area.
The cornerstones of the civilizations were:
Sutkagendor (Baluchistan) - West
Alamgirpur (Meerut, Uttar Pradesh) - East
Manda (Akhnoor District, Jammu and Kashmir) - North
Daimabad (Ahmadnagar District, Maharashtra) - South
Of about 1,400 settlements of IVC known 925 settlements

sites are now in India and 475 are in Pakistan.
The total geographical stretch of Harappan civilization is
about 1,250,000 sq. km which is more than 20 times of the
area of Egyptian and more than 12 times of the combined
area of Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations.
Mostly, the Harappan settlements were located on river
banks of which – Only 40 settlements were located on the
Indus and its tributaries; As many as 1,100 (80%)
settlements were located on the vast plain between the
Indus and the Ganga, comprising mainly the Saraswati river
system.
The distribution pattern of settlements shows that the
focus of Harappan civilization was not the Indus, but the
Saraswati River and its tributaries, which flowed between
the Indus and the Ganga. Therefore, few researchers prefer
to call it as Saraswati civilization or Indus-Saraswati
civilization.
Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal, Surkotada,
Dholavira, etc. have given us a fair idea about the various
aspects of IVC.
12
13
Mapping
Industry
The Harappan civilization is referred to as a Bronze Age
civilization.
Unalloyed copper was used for manufacturing artifacts and
rarely tin was mixed with copper to make bronze.
Tools and weapons were simple in form. They comprised of
flat -axes, chisels, arrowhead, spearheads, knives, saws,
razors, and fish-hooks.
They made small plates and weights of lead, and gold and
silver Jewellery of considerable sophistication. The
Harappans continued to use knives of chert blades.
Long barrel shaped cornelian beads (up to 10 cm. long) are
the finest examples of craftsmanship. Steatite was used for
making a variety of objects like seals, beads, bracelets,
buttons, vessels, etc. but its use in making faience (a form
of glass) is particularly noteworthy.
The gold objects found in the form of beads, pendants, Stone buildings, Ploughshare, Iron, Temples were
amulets, brooches, and other small ornaments in the absent
Harappan civilization.
Cotton, Silver was first produced by IVC people
Mature Harappan pottery represents a blend of the ceramic They were first to wear wore gold, silver & beads
tradition of the pre-Harappan culture of both west of the Jewellery
Indus region as well as of the Saraswati area. Their trade was only through Barter system.
The pottery technology was quite advanced. Most of the
pots were wheel-made. Big storage jars were also Pictures of ships and boats are found on some seals
produced. Pots were beautifully painted in black on the and drawings on pottery
bright red surface with geometric designs, plants, animals,
and a few paintings seem to depict scenes from stories. Weights
Shell working was another flourishing industry. Intensive Harappan weights and measures were cubical and
agricultural production and large-scale trade played spherical in shape and were made up of chert,
significant roles in flourishing of the Harappan civilization. jasper, and agate.
The trade must have been internal in the beginning i.e. The system of weights proceeded in a series i.e. o
between one zone and another. first doubling, from 1, 2, 4, 8, to 64, then going to
160. They followed decimal system.
They procured – Copper from Khetri mines of Rajasthan;
Chert blades from Rohri hills of Sindh; Carnelian beads The tradition of 16 or its multiples continued in India
from Gujarat and Sindh; Lead from south India; Lapis-lazuli till 1950s.
from Kashmir and Afghanistan; Turquoise and jade from
central Asia or Iran; Amethyst from Maharashtra; and The measure of length was based upon a foot of 37.6
Agate, chalcedony, and carnelian from Saurashtra. cm. and a cubit of 51.8 to 53.6 cm. Their smallest
division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in
Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations had trade relations Lothal in Gujarat, was approximately 1.704 mm, the
with IVC, as can be observed by exchanges seals. smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the
Bronze Age.
14
Early IVC phase is older than Chalcolithic period and can be Architecture
seen as a regionalization era. There were no large cities and
expertise in craftmanship is not observed. The architecture may be grouped into three
categories with some variations as –
No early IVC sites are in the active Indus Plains
Private houses
The Early Harappan Phase is related to the Hakra Phase,
identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley. This phase Doorways and windows rarely opened out into the
stands characterized by centralized authority and an main street, but faced side lanes. The view into the
increasingly urban quality of life. house was blocked by a wall or a room around the
front door. The doors were made with wooden
Trade networks had been established and there are also frames and a brick socket set in the threshold
evidences of the cultivation of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, served as door pivot.
dates, cotton, etc, were grown during that time.
Some of the doors seem to have been painted and
Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan possibly carved with simple ornamentation. The
Phase. By 2600 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization had entered adjacent houses were separated by a narrow space
into a mature stage. of "no man's land".
The early Harappan communities were turning into large Large houses surrounded by smaller units
urban centers, like Harappa and Mohenjodaro in Pakistan
and Lothal in India. Some new sites were also developed Citadel/ Acropolis at cities for member of ruling
about southern Pakistan and Gujarat coast of India. This class (west side) & brick houses below citadel in
period can be called an Integration era of the civilization. town for commoners
The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River Valley Evidence of public buildings, administrative or
Civilization are believed to have started around 1800 BC and business centres, pillared halls and courtyards.
by 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned.
The most outstanding features of the Harappan
This period can be classified into 5 Sub phases: civilization were the streets and side lanes equipped
with drains system. The streets cut each other on
Jhukar Phase the right angles and the width of these streets was
Rangpur Phase in a set ratio.
Ganga-Yamuna Doab Phase
West Punjab Phase
East Punjab Phase Large public structures
Various elements of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization Fortifications with gateways enclosing the walled
could be observed in later cultures. Archaeological data cities shows that there may have been a fear of
indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till being attacked
1000-900 BC.
The concept of two-storied houses was also present
Towns
No temples has been found at any of the site hence
The orientation of streets and buildings, according to the can be said that it was ruled by merchants not
cardinal directions east-west, and north-south was the priests
distinguishing factor of the Indus-Saraswati cities.
Harappan city sites, including Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro
Kalibangan, and Surkotada were having large gateways at
various entry points of the city. These gateways are seen The Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro is the most
even in the inner fortification areas also. remarkable feature of any Harappan site. It was a
brick structure, which measured 12 m by 7 m and is
At Dholavira, a fallen signboard was found close to the main nearly 3 m deep from the surrounding pavement.
gateway. It is a large inscription having ten symbols each
measuring approximately 37 cm high and 25 to 27 cm wide The bath was linked with some sort of ritual
proclaimed some name or title. bathing, which was very common in Indian life right
from the ancient times to till date.
Most settlements were situated in the alluvial plains where
the most common building materials were mud-bricks and A group of 27 blocks of brickwork crisscrossed by
kiln-fired-bricks, wood and reeds. narrow lanes adjacent to the great bath have been
identified as granaries, which were used for storing
In the foothills and on the Islands of Kutch and in Saurashtra, grains. Similar structures have been also found at
dressed stone replaced bricks (due to an abundance of Harappa, Kalibangan, and Lothal.
stone).
The dockyard found at Lothal was another
The sizes of bricks have been found identical proportions important structure. It was a large structure
1:2:4, that the width is double the thickness and the length measuring 223 m. in length, 35 m. in width and 8 m.
four times, the thickness. in depth. This was a dockyard where ships and boats
used to come for loading and unloading of trading
Doors and windows were made up of wood and mats. Floors goods.
of houses were generally hard-packed earth that was often
plastered. Lothal was a major trading center of the Harappan
civilization.
Drains and bathing areas were made with baked bricks or
stone. Roofs were probably made of wooden beams covered
with reeds and packed clay.
15
Art
A large variety of objects such as seals, Terracotta:
stone statues, terracotta, etc. is superb Fire backed Clay and
examples of the art activities. handmade using
Pinching method.
A Yogi from Mohenjo Daro and two small
figurines from Harappa are the most Findings: Mother
outstanding pieces of art. Goddess, Toy carts
with wheels etc.
A dancing girl statue of about 11.5 cm. in
height made up of bronzes was found from Sculpture:
Mohenjo Daro. 2 Stone male figures
have been found
Daimabad bronze animals' workmanship, made of Red
most likely belong to Harappan period. Sandstone and Bust
of a priest in Steatite.
The red sandstone torso found at Harappa
is made up of detachable limbs and head. Statue of Dancing girl
and Buffalo is made
The grey stone torso perhaps illustrates a by lost wax technique
dancing figure. in Bronze.
Following are the Specimen of Arts from the
Harappan Civilization –
Pottery:
Bronze statue (Dancing Girl) Mainly plain, red and
Terracotta Bulls black painted – Plain
Terracotta Female Figurine pottery is more common.
Head of a Yogi
Painted Jar dogs, sheep, and cattle
The most artistic depictions are the figures Consists chiefly of
of humped bull very fine wheel-
made wares, & very
Painting was found only on pottery. No wall few being hand-
paintings, even if there were any, have made
survived
Used for household
Bronze casting was widely used following purpose, decoration,
lost wax technique. Perforated pottery
(large hole at the
bottom and small
holes all over the wall
used for straining
liquor
Seals: Ornaments:
Engraved in pictographic script and writing is right to left
but yet to be deciphered Made of precious
Used on soft river stone, steatite, gold & ivory used metals, gemstones,
mainly for trade and commerce bone and even baked
clay
Used as an amulet to ward off the evil. Necklaces, armlets
Used as an educational tool presence of pie sign on the and finger rings were
seal. common
Prominent Seals are: Pashupati, Humped bull, elephant Evidences of dead

and rhinoceros bodies buried along
with ornaments have
also been found
Cinnabar was used as
cosmetic, Lipstick, &
face-paint, eyeliner’s
were all known to
them
Script:
Language is still unknown and
undeciphered. It has 400-500
signs and it is generally agreed
that it is not an alphabetic form
of writing.
It is Pictographic and written
right to left. (Boustrophedon)
16
Governance People
There are indications of complex decisions being taken and Indus Valley Civilization had been a combination of
implemented. For instance, the majority of the cities were diverse racial elements. Certain anthropological
constructed in a highly uniform and well-planned grid investigations and examinations of the human
pattern, suggesting they were planned by a central remains show that four racial types existed in this
authority; extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts civilization namely Proto-Australiod, Mediterranean,
as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks; presence of Alpinoid and the Mongoloid.
public facilities and monumental architecture;
heterogeneity in the mortuary symbolism and in grave The first farmers liked living near the river because
goods it kept the land green and fertile for growing crops.
These farmers lived together in villages which grew
There was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, over time into large ancient cities, like Harappa and
the evidence for planned settlements, the standardized Mohenjo-Daro.
ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements
near sources of raw material. The Indus civilisation seems to have been a peaceful
one. The cities were built with strong walls and
There was no single ruler but several cities like Mohenjo- gateways, which usually means they needed
daro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth. protection. However few weapons have been found
and there is no evidence of an army.
They were governed by Merchant Class.
Their diet mostly contained of Millets, wheat and
Society in the Indus Valley Civilization was egalitarian. meat.
Agriculture Bull, Rhinoceros and Elephants were also depicted

by them, but horses were not known to them.
Neolithic farming spread from the Near East into north-
west India,
Decline
Indus populations were the earliest people to use complex
multi-cropping strategies across both seasons, growing Around 1900 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to
foods during summer (rice, millets and beans) and winter emerge, and by around 1700 BCE most of the cities
(wheat, barley and pulses), which required different had been abandoned.
watering regimes.
Recent examination of human skeletons from the
Local development of a mix of "wetland" and "dryland" site of Harappa has demonstrated that the end of
agriculture of local Oryza sativa indica rice agriculture, the Indus civilisation saw an increase in inter-
before the truly "wetland" rice Oryza sativa japonica personal violence and in infectious diseases like
arrived around 2000 BCE was found in IVC. leprosy and tuberculosis.
They were the first to cultivate cotton. During the period of approximately 1900 to 1700
BCE, multiple regional cultures emerged within the
area of the Indus civilisation. The Cemetery H
culture was in Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar
Religion Pradesh, the Jhukar culture was in Sindh, and the
Rangpur culture (characterised by Lustrous Red
A Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; Ware pottery) was in Gujarat.
deification or veneration of animals and
plants; a symbolic representation of the Other sites associated with the Late phase of the
phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of Harappan culture are Pirak in Balochistan, Pakistan,
baths and water in religious practice have and Daimabad in Maharashtra, India.
been observed.
There was a general decrease of long-distance
One Indus Valley seal shows a seated figure trade. On the other hand, the period also saw a
with a horned headdress, possibly tricephalic diversification of the agricultural base, with a
and possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by diversity of crops and the advent of double-
animals. Marshall identified the figure as an cropping, as well as a shift of rural settlement
early form of the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra), towards the east and the south.
who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and
linga; regarded as a lord of animals, and often During the later half of the 2nd millennium BCE,
depicted as having three eyes. The seal has most of the post-urban Late Harappan settlements
hence come to be known as the Pashupati were abandoned altogether.
Seal, after Pashupati (lord of all animals), an
epithet of Shiva. Many scholars believe natural factors are behind
the decline of the IVC. The natural factors could be
The existence of a cult of Mother Goddess geological and climatic.
worship based upon excavation of several
female figurines has been hypothesised. It is believed that the Indus Valley region
experienced several tectonic disturbances which
Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, causes earthquakes. Which also changed courses of
even though excavated cities indicate that the rivers or dried them up. Another natural reason
society possessed the requisite engineering might be changes in patterns of rainfall.
knowledge. This may suggest that religious
ceremonies if any, may have been largely There could be also dramatic shifts in the river
confined to individual homes, small temples, courses, which might have brought floods to the
or the open air. food producing areas.
17
Photos PYQs
Q. Which of the following characterizes / characterizes the
people of the Indus Valley Civilisation? (2013)
(1) They possessed great palaces and temples
(2) They worshipped both male and female deities.
(3) They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.
Select the correct statement/statements using the codes
given below.
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 1, 2, and 3
D. None of the above
Q. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilisation, consider the

following statements: (2011)
(1) It was predominantly a secular civilization and the
religious element, though present, did not dominate the
scene.
(2) During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing
textiles in India
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. I only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Q. Match List I with List-II and select the correct answer

using the codes given below: (2002)
Ancient Site Finding
(A)Lothal i. Ploughed Field
(B)Kalibangan ii. Dockyard
(C)Dholavira iii. Terracotta replica of a plough
(D)Banawali IV. An Inscription comprising ten large-
sized signs of the Harappan Script
Codes
Ai; B-ii; C-iii; D-iv
A-ii; B-i; C-iv; D-iii
A-i; B-ii; C-iv; D-iii
A-ii; B-i; C-iii; D-iv
Q. Which of the following animals was not represented in

seals and terracotta art of Harappan Sculpture? (2002)
A. Cow
B. Elephant
C. Rhinoceros
D. Tiger
Answers:
1. (B)
2. (C)
3. (D)
4. (A)
Sol:
Cow, camel, horse, and lion were not depicted on seals.
Unicorn (bull) was the animal most commonly
represented on the seals.
Horse was an animal that was unknown to the
Harappan Civilization.
18
Introduction
The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE), is
the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the Phases
history of India when the Vedic literature, including the
Vedas (ca. 1300–900 BCE), was composed in the northern Vedic period can be classified into two phases:
Indian subcontinent, between the end of the Urban Indus
Valley civilisation and a second urbanisation which began in 1. Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC)
the central Indo-Gangetic Plain c. 600 BCE. 2. Later Vedic Period (1000 – c. 600 BCE)
Theories Early
Aryan Indo-Aryans migrated in a series of Most
Phase
Migration immigration from different regions. accepted
Theory and
Evidence show migration from dominant
Andronovo Culture (South Siberia) theory
to north of Hindu Kush and from
there to India
Central Aryans migrated from Central Asia Max Muller

Asian and Eurasian Steppe
Theory
The similarity between Vedic words
and concepts with that of Avesta
(Iranian Text)
A recent study ‘The Genomic
Formation of South and Central Asia’
(2018) of the Y chromosome support
this view Later
Phase
European Europe is the homeland of Aryans Sir William
Theory Based on the comparative linguistic Jones (Also
study of Greek, Latin, German, and established
Sanskrit e.g. Sanskrit words ‘Pitri’ Asiatic
and ‘Matri’ are similar to the Latin Society of
‘Pater’ and ‘Mater’ Bengal in
1784)
Indian Aryans were indigenous to the Dr.

Theory subcontinent. Sampurnan
and and
DNA analysis of Women Skelton A.C Das;
found at Rakhigarhi refutes the Ganganath
Aryan migration theory Jha and The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly
others from the Rigveda-samhita, i.e. the oldest layer of
the Vedas, which was composed c. 1200–1000 BCE.
They brought with them their distinctive religious
traditions and practices.
19
Early Period Decline
The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the By the 6th century BCE, the political units
Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. consolidated into large kingdoms called
Mahajanapadas.
Accounts of military conflicts in between the various tribes
of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rigveda. Most Anga, a small kingdom to the east of Magadha (on
notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which the door step of modern-day West Bengal), formed
took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern day the eastern boundary of the Vedic culture.
Ravi).
Yadavas expanded towards the south and settled in
The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by Mathura. To the south of their kingdom was Vatsa
their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes. which was governed from its capital Kausambi.
The Bharatas lived around the upper regions of the river The Narmada River and parts of North Western
Saraswati, while the Purus, their western neighbours, lived Deccan formed the southern limits. The newly
along the lower regions of Saraswati. The other tribes dwelt formed states struggled for supremacy and started
north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab. displaying imperial ambitions.
The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic,
by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged cultural and political changes. The grammar of
victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings. The Bharatas and the Pāṇini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra
Purus merged into a new tribe, the Kuru, after the war. texts, and at the same time the beginning of
Classical Sanskrit.
Later Period
The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the
After the 12th century BCE, Indo-Aryan people in northern early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of
India, transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the
agriculture in north-western India. Indo-Greeks.
Possession of horses remained an important priority of Meanwhile, in the Kosala-Magadha region, the
Vedic leaders resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu shramana movements (including Jainism and
Kush to maintain this supply. Buddhism) objected the self-imposed authority and
orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic
After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became scriptures and ritual.
widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This
enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose
the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Many of the in "Greater Magadha," which was Indo-European,
old tribes coalesced to form larger political units. but not Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed
higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic
The Vedic religion was further developed with the authority and rituals.
emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its religious
literature and developing the Śrauta ritual.
It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture (c.1200–
600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-Yamuya
Doab. It differed from the related, yet markedly different, 16
culture of the Central Ganges region, which was associated
with the Northern Black Polished Ware and the Mahajanapads
Mahajanapadas of Kosala and Magadha.
In this period the varna system emerged. The Vedic era
texts including the early Upanishads and many Sutras
important to later Hindu culture were completed.
The Kuru Kingdom, the earliest Vedic "state", was formed
by a "super-tribe" which joined several tribes in a new unit.
To govern this state, Vedic hymns were collected and
transcribed, and new rituals were developed, which formed
the now orthodox Śrauta rituals. The most well-known of
the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were
the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice).
The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic
Salva tribe, and the political center of Vedic culture shifted
east, into the Panchala kingdom on the Ganges, under King
Keśin Dālbhya (approximately between 900 and 750 BCE).
Later, in the 8th or 7th century BCE, the kingdom of Videha
emerged as a political center farther to the East, in what is
today northern Bihar of India and southeastern Nepal,
reaching its prominence under the king Janaka, whose court
provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers
such as Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka Aruni, and Gargi Vachaknavi.
20
Early Vedic Later Vedic Early Vedic Later Vedic
Geography Economy
Early Aryans were based in Later Aryans moved to Cattle rearing ran the Cattle rearing replaced
and around Indus and its eastern areas (up to economy mainly by Settled
tributaries Bengal) Agriculture but co-
Little evidence of Trade existed.
They called it Sapt-Sindavah The core area was the and commerce
(land of Seven Rivers) Kuru-Panchala region Trade started building
(Indo-Gangetic divide and Shared resources ran up.
Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra the upper Ganga Valley) communities.
Channel) was considered the Both Communally
holiest river but No Texts mention Eastern and Unit of currency was owned land and
reference to Sea in Rig Veda Western Sea and also Nishka but barter private properties
Narmada and Vindhyan system prevalent. existed.
Mountains
However, No regular Grahpati (Head of
Society revenue system. household) owned the
land.
Distinct hierarchy of socio- Varna system of caste Voluntary tribute (Bali)
economic classes or castes present and bounty won in a Barter system still
was absent, Clans are battle was the source prevalent but ‘Niskha’
present Rigid social hierarchy and of income. was used as a unit of
sacrifice culture increased value (But not like a
Society was not egalitarian, Gift exchanged on present day currency).
Slavery was prevalent. Varna- Ashrama- Dharma group level was
Change of Professions were type of Society grew up important for economy Shresthins (guild ) was
allowed Rig Vedic society. the organization of
Position of Women merchants, became
Society was Patriarchal but deteriorated Copper was used but prominent.
women had important Iron was still not.
positions, were educated Instances of Sati and Iron (called Krishna
and had access to the Purdah Ochre Coloured Pottery Ayas/ Shyama Ayas),
assembly main in this period. Tin, lead, silver, gold,
Women scholars in this bronze and Copper
Monogamy was often but period such were Gargi, Shifting type of was used.
Polygamy was also Maitreyi, and Katyayani agriculture was
practiced. Widow prevalent PGW (Painted Grey
remarriage was also Child marriages became ware)-Iron Phase type
observable common Barley (yava) was the of pottery was used.
main grain
Niyoga marriage existed ( Gotras were Urbanism (‘Nagar’
Childless widow was institutionalized Wooden plough was mentioned in Taittiriya
temporarily married to the used (Phala, langala Aranyaka)
husband’s brother) and ‘sira’)
Rice (Vrihi) and Wheat
Polity (Godhuma) was the
staple diet
Non hereditary Monarchy Kingship became
(Rajan); Also known as hereditary and sacrificial Religion
Gopati or Gopa rituals increased
Temples/ Idol worship Idolatry and Sacrifices
Cows were considered main Rajasuya ( royal not found. became prominent
property and Gopati was consecration and king
protector of Cow conferred supreme Religion was essentially Brahmans gained in
power ) Animalistic (Directed importance, They
Battle was called Gavisthis towards forces of performed yajnas such
or Gavenshana or Goshu Vajapeya (chariot race to nature and Spirits) but as Ashvamedha,
but no standing army win against all kinsmen) concept of other gods Vajapeya.
existed too.
No doctrine of divinity Ashwamedha (control Indra and Agni lost
associated with the kingship over the area in which Other gods such as: importance and
royal horse ran Prajapati (god of
It had a Patrilineal system uninterrupted) Indra, Agni, Varuna, creation), Vishnu,
of Kula, Jana and Tribe Soma, Yama, Pushan, Rudra emerged
Kings still had no Vishnu, Marutas, supreme
Sabhas, Samiti (presided by standing army Ashvins
the Rajan), Vidatha (Tribal Division in the class of
assembly with diverse Savitri, Aditi, Prithvi, deities was seen
functions) and Gana were Nirrti, Usha Pushan (god of cattle)
political organisations became the god of
Gandharvas, Apsaras, Shudras
Vishwadevas, Aryaman
21
Glossary
Terms used in Rig Vedic age Meaning Terms Sources
Samsara ( transmigration of
Godhuli Time Brahadarankya Upanishad
Soul)
Gavyuti Distance Four ashrams Jabala Upanishad
Gotra Kinship Satyamev Jayate Mandukya Upanishad
Gana Lineage Four-fold Varna system Rig Veda (10th Mandala)
Grama Village Trimurti God Maitrayani Upanishad
Gauri Buffalo Origin of Universe Rig Veda (10th Mandala)
Gojit Winner of Cow or a Hero
Conception of obligations
Dharma and the discharge of one’s Sabha and Samiti as twin
duties to oneself and others Atharva Veda
daughters of Prajapati
Rita Order of the cosmos
Goghna Guest fed on cattle
Mapping
Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian

migrations. The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz cultures
have often been associated with Indo-Iranian
migrations.
22
Archaeology Literature
Some examples of artistic expression The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based
appear in abstract pottery designs on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant
during the Black and red ware culture archaeological details.
(1450–1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey
Ware culture (1200–600 BCE), with Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five
finds in a wide area, including the area chronological strata:
of Mathura.
1. Rigvedic text: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of
Archaeological cultures identified with the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common
phases of Vedic material culture Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content,
include the Ochre Coloured Pottery that are not present in any other Vedic text.
culture, the Gandhara Grave culture,
the Black and red ware culture and the Its time span likely corresponds to the Late Harappan
Painted Grey Ware culture. culture, Gandhara grave culture and Ochre Coloured
Pottery culture.
Ochre coloured pottery culture was
first found approximately between 2. Mantra language texts: This period includes both the
1950 and 1951, in western Uttar mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada
Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar and Shaunmkiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita
district. This pottery was found all (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the
throughout the doab. mantras of the Yajurveda.
Gandhara grave culture refers to the Many of these texts are largely derived from the Rigveda,
protohistoric cemeteries found in the but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic
Gandhara region, stretching all the way change and by reinterpretation. This is the time of the
from Bajuar to the Indus. early Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to
the Black and Red Ware (BRW) and Painted Grey Ware
Black and red ware culture was coined (PGW) cultures, and the early Kuru Kingdom, dating from
as a term in 1946 by Sir Mortimer c. the 12th to 11th centuries BCE.
Wheeler. Black and red ware, and the
surrounding culture, began its spread 3. Samhita prose texts: This period marks the beginning of
during the neolithic period and the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. The
continues until the early medieval Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the
period in India, as well as being found Black Yajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period.
in parts of West Asia and Egypt.
Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture
Painted grey ware culture is a from c. 1000 or 900 BCE corresponds to the Kuru
significant pottery style that has been Kingdom and the subsequent eastward shift of the
linked to a group of people who settled political centre from the Kurus to the Panchalas on the
in Sutlej, Ghagger, and the Upper Ganges.
Ganga/Yamuna Valleys, loosely
classified with the early Aryans who 4. Brahmana prose texts: The Brahmanas proper of the four
migrated to India in the beginning of Vedas belong to this period, as well as the Aranyakas, the
the Vedic period. oldest of the Upanishads and the oldest Śrautasutras.
It's also thought that the groups that introduced the In the east, Videha (N. Bihar and Nepal) is established as
painted grey ware culture also brought iron the third main political centre of the Vedic period.
technology to the Indo-gangetic plains, making this
pottery a momentous mark of the Northern Indian 5. Sutra language texts: This is the last stratum of Vedic
Iron Age. Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the
Śrauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (e.g. Kathu,
There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding Maitru).
the establishment of the pottery, but while the
culture is significant, grey ware has only made up 10–
15% of found Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery
red ware, as grey ware pottery was seen as a “highly
valued luxury”.
23
24
Methodology
PYQs related to Buddha and Buddhism

PYQ
Solutions/ Explanations of PYQs
Listing of all important topics related to

Listing of Topics Buddhism relevant to UPSC Prelims/
Mains
Subdivision-1 Buddha
Subdivision-II Buddhism
PYQs
25
Note: The questions are not arranged sequence-wise.

Answers are given as per q. no with which the question
is marked.
Question no. Answer
01 B
Explanation
Fourth Council convened in Kashmir under the patronage of

Kanishka
It resulted into division of all the Buddhists into two major sects
Sarvastivadins (popular in Kashmir and Mathura regions) and

Mahasanghikas together forming the Mahayanists (followers of
the Greater Vehicle)
Sthaviravadins and others forming the Hinayanists (followers of

the Lesser Vehicle);
Thus, Sthaviravadins is not part of Mahayana.
So, #1 wrong.
• The Mahasanghikas gave rise to the following sects:

1. Ekavyaharikas
2. Lokottaravadins
3. Kukkutikas
4. Bahusrutiyas
5. Prajnapativadins
6. Chaitya-sailas
7. Apara-sailas
8. Uttara-sailas.
So, #2 is right, hence answer "b".
Question no. Answer
02 C
Explanation
Bodhisattva are part of the Mahayana/Vajrayana Tradition. They

are mentioned in the Mahayana literature called the Vaipulya
Sutra- written in Sanskrit
Inside the Vaipulya Sutra- Prajna Paramita is mentioned.
26

Question no. Answer
03 D Question no. Answer
Explanation 08 C
The Mahayana followers believe in idol or image worship of Explanation

Buddha. So 1 and 3 are correct.
Buddha was born in Lumbini, in the Kosala kingdom.Buddh died
The concept of Bodhisattva is the result of Mahayana Buddhism. in Kusinara, in Magadha kingdom.
So 2 is also correct. Avanti lay outside the area visited by buddha and was converted
to his teaching by his disciple Mahakaccana.
Gandhara is the western part of Pakistan & Afghanistan and
Question no. Answer Buddha never went to Pakistan.
04 C
Question no. Answer
Explanation
09 C
Maitreya is the future Buddha, whose coming was said to have
been prophesied by the historical Buddha and who in years to Explanation
come, would purify the world with his teachings.
Tabo monastery and temple complex is in Spiti Valley and Alchi
Avalokitesvara (watchful lord), also called Padmapani (lotus- temple complex is in Ladakh.
bearer), whose attribute is compassion, which reaches down Lhotsava Lhakhang, Nako is in Himachal Pradesh. Zanskar Valley
even to Avichi, the lowest Buddhist purgatory. is in Jammu and Kashmir.
Loksesvara is also used as a synonym for Avalokitesvara.

Question no. Answer
Question no. Answer 11 A
06 A Explanation
Explanation The concept of Nirvana was originally explained by Lord Buddha

(566-486 BC). The word 'Nirvana' comes from the root meaning
This extraordinary mural painting survives 'to blow out' and refers to the extinguishing of the fires of greed,
from early medieval India, preserved in the hatred, and delusion.
interior of the rock-cut Buddhist monastery
of Ajanta. When these emotional and psychological defilements are
destroyed by wisdom, the mind becomes free, radiant, and joyful
The crowns depicted are the antecedents and he who has realized the Truth (Nirvana) is the happiest being
of those used in Buddhist ritual today by in the world. He is free from all complexes and obsessions. He
the Vajracharya priests in Nepal. does not repent of the past nor does he brood over the future.
He lives fully in present. He appreciates and enjoys things in life
in the purest sense without self projections. He is free from the
Question no. Answer thirst of becoming and the illusion of self.
07 B Buddhism explains Nirvana as a state of bliss or peace.
Explanation
Question no. Answer
Sautrantikas and Sammtiyas as Buddhism sects. So the first
statement is wrong. 12 B
Sarvastivadin sect of Buddhism believes that all things exist, and
exist continuously, in the past and the future as well as in the
Explanation
present. So the second statement is right.
Chaityas refer to the halls enclosing the stupas. Chaityas were
probably constructed to hold large numbers of devotees for
prayer.
Viharas on the other hand are constructions built in ancient India
in order to provide resting places for the wandering Buddhist
monks.
27

Question no. Answer
Question no. Answer

13 B
21 D
Explanation
The earth witness Buddha is one of the most common iconic Explanation
images of Buddhism. It depicts the
Buddha sitting in meditation with his left hand, palm upright, in Vasumitra and Ashavaghosh together presided over the fourth
his lap; and his right hand touching council.
the earth. This represents the moment of the Buddha's In this council, Buddhists were divided into Mahayanists and
enlightenment. Hinayanists.
Question no. Answer Question no. Answer
14 B 23 D
Explanation Explanation
Both Buddhism and Jainism denied the authority of the Vedas The Noble Eightfold Path is one of the principal teachings of the
and the efficacy of Rituals. Buddha, who described it as the way leading to the cessation of
suffering (Dukkha) and attainment of self-awakening. In
Buddhist symbolism, the Noble Eightfold Path is often
Question no. Answer represented by means of the Dharma wheel (Dharmachakra),
whose eight spokes represent the eight elements of the path.
17 B
The eightfold path includes right understanding, right speech,
Explanation right livelihood; right mindfulness, right thought, right action,
right effort, and right concentration.
Statement 1 is incorrect as most of the inscriptions of the Andhra
Ikshvaku period record either the construction of the Buddhist
viharas or the gifts made to them which shows that the Ikshvaku Question no. Answer
rulers of Southern India were supporters of Buddhism.
24 C
Question no. Answer Explanation
19 C Avalokiteévar a is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion

of all Buddhas.
Explanation He is one of the more widely revered bodhisattvas in
mainstream Mahayana Buddhism. In Sanskrit, Avalokitesvara is
Vardhaman Mahavira's mother, Trishala was the sister (not the also referred to as Padmapäni ("Holder of the Lotus") or
daughter) of Lichchhavi chief Chetak. Lokesvara ("Lord of the World").
Question no. Answer Question no. Answer
20 B 25 B
Explanation Explanation
Pavarana is a Buddh ist holiday celebrated on the full moon of Both denied the authority of the Vedas and the necessity of
the eleventh lunar month. It marks the end of the month of performing sacrifices and rituals. Both of them were opposed to
Vassa, sometimes called "Buddhist Lent." animal sacrifices.
This day marks the end of the rainy season in some Asian
countries like Thailand, where Theravada Buddhism is practiced. Question no. Answer
On this day, each monk (Pali: bhikkhu) must come before the 28 D
community of monks (Sangha) and atone for an offense he may
have committed during the Vassa. Explanation
The Noble Eightfold Path is one of the principal teachings of the

Buddha
28
List of Important topics based on PYQ www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

Sects of Buddhism The site of his nativity is marked by the celebrated
Texts of Buddhism Rummindei Pillar of Asoka. As Maya died in child-
Mahayana Buddhism birth, Siddhartha was brought up by his aunt and
Buddhist Paintings and Art/ Important Locations stepmother, Prajapati Gautami.
Mahavira vs Buddha
Life of Buddha His other relatives were Suddhodhana (father),
Concept of Nirvana Yasodhara (wife), Rahula (son) and Devadatta
Buddhist Architecture (cousin).
Symbolization in Buddhism
Policies of contemporary rulers towards Buddhism The sight of an old man, a sick man, a dead body and
Buddhist Festivals an ascetic intensified Siddhartha’s deep hatred for
Buddhist Councils the world and made him realise the hollowness of
Eightfold path/ Basic doctrine worldly pleasures.
Confusion between Jainism and Buddhism - Similar
doctrines vs Differences. After the birth of his son, he left home at the age of
twenty nine in search of the Truth. This departure is
Notes known as the ‘Great Renunciation’
(mahabhinishkramana).
For six continuous years he lived as a homeless

Basic Advanced ascetic, seeking instruction under two Brahmin
religious teachers (the first was Alara Kalama who
taught him the technique of meditation at Vaisali,
and the second was Uddaka or Ramaputta who
taught him at Rajagriha) and visiting many places.
Life of Buddha Buddhism
Finding no satisfaction there he practised the
Life of Buddha severest penances, the most rigid austerities and
made fruitless efforts to find the Truth.
According to Jain tradition, Mahavira was born in 527 BC;
the Buddha was younger than Mahavira as he was born in He then gave up penances, took a bath in river
563 BC. Niranjana (modern Lilajan) and sat under a pipal tree
at modem Bodh Gaya.
Here at the age of 35, he attained unto supreme

knowledge and insight. Revelation came to him that
the Great Peace was within his own heart and he
must seek it there.
This is known as the Enlightenment (nirvana) and

since then he became known as the Buddha (the
Enlightened One) or tathagat (one who attained the
Truth).
Then he proceeded to the deer park near Sarnath in

Gautama or Siddhartha, founder of Buddhism, was born in the vicinity of Banaras where he gave his first
563 BC in Lumbini (now in Nepal) in the Sakya Kshatriya religious discourse (dharmachakrapravartana) as a
clan of Kapilavastu. His mother was Maya, a princess of result of which five disciples joined him.
the neighbouring clan of the Koliyas.
After preaching for the next 45 years, he passed
away in 483 BC under a sal tree at Kusinagar in UP.
29
Shortly before his death Buddha lived in Pavapuri in the www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
hut of a poor smith named Chanda (Kanda), where he ate
bad mushrooms and pork, which allegedly caused his Vedas Rejected by Buddha
death.
Animal sacrifice
Meaningless rituals
Buddha’s last teaching was heard by Subhadra, a Condemned
Caste system
wandering ascetic, and Ananda, his favourite disciple. Priestly supremacy
Personal beliefs Agnostic

The most renowned among the early converts to his
teaching were Sariputta and Moggallana, ascetics of
Rajagriha, who were converted by Assaji, one of the five
original disciples.
More famous among his followers were Ananda (his

cousin and chief disciple), Kassapa or Kasyapa (his most
learned disciple), Upali (the barber), and the rich youth
Vasa.
Kings like Prasenjit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru

of Magadha accepted his doctrines and became his
disciples.
Channa (the charioteer), Kanthaka (his horse), Alara

Kalama and Sujata (the farmer’s daughter who gave him
rice milk at Bodh Gaya) were the other important ones.
Symbolism
Avoidance of two extremes of
practical life, namely, indulgence in
Madhyam Path
sensual pleasures on the one hand
and severe asceticism on the other
Nirvana
Salvation Not dependent upon social
background
Buddhism was more a social than

Overall religious revolution at time of
Buddha
Nirvana Extinction of desire
Condition of man depends upon

Law of Karma
their own deeds
Re-birth Because of karma
Soul Did not believe in soul

Teachings
'Pratitya Sam-utpada' doctrine
Further from this section, notes are mostly in Tabular Why? Says nothing can exist individually in
format in order to shorten them. Please read left to right itself (Dependent Origin)
and try to form the sentences in mind. They are expected 3 Fold All things are 'Composite'
to shorten the time it needs for revision. character of All things are hence 'Transient'
world All things are hence 'Soul-less'
Final truth Dukhamayi + Anitya + Anatman
Different from 'Nirvana' (Because

Moksha
moksha relates to Soul)
30
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life, namely, indulgence in sensual
Madhyam Path
pleasures on the one hand and severe Evolution of Buddhism
asceticism on the other
Buddha did not God, Nature of Soul, Philosophical Enlightenment of Budhha (528 BC)
Origin
discuss questions First two councils
Anatta State of Soullessness Spread Spread of Buddhism in eastern India
Soul in Composite of 5 Anitya (Khanda/ Conversion of Asoka to Buddhism

Asokan
Buddhism Skanda) Third Buddhist council
period
Sending of Missionaries
Pratitya
Theory of dependent origin Royal patronage lost in east India
Samutpad
Support obtained from Merchant class
Karma Similar to Hinduism Donation to Barhut, Sanchi, Karle caves
Form and matter (rupa) Sunga Development of Gandhara art
Sensations or feelings (vedana) Kanva Spread in North-west and south India
5 Skandas Perceptions or understanding (sanna) period Adoption by Satavahanas
Psychic disposition or will (samkhara) Buddhist centres of Amaravati and
Consciousness (vinnana) Nagarjun konda
18 Sects of Buddhism
Sangha 4th council

Spread in China and central Asia via silk
Kanishka route
Bhikshus Disciple monks
Mahayana Buddhism development
Upasika Lay worshippers Practice of Idolism began
Sangha Congregation of Monks only Individual patronage continued
Gupta Royal patronage ended
Objective Spreading Buddhism
period Fahien shared his experiences
Open to all, healthy, of age >15 Kumargupta 1 and Nalanda period
No caste restrictions
Royal patronage regained
Membership Debtors, King's servants, Robbers etc
Decline of Buddhism
were refused admission Harsha
Huien Tsang testified ruins of Buddhist
Women (requested by Ananda)
centres
Ashadha End of rainy season (Full moon day)
Huna invasions
Vasa Habitation of Monks during rainy season Brief revival under Palas (800-900 AD)
Decline Vikramshila university (Dharmapala)
They stayed in Monk caves or Villages
phase Complete decline after Turkish invasions
Confession ceremony of monks after Destruction of Buddhist centres by
Pava-rana
their stay period during rains (If they Bakhtiyar Khalji (1198 AD)
ceremony
committed any offenses)
Leadership Democratic Buddhist Centres

Presidents of
Sanghathera or sanghaparinayaka
Sangha
Dhamma leader
Other leaders
Vinaya leader
Jnapati Formal moving of resolutions
Salaka Ballot voting by wooden sticks
Oaths administrated by President

Admission in
Apprentice under another Monk
sangha
Formal proposal by senior monk
Not enforced in seating order etc

Seniority in
New monks and women were not
sangha
permitted to vote
31
Use space for notes:
32
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Period Location Presided by Outcomes
Purpose was to maintain purity of Buddha's teachings

Sattapani Composition of Sutta Pitaka (Budda's sayings) by Ananda
Maha-Kassapa
483 BC Caves Vinaya Pitaka (Monastic code) by Upali
(Under Kalasoka)
(Rajgriha) Pitaka means Basket (Original texts composed on palm leaves and
kept in Baskets)
Controversy solution between Vajji monks and Orthodox

Sabakami
Failure to reach agreement
383 BC Vaishali (Under
Division into Sthavira-din (Theravids) and New Mahasanghika
Ajatshatru)
(Mahayanas later)
Maintain purity of Sangha

Expulsion of Heretics
Mogaliputta Tissa
Authority of Theravid buddhism established
250 BC Pataliputra (Upagupta)
Final edition of Tri-pitakas (Sutra, Vinaya + Abhi-dhamma Pitaka)
(Under Asoka)
Abhidhamma pitaka = Philosophy of Sutra and Vinaya Pitaka
Missionaries were sent to various parts after this council
Asvaghosa wrote Buddha-Charitra

Solution between 18 sects of Buddhism
Vasumitra & Division of major sects in final 2 sects (Theravid and Mahayana)
Kundalvana
100 AD Ashvaghosa Codification of Sarva-stivadin doctrines as Maha-vibhasha (Copper
(Kashmir)
(Under Kanishka) plate inscriptions)
Change of language from Pali to Sanskrit
Spread of Buddhism to central Asia and China
Sects Main Points

Kashmir Second Council First division (Sthaviravadins and
(Vaishali) Mahasanghikas)
Fourth Council
Mahayan and Theravid/ Hinayana
(Kashmir)
Vajrayanis (Vehicle of
Pataliputra 800 AD
Thunderbolt)
Vaishali After the death of the Buddha new subdivisions
Rajgriha gradually came into being, as many as eighteen sects
appeared out of the original two groups
RVPK (Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas) by the time of
the Third Council.
Vasumitra’s book on ‘Eighteen Sects’ indicates the

emergence of the different sects.
Mahasanghika Sects
Ekavyaharikas Chaitya-sailas
Lokottaravadins Apara-sailas
Kukkutikas Uttara-sailas
Bahusrutiyas Prajnapativadins
33
Sthavira-vadins Sects
Sautrantikas or Sammatiyas
Sankrantivadins Haimavatas Sect Name Mahasanghikas
Sarvastivadins Shannagarikas Buddha seen as Superhuman
Vatsiputriyas Mahisasakas Important figures Bodhisattvas
Dharmottariyas Dharmaguptikas Considered of less importance
Bhadrayanikas Kasyapiyas or Suvarshakas Arhats than Bodhisattvas
Subject to retrogression
Pali sources mention six other sects—the Haimavatikas,
Bodhisattvas Also known as 'Stropannas'
Rajagirikas, Siddhatthikas, Pubbaseliyas, Aparaseliyas, and
Vajiriyas. Name given to Mahasanghika
Andhrakas followers settled in Eastern
Most important Sects to read in brief ghats
Sect Name Sthavira-vadin
Literature language Pali Arhats Vs Bodhisattvas
Theravid or Sthaviravadins Arhats Bodhisattvas

Other names Vibhajjavada ("Doctrine of
Analysis"
Arhats are enlightened Bodhisattvas are beings
Founded by Maha-Kachhayana beings who have who seek enlightenment
Origin place Avanti attained nirvana, or for the benefit of all
liberation from sentient beings and vow
Buddha described as God of gods (Devatideva) suffering, by following to remain in the cycle of
Human being with human the Noble Eightfold rebirth until all beings
Another description Path. are liberated.
nature
Anatman, Anitya, Dukha Arhats focus on their Bodhisattvas actively

Philosophy of the sect
Only present is real own liberation and do engage in
not engage in activities compassionate actions
to help others attain to help others attain
enlightenment. enlightenment.
Sect Name Sarvasti-vadins

Arhats do not take a Bodhisattvas take a vow
Closely related to Sthavira-vadins vow to help others to help others achieve
achieve enlightenment. enlightenment.
Culminated into Mahayana sect
Vaibashika, from Bodhisattvas work

Other names Mahavibasa Shastra, towards the attainment
Arhats do not work
"Textbook of Explanation" of Buddhahood, the
towards the attainment
highest state of
Central idea Sabbam Atthi (All exist) of Buddhahood.
awakening, in order to
Root Samyuktta Nikaaya help all sentient beings.
Nature Realist
Bodhisattvas are seen
All things exist continuously Arhats are seen as as having achieved a
Philosophy
in past, present and future having achieved a more altruistic goal of
Spread by Vasubandhu personal goal of helping all sentient
liberation from beings achieve
Book name Abhi-dharma-Kosha suffering. liberation from
Patronised under Kanishka suffering.
Region Kashmir and Gandhara
Another name of this

Hetuvadins
school
34
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Hinayan/ Theravid followers believed in the original
teachings of the Buddha, and sought individual salvation
through self-discipline and meditation. Unlike the
Mahayanists, they did not believe in idol worship.
However they did worship the symbols. It was
popularized in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and
Laos.
Mahayana Buddhism:
Origin period 100-200 AD
Objective Salvation for All
Heavenly Buddha
Introduced Bodhisattvas
Final doctrines of Buddhism Doctrine of 3 bodies in Mahayana Buddhism:
7th Buddha
Theory 'Trikaya'
Gautama Earlier ones:
Buddha (1) Vipasyi, (2) Sikhi, (3) Visvabhu, Meaning Three bodies of Buddha
considered to be (4) Krakuchchhanda, (5)
Body of Essence
Kanakamuni, and (6) Kasyapa
Dharmakaya Ultimate Buddha
Nigali Sagar edict of Asoka referring Also identified with 'Nirvana'
to enlargement of a stupa erected in
Body of Bliss
Evidences honour of Kanakamuni Sambhogakaya
Which makes the Nirmanakaya
5 Buddhas represented in Barhut
(Except Sikhi) Body of Magic Transformation
Nirmanakaya This body lived as Siddhartha
Maitreya Future Buddha
Gautama as per Mahayana belief
Major Bodhisattvas of Mahayana Buddhism: Subschools of Mahayana Buddhism:
Means: Boundless Light Doctrine of Middle path/

Guardian of the west Emptiness
Amitabh
Established a pure land 'Sukhavati' Founded by Nagarjuna
Has a consort named 'Pandara' Madhyamika Taught that world is illusionary
School/ and in fact there is only emptiness
Means: Watchful lord
Shunyavad Followers are also known as
Also called Padmapani (Lotus bearer)
Sunyavadis
Quality: Compassion
Founding text is 'Madhyamika
Avalokitesvara Established heaven: Akanishta
Karika'
Consort: Tara
He has a female form in Japan and Doctrine of Consciousness/ Yoga
China Founded by 'Maitreyanatha'
According to it the whole universe
Means: Charming
exists only in the mind of the
Represents Wisdom aspect
Manju-shri Vigyanavad/ perceiver
keeps a naked sword
Yogachara/ Many famous followers were:
Destroys error and falsehood
Asanga (Wrote Sutralankara in
Means: Illuminated 400-500 AD), Vasubandhu
Represents: Dharmakaya aspect (Younger brother of Asanga),
Vairochana
Guardian of the centre Dignaga, Dharmakirti
Consort: Marichi
Means: Instantly Auspicious

Samanta Called: Chakrapani
Bhadra Appears in 'Gandha-Vyuha sutra' as
Altruistic monk who taught Sudhana
35
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Hinayana Mahayana
Buddhist Texts:
Firm to Buddha's Followed the essence of Pali-Canonical-Texts:
teachings teachings
Language Pali
Sangha was the
Individual as a centrepoint
centrepoint Canonical (Religious, Principle
Nature
texts)
Main language was Pali Sanskrit used mainly
Period 350-90 BC
Scriptures were 'Tri-
'Sutras' as Scriptures
Pitakas' Collection Tri-Pitakas
Salvation via individual 350 BC

Salvation via Faith
works Buddhist Canonical Law
Vinaya Pitaka Law of Monastic discipline
Centered around
Centered around life and Contains 'Mahavagga' and
Symbolism of life and
acts of Gautama buddha 'Chullavagga' sections
personality of Buddha
300 BC
Righteous action and law Compassion and law of
Consists 5 Nikayas
of Karma as pillars Karuna as pillars
Sutta Pitaka Deals with Universe, Rebirth,
Arhat as main ideal Bodhisattva as main ideal Ascetism and various philosophical
discourses
Vajrayana Buddhism Main points:
Same subjects as Sutta Pitaka
Origin 5th century AD Famous book: Dhamma-sangani
Abhidhamma
Katthavatthu (Vinnanapada)
Meaning Vehicle of Thunderbolt Pitaka
written by Mogaliputta Tissa (3rd
Magico-religious rites to attain coucil president)
Basis
salvation
The 5 Nikayas of Sutta Pitaka:
Also known as Tantrika-Buddhism
Dealing with topics such as the
Reported by Hiuen Tsang in 7th century origin of the universe, rebirth,
Branches Dakshinchakra and Vamachakra asceticism, miracles, nirvana,
Digha Nikaya heresy, condemnation of caste, and
Right hand branch an account of Buddha’s last
Dakshinachakra Famous in China and Japan speeches and his death and the
Masculine divinity funeral ceremonies
Left hand branch Dealing with the relation of Buddha
Vamachakra Initial branch of Vajrayana to the Jainas and other religious
Feminine branch systems of the day, various forms of
Majjhima-
Guhyasamaja and the Manjusri asceticism, and a long enumeration
nikaya
Texts Mulakalpa of criminal and oral offences such
Saraha’s Dohakosa as theft, robbery, adultery and the
consequent punishments for them
Salvation could be best attained by
Main belief acquiring magical power, which they Discusses Buddhist doctrine, and
called vajra (thunderbolt or diamond) Samyutta- includes riddles and aphorisms,
nikaya ballads in mixed prose and verse
Bengal, Bihar, Eastern India and many sayings of Buddha
Popular in Spread to Tibet under patronage of
'Pala' kings Anguttara- Collection of sermons arranged in
nikaya (or ascending numerical order,
Ekottara- enumerating doctrines and
nikaya) principles
Anthology of smaller pieces,

Khuddaka- comprising fifteen books of
nikaya miscellanea which are essential for
an understanding of Buddhism
36
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Bactrian Greek, Kushana

Period Causes for Popularity and Decline
Devoted to Mahayana Buddhism
of Buddhism:
Questions of Milinda (Menander) to
Buddha Non-indulgence in metaphysical discussions.
Milinda-Panho
How the sage Nagasena converts the
(130 BC)
Bactrian Greek king Menander It did not attach any importance to the existing varna
(Milinda) to Buddhism system.
'Great Subject'
Presents some Hinayana doctrines Admission of women to the Sangha also swelled its
Mahavastu
along with additional metaphysics of ranks (Gautami, the widowed step-mother of
(75 BC)
the Mahasanghika (proto-Mahayana) Buddha, was the first Buddhist nun).
sects
Anonymous biography of Buddha The use of Pali, the language of the people.
Lalitvistara
written in the Gatha (Sanskritized
(30)
Prakrit) form of language Its adoption by the monarchies of Magadha, Kosala,
Kausambi and several republican states in the initial
Island Chronicle’, of unknown
Dipavamsa authorship, which speaks of
period, and by Asoka, the Indo-Greeks, Kushanas,
(350 AD) introduction of Buddhism into Ceylon by Harsha and Palas in the later period.
Asoka’s son Mahinda
Decline:
Composed by the monk Mahanama Reform of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism.
Mahavamsa and based on a lost work, which tells the
(550 AD) same story in greater details giving the
Giving up the use of Pali and taking up the use of
island’s history up to 350 AD
Sanskrit by the Buddhists from the first century AD.
Sanskrit Texts:
Practising idol-worship and receiving offerings and
Period 2-6th century AD huge donations, leading to deterioration in moral
standards.
Nature Translations of Mahayana texts
Nagarjuna 100 AD, Founder of Madhyamika school Attacks by the Hunas (fifth and sixth centuries AD)
100 AD, Author of Buddhacharitra and and Turkish invaders (12 th century AD).
Asvaghosa
Sraddhotpada
Asanga + Art and Architecture:

500 AD, Founders of Yogachara school
Vasubandhu Buddhist architecture developed essentially in three
Pranja- Collection of sutras dealing with forms, viz.
Paramita 'Shunyavada' (i) Stupa (a domical structure in which the relics
of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist
‘The Lotus of the Good Law’, also called
Saddharma- the Lotus Sutra, has been described as monk are preserved; hence some kind of a
puhdarika (250 the Bible of half-Asia. It is of unknown tomb),
AD) authorship and is the most important of (ii) Chaitya (a temple or a shrine with a prayer
all the sutras. hall), and
Main doctrine taught in this sutra is that
(iii) Vihara (a monastery or residence of monks).
of ‘interpenetration’; everything in the
Avatamsaka
world being interpenetrated by Some example are: (i) first human statues to be
everything else worshipped; (ii) stone-pillars depicting the life of the
Buddha at Gaya, Sanchi and Bharhut; (iii) Gandhara
Gandha-Vyuha A part of the Avatamsaka Sutra
art and the beautiful images of the Buddha; (iv) cave
architecture in the Barabar hills at Gaya and in
western India around Nasik; (v) art pieces of
Amaravati and Nagarjuna Konda; and numerous
other works and sites.
37
Policies of various dynasties: Important Mudras in Buddhism:

Policy towards Mudra Name Description
Dynasty/Ruler
Buddhism
Palms joined together at the heart
Maurya Empire (321-185 BCE) Support Anjali Mudra center, representing respect and
greeting.
Gupta Empire (320-550 CE) Support
It is a gesture of meditation and is
Kushan Empire (30-375 CE) Support Dhyana Mudra commonly used in statues of
Buddha.
Huna Kingdom (c. 6th century CE) Oppose
It symbolizes discussion, teaching,
Maukhari Dynasty (c. 6th-7th century Vitarka Mudra
Oppose and transmission of knowledge.
CE)
It represents fearlessness,
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (c. 6th-11th Abhaya Mudra
Mixed protection, and peace.
century CE)
It represents the moment when
Rajputs (c. 7th-12th century CE) Mixed Bhumisparsha
Buddha attained enlightenment and
Mudra
called upon the earth to witness it.
Palas of Bengal (c. 750-1162 CE) Support
It represents charity, compassion,
Varada Mudra
Satavahanas (c. 230 BCE-220 CE) Support and generosity.
Pallavas (c. 275-897 CE) Support It represents dispelling of negativity

and warding off evil spirits. It is
Karana Mudra
Cholas (c. 300 BCE-1279 CE) Mixed often used in Buddhist rituals and
dances.
Kadambas of Banavasi (c. 345-525
Support
CE)
Chalukyas (c. 543-753 CE) Mixed
Rashtrakutas (c. 753-982 CE) Mixed
Pala Empire (c. 750-1162 CE) Support
Kalinga Dynasty (c. 3rd century BCE-

Support
4th century CE)
38
Q.3: Which of the following statements is / are applicable to

Jain doctrine?
1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance

2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul
3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Q4: With reference to the religious history of India, consider

the following statements:
Methodology
1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism
PYQs related to Mahavira and Jainism
PYQ
Solutions/ Explanations of PYQs 2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were
not wholly momentary, but existed forever in a latent form
Listing of all important topics related to
Listing of Topics Jainism relevant to UPSC Prelims/
Mains Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Subdivision-1 Mahavira (a) 1 only

(b) 2 only
Subdivision-II Jainism (c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
PYQs
Q.1: The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and Q.5: With reference to the history of ancient India, Bhavabhuti,
maintained by: Hastimalla and Kshemeshvara were famous ?
(a) Universal Law (a) Jain monks

(b) Universal Truth (b) Playwrights
(c) Universal Faith (c) Temple architects
(d) Universal Soul (d) Philosophers
Solutions:
Q.2: With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the
Sol. 1.
following was / were common to both Buddhism and Jainism?
Jainism recognized the existence of God.
Jainism believes in the universal soul and also in the
1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment
concept of rebirth.
2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas
The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and
3. Denial of efficacy of rituals
maintained by Universal Law.
Jainism does not support belief in a creator deity.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
According to the Jain doctrine, the universe and its
constituents (soul, matter, space, time, and motion) have
(a) 1 only
always existed.
(b) 2 and 3 only
All the constituents and actions are governed by universal
(c) 1 and 3 only
natural laws.
(d) 1, 2 and 3
39
Sol. 2. www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

Buddhism advocated a middle path that is the avoidance of
extremities of penance and enjoyment. Life of Mahavira
On the other hand, Jainism advocated extreme penance and Name Vardhamana
asceticism. Mahavira (Great
Other names Hero/Bravest), Jina
Buddhism and Jainism rejected the notion of grand rituals (Conqueror)
along with the authority of the Vedas and the priestly class.
Birth 540 BC
Buddhism and Jainism believe in the concept of reincarnation, Place Kundagram, Vaishali
which is the rebirth of the soul in a new body after the death of
the previous body. Father Siddhartha
Clan Jnatrika (Kshatriya)
Sol.3:
Mother Trishala
Jain doctrine
The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance. Brother of Mother Chetaka (Ruler of Vaisali)
Kingdom of Mother Lichhavi
Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.
Daughter of Chetaka was
Relation between
Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended. Chellanna who married
Mahavira and
Bimbisara of Magadha
Bimbisara
(Haranyka Dynasty)
Sol.4: Wife of Mahavira Yasoda
Sautrantikas and Sammtiyas are the sects of Buddhism.
Daughter Anojja
The word “Sautrantika” means a follower of the sutras. Ascetic turning age 30 (After Parent's death)
Member of Parshavanatha's
Sautrantika is generally considered to be another school of Initial 2 years
Buddhism that developed within the Sarvastivada sect. order
Roamed with Gosala
Sarvastivadin: While, like all Buddhists, the Sarvastivadins Next 6 years Maskariputra (Founder of
consider everything empirical to be impermanent, they Ajivika sect)
maintain that the dharma factors are eternally existing
Kevalya At age 42
realities. This sect of Buddhism believes that all things exist,
and exist continuously, in the past and the future as well as in Tree Sal Tree
the present.
Place Jimbhikagrama in east India
Preaching For 30 years
Sol. 5: Nirgranthas (Free from
Bhavabhuti was a famous Sanskrit playwright who wrote famous Sect Fetters), who later came to be
plays like Mahaviracharita, Malatimadhava etc. known as ‘Jinas’
He is believed to be the court poet of King Yashovarman of Death 72 years

Kannauj. Period 468 BC
Hastimalla wrote 8 plays including VikrantKaurava and Location Pavapuri, Rajagriha

Subhadra Harana.
Origin of Jainism
He was a noted Kannada poet and playwright in the Hoysala In the Rig Vedic hymns there are clear references to
Empire. Rishabha and Arishtanemi, two of the Jaina tirthankaras.
Kshemeshvara is also playwright in the ancient period. The story of Rishabha also occurs in the Vishnu Purana
andBhagavat Purana where he figures as an avatara
(incarnation of Narayan).
The twenty-third tirthankara, named Parsvanatha, who

lived 250 years before Vardhamana Mahavira, was the
son of king Asvasena of Banaras.
40
Important symbols: www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

Rishabha Bull
Schisms in Jainism:
Ajita Elephant
Period 300 BC
Sambhava Horse
Famine in Ganga valley
Abhinandana Ape
Exodus of Jaina Monks to Deccan
Sumati Heron Reasons
Chandragupta Maurya and
Padmaprabha Red Lotus Bhadrabahu reached Shravan belgola
Arishtanemi Conch (Cousin of Krishna) Division of Group A = That left for deccan
groups Group B = That stayed back
Parsavanath Hooded Serpant
Lead by Bhadrabahu & called
Mahavira Lion Group A
'Digambars' (Sky clad/ Naked)
Terapanthis Broke away from Digambars
RIGHT
KNOWLEDGE Lead by Sthulabahu & called
Group B
'Shwetambars' (White clad)
Samaiyas Broke away from Shwetambars
Councils:
3 Gems 290 BC Under Sthulabahu
12 Angas were composed by
Pataliputra
Shwetambars
RIGHT FAITH Council
14 Purvas continued to be sacred texts
RIGHT CONDUCT of Digmabars under Bhadrabahu
500 AD Under Devardhi Kshama-
Sramana
5 Principles of Jainism: Vallabhi
Composition of 12 Upangas, 10
Council
Ahinsa Non-Violence Prakirnas, 6 Chedasutras & 4
Mulasutras for Svetambaras only
Satya Truth
Asteya
Non stealing and not to receive anything Jain order:
which was not voluntarily given
Founded by Mahavira
Aparigraha Non-possession
Gandharas 11 Close disciples and first followers
Brahmacharya Celibacy (Added by Mahavira)
Arya- Successor of Mahavira
Mahavratas Those who completely follow these Sudharman Became first 'Thera'
Anuvratas Those who non-strictly follow Jambu Successor of Sudharman
Main teachings of Jainism: 14 Purvas Holy text books of Jainism

Said to have died in the same year
Main
Syadvada (Matter - soul dualism) Sambhutavijaya in which Chandragupta Maurya
philosohpy
ascended the throne
Way to
Getting rid of all karmas/ Karmic action Guided Chandragupta
liberation
Bhadrabahu Wrote Jaina Kalpasutra
Matter Perishable 6th Thera after Mahavira
Eternal and evolutionary and present in Three sections
Soul Jaina
everyone Jainacharitra, Theravali,
Kalpasutra
Karma Accumulated effect of actions in life Samachari
Rebirth cycle Because of soul's attachment with Karma

Jiva Liberated stage of soul
Parmatma Final liberation of soul
41
Jain Philosophy: www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
Close to Sankhya Philosophy

Spread of Jainism:
Known as Syadvada (Theory of Maybe)
Language used Common dialect (Not Sanskrit)
7 modes of predictions which are
Sapta-bhangi
possible as per Jain Syadvad Udayin Successor of Ajatsatru was Jain
Naivad/ Nandas Jain followers

Doctrine of View points
Nayavad
Ujjain Jainism centre in 100 BC
Core philosophy of Jainism (Doctrine of
Anekantavada Kalakacharya
Many realities)
Gardabhilla Jain saints of Ujjain
Conscious Vikram
Has soul, knowledge, actions and
Jiva Inscription records that the
feelings
summit of the Chandragiri
Goes through Karma and rebirth
900 AD (Mysore) is marked by the
Ajiva Unconscious footprints of Bhadrabahu and
Pudgala Matter Chandragupta Munipati
Some important points: Royal Patronage:

Jainism More Austere even for lay followers Chandragupta
Greatest patron of Jainism
Maurya
Buddhism More inclines towards middle path
King Kharvela of
Basadi Jain Monastery Set up Jain images himself
Orrisa (200 BC)
Posadha Fast keeping days for Jains
Kushan Period Jainism flourished in Mathura
Par-yusana Jain Lent (Place)
Harsha's period Dominated in eastern India
Jainism does not believe in God/
Concept of God Spread in Mathura and
Creator 100 AD
Sravanbelgola
Salvation and
Based on Man's own Karma Supported by Gangas,
Suffering
500 AD Kadambas, Chalukyas,
Pathway to Rashtrakutas
Penance and renunciation
salvation
Jinasena and Composed Mahapurana during
Gunabhadra reign 'Amoghvarsha'
Jain Cosmic cycles:
Ratnamalika Jain work by Amoghvarsha
Transmigration
Eternal process Successor of Amoghvarsha who
of Soul Indra IV
died by committing Sallekhana
Universe Infinite phases of growth and decline
Popular in Gujarat by Chalukyan
No sharp break (unlike 1100 AD king Siddharaja (Jai-simbha) +
End of cycle
Buddhism/Jainism) Anhilwara
Uta-sarpini Ascending half of universe Jain scholar in court of
Hemachandra
Ava-sarpini Descending half phase of universe Kumarapala chalukya
Sllsama-Susama Trisastisalaka
Work of Hemachandra
Susama Purushacharita
6 phases of Susama-Duhsama
Avasarpini Duhsama-susama
Duhsama (Current phase)
Duhsama-Duhsama
42
Jain Literature: www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
Mahavira preached in Ardha-Magadhi form of Prakrit Forms one of the most important
Srutangas 12 Books of Mahavira's teachings Uttaranjjhayana portions of the canon, and
(Uttaradhyayanasutra) contains parables, maxims,
Written in Ardha Magadhi
ballads and dialogues
12 Angas
12 Up-Angas Nandisutta Encyclopaedic texts, containing
Swetambar texts 10 Prakirnas (Nandisutra) and accounts of the different
6 Chheda-sutras Anuyogadara branches of knowledge pursued
4 Mula-sutras (Anuyogadvara) by the Jaina monks
2 Miscellaneous texts Nijjuttis (Niryuktis)
Commentaries Bhashyas & Churnis (Prakrit)
12 Angas:
Tikas and Vrittis (Sanskrit)
Deals with the rules of conduct
Ayaramga-sutta Haribhadra
which a Jaina monk was to
(Acharangasutra) Sanstisuri
follow Jain authors
Devendragani
Suyagadamga Devoted to a refutation of the Abhayadeva
(Sutrakritanga) heretic doctrines
Thanamga
Important works:
Present the Jaina doctrines in an
(Sthananga) and A legendary account of the
ascending numerical series. Kalakacharya-
Samavayamga conquest of Ujjayini by the
kathanaka i
Sakas.
Contains a comprehensive
Bhagavati
exposition of the Jaina doctrine Contains the Jaina version of
Kathakosa the Nala-Damayanti episode of
Nayadhammakahao Teaches the main principles of
the Mahabharata
(Jnatadhar- the Jaina doctrine by means of
makathah) parables, legends and stories A lives of 63 best men of
Trisastisalaka
Hemachandra, which ranks as a
Narrates the story of ten rich Purushacharita
Uvasagadasao Mahakavya among the Jainas
merchants who were converted
(Upasakadasah)
to laina faith. Parisistaparvan or biography of the earliest
Sthaviravalicharita teachers of Jainism
Contain stories of Jaina ascetics
Amtagadadasao
who saved their souls by By Prabhachandra and
(Antakriddash) and
following a course of rigorous Pradyumnasuri (1250 AD) gives
Anuttarovavaiyadasao Prabhavakacharitra
self-torture, leading to death. the story of 22 Jaina teachers
including Hemachandra himself
A dogmatic treatise dealing with
Panhavagaranaim
the ten precepts, ten
(Prasnavyakar-anani)
prohibitions, etc Jain Architecture:
The gigantic statues of Bahubali, called Gomatesvara, at
Contains legends illustrating the
Sravana Belgola and Karkal in Mysore are among the
Vivagasuyam consequences, after death, of
wonders of the world.
(Vipakasrutam) good and bad deeds of a man
done in this life
The former statue, 56.5 feet high, carved out of a mass of
Ditthivaya granite, standing at the top of a hill was erected in 982 AD
Miscellaneous
(Drishtivada) by Chamundaraya, the minister of a Ganga ruler,
Rachamalla.
Others:
Contains a dialogue between the The colossal reliefs carved out of rock near Gwalior in
Rayaprasenaijja
Jaina monk Kesi and a king, Paesi Madhya Bharat belong to the 15 th century.
Upanga
(probably Prasenajit of Kosala)
The Jaina caves with their relief works and statues at
Nirayavalisuttam Contains an interesting account of
Upanga Ajatasatru
Udaigiri hills near Bhilsa in Madhya Bharat and Ellora in
Maharashtra are the examples of excellent architecture
Deal with various doctrinal matters and sculpture of the period.
Prakirnans
and are written in verse
Kalpasutra 4th Chhedasutra (By Bhadrabahu)
43
The Jainas have also constructed cave temples cut in rocks, www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
the earliest examples of which, belonging to the 2nd century
BC, exist in Orissa.
They are called Hathigumpha caves. Other examples of

different periods are still existing at Junagarh, Junnar,
Osmanabad and other places.
Many Jaina places of pilgrimage, such as the Parsvanatha Hills.

Pavapuri and Rajgir in Bihar, and Girnar and Palitana in
Kathiawar have temples and other architectural monuments
of different ages.
The Jaina tower at Chittor in Rajasthan is one of the best

specimens of Jaina architecture. The Jaina temples at Mount
Abu, in Rajasthan, belonging to the 11 th century, are a
witness of the Indian genius for the invention of graceful
patterns and their application to the decoration of masonry.
Jainism vs Buddhism:
Similarities Differences
Buddhist follow middle path,
Non Theistic (No God)
Jains follow extreme path
Buddhism relied on sangha
Both against
Jainism focused on lay
Brahamanism
followers
Buddhism spread in whole
Both against caste
world, Jainism remained
system
confined to India
Buddhism avoided
Both accepted Karma
metaphysical discussions but
theory
Jainism did not
Both founders
belonged to Kshatriya
varna
Both renounced worldly
life and sought
salvation
44
t.me/DelhiUpscSecrets DelhiUpscSecrets
www.delhiupscsecrets.com
Delhi UPSC Secrets
Introduction Origin
The Mauryan Empire, was an Iron Age historical power The Maurya Empire was established in the Magadha
based in Magadha, having been founded by Chandragupta region under the leadership of Chandragupta
Maurya in 322 BCE, and existing in loose-knit fashion until Maurya and his mentor Chanakya.
185 BCE.
The Mauryan army then conquered the satraps
The Maurya Empire was centralized by the conquest of the established by the Macedonians and subsequently
Indo-Gangetic Plain, and its capital city was located at brought the Indus Valley under the control of his
Pataliputra (modern Patna). new seat of power in Magadha.
During Ashoka's rule (ca. 268–232 BCE) the empire briefly Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as
controlled the major urban hubs and arteries of the Indian "Sandrokottos".
subcontinent excepting the deep south.
It declined for about 50 years after Ashoka's rule, and The Buddhist Mahavamsa Tika and Jain
dissolved in 185 BCE with the assassination of Brihadratha Parishishtaparvan records Chandragupta's army
by Pushyamitra Shunga and foundation of the Shunga unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital. Later on
Empire in Magadha. Nanda king was defeated, deposed and exiled by
some accounts, while Buddhist accounts claim he
Etymology was killed.
Note: The name "Maurya" does not occur in Ashoka's

inscriptions, or the contemporary Greek accounts such as
Megasthenes's Indica. Chronology
Name Source Period Given to King Period

The Junagadh
Chandragupta Chandragupta 322–297 BCE
rock inscription of c. 150 CE
and Ashoka
Rudradaman
Bindusara 297–272/268 BCE
Maurya
Use Maurya as a Ashoka 272/268–232 BCE
c. 4th century CE or
The Puranas dynastic
earlier
appellation Dasharatha 232–224 BCE
Chandragupta Samprati 224–215 BCE

The Buddhist belonged to the
Moriya
texts "Moriya" clan of Shalishuka 215–202 BCE
the Shakyas
Earlier Texts 3rd CE Devavarman 202–195 BCE
Chandragupta
was the son of a
(Mayura- Shatadhanvan 195–187 BCE
The Jain texts royal
poshaka)
superintendent
of peacocks Brihadratha 187–180 BCE
Tamil Sangam 200 BCE to 200 CE (early Mention them

Moriyars Chandraguputa
literature Chola period) after the Nandas
Kuntala Chronologically Chandragupta Maurya (350 - 295 BCE) founded the

inscription from mention as one Maurya dynasty. He reigned from 324 BCE to 293
Mauryya the town of 12th century AD of the dynasties BCE.
Bandanikke, which ruled the
North Mysore region Chandragupta defeated and conquered both the
Nanda Empire, and the Greek satraps in the
Kharavela'
Period of Seleucid–Mauryan war which settled on a marriage
Maurya Kala Hathigumpha 2nd-1st century BC
Mauryan Empire treaty between Chandragupta and Seleucus I
inscription
Nicator's daughter (called Berenice or Suvarnaksi in
the Mahavamsa).
The dynasty's connection to the peacocks,
as mentioned in the Buddhist and Jain According to the Jain accounts dated to 800 years
traditions, seems to be corroborated by after his death, Chandragupta abdicated his throne
archaeological evidence. and became a Jain monk, traveled away from his
empire to South India and committed sallekhana or
Peacock figures are found on the Ashoka fasting to death.
pillar at Nandangarh and several
sculptures on the Great Stupa of Sanchi. Many religions thrived within his realms and his
descendants' empire. Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika
Based on this evidence, modern scholars gained prominence alongside Vedic and
theorize that the peacock may have been Brahmanistic traditions, and minority religions such
the dynasty's emblem. as Zoroastrianism and the Greek pantheon were
respected.
45
Sources Names and Titles
Source Findings Source Observations
Ancient and historical Greek, Greek writer

Sandrokoptos
Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain texts Phylarchus (300 BC)
Greek and Roman sources

Strabo, Arrian, and
Sandrocottus
Justin (200 BC)
Puranas and Arthashastra
Life and accomplishments Greek and Latin
Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara Sandrakottos and Androcottus
accounts
Kshemendra's Brihatkathamanjari Chanda Siri, Piadamsana" (Priya-
Mudrarakshasa
darshana), and Vrishala
Sri Lankan Pali texts Dipavamsa,
Mahavamsa, Mahavamsa tika
and Mahabodhivamsa
Uses the terms Vrishala and

Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa Kula-Hina to describe
Chandragupta
10th century Brhatkathakosa of Earliest mention of

Harisena (Jain monk) Chandragupta's ritual death
12th-century Parisishtaparvan by
Jain legend about Chandragupta
Hemachandra
States that Alexander the Great

Megasthenes' Indica
and Chandragupta met
Mention Chandragupta of
Mahavamsa
Shakya Clan
7th-century Bhadrabahu Mentions Bhadrabahu and

inscription at Shravanabelagola Prabhacandra (Chandragupta)
Chandragupta had
defeated the remaining
Macedonian satrapies in
the northwest of the
Indian subcontinent by
317 BCE.
7th-century Bhadrabahu inscription at Shravanabelagola.

Empire
Building the Mauryan Empire Source Observations Later Findings
Text Observations Common Observations North-West reach of

his empire included
Chandragupta and
Greek and parts of present-day Ashoka left the major
Buddhist text Chanakya raised an
Roman Afghanistan that Kandahar rock edict
Mahavamsa army after the former
Historians & Seleucus I Nicator and other edicts in the
Tika completed his education
Religious ceded to him Greek and Aramaic
at Taxila Chandragupta's army
Indian texts including Kabul, languages
finally besieging the Nanda
Kandahar, Taxila and
capital Pataliputra
Digambara Gandhara
An army was raised by
Jain text
Chanakya in alliance Chandragupta
Parishishtapa Ashoka's Western reach till
formed with Parvataka. controlled the Malwa
rvan Junagarh present day Gujarat &
region in Central India,
Inscription +
located between
Rudradaman Eastern reach till
Gujarat and
inscription Bengal
Appian Pataliputra.
At the time of Ashoka's

Seleucus married off his daughter, Berenice, to
ascension in c. 268
Chandragupta to forge an alliance.
Pratisarga Southern reach till BCE, the empire
Jain Texts
Parva of the Karnataka extended up to
Bhavishya present-day Karnataka
Purana in the south
46
Rule Structure
Structure Details Notes Source Observations
Council of Ministers Completed many irrigation reservoirs

Political Chankya was Chief Minister Ancient epigraphical
called Amatya and networks across the Indian
evidence
subcontinent
Empire was divided
into Janapadas, State operations funded with Rudradaman repaired and enlarged
Governance
Power centres were treasury (Kosha) the reservoir and irrigation conduit
protected by forts infrastructure built by Chandragupta
and enhanced by Asoka
Junagadh rock
Justice Councillors Provide justice as per state law
inscription of Chandragupta's empire also built
Rudradaman in mines, manufacturing centres, and
Revenue Assessors To collect taxes
Gujarat networks for trading goods
Inspectors Law and order Crime rate was low
His rule developed land routes to
Procession of Elephants and transport goods across the Indian
Rituals Brahamanical
Horses subcontinent.
First managed the affairs of Mentions completion of a thousand-

villages, ensuring irrigation, mile-long highway connecting
recording land ownership, Chandragupta's capital Pataliputra in
monitoring tools supply, Bihar to Taxila
enforcing hunting, wood Megasthenes Spread of roads from Pataliputra in
products and forest-related
various directions, connecting it with
laws, and settling disputes.
Nepal, Kapilavastu, Dehradun,
Second administrative Mirzapur, Odisha, Andhra, and
structure managed city affairs, Karnataka.
including all matters related to
Administration
Divided in 3 parallel
trade, merchant activity, visit War Policy
systems Chandragupta and Chanakya seeded weapon
of foreigners, harbors, roads,
temples, markets, and manufacturing centres, and kept them as a state
industries. They also collected
monopoly of the state. The state, however,
encouraged competing private parties to operate
taxes and ensured mines and supply these centres.
standardized weights and
measures. They considered economic prosperity essential to the
pursuit of dharma (virtuous life) and adopted a policy
The third administrative body of avoiding war with diplomacy yet continuously
overlooked the military, its preparing the army for war to defend its interests
training, its weapons supply, and other ideas in the Arthashastra.
and the needs of the soldiers.
Art and Architecture
Guptachars,
Vishkanyas etc hired Archeological discoveries in the modern age, such as
Security to prevent Maintained by Chanakya.
those Didarganj Yakshi discovered in 1917 buried
beneath the banks of the Ganges suggest exceptional
assassination artisanal accomplishment.
attempts
The site was dated to third century BCE by many
Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika
Many religions scholars. The competing theories state that the art
Religions gained prominence along with linked to Chandragupta Maurya's dynasty was learnt
thrived in India
other folk traditions. from the Greeks and West Asia in the years
Alexander the Great waged war; or that these
artifacts belong to an older indigenous Indian
Infrastructure tradition.
The empire built a strong economy from a solid infrastructure Death and Succession
such as irrigation, temples, mines, and roads. According to Digambara Jain accounts,
Chandragupta Maurya joined Bhadrabahu as a monk
after abdicating his kingdom to his son Bindusara.
and moved to Shravanabelagola, in present-day
south Karnataka.
These Jain accounts appeared in texts such as
Brihakathā kośa (931 CE) of Harishena, Bhadrabāhu
charita (1450 CE) of Ratnanandi, Munivaṃsa
bhyudaya (1680 CE) and Rajavali kathe. He later
fasted to death as per the Jain practice of sallekhana,
Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with Hill on which Chandragupta is stated to have
symbols of wheel and elephant (3rd century BCE) performed asceticism is now known as Chandragiri
hill.
47
Bindusara Mapping
Source Observations
Buddhist texts such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa

Mention
Jain texts such as Parishishta-Parvan about
Bindusara
Hindu texts such as Vishnu Purana ("Vindusara")
Hemachandra's Parishishta- Name of Bindusara's mother =

Parvan (12th Century) Durdhara
Greek Sources Name of Bindusar = Amitrochates
Bindusara ascended the throne around 297 BCE.

Bindusara, just 22 years old, inherited a large empire of
what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India
along with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
Bindusara extended this empire till Karnataka. He brought
sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus
conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to
have conquered the 'land between the two seas' – the
peninsular region between the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea).
Bindusara did not conquer the friendly Tamil kingdoms of
the Cholas, ruled by King Ilamcetcenni, the Pandyas, and
Cheras. Apart from these southern states, Kalinga
(modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that did
not form part of Bindusara's empire.
Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his
reign. According to the medieval Tibetan scholar
Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara
"to destroy the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms
and thus to become absolute master of the territory
between the eastern and western oceans".
During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted twice. The
reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of
Susima, his eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is
unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his
lifetime. It was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's
death.
Bindusara maintained friendly diplomatic relations with
the Hellenic world. Deimachus was the ambassador of
Seleucid emperor Antiochus I at Bindusara's court.
Diodorus states that the king of Palibothra (Pataliputra,
the Mauryan capital) welcomed a Greek author,
Iambulus. This king is usually identified as Bindusara.
Pliny states that the Egyptian king Philadelphus sent an
envoy named Dionysius to India.
Bindusara believed in the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's guru
Pingalavatsa (Janasana) was a Brahmin of the Ajivika sect.
Bindusara's wife, Queen Subhadrangi (Queen Dharma/
Aggamahesi) was a Brahmin also of the Ajivika sect from
Champa (present Bhagalpur district). Bindusara is
credited with giving several grants to Brahmin
monasteries (Brahmana-bhatto).
Historical evidence suggests that Bindusara died in the
270s BCE. And that his death was followed by a four-year
struggle of succession, after which his son Ashoka became
the emperor in 269–268 BCE.
According to the Mahavamsa, Bindusara reigned for 28
years. The Vayu Purana, which names Chandragupta's
successor as "Bhadrasara", states that he ruled for 25
years.
48
The Asoka
Edicts in the name of Piyadasi
Reign c. 268 – c. 232 BCE
Parents Bindusara + Subhadrangi or Dharma
Religion Buddhism
Coronation 268 BCE
Successor Dasharatha
Born c. 304 BC, Pataliputra, Mauryan Empire
Died 232 BCE (aged c. 71 – 72) Pataliputra
Devi/ Karuvaki (own inscriptions) Edicts in the name of Ashoka or just

Spouses
Padmavati / Asandhimitra /Tishyaraksha "Devanampiya" ("King")
Mahendra/ Sanghamitra/ Tivala (own

Sons/ Daughters
inscriptions) /Kunala/ Charumati
Sources
Source Observations
Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman (Gujarat)
Inscription discovered at Sirkap (Taxila, Pak.)
Sohgaura copper plate inscription (U.P)

Major Life Events
Mention
Buddhist legends Event Source Significance
Ashoka
Sanskrit-language texts such as Divyavadana (North Rebellion in
Indian Texts) Ashokavadana Successfully supressed
Takshashila
Pali-lanuage texts, such as Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Mahavamsa
Appointed
Vamsatthapakasini (Sri lankan Texts) Important
Governor of Saru Maru Administrative post
Ujjain inscription
12th-century text Rajatarangini
Coronation in Mahavasma/ Beginning of Major

Names and Titles 268 BC Dipavamsa Mauryan period
Name Meaning Source

Edict 13 of the
Kalinga War in
Remover of Ashokavadana legend Edicts of Ashoka Great remorse
A-soka 260 BC
Sorrows (Given by Mother) Rock Inscriptions
3rd–4th century CE Influenced by

Priyadasi Conversion to
Dipavamsa Dipavamsa, Nigroadha, Converted
He who regards Buddhism in 258
Divyavadana under Moggaliputta
βασιλεὺς Πιοδασσης amiably Greek-language BC
Tissa
("Basileus Piodassēs") inscriptions
Construction of
Ashoka's inscriptions 84,000 Stupas/
Beloved of the Viharas Mahavamsa
Devanampiya Spreading Buddhism
Gods Maski and Gujarra Ashokavadana
Collection of
inscriptions
Relics of Buddha
Various phases of Tarantha ((1575–
Kama-Asoka
Asoka's life 1634) Lama of the Propagation of
Chanda-Asoka Ashoka's rock edicts Social welfare
according to Jonang school of Dhamma
Dhamma-Asoka
Buddhist writers Tibetan Buddhism)
3rd Buddhist
Kathavatthu by
council in 250 Spreading Buddhism
Tissa
BC
49
Buddhist Missions Foreign relations
Place Missionaries Source Observations Findings
Sri lanka Mahinda & Sanghamitta "oral orders" + Spread his

VIth Rock Edict
Written messages Dhammavijaya +
Kashmir + Gandhara Majjhantika
Content of Cultural contact through
Mahisa Mandala (Mysore) Mahadeva the adoption of the
XIIIth Rock Edict Ashoka's
Aparantaka (Western India) Dhammarakkhita the Greek messages Kharosthi script
Maharashtra Maha-dhamma-rakkhita Dharmaraksita as

Mahavamsa leading Greek (Yona)
Greek Countries Maharakkhita
Buddhist monks
Himalayas Majjhima Cultural exchange
Girnar A Yavana Governor was
(Suvaṇṇabhūmi) Burma + Thailand Soṇa and Uttara inscription of in charge in the area of
Rudradaman Girnar, Gujarat
Death Dionysius is reported to have been such a Greek
ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by Ptolemy II
According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka died during Philadelphus, who himself is mentioned in the Edicts
his 37th regnal year, which suggests that he died around of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of
232 BCE. Ashoka.
Empire's Extent
Architecture
Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone
architecture in India, possibly following the
introduction of stone-building techniques by the
Greeks after Alexander the Great.
Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in
non-permanent material, such as wood, bamboo or
thatch. Ashoka also innovated by using the permanent
qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his
pillars with Buddhist symbolism.
Edicts
Pillars
Asoka's Coins
legacy Inscriptions
Symbols
Religion and Dhamma

Ashoka's edicts, such as the Rock Edicts 6, 7, and 12,
emphasise tolerance of all sects.
Similarly, in his Rock Edict 12, Ashoka honours people of
all faiths.
Ashoka appointed the dhamma-mahamatta officers,
whose duties included the welfare of various religious
sects, including the Buddhist sangha, Brahmins, Ajivikas,
and Nirgranthas.
The inscriptions suggest that for Ashoka, Dharma meant
"a moral polity of active social concern, religious
The Diamond throne at the Mahabodhi Temple, attributed to
tolerance, ecological awareness, the observance of Ashoka
common ethical precepts, and the renunciation of war."
Ashoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is
not good, and no animal should be slaughtered for
sacrifice. However, he did not prohibit common cattle
slaughter.
Ashoka's title "Devanaṃpiyena Piyadasi" (𑀤𑁂𑀯𑀸𑀦𑀁𑀧𑀺𑀬𑁂𑀦
𑀧𑀺𑀬𑀤𑀲𑀺) in the Lumbini Minor Pillar Edict.
50
Edicts of Asoka Minor Pillar Edicts
The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of more than thirty There are about 20 of them. The Minor Pillar Edicts
inscriptions on the pillars, as well as boulders and cave are often associated with some of the artistically most
walls, attributed to Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire sophisticated pillar capitals of Ashoka, such as the
who reigned from 268 BCE to 232 BCE. renowned Lion Capital of Ashoka which crowned the
Sarnath Minor Pillar Edict, or the very similar, but less
Ashoka used the expression Dhaṃma Lipi to describe his well preserved Sanchi lion capital which crowned the
own Edicts. These inscriptions were dispersed throughout very clumsily inscribed Schism Edict of Sanchi.
the areas of modern-day Bangladesh, India, Nepal,
Afghanistan and Pakistan, and provide the first tangible Sarnath capital was made under the tutelage of
evidence of Buddhism. craftsmen from the former Achaemenid Empire,
trained in Perso-Hellenistic statuary and employed by
The edicts describe in detail Ashoka's view on dhamma. Ashoka.
According to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism
during this period reached as far as the Mediterranean, and Major Rock Edicts
many Buddhist monuments were created.
The Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka refer to 14 separate
Although Buddhism as well as Gautama Buddha are major Edicts, which are significantly detailed and
mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral precepts extensive.
rather than specific religious practices or the philosophical
dimension of Buddhism. These were located in public These Edicts were concerned with practical
places and were meant for people to read. instructions in running the kingdom such as the design
of irrigation systems and descriptions of Ashoka's
In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as "Beloved beliefs in peaceful moral behavior.
of the Gods" (Devanampiya).
Three languages were used, Prakrit, Greek and
The inscriptions found in the central and eastern part of Aramaic. The edicts are composed in non-
India were written in Magadhi Prakrit using the Brahmi standardized and archaic forms of Prakrit. Prakrit
script, while Prakrit using the Kharoshthi script, Greek and inscriptions were written in Brahmi and Kharosthi
Aramaic were used in the northwest. These edicts were scripts, which even a commoner could read and
deciphered by British archaeologist and historian James understand.
Prinsep.
The Major Edicts are not located in the heartland of
Mauryan territory, traditionally centered on Bihar, but
Classification Observations Content
on the frontiers of the territory controlled by Ashoka.
Edicts inscribed at the
Minor Rock Map of the Major Rock Edicts
beginning of Ashoka's reign;
Edicts
in Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic Extensively the Buddha,
the Sangha, Buddhism
Schism Edict, Queen's Edict, and Buddhist
Minor Pillar
Rummindei Edict, Nigali
Edicts
Sagar Edict; in Prakrit
14 Edicts (termed 1st to 14th) Moral and political in

Major Rock
and 2 separate ones found in nature, Concept of
Edicts
Odisha; in Prakrit and Greek "Dharma",
Administration of the
Major Pillar 7 Edicts, inscribed at the end state, Relations with
Edicts of Ashoka's reign; in Prakrit foreign countries
Map of the Minor Rock Edicts

Chronologically, the first
known edict, sometimes
classified as a Minor Edict Information
Rock Edict, is the
Kandahar Bilingual 1 Prohibits animal slaughter
Rock Inscription, in
Greek and in Aramaic, Describes Chola, Pandyas, Satyapura and Cheras + the
written in the 10th year 2
of his reign (260 BCE) at Greek king Antiochus II
the border of his empire
with the Hellenistic 4 Dhamma
world, in the city of Old
Kandahar in modern 5 Policy on Slaves
Afghanistan.
7 Tolerance for all religions
8 First yatra to Bodhgaya

The Maski version of Minor Rock Edict No.1 confirmed the Ashoka's victory over Kalinga +
association of the title "Devanampriya" with the name "Asoka". 12 mentions the victory of Dhamma in south India among
In the Gujarra version of Minor Rock Edict No.1 also, the name of the Cholas and Pandyas, as far as Ceylon.
Ashoka is used together with his full title: Devanampiya Piyadasi
Asokaraja.
51
Languages on Edicts
Language Script
Indian Non standardized Prakrit
Brahmi
Prakrit
Kharosthi
Greek Greek/ Aramaic
Locations
S. No Location S. No Location
1 Kandhar, Afghanistan 8 Shahbazgarhi, Pakistan
Yeraguddi, Andhra 9 Mansehra, Pakistan

2
Pradesh
10 Sannati, Karnataka
3 Girnar, Gujarat
There are altogether 14
4 Dhauli, Odisha Major Rocks Edicts in 10
known locations.
5 Jaugada, Odisha
6 Khalsi, Uttarakhand
12 Edicts are similar with
slight variations in content
7 Sopara, Maharashtra and 2 are different (Dhauli
+ Jaugada)
Major Pillar Edicts Learnings from Edicts
Ashoka used the expression Dhaṃma thaṃbhā (Dharma Edict number Observation
stambh.
Right Behaviour and Dhamma +
Only a few with animal capitals survive of which seven Major Pillar Edict
Tolerance for all religions + Roadside
complete specimens are known. No. 7 & 2
facilities
The pillars of Ashoka are among the earliest known stone Major Pillar Edict
sculptural remains from India. No. 4, 5 Benevolence for Prisoners + Animals +
All the pillars of Ashoka were built at Buddhist Major Rock Edict Officers of the faith
monasteries, many important sites from the life of the No.1
Buddha and places of pilgrimage.
Minor Rock Edict
Major pillars are present in the Indian States of Bihar, Buddhism
No.3
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and some parts of
Haryana. Major Pillar Edict
Belief in a next world
No. 1
S. No Location
Major Rock Edict
Medicinal treatments
1 No. 2
2 Bethia, Bihar Mentions Lumbini as the birthplace of the
Rummindei Edict in
Buddha + Uses the epithet "Sakyamuni"
3 Lumbini, Nepal
for Budhha
4 Allahbad, UP
5
Delhi
6
7 Aghanistan
The Major Pillar Edicts of Ashoka were exclusively

inscribed or fragments thereof, at Kausambi (now
Allahabad pillar), Topra Kalan, Meerut, Lauriya-Araraj,
Lauria Nandangarh, Rampurva (Champaran), and
fragments of these in Aramaic (Kandahar, Edict No.7 and
Pul-i-Darunteh, Edict No.5 or No.7 in Afghanistan)
However several pillars, such as the bull pillar of
Rampurva (Minor), or the pillar of Vaishali (Minor) do not Territories "conquered by the Dharma" according to Major
have inscriptions. Rock Edict No.13 of Ashoka (260–232 BCE)
Edicts were translated mostly by James Princep.

52
Symbols and Coins Economy and Justice
Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a Adhyakshas (superintendents) were appointed to
characteristic polished finish, Mauryan polish, giving a regulate the economic activities of the state.
shiny appearance to the stone surface. Slaves were employed in the agricultural activities. It is
Lion Capital of Ashoka, the capital of one of the pillars said that nearly 1,50,000 war captives were brought
erected by Ashoka features a carving of a spoked wheel, from Kalinga and were engaged in agriculture.
known as the Ashoka Chakra. Shudras served as slaves for all the three higher
This wheel represents the wheel of Dhamma set in motion varnas. New lands were brought under cultivation.
by the Gautama Buddha, and appears on the flag of Shudras and cultivators were involved in it.
modern India. This capital also features sculptures of lions, Irrigation and regulated water supply facilities were
which appear on the seal of India. provided by the state.
The caduceus appears as a
symbol of the punch-marked Under the Mauryan Administration, taxes were
coins of the Maurya Empire in collected from the farmers at the rate of one sixth of
India, in the 3rd–2nd century the production.
BCE.
The monopoly in arms manufacturing, mining were
Numismatic research suggests enjoyed by the state. The officer incharge of
that this symbol was the symbol assessment was Samaharta.
of king Ashoka, his personal
"Mudra". This symbol was not In times of emergency, peasants were supposed to
used on the pre-Mauryan punch- grow more crops.
marked coins, but only on coins
of the Maurya period, together Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency
with the three arched-hill across India, and a network of regional governors and
symbol, the "peacock on the hill", administrators and a civil service provided justice and
the triskelis and the Taxila mark. security for merchants, farmers and traders.
According to Arthashastra, the striking development
of the Mauryan empire was the employment of slaves
Organisation of the Mauryan Empire in agricultural operations.
Administration The Sannidhata was the chief custodian of the state
The Mauryan administration was a highly centralised treasury and storehouse.
administration. Though it was a monarchy form of
government which Kautilya insisted on, he stood against Greater importance was attached to the assessment
royal absolutism. He advocated on idea that, king should than to store and deposit. Taxes were also collected in
run the administration with assistance from council of kind.
ministers.
Punched marked silver coins, which carry the symbols
four provincial capitals were Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in of the peacock, and hill crescent formed the imperial
the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the currency of the Mauryans.
north).
Dharmathikarin was the chief justice at the capital
A council of ministers called Mantriparishad were thus Pataliputra.
appointed for assisting the king. The council consisted of
Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapthi and Yuvaraja. Amatyas were responsible for delivering punishment
to the people.
The important functionaries were known as the Tirthas.
Military
Amatyas were the civil servants who were appointed to Mauryans' military was three times the strength of
maintain day-to-day administration. Nandas.
Rajukas were a class of officers appointed by Ashoka, who According to Megasthenes, a board consisting of 30
were responsible for rewarding and punishing the people. officers who were divided into 6 committees were
responsible for the administration of the armed force.
In order to supervise the spread of dhamma, Dhamma
Mahamatras were appointed. The six wings of the armed forces are:
The Capital city of the Mauryan empire, Pataliputra was 1. The Army
administered by six committees each consisting of five 2. The Navy
members. 3. The chariots
4. The cavalry
Two dozen departments of the state were maintained to 5. The elephants
control the social and economic activities near the capital 6. The transport
city.
The districts were maintained by Rajukas who were
assisted by Yuktas.
Grahmini was responsible for village administration and
Gopa had control over ten to fifteen villages. Nagarika was
the city superintendent. He maintained the law and order.
53
Architecture Decline of the Mauryan Empire
This period marked the beginning of the Buddhist school of Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of
architecture. weaker kings. He was succeeded by Dasharatha
Maurya, who was Ashoka’s grandson.
Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several
stupas, which were large domes and bearing symbols of The empire lost many territories under Dasharatha,
Buddha. which were later reconquered by Samprati, Kunala’s
son. Post Samprati, the Mauryas slowly lost many
The most important ones are located at Sanchi, Bharhut, territories
Amaravati, Bodhgaya, and Nagarjunakonda.
In 180 BCE, Brihadratha Maurya was killed by his
Mauryans introduced stone masonry on a wide scale. High general Pushyamitra Shunga in a military parade
skill was attained by the Mauryan artisans in polishing the without any heir. Hence, the great Maurya empire
stone. Each pillar is made of a single piece of buff-coloured finally ended, giving rise to the Shunga Empire.
sandstone.
Causes of Decline
The Mauryan artisans also started the practice of hewing
out caves from rocks for monks to live in. The earliest Reason Detail
example is the Barabar caves near Gaya.
Ban on Animal sacrifices + Focus on
Brahmanical
The peacock was a dynastic symbol of Mauryans, as Buddhist policies + Sungas and the
depicted by Ashoka's pillars at Nandangarh and Sanchi reaction
Kanvas rose favoring Brahmans
Stupa.
Expenditure on the army and
Society Financial crisis bureaucracy + Grants to Buddhist
systems + Unsustainable tax structure
Mauryan conquest opened the doors for trade and
missionary activities which led to the spread of material Oppressive rule Rule of Autocratic bureaucrats
culture.
Ignorance towards
Invasion of Greeks and Sakas
The material culture of Mauryan times was based on the North-west
intensive use of iron, the prevalence of writing, plenty of
punch-marked coins, the abundance of beautiful pottery Succession of weak kings
called Northern Black Polished Ware, the introduction of Division of Empire into two halves
burnt bricks, and ring wells. Large size of the Empire
Internal Reasons Lack of a Nation mentality
This period shows socketed axes, Sickels, and ploughshare. Growing independence of some regions
The spoked wheel also came to be used. Invasions from western sides
In the Mauryan period, burnt bricks were used for the first Autocratic Administration
time in north- eastern India(Earlier IVC sites that used burnt
bricks were from the North- Western part of India) Literary Sources
Ring-well first appeared in Gangetic plains during the Name Written by Period Describes
Mauryan period.
Contains 15
Social inequalities were prominent as higher officers were books and 180
paid very handsomely but the lower bureaucracy was paid chapters
very little. 2nd
Chankya/ century BCE King and
Artha-Shashtra
Kautilya -3rd his council
Women
century CE Civil and
Women in the Mauryan Dynasty were considered criminal law
subordinate to men, but they were still to be treated with Diplomacy
respect. and war
Women were allowed to have public jobs and married Socio economic
women could own land. conditions +
4th century
Victory of
Women did have jobs in areas such as textile production, Mudrarakshasa Visakadatta to the 8th
Chandragupta
temple dancers, wage labour, and court attendants. century CE
Maurya over
The Arthasastra was a religious scripture that explained Nandas
how to deal with women. Women played a key role in Administration
many epics and religious scriptures.
of the capital
3rd century city, Pataliputra
Indica Magasthenese
BC and the
Mauryan
empire as well
54
Terminology and Important posts
Term Function Term Function
Weapon manufacturing & defence Sthanika Tax-collector at district level

Ayudhadhyaksha
department.
Samastha-Adhyaksha Superintendent of Market
Antapala Governor of frontier
Samaharta Revenue collector
Annapala Head of Food grains Department
Officer-in-charge of royal
Shulkadhyaksha
Akaradhyaksha Mining Officer income
Bandagraha Jail Swarnadhyaksha Officer of gold department
Charaka Lock-up Sunadhyaksha Slaughter-house officer
Dandapala Head of Police Vyabharika Chief Judge
Durgapala Head of Royal Fort Yukta Subordinate revenue officer
Dyutadhyaksha Gambling department Yuvaraj Crown Prince
Gopas Accountants
Pictures
Gudhapurushas Secret agents
Koshadhyaksha Treasury officer
Koshthagaradhyaksha Royal treasury manager
Karmantika Head of Industries & Factories
Kunyadhyaksha Officer of forest

Barbar Caves, Kumarhar Site, Capital of
Lauhadhyaksha Metallurgy Officer Bihar Pataliputra Pataliputra
Lakshanadhyaksha Coin minting
Lavanadhyaksha Officer of salt department
Mantrin Chief Minister
Mantriparishad Adhyaksha Head of Council of Ministers
Head of the department of Silver coin of Lion Capital, Vaishali Pillar

Mahamatyapasarpa
information and criminal intelligence Bindusar Sarnath, Bihar
Manadhyaksha Office of time & place determining
Mudradhyaksha Royal symbol, coin etc.
Manadhyaksha Office of time & place determining
Nayaka City Security chief
Naukadhyaksha Shipping department officer Mauryan Era Statue Bhadrabahu Cave The Sanchi Stupa
Karnataka
Purohita Chief Priest
Superintendent of weight and

Pauthavadhyaksha
measures etc
Prashasti Prison head
Pradeshika District administrator
Panyadhyaksha Office of commerce department Dharmapala Stupa, Mauryan Ringstone Kandhar Edict,
Taxila Bilingual
Pattanadhyaksha Officer of Port.
Rajjukas Land measurer
Sannidata Treasury head
Senapati Commander-in-chief
Samaharta Revenue collector

Chandragupta Bindusara Asoka
55
Delhi UPSC Secrets
Introduction Major Chronology
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which
existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century Gupta (c. late 3rd century)
CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it
covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is Ghatotkacha (c. late 3rd century - 319)
considered as the Golden Age of India by historians.
Chandragupta I (c. 319 – 335/350)
The 5th-century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the
Guptas with having conquered about twenty-one
kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the Samudragupta (c. 335/350 – 375)
kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes
located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Ramagupta (late 4th century)
Kiratas, and others.
Chandragupta II (380 – 413/415)
The empire eventually died out because of factors such as
substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused Kumaragupta I (415 – 455)
by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion
by the Huna peoples from Central Asia. After the collapse Skandagupta (455 - 467)
of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again
ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.
Kumaragupta II (473 - 476)
They originated in the present-day lower-Doab region of
Uttar Pradesh, where most of the inscriptions and coin Kumaragupta III (circa 530)
hoards of the early Gupta kings have been discovered.
Vishnugupta (540 – 550)
Puranas, mention the territory of the early Gupta kings as
Prayaga, Saketa, and Magadha areas in the Ganges basin.
As per historians, they might of Vaishya class. Sri Gupta & Ghatotkacha
Source Observations
7th century
Map of the Gupta Empire, Chinese Buddhist
Identifies Sri Gupta with king Che-li-ki-
circa 350-450 CE monk Yijing
to
Vishnu Mentions Gupta among the 1008 names

Sahasranama of Vishnu
Earliest description of Sri Gupta
Samudragupta's
Allahabad Pillar Uses the title Maharaja for Gupta and
inscription his son Ghatotkacha, as opposed to the
title Maharajadhiraja for later ruler
Chandragupta I
Ghatotkacha may have been responsible for

entering into a matrimonial alliance with the
Lichchhavis, which resulted in the marriage of the
Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi to his son
Chandragupta I.
Chandragupta -I
Capital Pataliputra
Sanskrit (literary and Reign c. 319–335 or 319–350 CE

Common languages
academic); Prakrit (vernacular)
Coronation c. 319–320 CE
Government Monarchy
c. late 3rd century Gupta (first) Predecessor Ghatotkacha
c. 540 – c. 550 CE Vishnugupta

Successor Samudragupta
Established 4th century CE

Wife Kumaradevi
Disestablished late 6th century CE
56
Licchavi is the name of an ancient clan that was

headquartered at Vaishali in present-day Bihar during the www.delhiupscsecrets.com
Delhi UPSC Secrets
time of Gautama Buddha. A Lichchhavi kingdom existed in
the present-day Nepal in the first millennium CE. The Allahabad Pillar inscription, a prashasti (eulogy)
composed by his courtier Harishena, credits him with
Source Observations
extensive military conquests.
It suggests that he defeated several kings of northern
Chandragupta assumed the title India, and annexed their territories into his empire.
Maharajadhiraja and issued gold coins
Samudragupta's He also marched along the south-eastern coast of
Allahabad Pillar India, advancing as far south as Kanchipuram in the
inscription Pallava kingdom.
Chandragupta selected Samudragupta as the
next king In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms
and tribal oligarchies. At the height of his power, his
empire extended from Ravi River in the west
Expansion of Kingdom, Pataliputra as dowry, (present-day Punjab) to the Brahmaputra River in the
Issuance of Gold coins east (present-day Assam), and from the Himalayan
Chandragupta's foothills in the north to central India in the south-
marriage with west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast
Portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi on
Lichchhavi were also his tributaries.
coins
princess
Kumaradevi The inscription also states that many neighbouring
Chandragupta probably became the ruler of the rulers tried to please him, which probably refers to
Lichchhavi territories his friendly relations with them.
He performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to prove his
Discovered at Mathura, Ayodhya, Lucknow,
imperial sovereignty and remained undefeated in
Sitapur, Tanda, Ghazipur, and Varanasi in Uttar battle.
Pradesh; Bayana in Rajasthan; and Hajipur in
Bihar His gold coins and inscriptions suggest that he was an
Coinage accomplished poet, and also played musical
The obverse of these coins depicts portraits of instruments such as the veena.
Chandragupta and Kumaradevi, with their
His expansionist policy was continued by his son and
names in the Gupta script. The reverse shows a
successor Chandragupta II.
goddess seated on a lion, with the legend "Li-
ccha-va-yah" (Lichhavi) Modern scholars variously assign the start of
Samudragupta's reign from c. 319 CE to c. 350 CE
Source Observations
Eran stone His father selected him as the successor

inscription because of his "devotion, righteous
(Sagar, MP) conduct, and valour"
Chandragupta I called him a noble

Allahabad Pillar
person in front of the courtiers, and
Empire of Chandragupta-I inscription
appointed him to "protect the earth"
Coins of a Gupta
Describe him as "the exterminator of all
ruler named
kings"
Kacha
Samudragupta
Coin of Samudragupta, with
Reign c.335–375 CE Garuda pillar, emblem of Gupta
Empire. The name Samudhra-
Predecessor Chandragupta I Gupta in an early version of the
Gupta Brahmi script, appears
vertically under the left arm of
Successor Chandragupta II the king.
Born c. 318 CE
Died c. 380 CE
Spouse Dattadevi
57
Military Conquests
Delhi UPSC Secrets
Source Observations Early victories
The early portion of the Allahabad Pillar inscription
Gupta mentions that Samudragupta "uprooted" Achyuta,
Remarkable military Career of Samudragupta
Inscriptions Nagasena, and a ruler whose name is lost in the
damaged portion of the inscription. These kings are
Eran Stone He had brought "the whole tribe of kings" under identified as the rulers of present-day western Uttar
Inscription his suzerainty Pradesh.
Samudragupta dispatched an army to capture the
Gives the most detailed account of scion of the Kota family, the rulers of present-day
Samudragupta's military conquests Punjab.
Samudragupta's aim was the unification of the

Allahabad
earth (dharani-bandha), which suggests that he
Southern Conquests
Pillar
may have aspired to become a Chakravartin According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription,
inscription
Samudragupta captured (and later released) many
His southern expedition may have been motivated kings of Dakshinapatha, the southern region.
by economic considerations of controlling the
Samudragupta most probably passed through the
trade between India and South-East Asia.
forest tract of central India, reached the eastern
coast in present-day Odisha, and then marched south
The Mathura along the coast of Bay of Bengal.
describes Samudragupta as an "exterminator of
stone
all kings", as someone who had no equally The inscription states that Samudragupta later
inscription of
powerful enemy, and as a person whose "fame released these kings, and favoured (anugraha) them.
Chandragupta
was tasted by the waters of the four oceans" Most modern scholars theorize that Samudragupta
II
reinstated these rulers as his tributaries.
58
Kings and regions as per

Allahabad Inscription
Present Day regions www.delhiupscsecrets.com
Delhi UPSC Secrets
Frontier Tribe Conquests
Mahendra of Kosala
Kings and regions as per
Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Present Day regions
Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara Allahabad Inscription
Chhattisgarh and Odisha
Mantaraja of Kurala Samatata Bengal
Mahendragiri of Pishtapura Davaka

Assam
Damana of Erandapalla Kamarupa
Nilaraja of Avamukta Nepala Nepal (Lichhavi Kingdom)

Andhra Pradesh
Hastivarman of Vengi Karttripura Uttarakhand
Kubera of Devarashtra Tribe Oligarchs Conquests
Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura Kings and regions as per

Present Day regions
Svamidatta of Kottura Kalinga (Odisha)
Malavas Rajasthan
Vishnugopa of Kanchi Tamilnadu
Arjunayans Mathura, UP
Ugrasena of Palakka Kerala
Area between Sutlej and
Yaudheyas
Yamuna
Northern Conquests
Area between Ravi and
Kings and regions as per Madrakas
Present Day regions Chenab rivers
Abhiras Western India
Rudradeva Ujjain
Sanakananikas
Matila Bulandshahar
Kakas
Nagadatta
Madhya Pradesh
West Bengal
Prarjunas
Chandravarman
Kharaparikas
Ganapatinaga Mathura
Nagasena Madhya Pradesh Map of the Gupta Empire

Achyuta-nandin Ahikshetra, UP
circa 400-450 CE
Balavarman On Yamuna, UP
Forest Conquests
According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription,
Samudragupta reduced all the kings of the forest region
(atavika) to subservience.
This forest region was located in central India: the
inscriptions of the Parivrajaka dynasty, which ruled in this
area, state that their ancestral kingdom was located
within the 18 forest kingdoms.
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Delhi UPSC Secrets
Various Kings Relations and mentions Type of Coin Written details/ Observatoins
Daivaputra- The unconquered one who has conquered

Shahi- This was kingdom of Gandhara (Punjab- his enemies and has continuously
Standard type
Shahanushah Afghanistan) possibly under Kushan empire rule attained victories in a hundred battles,
i wins heaven
Refers to the Western Kshatrapa rulers of Ujjain Depicts Samudragupta wearing waist-
Shaka- cloth and seated cross-legged on a
Lyrist type
Murundas Eran came under the direct control of couch, playing a veena that lies on his
Samudragupta, as attested by his Eran inscription knees.
Meghavarna, the king of Simhala (present-day "the overlord of kings, who has performed
Ashwamegha
Sri Lanka), sought to build a monastery at Bodh the horse-sacrifice, having protected the
type
Gaya Samudragupta sanctioned his request earth, conquers the heaven"
The "other islands" may be the Indianized Commemorative In memory of Chandragupta-I and
kingdoms of South-East Asia. Coins Kumaradevi Lichhavi
Simhala and
other islands
The sea ports of the Gupta Empire, such as
Inscriptions
Tamralipti, were probably connected to these
kingdoms. The widespread use of Sanskrit in
Inscription Observation
these kingdoms may have happened as a result
of Gupta influence.
Inscription on Allahabad pillar of Asoka (Pillar
Edict) - Made of Sandstone.
It is in excellent Sanskrit, written in the more
Extent of Empire under Samudragupta refined Gupta script (a later version of
Brahmi) by the poet and minister, Harishena
North Himalayan Foothills (Nepal) Allahabad
Samudragupta was engaged in the
(U.P)
performance of the Brahmanical ceremonies
Vindhya Hills (But areas till Kanchipuram are also
South of Sattra and Diksha. He was also tolerant
mentioned)
towards Buddhism, and permitted the
construction of a Buddhist monastery
East Brahmaputra River (Bengal and Assam) commissioned by the Anuradhapura king
Meghavarna at Bodh Gaya in his territory
West Ravi river (Punjab and Afghanistan)
It succeeds that a local Saka ruler named
Sridharavarmanis. It is presently stored in
Coinage Kolkata Indian Museum. It is in red sandstone
Eran (M.P)
The coinage of the Gupta Empire was initially derived from
the coinage of the Kushan Empire, adopting its weight Samudragupta surpassed Prithu, Raghava
standard, techniques and designs, following the conquests and other legendary kings in giving gold
of Samudragupta in the northwest of the subcontinent.
Nalanda Written at the order of the Gupta officer
The Guptas even adopted from the Kushans the name of Gopaswamin. These records describe
Dinara for their coinage, which ultimately came from the
Samudragupta as the "restorer of the
Roman name Denarius aureus.
Ashvamedha sacrifice"
Gaya
Samudragupta's seal had a Garuna.
Explicitly call him a devotee of Vishnu
Standard Gold coins Chandragupta-I commemorative Ashwamegha coins Lyricist type coins
coins 60
Ramagupta www.delhiupscsecrets.com
Delhi UPSC Secrets
The official records of the Gupta dynasty state that
Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta II, who was Military conquests of Chandragupta-II
his son from Dattadevi.
Source Observation
Ramagupta is known from a sixth-century play, the
Devichandragupta (Written by Visakhadatta who also wrote
He had a distinguished military career
Mudrarakshasa).
The Udayagiri
In the play, king Ramagupta decides to surrender his queen Empire seems to have extended from
inscription of
Dhruvadevi ("Devi") to a Shaka enemy when besieged. the mouth of the Indus and northern
Ramagupta's younger brother Chandragupta kills the Chandragupta's
Pakistan in the west to the Bengal
enemy ruler. Chandragupta dethrones Ramagupta and foreign minister
region in the east, and from the
marries Dhruvadevi. Virasena
Himalayan terai region in the north to
Ramagupta's existence is confirmed by three Jain statues the Narmada River in the south
found at Durjanpur, with inscriptions referring to him as the
Maharajadhiraja. A large number of his copper coins also Chandragupta II achieved military
have been found from the Eran-Vidisha region. The Allahabad
successes against the Western
Pillar inscription
Kshatrapas (also known as Shakas)
Chandragupta-II (Vikramaditya)
Describes him as a resident of
Virasena's
Pataliputra, and states that he came
Period c. 375 – c. 415 AD Udayagiri
to Udayagiri in Central India for
inscription
Predecessor Samudragupta military campaigns
Successor Kumaragupta I Sanchi inscription

of Amrakardava
Spouse Dhruvadevi, Kuberanaga
Kumaragupta I, Inscription of Acquired victory and fame in many

Issue Prabhavatigupta, An gold coin
Chandragupta's battles
featuring
Govindagupta feudatory
Chandragupta II
Mother Dattadevi Maharaja
Sanakanika
Introduction
The last of the 4th century Kshatrapa coins - that of
Chandragupta II, also known by his title Vikramaditya, as Rudrasimha III - can be dated to 397 AD and
well as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, was the third ruler of Chandragupta's coins, dated to 409, are similar to the
the Gupta Empire in India. Kshtrapa coins, with the Shakas' Buddhist vihara
symbol replaced by the Gupta symbol of Garuda.
His daughter Prabhavatigupta was a queen of the southern
Vakataka kingdom. The Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited This corroborates with Chandragupta-II's victory over
India during his reign gives accounts of his kingdom. Sakas.
Names and Titles Iron pillar of Delhi

The iron pillar of Delhi was constructed by
Title Source Chandragupta II. The pillar was moved to its present
location by Anangpal Tomar in 11th century.
Chandra Coins
The iron pillar is said to have been set up by king
Sanchi Inscription of Chandra in honour of Vishnu, on a hill named Vishnu-
Deva-raja pada.
Amarkadava (His officer)
Records of his daughter

Chandragupta/ Devagupta/
Prabhavatigupta, issued as a Iron Pillar of Delhi inscription
Devashri
Vakataka queen
Chandragupta's extension of the
Dhava Delhi Iron pillar inscription Was a devotee of Gupta rule to the Arabian Sea after
Vishnu his conquest of the Western
Deva-rakshita Vishnu Purana Kshatrapa territory
Bhattaraka/ Maharajadhiraja/ Crossed the "seven faces" of the

Various records Defeated an alliance
Apratiratha river Sindhu (Indus) during a war,
of enemies in the
and defeated the Vahlikas
Vanga country
Supiya stone pillar inscription (Afghanistan)
Vikramaditya (UP, Bihar region)
(Skandagupta era)
61
Delhi UPSC Secrets
Administration
Ministers Known from/ Role
known from the Udayagiri inscription that

Maharaja
records his construction of a Vaishnava
Sanakanika
temple
Foreign minister, known from the Udayagiri

Vira-sen inscription recording his construction of a
Shiva temple
A military officer, known from the Sanchi

Amrakardava inscription recording his donations to the
local Buddhist monastery
Shikhara- He was the author of the political treatise

svami Kamandakiya Niti
Navaratnas
Source: Navaratnas
Jyotirvidabharana , a treatise attributed to Kalidasa
Matrimonial Alliances of Chandragupta II Kalidasa Dhanavantari
Source Observations Amarsimha Ghatakarapra
Kshapanaka Shanku
Mention Dhruvadevi as Chandragupta's queen,
and the mother of his successor Kumaragupta Varahamihir Vararuchi
Gupta
records Vetalbhatta
Also married Kuvera-naga (alias Kuberanaga),
whose name indicates that she was a princess of
the Naga dynasty Religion
Mentions Dhruva-svamini/ Dhruvadevi as a queen Source Observation

Basarh clay
of Chandragupta, and the mother of
seal
Govindagupta
Describe Chandragupta-II as
Gold and Silver coins Parama-Bhagawata Vishnu
Talagunda Guptas also appear to have entered into a
devotee
pillar matrimonial alliance with the Kadamba dynasty
inscription (Karnataka)
Construction of Vaishnava cave
Influence on other empires Udaigiri inscription temple by Maharaja
Sanakanika (402 AD)
Dynasty Influence
Records the construction of a
Virasena's inscription
temple dedicated to the god
(Udaigiri caves)
Shambhu (Shiva)
Nagas (Central Married Kuvera-naga + Nagas helped him
India) conquer Sakas
Donations to the local Buddhist
Sanchi inscription monastery by his military
officer Amrakardava
Prabhavati-gupta (daughter) married with
Vakatakas (Deccan
Rudrasena-II + Vakatakas came under
Plateau)
Gupta rule
Kadambas Matrimonial alliances + Expansion of

(Karnataka) empire
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Records by Faxian (Traveler) www.delhiupscsecrets.com

Delhi UPSC Secrets
Chinese pilgrim Faxian visited India during the reign of
Chandragupta-II, and spent around six years in the Gupta Coins of Chandragupta-II
kingdom.
He issues both Gold and Silver coins. He was the first
He was mostly interested in Buddhist religious affairs. Gupta king to issue silver coins. These coins were
intended to replace the silver coinage of the Western
The Guptas had their capital at Pataliputra Kshatrapas after Chandragupta II defeated them, and
were modelled on the Kshatrapa coinage.
He described the kingdom as a peaceful and prosperous
place. The main difference was to replace the dynastic
symbol of the Kshatrapas (the three-arched hill) by
Faxian describes Madhya-desha ("Middle Kingdom"), the the dynastic symbol of the Guptas (the mythic eagle
region to the south-east of Mathura, as a populous region Garuda).
with good climate and happy people.
The citizens were not required to "register their
households or attend to any magistrates and their rules".
Wicked repeated rebels had their right hand cut off by the
king's administration, but otherwise, there was no corporal
punishment for crimes: the criminals were only fined,
lightly or heavily, according to the severity of the crime.[ Title of Vikramaditya
The king's bodyguards and attendants all received salaries. Based on some coins and the Supia pillar inscription,
it is believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title
Other than the untouchable Chandalas, the people did not "Vikramaditya".
consume meat, intoxicating drinks, onions or garlic.
The Cambay and Sangli plates of the Rashtrakuta king
The Chandalas lived apart from other people, and struck a Govinda IV use the epithet "Sahasanka" for
piece of wood to announce their presence when they Chandragupta II. The name "Sahasanka" has also
entered a city or a marketplace: this would enable other been applied to the legendary Vikramaditya.
people to avoid contact with them.
The legendary Vikramaditya is said to have defeated
Only the Chandalas engaged in the fisheries and hunting, the Śaka invaders, and was therefore, known as
and sold meat. In the general markets, there were no Śakari ("enemy of the Śakas).
butchers' shops or alcohol dealers, and the people did not
keep pigs or fowl. Chandragupta II conquered Malwa after defeating
the Western Kshatrapas (a branch of Śakas); he also
The people used cowries for buying and selling goods. expelled the Kushanas from Mathura.
The Pataliputra region was the most prosperous part of the

Middle Kingdom, describing its people as benevolent and Vikram Samvat
righteous.
Vikrama Samvat, an Indian calendar era beginning in
He describes an annual Buddhist celebration, which 57 BC, is associated with the legendary Vikramaditya.
involved a procession of 20 grand carts of Buddhas, the
Brahmanas's invitation to the Buddhas to enter the city, Succession
and music performances.
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son
In the cities, the Vaishya chiefs had established centers for Kumaragupta I, born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini.
dispensing charity and medical help to the destitute. These
centres attracted the poor, the orphans, the widowers, the
childless, the handicapped, and the sick, who were
examined by doctors and given food and medicine until
they got better.
Incriptions of Chandragupta-II
The following inscriptions of Chandragupta have been
discovered:
1. Mathura pillar inscription

2. Udayagiri cave inscription
3. Gadhwa stone inscription
4. Sanchi stone inscription
5. Mehrauli iron pillar inscription
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Kumaragupta-I (Mahendraditya) www.delhiupscsecrets.com

Delhi UPSC Secrets
Reign c. 415 – c. 455 CE Administration
Predecessor Chandragupta II Terms Roles
Successor Skandagupta Ruled the parts of Empire as

Governors (Uparikas)
title of Maharaja
Spouse Anantadevi An gold coin

featuring Provinces (Bhuktis) Ruled by Uparikas
Kumaragupta-I
Skandagupta, Districts (Vishayas) Parts of Bhuktis
Issue
Purugupta
Vishayapatis
Administrators of Vishayas
(Magistrates)
Introduction
Kumaragupta I (415–455 CE) was son of the Gupta Nagara Shrestin Town president or Mayor
emperor Chandragupta II and queen Dhruvadevi.
He maintained his inherited territory, which extended Sarthavaha Representative of Merchants
from Gujarat in the west to Bengal region in the east.
Prathama-Kulika Chief of Artisans
Kumaragupta performed an Ashvamedha sacrifice. He
subdued the Aulikaras of central India and the Traikutakas
of western India. Prathama-Kayastha Chief of Scribes or Writers
Names and Titles Chirata-datta ruled the Pundravardhana-bhukti

Kumaragupta bore the titles Maharajadhiraja, Parama- (province) in present-day Bengal as a subordinate of
bhattaraka, and Paramadvaita. Kumaragupta. His known dates range from c. 443 to
c. 447
He also adopted the title Mahendraditya.
The 436 CE Karamdanda inscription mentions
Empire Prithivishena, who was initially mantrin and
kumaramatya (minister) of Kumaragupta I, and later
Findings Location
became his mahabaladhikrita (general).
Kumaragupta seems to have established diplomatic
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, relations with the Liu Sung emperors of China.
Inscriptions
West Bengal, and Bangladesh
Matrimonial Alliances
Garuna Inscribed coins Western India
Issue Alliance Source
Peacock inscribed coins Gangas valley
He worshipped the war god Karttikeya, and his gold coins Skandagupta N/A
suggest that he performed the Ashvamedha ceremony.
Kadamba princess
Military conquests Talgunda Pillar
Purugupta Mahadevi-
inscription
Anantadevi
Findings Observations
Kumaragupta also
Coins from Maharashtra
married the sister Bihar stone pillar
(13 Coins from Achalpur, and a N/A
of one of his inscription
hoard of 1395 silver coins from
Extent of Kumaragupta's ministers
Samand in Satara district)
empire
The 423 CE Mandsaur

inscription (Madhya Pradesh)
Kumaragupta defeated the

Coins from South Gujarat
Traikutakas
Successes against the king of

Kumaragupta's coins depict him
Kamarupa in present-day
as a rhinoceros-slayer
Assam
64
Religion www.delhiupscsecrets.com
Delhi UPSC Secrets
Findings Observations
Various faiths including Shaivism,

Epigraphic evidence Vaishnavism, Buddhism, and Jainism,
flourished during Kumaragupta's reign
Describe him as a devotee of the god

Kumaragupta's Silver
Vishnu (parama-bhagavata or
coins
bhagavata)
Feature Vishnu's vahana Garuda

Gold, silver, and
copper coins
He was also a devotee of the war god
Karttikeya (also known as Skanda)
Buddhist writers
Buddhist mahavihara at Nalanda was
Xuanzang (7th century)
established by a king called
and Prajnavarman
Shakraditya (Kumaragupta-I)
(8th century)
Faxian does not mention the site of Nalanda.

Nalanda monastery was established after 411 CE, during
the reign of Kumaragupta-I. Skandagupta
Among the Gupta kings, Kumaragupta-I issued the largest

varieties of coins. His 628 coins in the Bayana hoard belong Reign c. 455 – c. 467 CE
to 14 different types.
At least 18 inscriptions from Kumaragupta's reign are Kumaragupta I
available. Most of them aim to record religious matters. Predecessor
(Father)
The earliest extant Gupta inscriptions from the Bengal
region were issued during Kumaragupta's reign. An
inscription on a figure of a yaksha from Mathura in the
reign of Kumaragupta has been dated to 432 CE. Successor Purugupta (Brother)
Decline of Kumargupta-I's rule

Sources Observations
Introduction
Skandagupta was a son of the Gupta emperor
Earliest known regnal date
Kumaragupta I. Skandagputa's inscriptions mention
Kumaragupta's reign ended in or the name of his father, but not of his mother.
of Kumaragupta's son
before this year
Skandagupta is c. 455 CE He restored the Gupta power by defeating his
enemies, who may have been rebels or foreign
Only uses the feudatory title invaders. He repulsed an invasion by the Hunas.
448 CE Mankuwar Buddha
Maharaja for Kumaragupta instead
inscription issued during He is generally considered the last of the great Gupta
of the imperial title
Kumaragupta's reign Emperors.
Maharajadhiraja
Reign
Skandagupta defeated his enemies
Bhitari pillar inscription of and re-established the "ruined Bhitari pillar inscription
Skandagupta fortunes" of his family when his
father died Defeated "Pushyamitras",a
Ascended the throne in year tribe, which ruled an area
Skandagupta defeated the (c. 455-456 CE). located on the banks of the
mlechchhas (foreigners, possibly Narmada River and Hunas
Junagadh inscription
the Hunas) and Pushyamitras
before c. 455 CE.
Kumaragupta's brother
Govindagupta, his relative
Disputed succession to the
Succession Ghatotkacha-gupta, and
throne
Prakashaditya may have
He was succeed was his son Skandagupta in year 455 CE.
been rivals of Skandagupta
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Skandagupta defeated Hunas + Decline of The Gupta Empire
Pushyamitras/ Malechhas (455 CE)
In the 480's the Alchon Huns under Toramana and
Mihirakula broke through the Gupta defences in the
Chandra- Katha northwest, and much of the empire in the northwest
Bhitari pillar Junagadh
Vyakarana (c. saritasagara was overrun by the Huns by 500.
inscription inscription
7th century) (11th century)
The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by
The Junagadh rock is one of major rock edicts of Ashoka Bhanugupta in 510. The Huns were defeated and
which contains inscription of the earlier emperors, Ashoka driven out of India in 528 by King Yashodharman
and Rudradaman (Western Satrapa ruler) from Malwa, and Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta.
It has an inscription engraved on the orders of Following the invasions, northern India was left in
Skandagupta's governor Parnadatta at Surashtra (Gujarat). disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers
emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.
Parnadatta appointed his son Chakrapalita as the
magistrate of the Girinagara city which was the capital of The Huna invasions are said to have seriously
Surashtra. damaged India's trade with Europe and Central Asia.
The Junagadh inscription records Chakdrapalita's repairs to Indian urban culture was left in decline, and
the Sudarshana lake, an ancient reservoir originally Buddhism, gravely weakened by the destruction of
constructed by Chandragupta Maurya, and later improved monasteries and the killing of monks by the hand of
by his grandson Ashoka. the vehemently anti-Buddhist Shaivist Mihirakula,
started to collapse.
The dam was subsequently re-built by Rudradaman in c.
150, but burst in c. 456-457. Great centres of learning were destroyed, such as the
city of Taxila, bringing cultural regression.
Chakrapalita is said to have spent an "immeasurable"
amount of wealth to build an embankment, and is also The succession of the 6th-century Guptas is not
credited with the construction of a Vishnu temple. entirely clear, but the tail end recognised ruler of the
dynasty's main line was king Vishnugupta, reigning
Malava was a part of the Gupta Empire at one time, it is from 540 to 550.
possible that Narendrasena raided Gupta territories during
Skandagupta's reign. Skandagupta restored Gupta control In addition to the Hun invasion, the factors, which
over the region soon after. contribute to the decline of the empire include
competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of
Yashodharman in Malwa.
Coinage
The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is
from the reign of Vishnugupta (the Damodarpur
copper-plate inscription), in which he makes a land
grant in the area of Kotivarsha (Bangarh in West
Bengal) in 542/543 CE.
Skandagupta issued fewer gold coins, and some of these This follows the occupation of most of northern and
coins feature relatively less quantity of gold. central India by the Aulikara ruler Yashodharman
circa 532 CE.
The initial gold coinage was on the old weight standard
used by his father Kumaragupta of approximately 8.4 gm.
Skandagupta revalued his currency, switching from the old Post-Gupta successor dynasties
dinar standard to a new suvarna standard. This standard In the heart of the former Gupta Empire, in the
and type was followed by all subsequent Gupta rulers. Gangetic region, the Guptas were succeeded by the
Maukhari dynasty and the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
Succession
In the western regions, they were succeeded by the
The last known date of Skandagupta is c. 467-468 CE. Gurjaras, the Pratiharas, and later the Chaulukya-
Paramara dynasties, who issued so-called Indo-
Skandagupta was succeeded by Purugupta. Sasanian coinage, on the model of the coinage of the
Sasanian Empire, which had been introduced in India
Purugupta was a son of the Gupta emperor Kumaragupta I by the Alchon Huns.
by his queen Anantadevi. He succeeded his half-brother
Skandagupta.
No inscription of Purugupta has been found so far. He is
known from the Bhitari silver-copper seal of his grandson
Kumaragupta III and Nalanda clay sealings of his sons
Narasimhagupta and Budhagupta and his grandson
Kumaragupta III.
From the Saranath Buddha image inscription, it is
concluded that he was succeeded by Kumaragupta II.
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In contrast to the Mauryan Empire, the Guptas introduced
several military innovations to Indian warfare. Administration
A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta
Chief amongst these was the use of Siege engines, heavy empire shows that there was a hierarchy of
cavalry archers and heavy sword cavalry. administrative divisions from top to bottom.
The heavy cavalry formed the core of the Gupta army and The empire was called by various names such as
were supported by the traditional Indian army elements of Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It
elephants and light infantry. was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as
Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga.
The five arms of the Gupta military included infantry,
cavalry, chariot, elephants and ships Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put
under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati
administered the Vishaya with the help of the
Sources Observations Adhikarana (council of representatives), which
comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi,
Coinage of Chandragupta Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha.
II, Kumaragupta I and Utilization of horse archers A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi.
Purugupta
The Gupta also had trading links with the Sassanid
and Byzantine Empire.
Campaigns of Raghu – his
Sanskrit mahakavya protagonist in the Raghuvaṃśa – The four-fold varna system was observed under the
Raghuvaṃśa written by reflect those of Chandragupta II + Gupta period but caste system was fluid.
the Kalidasa Special mention of the use horse-
archers in the kings army
Brahmins followed non-Brahmanical profession as
well. Khastriyas were involved in trade and
commerce. The society largely coexisted among
Gunaighar copper plate themselves.
Ships had become integral part of
inscription of Vainya
Indian military in the 6th century AD Modern genetic studies indicate that it was during the
Gupta
Gupta period that Indian caste groups ceased to
intermarry (started practicing/enforcing endogamy).
Legacy
Scholars of this period include Varāhamihira and
Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to consider
zero as a separate number, postulated the theory
that the Earth rotates about its own axis, and studied
solar and lunar eclipses.
Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote
plays such as Shakuntala, and marked the highest
point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have
belonged to this period.
The Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction
text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic
medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates
to the Gupta period.
Chess is said to have developed in this period, where
its early form in the 6th century was known as
caturaṅga.
The Indian numerals which were the first positional
base 10 numeral systems in the world originated from
Gupta India.
The names of the seven days in a week appeared at
Religion the start of the Gupta period based on Hindu deities
and planets corresponding to the Roman names.
The Guptas were orthodox Hindus, and allowed followers
of Buddhism and Jainism to practice their religions. Sanchi The ancient Gupta text Kama Sutra by the Indian
remained an important centre of Buddhism. Kumaragupta I scholar Vatsyayana is widely considered to be the
(455 CE) is said to have founded Nalanda. standard work on human sexual behaviour in Sanskrit
literature.
Narasimhagupta Baladitya, according to contemporary
writer Paramartha, was brought up under the influence of Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the
the Mahayanist philosopher, Vasubandhu. Gupta period proposed that the earth is round and
rotates about its own axis.
He built a sangharama at Nalanda.
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Art and Architecture www.delhiupscsecrets.com

Delhi UPSC Secrets
The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of
North Indian art for all the major religious groups.
Pataini temple (Unchehara, MP) is a Jain
Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving
works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw temple built during the Gupta period.
the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu
art, as well as the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara
figures, the latter often on a very large scale.
The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and
Gandhara, the latter the centre of Greco-Buddhist art. The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta
Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India. Caves (Hindu)
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly

Gupta style, the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora
(respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain)
were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily
reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style.
Painting of Padmapani Cave 1 at Ajanta
Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of
painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a
mature form which had probably had a long development,
mainly in painting palaces.
The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections
with the dynasty and its ministers, and the Dashavatara
Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to Nalanda University was first established
survive, with important sculpture. under Gupta Empire
Pictures & Description
Bitargaon temple (Kanpur, UP) from the

Standing Buddha in red sandstone, Art of Gupta period provide one of the earliest
Mathura, Gupta period circa 5th century CE. examples of pointed arches anywhere in
Mathura Museum the world
Nalrajar Garh fortification wall in

Sculpture of Vishnu (red sandstone), 5th Chilapata Forests, West Bengal, is one of
century CE. the last surviving fortification remains
from the Gupta period, currently 5–7 m
high
Jain tirthankara relief Parshvanatha on

Kahaum pillar erected by Skandagupta Ajanta (Buddhist) caves from Gupta era
A tetrastyle prostyle Gupta period temple at The Udayagiri Caves are twenty rock-cut
Sanchi with Maurya foundation, an example of caves near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh from
Buddhist architecture. 5th century CE. the early years of the 5th century CE. They
are the only site that can be verifiably
associated with a Gupta period monarch
from its inscriptions.
The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple Udayagiri caves contain iconography of
dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking Jainism . They are notable for the ancient
the location where the Buddha is said to have monumental relief sculpture of
attained enlightenment. Parshvanatha in his incarnation. The site
has important inscriptions of the Gupta
dynasty belonging to the reigns of
Chandragupta II (c. 375-415) and
Kumaragupta I
Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh, UP) is a Vishnu
Hindu temple built during the Gupta period.
68
Additional Important Points www.delhiupscsecrets.com

Delhi UPSC Secrets
Samudragupta was called ‘Napolean of India’ by V.A. Smith
Bureaucracy was not elaborated as that of Maurya.
(Irish Indologist and Art Historian).
Post Role
Vishnugupta was last known ruler of the Gupta Dynasty
(540 AD – 550 AD) Mahanandanayaka Justice Delivery
Kalidasa – He wrote Abhijnashakuntalam, one of the best Mahapratihara Chief of the Guards
hundred literary works in the world and also the earliest
Indian work to be translated to European languages. Dutakas Associated with Gifts and Grants
Amarasimha – His work Amarakosha is a vocabulary of Sandhi–Vigrahika Minister of Peace and War
Sanskrit roots, homonyms and synonyms. It has three
Pilupati Head of War Elephant unit
parts containing around ten thousand words and is also
known as Trikanda. Asvapati Head of Cavalry
Varahamihira – He wrote three important books- Narapati Head of Foot soldiers
1. He composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical Ranabhandagrika In charge of stores

systems.
2. His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in the Sanskrit Superintendent of Records and
Akshapataladhikrita
language. It deals with a variety of subjects like astronomy, Accounts
astrology, geography, architecture, weather, animals,
marriage and omens.
Chauroddharanika Watchman
3. His Brihat Jataka is considered to be a standard work on
astrology. Dandapasika Police
Dhanvantri – He is considered to be the father of Guptas Issued less pure gold coins than Kushana.
Ayurveda.
Position of women and Shudras improved Both were
allowed listen the Ramayana & Mahabharata &
Ghatakarapara – An expert in sculpture and architecture. advised to worship Krishna.
Bhanugupta’s Airana (Eran) inscription gives the first
Shanku – An architect who wrote the Shilpa Shastra. evidence of Sati and Child marriage too existed.
Kahapanaka – An astrologer who wrote Jyotishya Shastra. Vishti was forced labour to serve royal army &
officials.
Vararuchi – Author of Prakrit Prakasha, the first grammar Bhagvatism centered around Vishnu emerged.
of the Prakrit language. Continued growth of the Ajanta School (Theme:
Buddha’s life) was accompanied by emergence of
Vetala Bhatta – Author of Mantrashastra and was a Bagh School near Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh.
In this cave-walls were decorated (painted) in local
magician. themes i.e., it related to common people.
Chandragupta-I's accession in about AD 319-20 marks the Images of God appeared first time.
beginning of the Gupta Samvat (era). Stupa and cave construction reduced and temple
construction (Shikhara) picked up
Samudragupta is mentioned as “Dharma Prachar Bandhu”
1. Dashavatar Temple, Jhansi, U.P.
in Allahabad pillar inscription. 2. Bhitargav Temple (Brick) Kanpur, U.P.
3. Parvati Temple, Nachnakuthara, M.P.
Karamdanda (Fyzabad) inscription refers to king 4. Vishnu Temple, Jabalpur, M.P.
Kumargupta I as ruler of 4 oceans, Mandsor inscription as Bagh cave Paintings belongs to this period.
ruler of all earth and copper plate inscription of
Damodarpur as ‘Maharajadhiraj’. The two styles of art that evolved in the Gupta era
were Nagara and Dravidian.
Common people traded in cowrie shells. The only Gupta ruler who issued copper coins was
Ramagupta.
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Delhi UPSC Secrets
AUTHOR WORK
PYQ Points
Abhijnanshakuntalam The silver coins issued by the Guptas were called
Vikramorvasiyam Rupaka.
Malavikagnimitra
Kumārasambhava Tamralipti port handled the North Indian Trade during
Kalidasa the Gupta Period.
Raghuvansham
Meghadootam
Ritusamhara
Jyotirvidabharana
Kamandaka Nitisara
Mudrarakshas
Vishakhadatta
Devichandraguptam
Gunadhya Brihatkatha
Sudraka Mrichhakatikam
Panchasiddhantika (5 books,
Varahamihir
Brihatsamhita most notable)
Susrut Susrutsamhita on surgery
Vagabhata Ashtanghridaya
Dhanavantari Ayurveda
Amar Singh Amarkosh
Aryabhatt Aryabhattiyam, Suryasidhanta
Brahmagupta Brahmasphutasiddhanta
Bhasa Svapanavasaydattam
70
Delhi UPSC Secrets
Introduction Coronation
Reign c. 606 – c. 647 CE Harsha's sister Rajyashri's husband was defeated and
killed by king Devagupta of Malwa and after his death
Rajyashri had been cast into prison. Harsha's brother,
Predecessor Rajyavardhana Rajya Vardhana, was also later killed by Shashanka,
king of Gauda in Eastern Bengal.
Successor Arunāsva Harsha forged an alliance with Bhaskaravarman, the
Kamarupa king. and marched against Sasanka.
Born 590 CE, Thanesara , India Ultimately, Sasanka left for Bengal and Harsha became
the king of Kannauj also in 606 at an age of 16.
Died 647 CE, Kannauj, India Reign

Harsha united the small republics from Punjab to
Dynasty Vardhana (Pushyabhuti) central India, and their representatives crowned him
king at an assembly in April 606 giving him the title of
Maharaja.
Father Prabhakarvardhana
Harsha established an empire that brought all of
northern India under his control. The peace and
Mother Yasomati
prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of
cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and
Wife Durgavati religious visitors from far and wide.
The Chinese traveller Xuanzang (Huien Tsang) visited
Religion Shaivism, Buddhism the court of Harsha, and wrote a very favourable
account of him, praising his justice and generosity.
Harshavardhana ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. Pulakeshin II of Chalukya dynasty repelled an invasion
led by Harsha on the banks of Narmada in the winter
A member of the Vardhana dynasty, he was the son of of 618–619.
Prabhakaravardhana who had defeated the Alchon Huna
invaders, and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, a king Pulakeshin then entered into a treaty with Harsha,
of Thanesar, present-day Haryana. with the Narmada River designated as the border
between the Chalukya Empire and that of
He patronised Buddhism during his reign and established Harshavardhana.
numerous stupas throughout his empire.
Harshavardhana ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. After Harsha's death; In 648, Wang Xuance
A member of the Vardhana dynasty, he was the son of successfully attacked the Indian state.
Prabhakaravardhana who had defeated the Alchon Huna
invaders, and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, a king During Harshvardhan's rule Vardhan dynasty's
of Thanesar, present-day Haryana. geographical boundaries was spread from North to
South, Nepal to Narmada river and East to West from
He patronised Buddhism during his reign and established Assam to Gujarat.
numerous stupas throughout his empire.
He had a friendly relations with King of Kamrup,
At the height of Harsha's power, his territory covered much Bhaskarvarman and sent his envoy in the court of
of north and northwestern India, with the Narmada River as Chinese King, formed friendly relations.
its southern boundary.
Harshvardhan established state's capital at Kannauj.
He eventually made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh He use to spend major part of state's income to
state) his capital, and ruled till 647 CE. welfare of his subjects. He use to donate his wealth
after every 5 years. He accepted Buddhist religion.
Harsha was defeated by the south Indian Emperor
Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty in the Battle of
Narmada, when he tried to expand his empire into the
southern peninsula of India. Empire of Harsha, 7th century CE India
The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a
centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and
religious visitors from far and wide.
The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha
and wrote a very favourable account of him (as Shiladitya),
praising his justice and generosity.
His biography Harshacharita ("Deeds of Harsha") written by
Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with
Thanesar, besides mentioning the defence wall, a moat and
the palace with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (white
mansion).
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Delhi UPSC Secrets
Empire
Source Finding
After the downfall of the Gupta Empire in the middle of the
6th century, North India was split into several independent Describe his ancestors as sun-worshippers, his
kingdoms.
Seals elder brother as a Buddhist, and himself as a
Prabhakara Vardhana, the ruler of Sthanvisvara, who Shaivite
belonged to the Vardhana family, extended his control over
neighbouring states. After Prabhakar Vardhana's death in Describes him as a Shaivite
605, his eldest son, Rajya Vardhana, ascended the throne. Banabhatta
Harsha Vardhana was Rajya Vardhana's younger brother. Banbhatta also wrote Kadambari
At the time of Hwen Tshang's visit, Kanoj was the capital of Tells the story of the Bodhisattva
Harsha's
Raja Harshvardhan. Jīmūtavāhavana, and the invocatory verse at
play
the beginning is dedicated to the Buddha,
Nagananda
described in the act of vanquishing Māra
Harsha banned animal slaughter for food, and

Fragmentation of Guptas built monasteries at the places visited by
Gautama Buddha
Erected several thousand 100-feet high stupas

on the banks of the Ganges river, and built
well-maintained hospices for travellers and
poor people on highways across India
Xuanzang/
Hiuen
Tsang Describes a 21-day religious festival organized
by Harsha in Kannauj; during this festival,
Harsha and his subordinate kings performed
daily rituals
Harsha patronised scholars of all religions, not

just Buddhist monks
Harsha's
Describe him as Shaivite (Might be converted
own
to Buddhism later in life or just a Patron)
records
Harsha is widely believed to be the author of three

Sanskrit plays Ratnavali, Nagananda and
Priyadarsika.
Harsha's Empire Some believe (e.g., Mammata in Kavyaprakasha) that
it was Dhāvaka, Harsha's one of court poets who
wrote the plays as a paid commission,
Administration
Founder of Vardhan dynasty was Pushyabhuti. They
were feudatories of the Guptas and were known as
Vardhans. They became independent after the Hun
invasion. Their capital was Thaneshwar, to the north
of Delhi.
On acquiring Kannauj, Harsha united the two
kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannauj and moved his
capital to Kannauj. After Sasanka’s death, he annexed
Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
There were two types of territories under Harsha.
One was directly under him and the other type was
those that were feudatories. Even the feudatories
were under the tight command of Harsha.
Harsha’s reign marked the beginning of feudalism in
India.
72
Direct Territories Feudatories

Delhi UPSC Secrets
Society
Central Provinces, Bengal, Jalandhar, Kashmir,
Kalinga, Rajputana, Gujarat Kamarupa, Sind, Nepal The position of women under King Harshavardhana's
reign was not acceptable.
Kashmir was not under Harsha's direct rule (Karkota The choice of choosing her husband (Swayamvara )
dynasty). declined.
He had a good tax structure. 1/4th of all the taxes collected Dowry became a very common practise.
were used for charity and for cultural purposes.
The practise of sati too existed. Remarriages of widows
The land tax collected from the people was one sixth of were not permitted.
their produce
There was fourfold Varna system in place comprising-
King Harshavardhana divided his revenue into four parts: Brahmins, kshtriya, Vysya, and Sudra.
1. To meet the expenditure of the king Brahmins received land grants from the king, Kshtriyas
2. For scholars were the ruling class, Vysyas were involved in trading
3. For the endowment of public servants and officials and Sudras practiced agriculture. There were many
4. For religious purposes sub-castes.
The archives were called nilopitu, and were handled by
special officers. The records of good as well as bad events Architecture
that occurred during the the time have been recorded in
them. The architecture during Harsha’s period was based on
Gupta style primarily. Hiuen Tsang refers to a 8 feet tall
Harsha generously supported the Nalanda University. He copper Buddha statue. He also talk of a multistory
also prohibited animal slaughter for food in his kingdom. monastery at Nalanda.
The law and order was not maintained well during his In Chhattisgarh at Sirpur, a brick temple of Lakshman is
reign. surviving example of architecture during Harsh’a
period.
The important feature of his administration was the
maintenance of public records. Harsha’s biographer was Banabhatta, who wrote
Harshacharita and Kadambari.
He made land grants to priests and officers. This practise
seems to have begun for Harsha's time. In Harshavardhana’s court other notable figures were
Matanga Divakara and Barthrihari( poet, philosopher
Harsha was a competent military conqueror and an able and grammarian).
administrator.
Religious Assemblies
His final expedition was against the kingdom of Kalinga and
it was won. Harsha regularly conducted assemblies of various
faiths at a gap of 5 years. Important are:
Huge army was maintained by him. His army consisted of
four divisions — Cavalry, chariot, elephant and horse. Kannauj Assembly
Harsha was the last king to rule over a vast empire in India
before the invasions by the Muslims. Hiuen Tsang
20 kings,
Presided explained
Harsha died in 647 AD after ruling for 41 years. 1000 scholars
by Hiuen and
of Nalanda Assassination
Tsang established
Since he died without any heirs, his empire disintegrated University, attempt was
superiority
very soon after his death. 3000 made on
It of values of
Brahmins and Harsha’s life.
continued Mahayana
Jains
till 23 days doctrine
attended
Inscriptions over others
Source Observation Prayag/ Allahbad Assembly
Madhuben plate inscription Hiuen Tsang

Chronology of King
Harshvardhana. writes that
Sonpat plate inscriptions Hiuen Tsang was invited by Harsha
It Harshavardhan to conduct actually gave
Banskhera inscription Signature of Harsha continued this, gifts and donations were away
till 75 made in this assembly everything in
Pulakesin 11 won against days the royal
Aihole inscription treasury.
Harshavardhana.
73

Introduction
Preceded by Succeeded by
Chola dynasty,
Kalabhra dynasty,
Kadamba dynasty,
Satavahana dynasty
Western Ganga dynasty
Mapping
The Pallava dynasty existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a

significant portion of the Deccan, also known as
Tondaimandalam.
The dynasty rose to prominence after the downfall of the
Satavahana dynasty, with whom they had formerly served
as feudatories.
The Pallavas became a major South Indian power during the
reign of Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) and
Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE), and dominated the
southern Andhra Region and the northern parts of the Tamil
region for about 600 years, until the end of the 9th century.
Throughout their reign, they remained in constant conflict
with both the Chalukyas of Badami in the north, and the
Tamil kingdoms of Chola and Pandyas in the south.
Rivaled by
The Pallavas were finally defeated by the Chola ruler Aditya Chalukyas, Cheras,
I in the 9th century CE. Pandyas, Cholas,
Kadambas and
Kalabhras
The Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of Hindu at various periods
temple architecture, the finest example being the Shore
Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Mamallapuram.
Origin
Kancheepuram served as the capital of the Pallava kingdom.
While their Origin is controversial, it is believed
The dynasty left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, widely that it was an indigenous dynasty and rose to
and are recognised to have established the foundations of power after the dismemberment of the Ikshvaku
medieval South Indian architecture, which some scholars kingdom.
believe the ancient Hindu treatise Manasara inspired.
In other words, they were the indigenous Nagas. So
They developed the Pallava script, from which Grantha the Pallavas were possibly a local tribe who
ultimately took form. This script eventually gave rise to established their authority in the Tondainadu or the
several other Southeast Asian scripts such Khmer. The land of creepers.
Chinese traveller Xuanzang (Huien Tsang) visited
Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign The available historical materials include three
rule. copper-plate grants of Sivaskandavarman in the first
quarter of the 4th century CE, all issued from
Kanchipuram but found in various parts of Andhra
Pradesh, and another inscription of Simhavarman I
half century earlier in the Palnadu (Pallava Nadu) area
Demonym(s) Pallava, Pallavar of the western Guntur district.
Capital Kanchipuram All the early documents are in Prakrit, and scholars
find similarities in paleography and language with the
Satavahanas and the Mauryas.
Period 275-897 CE
Their early coins are said to be similar to those of
Common languages Tamil, Sanskrit, Prakrit Satavahanas. Two main theories of the origins have
emerged from this data: one that the Pallavas were
former subsidiaries of Satavahanas in the Andhradesa
Religion Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism (the region north of Penna River in modern Andhra
Pradesh and later expanded south up to Kanchi, and
Government Monarchy the other that they initially rose to power in Kanchi
and expanded north up to the Krishna river.
• 275–300 Simhavarman I The other theory is that they are Dependent from
Chola Prince Ilandiraiyan and native to
• 885–897 Aparajitavarman Tondaimandalam.
74
The proponents of the Andhra origin theory believe that www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
Pallavas were originally feudatories of the Satavahanas in
the south-eastern part of their empire who became Narasimhavarman II (700–728)
independent when the Satavahana power declined.
His rule, however, is marked by peace and
Since Simhavarman's grant bears no regal titles, they prosperity, literary activity, and the construction of
believe that he might have been a subsidiary to the Andhra large and beautiful temples like the Shore temple
Ikshvakus who were in power in Andhradesa at that time. at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at
In the following half-century, the Pallavas became Kanchi.
independent and expanded up to Kanchi.
He is also said to have sent embassies to China, and
Chola Prince Ilandiraiyan is traditionally regarded as the maritime trade flourished during his reign.
founder of the Pallava dynasty. Ilandiraiyan is referred to in
the literature of the Sangam period such as the Pathupattu.
Paramesvaravarman II (728–31)
Out of the coins found here, the class of gold and silver
coins belonging to the 2nd-7th century CE period contain The Pallava kingdom again had to face defeat and
the Pallava emblem, the maned lion, together with humiliation during his reign.
Kannada or Sanskrit inscription which showed that the
Pallavas used Kannada too in their administration along The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II attacked the Pallava
with Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil. capital and Paramesvaravarman had to conclude a
humiliating treaty with him.
Important Pallava Kings When the Pallava ruler tried to retaliate, he was
killed by the Ganga ally of the Chalukyas.
Simhavishnu (560–90)
Nandivarman II (731–96)
He is considered the first important Pallava ruler, though
Pallavas existed even during the time of Samudragupta’s The Chalukya, Vikramaditya II again invaded and
invasion of south India. captured the Pallava capital during his reign. But
Vikramaditya this time showed consideration and
He is credited with capturing the territory of the Cholas restraint in treating the vanquished, the only
and humiliating his other southern neighbours including instance of restraint in the whole of the suicidal
Ceylon. Chalukya-Pallava conflict, and withdrew from
Kanchi without destroying it.
He followed Vaishnavism, as is evident from
archaeological evidence. However, Nandi soon strengthened himself and
defeated the Chalukya ally, the Gangas.
Mahendravarman I (590–630)
But he had to meet defeat at the hands of the
During his reign began the long drawn out struggle Pandyas. And after this defeat, he concentrated on
between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. domestic matters.
He was defeated by Pulakesin II and a part of his kingdom He was a worshipper of Vishnu and a great patron
was occupied. of learning. During his reign, several old temples
were renovated and new ones like the
Narasimhavarman I (630–68) Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi were
constructed.
He is considered the greatest of the Pallava rulers. He is
credited with repelling the second invasion of Pulakesin Successors:
II, killing him and capturing the Chalukyan capital,
Badami. Hence he assumed the title of ‘Vatapikonda’ Successors of Nandivarman II were Dantivarman
(Conqueror of Vatapi). (796–847), Nandivarman III (847–69), Nripatunga
(869–99) and Aparajita (899–903).
He is also said to have defeated the Cholas, the Cheras
and the Pandyas, thus becoming supreme in south India. The last nail in the coffin was driven by Aditya
Chola by defeating Aparajita Pallava towards the
Besides, he sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon and end of the ninth century AD.
helped his ally, a Ceylonese prince, to capture the throne
of Ceylon. Besides he was a great builder having However, the Pallava chiefs continued to exist till
constructed Mamallapuram and the various buildings in the end of the 13 th century AD as feudatories.
it. Another significant thing about his reign is the visit of
Hiuen Tsang to Kanchi.
Mahendravarman II (668–70) Mallapuram

He ruled for a very short period, since he was killed by
Chalukya king, Vikramaditya I (son of Pulakesin II).
Paramesvaravarman I (670–700)
He also had to face the invading forces of Vikramaditya I,
but finally succeeded in defeating and driving them back
after repeated efforts.
75
Rivalries www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
With Cholas Birudas and Languages

The Pallavas captured Kanchi from the Cholas as recorded The royal custom of using a series of descriptive
in the Velurpalaiyam Plates, around the reign of the fifth honorific titles, Birudas, was particularly prevalent
king of the Pallava line Kumaravishnu I. among the Pallavas.
Thereafter Kanchi figures in inscriptions as the capital of The birudas of Mahendravarman I are in Sanskrit,
the Pallavas. The Cholas drove the Pallavas away from Tamil and Telugu. The Telugu birudas show
Kanchi in the mid-4th century, in the reign of Vishnugopa, Mahendravarman's involvement with the Andhra
the tenth king of the Pallava line. region continued to be strong at the time he was
creating his cave-temples in the Tamil region.
The Pallavas re-captured Kanchi from the Kalabhras in the
mid-6th century,possibly in the reign of Simhavishnu, the The suffix "Malla" was used by the Pallava rulers.
fourteenth king of the Pallava line, whom the Kasakudi Mahendravarman I used the biruda, Shatrumalla, "a
plates state as "the lion of the earth". warrior who overthrows his enemies", and his
grandson Paramesvara I was called Ekamalla "the
Thereafter the Pallavas held on to Kanchi until the 9th sole warrior or wrestler".
century, until the reign of their last king, Vijaya-
Nripatungavarman. Pallava kings, presumably exalted ones, were known
by the title Mahamalla ("great wrestler").
Pallava inscriptions have been found in Tamil,
With Kadambas Sanskrit and Prakrit.
A contest for political supremacy existed between the Tamil was main language used by the Pallavas in their
early Pallavas and the Kadambas. Numerous Kadamba inscriptions, though a few records continued to be in
inscriptions provide details of Pallava-Kadamba hostilities. Sanskrit.
With Kalabhras Almost all the copper plate records, viz., Kasakudi,
Tandantottam, Pattattalmangalm, Udayendiram and
During the reign of Vishnugopavarman II (approx. 500– Velurpalaiyam are composed both in Sanskrit and
525), political convulsion engulfed the Pallavas due to the Tamil.
Kalabhra invasion of the Tamil country.
Sanskrit was widely used by Simhavishnu and
Towards the close of the 6th century, the Pallava Narasimhavarman II in literature. The phenomenon
Simhavishnu stuck a blow against the Kalabhras. of using Prakrit as official languages in which rulers
left their inscriptions and epigraphies continued till
The Pandyas followed suit. Thereafter the Tamil country the 6th century.
was divided between the Pallavas in the north with
Kanchipuram as their capital, and Pandyas in the south Under the Pallava dynasty, a unique form of Grantha
with Madurai as their capital. script, a descendant of Pallava script which is a type
of Brahmic script, was used.
Around the 6th century, it was exported eastwards
and influenced the genesis of almost all Southeast
Asian scripts.
450 CE
Post Pallava 1030 CE 250 CE

76
Architecture of Pallavas
The Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from
rock-cut architecture (Gupta's Ajanta Ellora) to stone
temples.
The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are
rock-cut temples dating from 610 to 690 and
structural temples between 690 and 900.
A number of rock-cut cave temples bear the
inscription of the Pallava king, Mahendravarman I
and his successors.
Among the accomplishments of the Pallava
architecture are the rock-cut temples at
Mamallapuram.
There are excavated

pillared halls and monolithic
shrines known as Rathas in
Religion Mahabalipuram.
Pallavas were followers of Hinduism Early temples were mostly

and made gifts of land to gods and dedicated to Shiva.
Brahmins.
The Kailasanatha temple in
In line with the prevalent customs, Kanchipuram and the Shore
some of the rulers performed the Temple built by
Aswamedha and other Vedic Narasimhavarman II, rock
sacrifices. (Following Guptas etc) cut temple in
Mahendravadi by
They were, however, tolerant of Mahendravarman are fine
other faiths. The Chinese monk examples of the Pallava
Xuanzang (Huein Tsang) who visited style temples.
Kanchipuram during the reign of
Narasimhavarman I reported that The temple of Nalanda
there were 100 Buddhist Gedige in Kandy, Sri Lanka
monasteries, and 80 Hindu temples is another.
in Kanchipuram.
The famous Tondeswaram
The semi-legendary founder of Zen temple of Tenavarai and the
Buddhism, Bodhidharma, may have ancient Koneswaram
been a son of a Pallava king. temple of Trincomalee were
patronised and structurally
developed by the Pallavas
Pallava society in the 7th century.
The Pallava period beginning with Simhavishnu (575 CE –
900 CE) was a transitional stage in southern Indian society
with monument building, foundation of devotional (bhakti) The development of temple architecture, particularly
sects of Alvars and Nayanars, the flowering of rural Dravida style, under the Pallavas can be seen in four
Brahmanical institutions of Sanskrit learning, and the stages.
establishment of chakravartin model of kingship over a
territory of diverse people; which ended the pre-Pallavan Mahendra Group
era of territorially segmented people, each with their
culture, under a tribal chieftain. The influence of the cave style of architecture is to
be seen in this group. Examples: are the rock-cut
While a system of ranked relationship among groups existed temples at Bhairavakonda (North Arcot district), and
in the classical period, the Pallava period extolled ranked Anantesvara temple at Undavalli (Guntur district).
relationships based on ritual purity as enjoined by the
shastras. Narasimha Group
Burton distinguishes between the chakravatin model and They comprises the rathas or monolithic temples,
the kshatriya model, and likens kshatriyas to locally based each of which is hewn out of a single rock-boulder.
warriors with ritual status sufficiently high enough to share These monolithic temples are found at
with Brahmins; and states that in south India the kshatriya Mamallapuram. The rathas, popularly called the
model did not emerge. Seven Pagodas, are actually eight in number.
Apart from the Pallava, Chola and Vijayanagar line of They are (1) Dharmaraja, (2) Bhima, (3) Arjuna, (4)
warriors which claimed chakravartin status, only few locality Sahadeva, (5) Draupadi, (6) Ganesa, (7) Pidari and (8)
warrior families achieved the prestigious kin-linked Valaiyankuttai.
organisation of northern warrior groups.
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Rajasimha Group www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

There are five examples of this group—the at
Mahabalipuram (Shore, Isvara and Mukunda temples), Additional Points
one at Panamalai in South Arcot, and the temple of
Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi. Among all these, the most Most of the Pallava kings were devotees of Siva, the
mature example is the last one. exceptions being Simhavishnu and Nandivarman who
were worshippers of Vishnu.
Nandivarman Group Mahendravarman I was the first to be influenced by
the famous Saivite saints of the age. Besides
This group mostly consists of small temples except the worshipping Siva, he also showed reverence to other
Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchi and in no way forms Hindu gods.
an advance on the achievements of the previous age. But
they are more ornate, resembling the Chola architecture. Pallavas were tolerant towards other religions like
Buddhism and Jainism. The Vedic tradition in general
The best examples are the temples of Muktesvara and bossed over the local tradition. Sankaracharya in fact
Matangesvara at Kanchi, the Vadamalisvara at Orgadam gave this stimulus to Vedic tradition.
(near Chingalput), and the Parasuramesvara at
Gudimallam (near Renigunta). Tamil saints of the sixth and seventh centuries AD
were the progenitors of the bhakti movement.
The Pallavas also contributed to the development of
sculpture in south India. The Pallava sculpture largely is Most remarkable thing about this age was the
indebted to the Buddhist tradition. presence of women saints such as Andal (an Alvar).
It is more monumental and linear in form, thus avoiding Education in the early days was controlled by the
the typical ornamentation of the Deccan sculpture. The Jainas and Buddhists. The Jaina institutions were
best example is the ‘Descent of the Ganga’ or ‘Arjuna’s located at Madurai and Kanchi. But soon Brahmanical
Penance’ at Mahabalipuram. institutions superseded them.
Sittanavasal Cave Paintings Ghatikas or Brahmin institutions were attached to the
temples and mostly confined to advance study. In the
Sittanavasal, near Pudukkottai in Tamil Nadu is renowned eighth century AD the maths also became popular. A
primarily for its rock-cut cave temple with its rare Jaina math was an omnibus institution because of its being
mural paintings. The cave floor, in fact, provides slightly a rest-house, a feeding centre and also an education
elevated beds and pillows carved out of rock, for use of centre.
the monks. There are about 17 beds, rectangular even-
spaces; each with a sort of stone pillow. In all these institutions, Sanskrit was the medium of
instruction, because it was also the official language.
It is likely that on these rock beds the Jain ascetics Literature Kanchi, the pallava capital, was a great
performed austerities such askayotsarga and sallekhana centre of Sanskrit learning.
(voluntary starvation leading to death).
Both Bharavi and Dandin, the authors of
They represent one of the best cave paintings of early Kiratarjuniyam and Dasakumaracharitam
medieval India. These are example of rock-cut respectively, lived in the Pallava court.
architecture based on Jain thought and ideologies.
Most of the kings were accomplished scholars and
They have a close form of Ajanta and Bagh caves. The Mahendravarman I himself wrote the famous
importance accorded to Sittanavasal is not because of its burlesque, Mattavilasa Prahasana.
size or grandeur, but because of its significance in the
history of development of Indian art and also because of Pallavas were also instrumental in spreading Indian
its exquisite style of depiction, as evidenced by the culture in South-East Asia.
fragments of its remnant murals.
Till the eighth century AD Pallava influence was
The Sittanavasal paintings are regarded as a surviving link predominant in Cambodia. Saivism enjoyed official
between the Ajanta paintings (6 th century) and the Chola patronage in these countries. The Pallava type of
paintings of Thanjavur (11 th century). sikhara is to be found in the temples of Java,
Cambodia and Annam.
78

Introduction The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of
the Kaveri River. Still, they ruled a significantly larger
area at the height of their power from the later half
of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th
century.
They unified peninsular India, south of the
Tungabhadra, and held as one state for three
centuries between 907 and 1215 AD.
Under Rajaraja I and his successors Rajendra I,
Name Chola Dynasty Rajadhiraja I, Rajendra II, Virarajendra, and
Kulothunga Chola I, the dynasty became a military,
Early Cholas: Uraiyur, Poombuhar, economic and cultural powerhouse in South Asia and
Tiruvarur South-East Asia.
Capital The power and the prestige the Cholas had amoung
Medieval Cholas: Pazhaiyaarai, political powers in South, South-eastern, and eastern
Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram Asia at its peak is evident through their expeditions to
the Ganges, naval raids on cities of the Srivijaya
empire based on the island of Sumatra, and their
Official languages Tamil repeated embassies to China.
The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient
Sanskrit (liturgical) Indian maritime capacity.
Other South Asian languages, Southeast
Common languages
Asian Languages (in Southeast During the period of 1010–1153 CE, the Chola
Asian Subordinates) territories stretched from the Maldives in the south
to the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh
Religion Hinduism as the northern limit.
Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India,
Demonym(s) Chozhar annexed part of the Rajarata kingdom in present-day
Sri Lanka, and occupied Maldives islands.
Government Monarchy
His son Rajendra Chola further expanded the Cholar
King and Emperors
territory by sending a victorious expedition to North
India that touched the river Ganges and defeating the
Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala.
Vijayalaya Chola
848–871
(first) By 1019, he also completely conquered the Rajarata
kingdom of Sri Lanka and annexed it to the Chola
Rajendra Chola III empire.
1246–1279
(last)
In 1025, Rajendra Chola also successfully invaded the
cities of Srivijaya empire, based on the island of
Empire Established 300s BCE Sumatra. However, this invasion failed to install direct
administration over Srivijaya, as the invasion was
Rise of the medieval short and only meant to plunder the wealth of
848 CE Srivijaya.
Cholas
However, the Chola influence on Srivijava would last
Empire at its until 1070, when the Cholas began to lose almost all
1030 CE
greatest extent of their overseas territories. The later Cholas (1070–
1279) would still rule portions of Southern India.
Disestablished 1279 CE
The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning
of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan
The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall.
southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in
world history. The Cholas succeeded in building the greatest
thalassocratic empire in the history of India, thereby
The earliest datable references to the Chola are from leaving a lasting legacy.
inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign
of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire. They established a centralized form of government
and a disciplined bureaucracy. Moreover, their
As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal for
with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to building temples has resulted in some of the greatest
govern over varying territories until the 13th century CE. works of Tamil literature and architecture.
Despite these ancient origins, the rise of the Chola, as the The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned
"Chola Empire," only begins with the medieval Cholas in the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of
the mid-9th century CE. worship but also as centers of economic activity.
79
A UNESCO world heritage site, the Brihadisvara temple at www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
Thanjavur, commissioned by the Rajaraja Chola in 1010 CE,
is a prime example for Cholar architecture. Later Cholas
They were also well known for their patronage to art. The Kulothunga I 1070–1120
development of the specific sculpturing technique used in Vikrama 1118–1135
the 'Chola bronzes'. The Chola tradition of art spread and
influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia. Kulothunga II 1133–1150
Rajaraja II 1146–1173
Timeline and Chola Kings
Rajadhiraja II 1166–1178
Pallavas
Kulothunga III 1178–1218
Rajaraja III 1216–1256
Early Cholas
(205-161BC)
Middle Cholas Later Cholas Rajendra III 1246–1279
(1070-1279AD)
(848-1070AD)
Mapping
Padayas
Early Cholas
Ellalan Karikala Killivalavan
Kulakkottan Nedunkilli Kopperuncholan
Ilamchetchenni Nalankilli Kochchenganan
Early Cholas are not important for UPSC Perunarkilli
Medieval Cholas
Vijayalaya 848–871
Aditya I 871–907
Parantaka I 907–955
Post Pallava 1030 CE
Rajaditya Chola 935–949
Gandaraditya 949–962
Arinjaya 955–956
Parantaka II (Sundara) 950–980
Aditya II (Karikala) 966–971
Uttama 971–987
Rajaraja I 985–1014
Rajendra I 1012–1044
Rajadhiraja 1018–1054
Rajendra II 1051–1063
From 300
BC to
Rajamahendra 1060–1063
1200 AD
Virarajendra 1063–1070
Athirajendra 1067–1070
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Source Observations
Important Kings of Medieval Cholas
Tamil literature of the
Sangam Period, oral Vijayalaya (848–871)
traditions, religious texts, Information about the early Cholas
temple and copperplate Regarded as the founder of Chola dynasty.
inscriptions.
The capture of Tanjore from Muttarayar, an ally of
Mentioned as one of the Mauryan the Pandyas, around AD 850 by Vijayalaya and his
Empire's neighbors to the South (Ashoka founding of the temple of Nishumbhasudini (Durga)—
Ashokan Edicts (inscribed these were the first steps in the rise of the Cholas,
Major Rock Edict No.13), who, thought
273 BCE–232 BCE) who were at that time feudatories of the Pallavas.
not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly
terms with him
Aditya I (871–907)
Periplus of the Erythraean References to the Chola country and its
Sea (Periplus Maris towns, ports and commerce, He was responsible for murdering his Pallava overlord
Erythraei), Recounts a number of conflicts between Aparajita after defeating him in a battle and
occupying the entire Tondaimandalam.
Ptolemy, the inhabitants of Sri Lanka and Cholas
Mahavamsa in the 1st century BCE Aditya next conquered the Kongu country also. He is
said to have built Siva temples on both banks of the
The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: Kaveri.
1. The Early Cholas of the Sangam literature (300 BC to 300 Parantaka I (907–955)
AD)
2. The interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas At the start of his reign, he invaded the Pandya
and the rise of the Imperial medieval Cholas under territory and assumed the title of ‘Maduraikonda’
(Conqueror of Madurai).
Vijayalaya (c. 848)
3. The dynasty of Vijayalaya When the Chola country was invaded in 916 by the
4. The Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the Rashtrakuta Krishna II, a decisive battle was fought at
third quarter of the 11th century. Vallala (North Arcot District), which ended in disaster
for the Rashtrakutas.
The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible
evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars Parantaka began to experience increasing difficulty in
generally agree that this literature belongs to the late defending his empire from 940.
centuries before the common era and the early centuries
of the common era. Krishna III, one of the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers,
defeated Parantaka in the famous battle of
The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Takkolam (near Arkonam) in 949 and succeeded in
Chola kings. Urayur (now a part of Thiruchirapalli) was occupying a large part of the northern half of the
their oldest capital. Chola empire.
Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital. The Thus, the best part of Parantaka’s reign was marked
Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a by increasing success and prosperity, though it ended
Chola prince known as Ellalan, invaded the Rajarata in disaster brought about by the hostility of the
kingdom of Sri Lanka and conquered it in 235 BCE with the Rashtrakutas.
help of a Mysore army.
After Parantaka I there was confusion and disorder
From the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) Pandyas and for about 30 years. His successors were Ganaraditya,
Pallavas dominated the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, Arinjaya, Parantaka II and Uttama Chola.
the Kalabhras invaded Tamil country, displaced the
existing kingdoms and ruled during that time. Among the four, only Parantaka II is important, for he
recovered a part of the lost territory from the
They were displaced by the Pallava dynasty and the Rashtrakutas.
Pandyan dynasty in the 6th century.
Rajaraja I (985–1014)
Vijayalaya chola captured Thanjavur from Ilango
Mutharaiyar between 848 and 851 CE. Known originally by the name of Arumolivarman, he
was the son of Parantaka II. The real greatness of the
When the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest and Cholas began with him.
Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them,
this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage He defeated a confederation of the three kingdoms
under their more successful rivals. of Pandya, Kerala and Ceylon and occupied their
territories.
The Cholas continued to rule over a diminished territory in
the neighbourhood of Uraiyur, but only in a minor Destruction of Anuradhapura (capital of Ceylon)
capacity. after defeating Mahinda V led to the establishment
of a Chola province in north Ceylon with Polonnaruva
Cholas never lost total grip of the territory around Uraiyur, as its capital. Karuvurar was his guru.
their old capital, as Vijayalaya, when he rose to
prominence hailed from that area. His annexation of a few parts of modern Mysore
(Gangas) intensified the conflict with the new power
of the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
81
He invaded the Chalukya kingdom in order to force the www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
Chalukyas to retreat from Vengi, whose ruler was a Chola
ally. Later Kalyani itself was sacked, and Rajadhiraja
performed the virabhisheka (coronation of the victory
He also annexed the Maldives probably for securing the there and assumed the title of ‘Vijayarajendra’.
trade routes of the Indian Ocean.
Towards the end of his career, he led another
He constructed the magnificent Siva or Brihadeesvara expedition against the Western Chalukya, Somesvara,
(also known as Rajarajesvara) temple at Tanjore. but died in the battle of Koppam (Kopbal).
Rajaraja I encouraged Sri Mara Vijayottungavarman, the But his son and successor, Rajendra II turned the
Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya (South-East Asia), to build a defeat into victory.
Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam.
Rajendra II (1051–1063)
The vihara was called ‘Chudamani Vihara’ after the father
of Sri Mara. After the victory he planted a jayastambha (pillar of
victory) at Kollapura and returned to his capital.
Rajaraja initiated the system of prefacing the stone
inscriptions of the reign with an account in set terms of its Somesvara’s attempt later to reverse the verdict of
chief events kept up to date by additions from time to Koppam ended in failure. But soon after Rajendra
time. himself passed away.
Raiendra I (1012–1044) Virarajendra (1063–1070)
He raised the Chola empire to the position of being the Somesvara sent a message challenging Virarajendra
most extensive and respected state of his time. to another contest.
He invaded and completed the conquest of Ceylon by The latter accepted the challenge and took the field
defeating and imprisoning Mahinda V. at Kudal Sangamam.
He led a triumphant march through the territories of the But the Western Chalukya ruler failed to turn up due
Pandyas and Kerala, and made one of his sons the viceroy to illness and soon performed the paramayoga by
of both, with Madurai as capital. drowning himself in the Tungabhadra.
He defeated the Western Chalukyas who were trying to Virarajendra also successfully foiled the attempts of
meddle in the succession dispute of Vengi, and installed Sinhalese king Vijayabahu I to overthrow the Chola
Rajaraja, a nephew of Rajendra, on the Vengi throne. power on the island.
He also punished Madhukamarnava, the Eastern Ganga He then sent another naval expedition for the
ruler of Kalinga, who sided with the Western Chalukyas. conquest of Kadaram (Sri Vijaya) on behalf of a prince
who had come in search of his aid and protection
Rajendra I led a military expedition to the Ganga valley, (1068).
which seems to have been a success, and constructed a
new capital, Gangaikonda Cholapuram and a temple in Kulottunga I (1070–1120)
celebration of the expedition.
His naval expedition to Sri Vijaya either to win glory or to Originally known as Rajendra II, this son of Rajaraja
teach a lesson to its rulers who could have obstructed Narendra of Vengi and Chola princess Ammangadevi,
Chola intercourse with China met with success and the took advantage of Virarajendra’s death to claim the
kingdom was restored back to its ruler, Sangrama Chola throne as well.
Vijayottunga (son of Sri Mara). He thus united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola
He sent two diplomatic missions to China for political as empire. When Vijayabahu overthrew the Chola
well as commercial purposes. authority in Ceylon, he reconciled himself to the loss.
But he could not afford to neglect the revolt of the
Rajadhiraia (1018–1054) Pandya and Kerala countries on the mainland.
He suppressed rebellions in Pandya, Kerala and Ceylon He subjected the whole country once more by
kingdoms. He was able to defeat the Sinhalese, aided by launching a strong expedition. Up to 1115 the extent
a confederation of five Pandya princes of the Chola empire remained undiminished, except
the loss of Ceylon.
He launched an expedition to restore Chola power in
Vengi. But towards the end of his reign troubles broke out
and he lost the Vengi and Mysore countries to
He defeated the Western Chalukya forces at Dannada Chalukya Vikramaditya VI.
(Dhanyakataka) on the Krishna and compelled Vijayaditya,
Rajaraja’s rival, to retreat. Kulottunga I sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to
China and also maintained cordial relations with Sri
He then entered the Western Chalukya territory and Vijaya, from whose ruler he received an embassy as
inflicted a defeat on the enemy in the Pundur battle on well.
the banks of the Krishna.
Tradition and epigraphy alike give him the title of
At Yetagiri (Yadgir) he put up a pillar of victory with the ‘Sungam tavirtta’ (he who abolished the tolls), though
tiger emblem on it. full details of this reform are not available.
82
Major Exam Points

Vijayalaya, possibly a feudatory of the Pallava dynasty,
took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Decline of Chola Empire
Pandya dynasty and Pallava dynasty in c. 850, captured
Thanjavur from Muttarayar, which became the capital of The rule of the later Cholas between 1218, starting
the Imperial Chola Dynasty. with Rajaraja Chola II, to the last emperor Rajendra
Chola III was not as strong as those of the emperors
Aditya I, caused the demise of the Pallava dynasty and between 850 and 1215.
defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885,
occupied large parts of the Kannada country, and had The Chola Empire, though not as strong as between
marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty. 850 and 1150, was still largely territorially intact under
Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the
In 925, his son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka (known as construction and completion of the third grand Chola
Ilangai). Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara
dynasty under Krishna II in the battle of Vallala. Rajaraja Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern
Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were the greatest rulers of the Kumbakonam.
Chola dynasty
Kulothunga Chola III was defeated by Maravarman
Rajaraja Chola I integrated his empire into a tight Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16.
administrative grid under royal control, and at the same
time strengthened local self-government. Therefore, he Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island
conducted a land survey in 1000 CE to effectively marshall of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala
the resources of his empire. He also built the power
Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1010 CE.
In continuation of the decline, also marked by the
Rajendra Chola I conquered Odisha and his armies resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most
continued to march further north and defeated the forces powerful rulers in South India.
of the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges
river in north India. At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence
of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as
Rajendra Chola I built a new capital called Gangaikonda the main player in the Kannada country.
Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India.
The Hoysalas thoroughly exploited the lack of unity
Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom among the Tamil kingdoms and alternately supported
in Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire one Tamil kingdom against the other thereby
there. His name was mentioned in the corrupted form as preventing both the Cholas and Pandyas from rising to
Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah their full potential.
Melayu.
The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a
He also completed the conquest of the Rajarata kingdom of great power who ultimately banished the Hoysalas
Sri Lanka and took the Sinhala king Mahinda V as a from Malanadu or Kannada country, who were allies
prisoner, in addition to his conquests of Rattapadi of the Cholas from Tamil country and the demise of
(territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, the Cholas themselves ultimately was caused by the
Talakkad, and Kolar, where the Kolaramma temple still has Pandyas in 1279.
his portrait statue) in Kannada country.
The Pandyas first steadily gained control of the Tamil
Three diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, country as well as territories in Sri Lanka, southern
1033, and 1077. Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman
Sundara Pandiyan II and his able successor Jatavarman
Virarajendra Chola defeated Someshvara II of the Western Sundara Pandyan before inflicting several defeats on
Chalukya Empire and made an alliance with Prince the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III,
Vikramaditya VI. and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son
Ramanatha
Cholas always successfully controlled the Chalukyas. Then
the former feudatories of Chalukyas like the Hoysalas, The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279.
Yadvas, and Kakatiyas steadily increased their power and
finally replaced the Chalukyas. The Hoysalas were routed from Kannanur Kuppam
around 1279 by Kulasekhara Pandiyan and in the same
The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III collaborated to the war the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was routed
herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas and the Chola empire ceased to exist thereafter.
under Veera Ballala II, the son-in-law of the Chola monarch,
and defeated the Western Chalukyas in a series of wars Thus the Chola empire was completely overshadowed
with Someshvara IV between 1185 and 1190. by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the
end of the 13th century and until period of the
From 1150 CE to 1280 CE, Pandya became the staunchest Vijayanagara empire.
opponents of the Cholas and tried to win independence for
their traditional territories.
Cholas did not have a standing navy, they fought with trade
ships.
Decline of Cholas and

Decline of Chalukyas
Hoyasalas &
& Rise of Hoyasalas Rise of pandyas
83
Administration
The most striking feature of the administrative system of
the Cholas was their autonomous village and town Besides land revenue, there were tolls on goods in
administration, transit, taxes on professions and houses, dues levied
on ceremonial occasions like marriages, and judicial
Their administration was more centralised than that of the fines.
Rashtrakutas or the Chalukyas.
Worship of deceased rulers, and construction of temples Military Administration
as tributes to dead kings was a special feature of the Chola Term Description
period.
Kai-kolar Royal troops
Officials were usually remunerated by assignments of land Velai-kkars King's elite defendants
(jivitas) suited to their position. Titles of honour and shares
in booty taken in war formed other rewards of public Nattu-padai Local defense
service.
Kadagams Army Cantonments
Central Administration
Term Description
Administrative Units
Emperor or King Monarch/ Apex of Empire The Cholas developed different structures of control
for different regions of their territory.
Undankuttam Group of Ministers
They had 4 big regions (Mandals) and all of them had
Olai Court of Equity
different administrative systems.
Per-Undanum / Adigarigal Higher officials
Sir-Undanum / Karu-migal
Lower officials
/ Panimakkal Tondai Kongu
mandalam mandalam
Jivitas Lands
Chola
Puravu-Varitinaik-kalam Revenue administration system mandalam Pandi
mandalam
Provincial Administration
Term Description
Cholamandalam
Principalities Ruled by Vassal Chiefs
Valandu Large Artificial revenue/ Political unit
Provinces under viceroys (Royal
Mandalam
Princess)
Districts that were reorganized into a Valandu
Valanus Divisions
Nadus Nadus were broken up, villages from one
Nadus Districts
nadu transferred to another, brahmadeya
Kurrams Villages and devadana villages removed from nadu
jurisdiction.
Provincial Administration
Term Description
Pandimandalam
Towns/ Townships (Autonomous Earlier structure remained same
Tankurrams
administration)
Advancements Improvement by intensive agrarian expansion
Assemblies Administrated both Towns and Villages and organisation in the wet zones of the
Tampraparni valley
Revenue Administration
Term Description Cholamandalam
Vellanvagai Lands with Peasant propritorship Valandu Large Artificial revenue/ Political unit
Urnattam Residential parts of village Districts that were reorganized into a Valandu
Parachcheri Outcastes' hamlet
Nadus Nadus were broken up, villages from one
Kummana-achheri Artisians' quarters nadu transferred to another, brahmadeya
Sudugadu Burning ground and devadana villages removed from nadu
jurisdiction.
All cultivable land was held in one of the three broad classes
of tenure which may be distinguished as peasant Pandimandalam
proprietorship , service tenure, and tenure resulting from
charitable gifts. Earlier structure remained same
The first type was having direct relations with the Advancements Improvement by intensive agrarian expansion
government and paying a land tax like ryotwari system. All and organisation in the wet zones of the
land was carefully surveyed and classified into tax-paying Tampraparni valley
and non-taxable lands. 84
Tondaimandalam www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

Earlier Kottam structure (Pastoral lands) remained
same
Culture of Cholas
Temple Architecture
Advancements Systematic use of the tankuru or taniyur in this
region as a distinct revenue unit, suggests a
different sub-system of control evolved by the Early Middle Later
Cholas Phase Phase Phase
A new type of nadu evolved around taniyurs
Perilamai-nadu integrating the villages attached to them (Like
modern cities) Siva (or the
Vijayalaya
Brihadeesvara or the
Stationing of nilaippadai (army camps) in strategic Cholesvara temple
Nilaippadai Rajarajesvara)
locations at Narthamalai
temple, built in 1009
(also called
by Rajaraja I, at
Kongumandalam Melamalai) Airavatesvara
Tanjore.
temple at
Politico-geographical reorganisation of entire Nagesvarasvami
A carving of Marco Darasuram
territory temple at
Mandalam Polo's face is present (Tanjore
A Chola-Pandaya was appointed to rule over Kumbhakonam, District) and the
(late 13 th century
Pandaya region Kuranganatha Kampaharesvar
addition)
temple at a temple at
Mandala- Srinivasanallur
Appointed to rule over sub regions Temple of Tribhuvanam
Mudalis
The twin temples of Gangaikonda
Agastyisvara and Cholapuram
Tax system Cholesvara at (dedicated to Siva),
Tiruvalisvaram by Rajendra I (1030)
Term Description
Puravu Vari tinaikkalam Regular Land revenue department
Record of land rights and taxes (Based
Varippottagam
on enquiries and surveys)
Puravu, Kadamai (Major Central taxes, Collected by central
land tax), Irai administration
Local taxes Collected by Local bodies
Ur and Nadu Granaries and different levels Temple architecture, particularly the Dravida or
south Indian style of architecture, reached the
Nattu-mudal Total revenue from one nadu pinnacle of glory under the Cholas. The chief feature
of a Chola temple is the vimana or the storey, which
There was no flow of revenues from the localities to the centre. was later eclipsed by the richly ornamented gopuram
or gateway.
Major land tax (kadamai) was standardised, along with a number
of smaller ones related to land. Under the Cholas, temples became the centres of
The sabha and nagaram settled revenues directly with the state.
life, particularly in the rural areas. The village
assembly invariably held its meetings in the temple
Local Collection and Reinvestment Local forms of collection and a mandapa, which became an additional feature of the
reinvestment of such revenues in the regional economy avoided Chola temple architecture.
problems of central collection and redistribution.
Customs at royal ports, the presence of foreign (Srivijayan) agents Sculpture
at Chola ports, and embassies to China were also intended for
securing a second source of revenue.
Decorative
Bureaucracy of Cholas Portraits Icons
Structures
Chola state was lightly bureaucratized.
Term Description
There are three well-
Adikari Powerful local chiefs preserved and nearly lifesize
Muvenda-velan Officers of some rank, having portraits on the walls of the
and brahmaraya close connections with the king Kuranganatha temple at
Srinivasanallur, and several
Nadalvan Controlling officers over Nadu others in the Nagesvara
temple at Kumbhakonam.
Udan kuttam Royal officers
Vidaiyil Country officers
Mudaligal and Madhystha Village level officers
85
The Siva temple at Tiruvalisvaram is a

veritable museum of superb early Chola www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
iconography.
Education based on the epics and the Puranas was
The walls of the Brihadesvara temples at imparted during this time through discourses in
Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram temples.
contain numerous icons of large size and
fine execution. There were colleges and other institutions for higher
education. Very few books were composed in
The Chola sculptors started bronze- Sanskrit.
casting sometime around the middle of
the 9 th century. The Cholas are Cholas were mostly devotees of Siva, though a few
particularly known for their Nataraja worshipped Vishnu and Buddhism.
bronzes (bronze statues of Nataraja or
the dancing Siva) which are masterpieces Jainism witnessed a decline.
of this medium of art.
A peculiarity of the Chola religion was that greater
The best example is the Nataraja image stress was laid on dana (gift) than on yajna (sacrifice).
in the Nagesvara temple at
Kumbhakonam. A group of three bronzes Arial view of Gangaikonda
of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita with Cholapuram by Rajendra I
Hanuman at their feet from
Tirukkadaiyur (Tanjore District) is one of
the finest products of Chola bronze-
making of the reign of Rajaraja I.
Decorative sculpture is exhibited in many
forms—architectural motifs, floral and
vegetal patterns, friezes of animals, birds,
dancing figures and legendary and
Puranic stories.
Paintings
Chola wall paintings are to be found on the walls of the
Vijayalaya Cholesvara and Rajarajesvara temples.
On the walls of the Vijayalaya Cholesvara temple, large
painted figures of Mahakala, Devi and Siva are still visible.
In the Rajarajesvara temple scenes representing Siva in his
abode of Kailasa as Nataraja and Tripurantaka are painted
on the walls in large and forceful compositions.
The Artificial lake constructed near it

is 16 miles long and 3 miles wide
Literature and Education

Work Author Description Social Divisions
Sibakasindamani Tiruttakkatēvar
Tamil books
Ramayana Kamban
Rajarajesvara
Drama The industrial population of the country was broadly
Natakam Rajraja-I
divided into the Valangai (right-hand) and iIdangai
Rajaraja Vijayam Kavya
(left-hand) divisions.
Jayangondar, the poet
Kalingattupparani Kalinga war in detail
laureate of Kulottunga I
The Chola kingdom often witnessed feuds between
Kuttan (Cour poet of
Parani + Vikrama's Kalinga war, these two groups.
Vikrama chola,
Pillaittamil + Ula Childhood of Kulottunga
Kulottunga II and
on three rulers II
Rajraja II)
Nalavenba Pugalendi Nala-Damayanti story
Also known as
Periya-Puranama Sekkilar
Tiruttondar Puranam
Nannaranava
Keshava Swamy Sanskrit work
samkshevam
86
Trade and Diplomacy

Term Description
Foreign relations
Swadesi Domestic merchants
Nana-desi International merchants Sent envoys to countries of the South in late 1000
China
CE
Settlements of merchants (Self
Nagara Sent six delegations to the emperor of China in
governed)
the brief period from 1003 to 1018
Pattinam Great ports Sri Vijaya
(Indonesia) In 1005, Endowed a Buddhist monastery at
Ayyavole and Manigraman Powerful guilds of Nanadesis Nagapattinam (TN) for which Rajaraja I
Ayyavole Dominated deccan trade with west Asia provided some land grants
Manigramam Dominated Tamil trade South east Asia Grants made for monastery by Rajendra I (1012)
The inscription at Takuapa (on the Isthmus of Siam), Cambodia
Suryavarman I (From Angkor) sent a chariot as a
belonging to the middle of the ninth century, mentions this
latter guild (Manigramam) specifically, while the Tamil present to Rajaraja I
inscription of 1088 found in Sumatra was also produced by a
guild from Tamil Nadu. Additional Points
There was no strict division of the spheres of trade between Chola's coinage issues were in all the three metals
these guilds. Thus, for example, a nanadesi trader from the Gold, Silver and Copper. Though the coinage was
Malabar coast (Malaimandalam) established a nanadesi- mainly destined for general currency, very few
vinnagar temple, devoted to Vishnu, at Pagan in Burma in commemoratives could be observed.
the 13 th century.
Uttama Chola struck silver with the royal emblem of
Letters and papers found in an old synagogue of Cairo give "Tiger facing two fishes" on the obverse and the
ample evidence of the intimate contacts which the medieval Nagari legend "Uttama Chola".
merchants of Cairo had with those of south India.
Uttarameruru Inscription issued by Pranthaka Chola
The respect which the Jewish traders enjoyed in south India gives details of election to local self governance
is shown by a royal grant inscribed on copper plate in favour bodies.
of one Issuppu Irappan (Joseph Raban).
Chola kings granted huge estates of land to Brahmins
The imperial Cholas tried to enhance their maritime as brahmadeyams and caturvedimangalams.
strength by gaining control over all strategically important
coastlines. They captured the southwest coast of India and There were two types of villages at the local in the
almost the entire Indian east coast up to the mouth of the Chola empire. One type of village consisted of people
Ganges. from different caste and the assembly which ran this
type of village was called ‘ur’.
They also seized the Maldives, Sri Lanka and the Andamans.
In keeping with this line of policy, they finally took on Sri The second type of village was ‘agrahara’ types of
Vijaya. village which were settled by Brahmins in which most
of the land was rent-free.
The inscriptions of Rajendra I indicate that Chola relations
with Sri Vijaya and Cambodia were quite friendly in the A highly evolved philosophical system called Saiva
period from 1014 to 1019. Yet in 1025 he sent his fleet on Siddhanta was founded during this period.
the famous expedition to Sumatra and Malaya where his
army defeated the mighty Sri Vijaya empire and all its Kulathunga Chola was ardent shaivite. He persecuted
tributary princes. vaishnavites. Bhakti saint Ramnujacharya left
Srirangam and settled in Melkote, Karnataka.
In 1068–69, A Chola inscription recorded that their troops
conquered a large part of Malaya at the behest of the king A new social evil Devadasi system came into practice
who had asked for help to whom the country was returned. during Chola rule.
Presence of water tank is the unique feature of chola
architecture.
Africa and
Arabia
87
The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by

and writings of medieval European travelers such as
Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò de' Conti.
These travelogues, contemporary literature and
epigraphy in the local languages, and modern
archeological excavations at Vijayanagara have
provided ample information about the history and
power of the empire.
The empire's legacy includes monuments spread over
South India, the best known of which is the group at
Introduction Hampi.
Vijayanagara (1336 – 1565) Different temple building traditions in South and

Penukonda (1565 – 1592)
Central India were merged into the Vijayanagara
Capital architecture style. This synthesis inspired
Chandragiri (1592 – 1604) architectural innovations in the construction of Hindu
Vellore (1604 – 1646) temples.
Common languages Kannada, Telugu, Sanskrit Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade
brought new technologies to the region such as water
management systems for irrigation.
Religion Hinduism
The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and
Government Monarchy literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu,
Tamil, and Sanskrit with topics such as astronomy,
mathematics, medicine, fiction, musicology,
• 1336–1356 Harihara I historiography and theater gaining popularity.
• 1642–1646 Sriranga III The classical music of Southern India, Carnatic music,
evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara
Empire created an epoch in the history of Southern
• Established 1336 India that transcended regionalism by promoting
Hinduism as a unifying factor.
• Earliest records 1343
List of Rulers
• Disestablished 1646
Currency Varaha Sangama dynasty Saluva dynasty

(1336 – 1485 CE) (1485 – 1505 CE)
The Vijayanagara Empire, also called the Karnata Kingdom,
was a Hindu empire based in the region of South India,
which consisted the modern states of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and some parts of
Telangana and Maharashtra.
Tuluva dynasty Aravidu dynasty
It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and (1491 – 1570 CE) (1542 – 1646 CE)
Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, members of a
pastoralist cowherd community that claimed Yadava
lineage.
Harihara I (1336–1356 CE), Founder
The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of
attempts by the southern powers to ward off Perso-Turkic Bukka Raya I (1356–1377 CE), Founder
Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century.
Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE), Greatest ruler of
At its peak, it subjugated almost all of South India's ruling empire
families and pushed the sultans of the Deccan beyond the
Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region, in addition to Sriranga III (1642–1646/1652 CE), Last ruler of
annexing modern day Odisha from the Gajapati Kingdom dynasty and empire
thus becoming a notable power.
It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a
major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the
combined armies of the Deccan sultanates.
The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara,
whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World
Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.
88
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Foreign Travellers Mapping

Traveller Country Period
India 1320 CE
Morocco Harihara I
Ibn Batuta
(Africa) (1336–1356 CE)
Deva Raya I
Nicolo de conti Venice (Italy)
(1406–1422 CE)
Deva Raya II
Abdul Razzak Persia (Iran)
(1424–1446 CE)
Domingo Paes
Krishnadevaraya
Duarte Edwardo (1509–1529 CE)
Barbosa
Portugal
Achyuta Deva
Fernao Nuniz Raya
(1529–1542 CE)
Indigenous writers
Source Ruler
Amuktamalayada Sri Krishna Deva Raya
Manucharitram Allasani Peddan
Gangadevi (wife of Kumara Kampana)

(one of the sons of Bukka 1)
Mudura-Vijayam
Deals with Kampana's conquest of
Madurai during reign of Bukka-I
Gangadasa (Deals with seige of Before
Gangadesa Pralapa Vijayanagara city by Brahmanis and
Vilasam Gajapatis of Orrisa after death of Deva
After
raya II
Rajanatha Dindima 1446-1520 CE
Saluvabhyudayuam
(Historical eulogy of Saluva dynasty)
Inscriptions
Inscription Description
Bagapellsi Copper Plate
Achievements of Harihara I
Inscription
Genealogy of the five Sangama
Bitragunta grant of
brothers responsible
Sangama II (son of
for the foundation of the
Kampana)
Vijayanagar empire
Channarayapateena States that Bukka I was successful in
inscription of Harihara II conquering several areas
Srirangam copper plates Achievements of Deva Raya II
Devulapalli copper
plates of Immadi Genealogy of the Saluva dynasty.
Narasimha
89
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Coinage Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485)
Source Ruler
Gold coins of Vijaynagara empire
Varaha (Some were full, half and quarter Krishna-
Godavari Delta
varahas)
Tungabhadra Marathawada
On the front they contain figures of various Hindu deities Doab
and animals like the bull, the elephant and the fabulous
gandaberunda (a double eagle, sometimes holding an
elephant in each beak and claw).
On the reverse they contain the king’s name either in
Nagari or Kannada script. Some quarter varahas of Deva Interests Reasons
Raya II describe him as ‘Gajabentakara’.
Tungabhadra
Fertile region
Doab
Origin
Control of Konkan coast
The Vijayanagar empire was Marathawada
founded in 1336 by Harihara and
Bukka of the Sangama dynasty Krishna-Godavari Fertile region + Numerous ports for
who were, at first, in the service delta foreign trade
of the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal,
Prataparudra II.
Harihara I (1336-1356)
But after the Muslim conquest of
the Kakatjya kingdom in 1323, The Bahmani kingdom came into being in 1347 and
they went over to the kingdom of was involved on constant conflicts with
Kampili in modern Karnataka and Vijayanagara.
became ministers there.
Harihara 1 ruled from 1336 to 1356, and gained
When Kampili was also overrun by control over most of the area south of the
Muhammad Tughluq for giving Tungabhadra River and earned the title of “master
refuge to a Muslim rebel, the two of the eastern and western seas” (Purvapaschima
brothers were imprisoned, Samudradhishavara).
converted to Islam, and appointed
to deal with the rebellions in the Bukka I (1356-1377)
province of Kampili.
Bukka Raya I took over in 1356 and ruled till 1377.
After establishing their sway over
Kampili at first for the Sultan, the In 1367, Bukka I launched an assault on the Mudkal
two Sangama brothers returned fortress. In revenge, the Bahmani sultan crossed the
to the Hindu fold at the initiative Tungabhadra and marched into Vijayanagar,
of saint Vidyaranya, proclaimed defeated the king, and forced him to retreat to the
their independence and founded jungle. A long war ensued and the Bahmani sultan
a new city on the south bank of had the upper hand because of the use of artillery.
the Tungabhadra which was
called Vijayanagar (city of victory) Finally, a treaty shared the disputed Tungabhadra
or Vidyanagar (city of learning). doab between the kingdoms.
The young kingdom had to contend with the Hoyasala ruler Harihara II (1377-1404)
of Mysore and the Sultan of Madurai. The kingdom was expanded to the eastern coast
under Harihara II (1377 to 1404).
The Sultan of Madurai had expansionist ambition. He
defeated the Hoyasala ruler in a battle and executed him. He conquered territories from:
Reddis in upper Krishna Godavari delta
The dissolution of the Hoyasala kingdom enabled Harihara Warangal rulers in the lower Krishna-Godavari delta
and Bukka to expand their tiny principality. Ganga rulers of Orissa
Contested Bahmani Sultans
By 1346, the whole of the Hoyasala kingdom had passed Captured Goa and Belgaum from the Bahmanis
into the hands of the Vijayanagar rulers.
He also Sent an expedition to northern Sri Lanka.
The struggle between the Vijayanagar rulers and the
Sultans of Madurai, however, lasted for about four decades, Their expansion eastwards stopped because the
and it was only by 1377 that the sultanate of Madurai was Warangal ruler had seized Golconda and Kaulas
completely wiped out. from the Bahmani sultanate and signed a treaty.
The Vijayanagar empire then comprised the whole of south Treaty between Warangal and Bahmanis forged an
India upto Ramesvaram, including the Tamil country as well alliance that lasted for over 50 years. This alliance
as Kerala. stopped Vijayanagar from taking over the
Tungabhadra doab.
90
Deva-Raya I (1406-1422)
He ruled during 1406-1422.
Tuluva dynasty (1491-1570)
He was defeated by Bahmani Sultan Firuz Shah, in the fight
over Tungabhadra doab. Krishna Deva Raya (1509-1529) was the greatest
ruler of the Vijayanagara empire and brought about
He had to pay 10 lakh huns, pearls, and elephants as the greatest kingdom of south india in the medieval
indemnity and gave his daughter in marriage to the Sultan period.
(ceded Bankapur in the Tungabhadra doab, as dowry).
Deva Raya entered into an alliance with Warangal to
Aravidu dynasty (1542-1646)
partition the Reddi kingdom between them, hence Krishna Deva Raya’s death was followed by a struggle
Warangal switched their alliance to Vijayanagara. for succession among his relations. After the
uneventful reigns of Achtyuta Deva and Vankata,
This helped Deva Raya defeat Sultan Firuz Shan Bahmani Sadasiva Raya ascended the throne. But the real
and annexed the entire Reddi kingdom up to the mouth of power, during the reign of all of them lay in the hands
the Krishna River. of Rama Raja, who was a son-in-law of Krishna Deva
Raya.
Deva Raya also constructed a dam on Tungabhadra and
irrigated cities and villages with canals from this dam. He Rama Raja was able to playoff various Muslim power
also built a dam on the river Haridra. He also built the against one another. He entered into a commercial
Mallikarjuna Temple in Mallapangudi. treaty with the Portuguese where by the supply of
horses to the Bijapur ruler was stopped. In a series of
In 1420, Italian traveler Nicolo Conti visited Vijayanagara wars he completely defeated the Bijapur ruler.
and describes a magnificent capital city.
He then allied himself with the Bijapur ruler to inflict
There is a Kannada inscription of Deva Raya I at the Hazara humiliating defeats on Golconda and Ahmadnagar.
Rama temple in modern-day Hampi. However, his enemies (except Berar) ultimately
combined to inflict a crushing defeat on Vijayanagar
Deva-Raya II (1425-1446) at Bannihatti, near Talikota, in 1565. This battle is
also known as the Battle of Raksasa Tangadi. Rama
He ruled during 1425-1446. Raja was imprisoned and immediately executed. This
battle is generally considered to mark the end of the
He strengthened his army in a clever way by recruiting great age of Vijayanagar.
Muslims in the army and giving them jagirs. He then made
all Hindu soldiers and officers learn mounted archery from The last ruler of the dynasty and Vijayanagara empire
them. was Sriranga III (1642-1652).
In 1443, he crossed the Tungabhadra in order to recover
regions south of the Krishna (Mudkal, Bankapura). But after
three hard battles, both sides agreed to maintain existing Tuluva Krishna Deva Raya (1509-29)
frontiers.
Rebel chieftain of Ummattur
Portuguese traveler Nuniz visited during this time and (Mysore)
wrote that Quilon, Sri Lanka, Pulicat, Pegu, and Tenasserim Krishna
(Burma and Malaya) paid tribute to Deva Raya II. Gajapatis (Orrissa)
Deva Ray
Persian traveler Abdur Razzaq elaborated about the army Muslim pressure (Bijapur)
troops of Deva Raya II as well. VS
Portuguese (Goa)
After the reign of Deva Raya II, an internal struggle for the Bahamani Kingdom
throne ensued weakening the kingdom for some time.
From 1450, Orissa’s Gajapati rulers made raids into south The Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the
India up to Madurai which weakened the Vijayanagara and battle of Diwani.
shrunk the authority of Rayas to Karnataka.
Krishna Deva killed Yusuf Adil Shah in battle of
At this time, the minister Saluva usurped the throne and Kovilkonda
the Saluva dynasty was founded.
Krishna Deva Raya invaded the Raichur doab and
took the Raichur fort.
Saluva dynasty (1485-1505) After the capture of Raichur, Krishna marched on to
Gulbarga, defeated Amir Barid, the minister of Sultan
The dynasty had only three rulers: Mahmud and took hold of the city.
Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya (1485–1491 CE) From there he marched on Bidar, captured it after a
Thimma Bhupala (1491 CE) short siege, released Mahmud and assumed the title
Narasimha Raya II (1491–1505 CE) of ‘Yavanarajyasthapanacharya’ (Establisher of the
Yavana or Muslim kingdom).
The Portuguese governor, Albuquerque, sent an
agent to offer aid to Krishna Deva in his fight against
the Bahmanis in return for Vijayanagar support
against the Zamorin of Calicut.
91
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supply Arab and
Persian horses only to
Vijayanagar and not to
send any to Bijapur.
But Krishna did not
immediately accept the
offer.
The second Portuguese Kovilkonda
ambassador to Krishna
Diwani
Deva renewed the
Portuguese governor’s Raichur
request to erect a fort Talaikota
at Bhatkal and
succeeded in his
mission. This was after Ummattur
Albuquerque had
attacked and captured
Goa in 1510.
The war against the rebel chieftain of Ummattur, Ganga

Raya, began with an attack on Penugonda, which had
passed in to the hands of the rebel.
The capture of this strong fortress was followed by attacks
on Ummattur and Sivasamudram (the headquarters of
Ganga Raya).
In the process, Ganga Raya was killed and the conquered
territory became a new province with Srirangapatnam as
capital.
The Gajapati ruler of Orissa, Prataparudra, had been in
occupation of the coastal districts in the east from the day
of Saluva Narasimha. Krishna Deva defeated the forces of
the Orissa ruler, and conquered the whole of Telangana.
He then turned his attention to North-coastal Andhra
where Rajamahendravaram was one of the first cities to be Literary Achievements
taken.
Scholar Works
A few feeble attempts were made to stop its progress, but
the Vijayanagar army continued its triumphant march, Amukta-Malyada, Jambavati
devastating the territory of the Gajapatis all along the road Krishna Deva rai
Kalyanam
up to Potnur-Simhadri.
Allasani Peddana
Krishna Deva set up a pillar of victory there and returned to Manucharitram, Harikatha
(Andhra-Kavita-
his capital. His victorious army marched further in to Saram-samu
Kalinga until its capital Cuttack was reached. Pitamaha)
Parihatapaharanam, Vaani
Prataparudra sued for peace and offered the hand of his Nandi-Timmana
daughter. Krishna Deva was magnanimous and returned all vilasam
the territory north of the Krishna.
Madayya Raja-Sekhara-Charitram
Ismail Adil Shah recaptured Raichur and this was the reason
for the second conflict between the Bijapur ruler and
Krishna Deva Raya. Dhurajati Kalahasti Mahatyam
In the battle of Raichur the Bijapur ruler was completely Ayyalaraju

defeated and pushed across the river Krishna, barely Sakaramatasara Sangraham
Ramabhadra
escaping with his life. The Viajayanagar armies later
destroyed Gulbarga before a truce was made. Raghava Pandaviyam and
Pingali Surana
Prabhavari Pradyumma
At Gulbarga, Krishna Deva liberated the sons of Mahmud
Bahmani, made the eldest of them the Sultan, and brought Vasu charithra
the others with him to Vijayanagar.
Ramaraja Bhusan Harischandra naalopakhuamu
But this second attempt to resuscitate Bahmani sovereignty
under Hindu patronage lacked all possibility of success and
perhaps only served to irritate the Sultans of the five Tenaliram linga Panduranga Mahatyam
splinter states to a great extent.
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Architectural achievements www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

He built the famous temples of
Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy and Revenue Administration
Vitthalaswamy at the capital (Hampi). land revenue, Tributes, Gifts from vassals
Sources and feudal chiefs, Customs (Ports), Tolls on
He also built a new city, called
various things, Judicial fines etc.
Nagalapura, in memory of his mother,
Nagamba. Based on careful survey & Nature of land,
Quantum of yield
Besides, he built a large number of raya Collection
gopurams (towers) and other structures Generally 17% but raised to 50%
of lesser significance. sometimes
Divided in 4 Parts: Charities & Personal
Expenditure
expenditure of King + Maintenance of
(As per
Horses + Military conquests + Security of
Amuktamalyada)
Administration Empire
Theory of Kingship Judicial Administation

Kingship was based on the principle of absolute monarchy, King administered justice impartially. He presided
but of the benevolent type. The king was to ensure over the sabha, the highest court of appeal. Regular
people’s welfare, listen to their appeals, and remove all courts for administering justice were also in different
their difficulties. parts of the empire.
He enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and They were headed by hierarchy of officials. There
legislative matters. were also village courts, caste panchayats and guild
organisations to dispose of petty offences like
He was the highest court of appeal and the supreme law violation of caste rules and rules of trade.
giver.
Dharmasastras generally formed the basis on which
Succession was based generally on the hereditary cases were decided.
principle. But there were instances of successors being
nominated by the reigning rulers to ensure peaceful Harsh punishments were inflicted. For instance,
succession. decapacitation, mutilation, and throwing to
elephants were quite common.
There were also instances of usurpation. The Sangama
dynasty ended when Saluva Narasimha usurped the Military Administation
throne. When a minor succeeded the throne, the practice
of appointing a regent to look after and the administration Well organized standing army (Cavalry +
Army
was also prevalent. Infantry + Artillery + Elephant core)
Central Administration Horses From foreign markets

There was a council of ministers, headed by a prime
minister, to assist and advise the king in administrative Nayakas +
matters. Top officers of Army
Palegars
But it was left to the king’s discretion whether or not to Assisting armies Vassal kings + Governors + Feudal kings
abide by them. The king also consulted, besides the
ministers, his own favourite individuals on very important Nada-Prabhus In charge of Nadus (Sub-districts)
issues.
Protected boundaries from Invasions
Central administration was divided in to several Cash (Ordinary soldiers) + Granted territories
departments, each supervised by a royal officer. Payments (Amaram) with fixed revenues (For big
Provincial Administration officers, Palegars)
The empire was divided in to different administrative units Society & Social conditions
manadalams or rajyas (provinces), nadus (districts), sthalas
(sub-districts) and finally in to gramas (villages). Source Observation
The number and size of the mandalams varied from time Four castes existed
to time. Manucharitram (Allasi
Pedanna) (Virp-ulu/ Brahmans)
Each province was under a governor, described as + (Rajalu/ Rachavaru)
mandalesvara or nayaka. (Nalavajativaru or Sudras)
Domingo
Paes (Matikaratalu or Vaishyas)
The Vijayanagar rulers did not interfere in local
administration, and hence local bodies had complete Kshatriya varna was absent
autonomy.
Gauda, village headman, looked after the administration of
the village which was the basic unit of administration.
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Viprulu Teachers/ Priests/ Soldiers/ Administrators Various fields
Rajalu/ Field Observation
Related with ruling Dynasty
Rachavaru
Sudras (Mainly agriculturists, considered inferior Literature At peak during Krishna deva-rai (Andhra Bhoj)
Nalava-jati-
but not segregated); Most of the rulers were also
varu The Vijayanagar empire was one of the richest
Shudras Economy
state then known to the world
Vaishyas (Merchants) that carried on trade and
Matikara-Talu Irrigation Policy + Nuniz, the Portuguese traveller,
commerce
Agriculture speaks of the construction of a dam and
excavation of canals
Source Observation
Textiles, mining and metallurgy
Hindus + Muslims + Jains all present in empire
Industry Another important industry was perfumery
Duarte Barbosa Industries and crafts were regulated by guilds
Hindus had Kshatriyas, Brahmins and Virasaivas
(1516-17)
Portuguese; His Trade and Commerce
King belonged to Kshatriya caste
account
Source Observation
mentions Vira
Polygamy + Sati
Narasimha
king has much treasure and many soldiers and
Tuluva
Virasaivas who wore the symbol of their god many elephants, Trade is extensive and is in many
round their neck precious stones there, principally diamonds
Women This is the best provided city in the world and is

Domingo stocked with provisions, such as rice, wheat, grains,
Education Observation Paes corn, barley, beans, pulses, horses, etc
Gangadevi (Wife of Kampana) Wrote Madura-Vijayam The streets and markets are full of laden oxen
without count and ‘For inland trade the chief means
Prominent school in court of Prauda- of transport were kavadis, carts, asses and pack
Hannamma
deva horses'
Poetess in Sanskrit during Achyuta
Tirumalamma City had 300 sea ports, Important were Malabar
Raya
(Cannanore) with relations to Indian ocean,
Employment Observation Myanmar, Malaysia, China, East and Arabia,
Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia, Portugal
Women employed as dancers, Abdur
domestic servants, Palanquin bearers Razzak Trade was of Cloth, Spices, Rice, Iron, Saltpetre,
Sugar
Women were experts in wrestling,
According to Nuniz Astrology, Accounting, Soothsaying, Imports were horses, Elephants, Pearls, Copper,
As Judges, Bailiffs and Watch Coral, Mercury, China silks, Velvets
women Diamonds, Rubies from Pegu, Silk of China and
Alexandria and Cinnabar, Camphor, Musk, Pepper
and Sandal from Malabar
The practice of dancing girls attached to
temples was also in vogue. Barbosa Art of Shipbuilding was known, Vijayanagara had
its own ships
From the account of Paes, we learn that
devadasis held a highly respectable South India got its ships built in the Maldive
position in society, and were given land Islands.
grants, maid servants, jewellery, etc.
Standards of Living
Religion
Wealth was the monopoly of only a section of the
Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Saivism. population.
Virupaksha was their family god. The prices of articles were low and the minimum
necessities were probably not beyond the means of
Later they came under the influence of Vaishnavism. But the common people.
Siva continued to be worshipped.
Agricultural producers, apparently got inadequate
Vaishnavism was professed in various forms. Sri- prices for their produce.
vaishnavism of Ramanuja was highly popular.
Main defect of the economic system was that the
The Dvaita system of Madhava was also practised. common people had to bear the burnt of taxation,
which was quite heavy.
Epics and Puranas were popular among the masses,
especially since they served as a means of education The local authorities sometimes adopted oppressive
among women. methods of collection.
94
Architecture (Brief)
The temple building activity of the Vijayanagar rulers www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
produced a new style, called the Vijayanagar style. Though
often characterised as Dravida style, it had its own distinct City of Hampi
features.
Among the surviving remains, the Krishna temple complex,
The large number and prominence of pillars and piers and Narasimha, Ganesa group of temples, Achyutaraya temple
the complicated manner in which they were sculptured are complex, Vitthala temple complex, Pattabhirama temple
complex, Lotus Mahal complex, can be highlighted.
some of its distinct features.
Suburban townships (puras) surrounded the large
The horse was the most common animal to be depicted on Dravidian temple complexes containing subsidiary shrines,
the pillars. They have a mandapam or open pavilion with a bazaars, residential areas and tanks applying the unique
raised platform, generally meant for seating the deity on hydraulic technologies and skilfully and harmoniously
special occasions. integrating the town and defence architecture with
surrounding landscape.
These temples also have a kalyana mandapam with
elaborately carved pillars. In the Vijayanagar temples the The Vitthla temple is the most exquisitely ornate structure
central part was occupied by the garbhagriha—the sanctum on the site and represents the culmination of Vijayanagara
cell where the presiding deity was installed. Amman shrine temple architecture. It is a fully developed temple with
was meant for the consort of the god. associated buildings like Kalyana Mandapa and Utsava
Mandapa within a cloistered enclosure pierced with three
entrance Gopurams.
The most magnificent of the temples in this style are in
Hampi-Vijayanagar. Vitthalaswamy and the Hazara In addition to the typical spaces present in contemporary
Ramaswamy temples are the best examples. The former temples, it boasts of a Garuda shrine fashioned as a granite
reaches a high point in florid magnificence. ratha and a grand bazaar street.
The Tadapatri and Parvati temples at Chidambaram, This complex also has a large Pushkarani (stepped tank)
Varadaraja and Ekambaranatha temples at Kanchipuram are with a Vasantotsava mandapa (ceremonial pavilion at the
the other good examples. centre), wells and a network of water channels.
The raya gopurams, towers in commemoration of the visit Another unique feature of temples at Hampi is the wide
of emperors in different corners of the empire, are also Chariot streets flanked by the rows of Pillared Mandapas,
important. introduced when chariot festivals became an integral part
of the rituals.
The stone chariot in front of the temple is also testimony to
its religious ritual. Most of the structures at Hampi are
constructed from local granite, burnt bricks and lime
mortar.
The stone masonry and lantern roofed post and lintel
system were the most favoured construction technique.
The massive fortification walls have irregular cut size
stones with paper joints by filling the core with rubble
masonry without any binding material.
The gopuras over the entrances and the sanctum proper
have been constructed with stone and brick.
The roofs have been laid with the heavy thick granite slabs
covered with a water proof course of brick jelly and lime
mortar.
Vijayanagara architecture is also known for its adoption of
elements of Indo Islamic Architecture in secular buildings
like the Queen’s Bath and the Elephant Stables,
representing a highly evolved multi-religious and multi-
ethnic society.
Building activity in Hampi continued over a period of 200
years. The Battle of Talikota (1565 AD) led to a massive
destruction of its physical fabric.
95
Quick revision
Year Ruler Significance
Achyuta
1529 – Farnao Nunij, a Portuguese horse trader
Laid the foundations of Vijayanagar Deva
1336 – 1356 Haihara I 1542 visited Vijaynagar
empire Raya
Strengthened the city of Vidyanagar 1542 Venkata I Rama Raja exercised real power
1356 – 1379 Bukka I
and renamed it to Vijaynagar
The Battle of Talikota was fought in

1379 – 1404 Harihara II Son of Bukka I 1565 in which the five kingdoms of
Bahmani Empire fought against the
Vijaynagar and imposed a crushing
1) Built a dam across Tungabadhra 1543 – Sadashiva defeating on Vijaynagar, executing
2) Nicolo de Conti visited Vijaynagar 1576 Raya Rama Raja and looting the city and
1406 – 1422 Deva Raya I
3) Induction of Muslim cavalrymen destroying it completely
and archers in army begun
Caesar Frederick, a Portuguese traveller,
Visited Vijaynagar
1) He was called Praudh Deva Raya
2) His inscriptions have the
title Gajabetekara The Araveedu dynasty (1570 – 1650 AD)
Deva Raya
1423 – 1446 3) Dindima was the court poet
II Tirumal Raya ruled in this period in the name of
4) Abdur Razzak, Persian
Traveler, envoy of Sharukh visited
Sadashiva Raya. He shifted his capital from
Vijaynagar
Vijaynagar to Penugonda.
Suluva
1486 – 1491 Founder of Suluva dynasty
Narashima
Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347–58), also known as
Hasan Gangu and whose original name was Ismail
Mukh, founded the Bahmani kingdom with Gulbarga as
Tirumal Minor during the reign of Narasa its capital.
1491
Narasimha Nayaka
There were a total of fourteen Bahmani Sultans,
important among them being: Alauddin Hasan (the
Immadi Vasco-da-Gama landed in Calicut founder); Muhammed Shah I (1358–77); Taj-ud-din Firoz
1491 – 1505 Shah (1398–1422) considered greatest among them all;
Narashima during his reign
Ahmad Shah Wali (1422–35) who transferred the capital
from Gulbarga to Bidar.
1505 Mahmud Gawan He was the vakil as well as the wazir of
Vira Son of Narasa Nayaka, became the King after
– Muhammad Shah III between 1463–81.In 1481, After
Narashima assassinating Immadi Narashima
1509 Gawan’s execution, the Bahmani kingdom began to
decline and disintegrate.
1) He re-established the internal law and order Branches of Bahmani Kingdom

situation and restored the old territories of
Vijayanagar which were usurped by other Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar (1490–1633) Founded by
powers. Ahmad Bahri; later conquered and annexed by Shah
Jahan (1633).
2) Architecture: he built the Vijay Mahal, Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1490–1686) Founded by Yusuf
Vithal swami temple and Hazara Mahal. Adil Shah.
3) Foreign Travelers: Duarte Barbosa and Gol Gumbaz, was built byMuhammed Adil Shah at
Dominigo Paes were Portuguese travellers who Bijapur. Later conquered and annexed by Aurangzeb
visited Vijayanagar empire. (1686).
1509 4) The Ashtadiggajas: Peddana, Timmaya, Imad Shahis of Berar (1490–1574) Founded by Fatullah
Krishna Khan Imad-ul-mulk. Later it was conquered and annexed
– Bhattamurthi, Dhurjati, Mallan, Raju
Deva Raya by one of the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagar.
1529 Ramachandra, Surona and Tenali
Ramakrishna.
Qutub Shahis of Golconda (1518–1687) Founded by
Quli Qutub Shah (1518–43) who built the famous
5) He maintained the friendly relationship with Golconda fort and made it his capital.
Portuguese governor Albuquerque
Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah, was the greatest of all,
6) He took the titles Yavanaraja and founded the city of Hyderabad originally known as
Sthapnachrya, Abhinava Bhoja, Andhra Bhagyanagar and also built the famous Charminar in it.
Pitamaha etc The kingdom was later annexed by Aurangzeb (1687).
7) Literature: he composed Amuktamalayada Barid Shahis of Bidar (1528–1619) Founded by Ali Barid.
–Telugu work on Polity and Jambavati
It was later annexed by the Adil Shah is of Bijapur.
Kalyanam – Sanskrit Drama
96
Dynasties Period Rulers
Aibak
Iltumish
Mamluks/ Slaves/
1206-1290 Razia Sultana
Ibaris
Balban
Kaiqubad
Jalluddin
Introduction
Alauddin
Khiljis 1290-1320
Mubarak
Lahore (1206–1210)
Khusru
Badayun (1210–1214)
Delhi (1214–1327) Ghiyasuddin
Capital
Daulatabad (1327–1334) Muhammad
Tughlaqs 1320-1414
Delhi (1334–1506) Firuz Shah
Agra (1506–1526) Mahmud
Persian (official and court language)

Khizr khan
Common Sayyids 1414-1451
Hindavi (semi-official between 1451 and 1526) Alam Shah
languages
Turkic (originally spoken by the ruling class) Bahlul
Lodhis 1451-1526 Sikandar
Religion Sunni Islam
Ibrahim
Government Sultanate
Aibak (1206-10)
Foundation Qutubuddin Aibak (1206–1210) The slave and deputy of Muhammad in India, he
became the first independent Muslim ruler of India
Dissolution Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526) after the death of Muhammad.
He founded the Slave dynasty. He died while playing
Currency Taka
Chaugan or polo and was succeeded by his son, Aram
Baksh (1210– 11 ).
Origin
The rise of the Delhi Sultanate in India was part of a wider Iltumish (1211-36)
trend affecting much of the Asian continent.
Slave as well as son-in-law of Aibak, he came to
This can be traced back to the 9th century when the power by deposing Aram Baksh. Though he was the
Islamic Caliphate began fragmenting in the Middle East, real consolidator of Muslim power in India, he
where Muslim rulers in rival states began enslaving non- commenced his career as a sari-jandar (head of the
Muslim nomadic Turks from the Central Asian steppes and royal bodyguard) and controlled the prized iqta of
raising many of them to become loyal military slaves called Badaun.
Mamluks.
Since he belonged to the IIbari tribe, the successors
Soon, Turks were migrating to Muslim lands and becoming are known as the Ilbari Turks.
Islamized. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually
rose up to become rulers, and conquered large parts of the During the first ten years of his reign, Iltutmish
Muslim world, establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt concentrated on securing his throne from rivals. In
to present-day Afghanistan, before turning their attention the meanwhile Genghis (also called Chengiz) Khan,
to the Indian subcontinent. the Mongol, had become supremely powerful and
established a vast empire.
Spread When the last Khwarazm ruler, Jalal-ud-din, defeated

a Mongol force in the Ghazni region in 1221, Genghis
Mahmud of Ghazni, the son of a Turkic Mamluk military rushed with lightning speed to avenge the defeat and
slave, raided and plundered kingdoms in north India from chased Jalal as far as the Indus. Jalal, despite his best
east of the Indus river to west of Yamuna river seventeen efforts, could not persuade Iltutmish to send
times between 997 and 1030. reinforcements.
Ghurid Sultan Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori then began The Corps of Forty also known as Dal Chalisa or
a systematic war of expansion into north India in 1173. He Turkan-e-Chahalgani was a council of 40 mostly
thus laid the foundation for the Muslim kingdom called the Turkic slave emirs who administered the Delhi
Delhi Sultanate. Some historians chronicle the Delhi Sultanate as per the wishes of the sultan.
Sultanate from 1192 due to the presence and geographical
claims of Muhammad Ghori. It was initially formed by Shamsuddin Iltutmish.
Ghori was assassinated in 1206, then one of Ghori's slaves

(or mamluksthe Turkic Qutb al-Din Aibak, assumed power,
becoming the first Sultan of Delhi.
97
Mapping www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
Raziya (1236–40)
Raziya appointed Jamal-ud-din Yaqut, an Ethiopian or
Habshi slave, as superintendent of the royal horses,
which aroused resentment in a majority of the
already disgruntled Turkish nobles.
Yaqut
Razia Altunia
Bahram
In 1239-40 she crushed some of the rebellious

iqtadars, but one of them, Altunia, killed Yaqut and
took Raziya prisoner.
In the meanwhile Iltutmish’s third son, Bahram, was
put on the throne by the powerful Turkish nobles.
Raziya married Altunia and their combined efforts to
capture Delhi failed. They were both killed by some
robbers.
The fall of Raziya made the clique of Turkish nobles
dominant in the court, and they started a scramble
for supremacy.
Bahram Shah (1240–42)

Bahram was made to create the position of regent
(malik naib or naib-imamlakat), who was intended to
be the de facto ruler while the Sultan would only be a
de jure ruler. When Bahram’s attempts to assert his
Period Activities
authority failed, he was taken captive and put to
death.
1228 Bengal, Bihar, Multan and Sind annexed by Iltumish
Suppressed the revolts by Rajasthan Chiefs and Masud, son of Rukn-ud-din, was made the next
1226-1231 reconquered Ranthambhor, Ajmir, Sambhar, Sultan.
Nagaur and Gwalior
Led an expedition against Malwa and captured Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246–33)
1234-35 Bhilsa. The conquest of Ujjain was followed by the Being fully aware of the fate of his predecessors,
demolition of the ancient Mahakal temple Nasir-ud-din had no alternative but to leave the
The receipt of the mansur (letter of investiture) administration in Balban’s hands. In August 1249 the
1229 from the Abbasid caliph gave legal status to Sultan married Balban’s daughter and made him the
Iltutmish’s kingship malik naib (regent). He was also awarded the title of
Ulugh (Great) Khan. Balban was now ruler in all but
Rukn-Ud-din (1236)
name.
Raziya, the most competent among the children of
Iltutmish, had been promoted by her father over her Balban(1266–87)
incompetent brothers.
He introduced rigorous court discipline and new
After Iltutmish’s death, Shah Turkan, the mother of
Iltutmish’s eldest surviving son, had her son crowned as customs, such as sijada (prostration) and paibos
Rukn-ud-din. (kissing the Sultan’s feet), to prove his superiority
When another son of Iltutmish rebelled in Avadh, Ruknud- over the nobles. He also introduced the Persian
din marched out of the capital to suppress the rebellion. festival of Nauroz to impress the nobles and subjects
This gave Raziya the opportunity to seize the throne and with his wealth and power.
put her brother to death.
98
A select body of fearsome soldiers protected the throne. www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
The court was an austere assembly where jest and
laughter were seldom heard. Jalal-ud-din (1290–96)
He persistently brought home to his sons and noblemen

that the monarch was the vice-regent of God and next in
sanctity only to the prophets. The Sultan was God’s
shadow on earth and the recipient of direct divine
guidance.
Instead of expanding the sultanate, Balban gave top Originally named Firuz, Jalal-ud-din started his career
priority to restoring peace in the region surrounding Delhi. as an officer of the Mamluk dynasty, and rose to an
Balban established a separate diwan-i-arz (military important position under Sultan Muizzuddin
department) and reorganised the army. Qaiqabad.
His repeated attacks on the Mewati strongholds and After Qaiqabad, Jalal-ud-din became the new Sultan.
villages stopped their frequent raids of Delhi. The Sultan
twice marched on Avadh, killing the rebel leaders and His reign witnessed the invasion of the Yadava
devastating the villages. The rebels in Badaun, Arnrohaand kingdom by his nephew, Alaud-din, governor of Kara.
Katihar (modem Rohilkhand) were also killed.
Ala-ud-din (original name—Ali Gurshasp) usurped the
His regular hunting trips made the area from Delhi to throne, immediately after that.
Avadh reasonably peaceful. The roads became safe for
Ala-ud-din (1296-1316)
travel, and trade and agriculture improved, leading to
further urbanisation.
Activity Description
But Balban’s own, slave, Tughril, whom he had made Ala-ud-din wanted to found a new
governor of Bengal, gave him a rude shock by rebelling. religion and surpass the Prophet
Tughril was ultimately captured by Balban’s army and his New
Muhammad, but Barani’s uncle, Ala-ul-
severed head sent to the Sultan. religion
Mulk, persuaded him to abandon this
plan
Unfortunately for the Sultan, however, a Mongol army The general prosperity of his officials,
suddenly appeared in 1285. Muhammad, Balban’s eldest intermarriages between the families of
son, attacked the Mongols, but was killed in the battle. It Analysis the grandees, inefficiency in the
was a mortal blow to Balban. espionage system, and drinking liquor
were the root causes of rebellion
He died in 1287.
1st ordinance, he confiscated all grants
of tax-free land and seized Muslim
When Balban died, the powerful kotwal of Delhi, Fakhr-
religious endowments. By 2nd
ud-din, raised Kaiqubad (one of the grandsons of Balban)
ordinance, the intelligence system was
to the throne.
reorganised, and all secret transactions
in the houses of the nobility were
Kaiqubad sank into debauchery and was unable to give up
immediately reported to the Sultan.
his dissipated lifestyle. He was soon struck with paralysis
and was finally killed in a pitiable manner by the Khalji Reactions
By 3rd ordinance, the public sale of
maliks. Thus the Ilbari rule came to an end.
liquor and drugs was totally stopped
and By 4th ordinance he forbade social
gatherings in noblemen’s houses, and
no senior officials were allowed to
arrange marriages between members
of their families without the Sultan’s
prior consent.
99

The village headmen known as khuts and
muqaddams were also very rich. They Military Conquests of Alauddin Khilji
Suppression
frequently offered military help to the rebels.
of Rural Elite Period Activity
The Sultan’s revenue regulations reduced
this class to poverty
First two invasions were beaten
Ferishta says that he recruited 4,75,000 Mongol Invasions
back
cavalrymen. His military reforms included
Qutlugh Khwaja's Came up to Kili near Delhi (But was
introduction of dagh (branding of horses)
invasion in 1297 defeated at the end)
and chahra (descriptive roll of soldiers),
insistence on a regular muster of the army, Conquered Gujarat, besieged
Military 1299 Anhilwara, Married King's wife +
abolition of the iqtas of the royal troopers,
Reforms Hindu Eunuch Malik Kafur captured
and the payment of their salaries in cash
1301 Attack on Ranthambor
The iqtas of big nobles and military
commanders were, however, allowed to Attacked Warangal (Telangana), but
1302-03
continue. got defeated by ruler Parataprudra
He introduced strict price-control measures Captured Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar,
based on production costs. To enforce these Chanderi
measures, he established four separate 1303
markets in Delhi, one for grain; another for Won Chittor and Marwar
cloth, sugar, dried fruits, herbs, butter and
oil; a third for horses, slaves and cattle; and Malik Kafur was the slave general of Alauddin Khilji
the fourth for miscellaneous commodities. who had won for him the Deccan territories of
Warangal, Devgiri, Madura, Dwarasamudra, etc.
The supply of grain was ensured by collecting
Market tax in kind in the Doab and keeping it in the He was originally a Hindu slave. Alauddin’s general
Reforms royal store-houses. The growers were Nusrat Khan had paid 1,000 dinars to buy him and
ordered to sell their grain for cash in their that is why Malik Kafur is also known as the
fields at fixed prices and were not allowed to “Hazardinari”.
take any grain home for private sale.
Because of his abilities and service, he won the
The shahna (market controller), the barids confidence of the Sultan who raised him to the
(intelligence officers), and the munhias position of the ‘Vazir’ or the Chief Minister. Soon he
(Sultan’s secret agents) submitted their was made the Commander-in-Chief of the royal
independent reports on these markets to the forces that were sent for the conquest of the Deccan.
Sultan.
His other financial reforms included increase He proved to be a very capable general. Within a
of land revenue to 50 per cent of the gross short time he won the Deccan states of Warangal,
produce and elimination of all middle-men; Dwarasamudra, Devgiri, and Madura and brought
resumption of several types of land grants enormous booty for his master. The conquest of
such as inam, and waqf, appropriation of Deccan was the greatest achievement of Malik Kafur,
Other and because of this achievement his influence over
four-fifths share of the war booty (khums) to
Economic Alauddin Khilji increased abnormally and nobody
the state, leaving only one-fifth to the
Reforms could dare to oppose him.
soldiers
Creation of a new department, the diwan-i-

mustakhraj, to enquire into revenue arrears
and to collect them
100
Ghiyas-ud-din (1320-25)
During an unfortunate accident, both the Ghiyas-ud-
din and his younger son were crushed to death. The
story is described in detail by Isami and Ibn Battutah.
Both accuse Ulugh Khan (Elder son) of parricide but
some later writers consider Ulugh Khan to have been
innocent.
Mohammad Bin Tuglaq (1325–51)

Ulugh Khan succeeded his father as Muhammad bin
Tughluq. Neither Barani nor Ibn Battutah describe
aspects of the Sultan’s personality correctly.
KAKATIYA OF
WARANGAL
Muhammad bin Tughluq was the only Delhi Sultan
HOYASALA OF
DVARA- who had received a comprehensive literary, religious
SAMUDRA and philosophical education, as well as military
training.
PANDAYAS OF
MADURAI
He invited foreigners from all over the world to his
court. Offended old nobles and grandees refused to
cooperate with him. In 1326–7 his cousin, Gurshasp,
Period Region Conquests of Malik Kufur governor of Sagar (near Gulbarga), rebelled. He was
captured and mercilessly executed.
1306-07 Devagiri Raja Ramadeva
Transfer of Capital
Muhammad wanted to make the centrally located
1309 warangal Prataparudra Deva II
Devagiri his second capital. In 1327 he made
extensive preparations for the transfer of the royal
1310 Hoyasala Raja Vira Ballala 3 household and the ulema and Sufis from Delhi to
Devagiri, which he renamed Daulatabad.
1311 Pandaya Vira Pandaya
The two capitals flourished simultaneously.
Mubarak (1216–20)
He was Alauddin's son and captured the throne after his
death. Being a homosexual he fell deeply in love with two
Islamicised Baradus (Hindu) brothers, Hasan and Husam-
ud-din. The Sultan gave Hasan the title Khusrau Khan and
transferred Malik Kafur’s iqta and army to him.
Khusrau killed Mubarak and captured the throne for

himself, assuming the title of Nasir-ud-din in July, 1320. Qarachil Expedition
On being informed that the Chinese were making
Khusrau Khan (July-sept 1320) incursions into the Himalayan kingdoms, Muhammad
Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, and his son, Fakhr- dispatched an army to the Kangra region in order to
ud-din Jauna, were strongly opposed to him. When annex it to his empire and thus secure his northern
Khusrau sent an army to fight Ghazi Malik. the latter frontiers.
turned the tables on the former. Khusrau was beheaded,
and Ghazi Malik ascended the throne under the title of
Ghiyas-uddin Tughluq.
101
After some initial victories in Kangra, the imperial army www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
pressed on to Tibet, where the local hillmen annihilated it.
The foundation of the Vijayanagar kingdom in 1336
and the subsequent independence of Warangal and
Introduction of Token Currency Kampili were the most severe blows to the Sultan’s
In 1329–30 Muhammad introduced a token currency, prestige.
which remained in circulation until 1331–32. Imitating the
chao (paper money) of Kublai Khan of China and Gai Khatu Eastern and western Bengal had become
of Iran (Mongol rulers), the Sultan issued bronze (or independent by then.
copper) coins at par with the value of the silver tanka
coins. In 1347 Hasan Gangu established the Bahmani
kingdom. Muhammad’s health declined rapidly and
The goldsmiths began to forge the token coins on a large all his efforts at keeping the sultanate together ended
scale. in failure.
Land tax was paid in the token currency, and other In 1351 Mohammad bin tuglaq died. According to
commercial transactions also utilized it. Foreign merchants Badauni, death liberated the Sultan from his people
stopped all business dealings with India. and freed them from him.
Firoz Tughluq (1351–88)

Enhancement of Land Revenue
He reigned a total of 37 years. There was a strong
In 1328–29, in order to overcome financial difficulties,
rule till first 20 years and in last 17 years there was a
Muhammad increased the land revenue demand to fifty
decline.
per cent of the gross produce on the Doab farmers.
First 20 years are marked by the reversal of the
centralising policies of the previous regime and
According to Barani, the farmers set fire to their grain
restoration of peace and prosperity. It also saw the
barns and abandoned their fields. Baran (Bulandshahr),
return of the sharia laws, which were in fact inscribed
Barani’s home town along with other towns witnessed
by the Sultan on an octagonal tower near the
open revolt.
Firozabad Jami mosque.
The Sultan realised that adequate relief measures and the

Wazir Khani-Jahan Maqbul, an Islamicised Telangani
promotion of agricultural production were the only
Hindu, successfully maintained the prestige of the
solution to the problem.
Sultan during this period. The second phase of 17
years witnessed inanition and evident decline in the
Consequently huge sums were advanced as takkavi loans
strength and prosperity of the Sultanate.
to enable the cultivators to buy seed, to sink wells, and to
extend cultivation. Reforms
The loans given by Mohammad bin tuglaq were
An agriculture ministry called the diwan-i-kohi was written off. Compensation was paid to the heirs of all
established to bring barren land under cultivation. those whom Muhammad had executed, and the
Opportunists and adventurers signed written bonds letters of gratitude obtained from them were
promising to cultivate barren land but they spent the deposited in a box at the head of the deceased
money on personal needs. Sultan’s cenotaph.
The Sultan instituted a six-year survey of crop

Outbreak of Rebellions
production, enabling him to fix permanently the
When Sayyid Ahsan Shah, the governor of Mabar,
estimated revenue (Jama) of the Sultanate at six
rebelled, the Sultan marched against him. But at Bidar
crore seventy five lakh tankas.
many of his officers died of bubonic plague, and the Sultan
himself fell seriously ill and was taken back to Daulatabad.
Newly dug wells and irrigation canals improved
cultivation. The special tax on some 28 items of urban
The rebellious Ahsan Shah, who remained undefeated,
trade and commerce deemed un-Islamic was
succeeded in founding the independent Madurai
abolished.
sultanate.
102
The karkhanas (factories) were developed rapidly by the www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
army of slaves recruited and maintained by Firoz through
the newly created diwan-i-bandagan (department of The Sayyids (1414-51)
slaves).
Ruler Period
The Sultan ordered that jobs be created for the Khizr Khan (1414–21)
unemployed. Free hospitals were established. All the above
Mubarak Shah (1421–34)
welfare measures and public works were carried out
through another new department, viz. diwan-i-khairat. Muhammad Shah (1434–51)
Alam Shah (1443–51)

Finally all positions were made hereditary, irrespective of
When Alam shah retired to Badaun in 1447, Bahlul
competence, and the iqta administration was completely Lodhi captured Delhi. The Sultan did not contest
decentralised to appease the nobles. Bahlul’s usurpation and formally transferred the
sovereignty of Delhi to him in 1451.
Military Campaigns
The Lodhis (1451-1526)
Between 1353 and 1358 he made efforts to recover Bengal,
but succeeded only, in negotiating a peace settlement. Ruler Period
Bahlol Lodhi 1451-89

Firoz seized Cuttack and destroyed the Jagannatha temple
at Puri. He then attacked Nagarkot in the Kangra region. Sikandar Lodhi 1489-1517
The Sultan collected 1,300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the Ibrahim Lodhi 1517-1526
Jwalamukhi and other temples.
Sikandar lodhi introduced the gaz-i-Sikandari
Firoz next marched to Thatta in lower Sind and succeeded (Sikandar’s yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated
fields. But this measurement was confined to the
in establishing his authority over its rulers. khalisa lands and not extended to the iqta lands.
Firoz abdicated in 1387, crowning Prince Muhammad king. Rana sanga of Mewar came till Bayana near Agra
during Ibrahim lodhi's rule. It made some of Lodhi
Two months later Firoz’s slaves, numbering about a lakh, nobles to invite Babur to invade India.
rebelled, forcing Muhammad to flee. Firoz appointed his
In 1526 Babur came to India and then begun the
grandson, Tughluq Shah II, his heir, and died later at age of Mughal empire.
82.
Decline of Tughlaqs Administration of Delhi Sultanates

When Timur arrived on the scene in 1398–99, the fate of Nature of
the Tughluq dynasty was sealed. After crossing the Indus, Turkish + Rajput style
Administration
Timur met no serious opposition in the Punjab.
Hadis Words of Mohammad
Though Delhi submitted without much of a fight, Timur’s Ulema Muslim Theologists
army sacked it for three days and indiscriminately Sharia Islamic Law
massacred both Hindus and Muslims.
Zawabit Rules and Regulations by sultan
Travelling through Haridvar, Nagarkot and Jammu, he Balban Called himself Shadow of God
withdrew from India in March, 1399. His invasion, though Qutub-ud-din
merely a plundering raid, delivered the death blow to the Called himself The Caliph
Mubarak Khalji
Tughluq dynasty.
Iltumish
Secured letters of investiture
Muhammad Bin Tuglaq
from Caliph
Firoz shah Tuglaq
Supernatural radiance
Farrah (First adopted endowed to the Ruler by God
by Balban) Mentioned first time in Shah
Namah by Firdausi
A Portrait of Firoz Shah Tughlaq 103

Central Government www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
Legal head of the state and Judiciary Amir- Head of the records department, known as
Sultan Sat in court of Mazalim munshi diwan-i-insha
Chief of armed forces and Bureaucracy
Barid-i- Head of the information and intelligence
Diwan-i- mumalik department
Founded by Md. Bin Tuglaq
siyasat
Naib If ruler was weak then this post was filled, But also Provincial and Local Government
Sultan filled during rule of Alauddin Khilji Wilayat or Iqlim Provinces of the kingdom
Head of the finance department, called diwan-i- Nature Self governance
Wazir
wazarat
Structure Not well organised
Naih Wazir Deputy of Wazir
Nayim/ Wali Governor
Mushrif-i-
Maintained a records of accounts Shiq Division of provinces
mumalik
Mustauf- Paraganas Division of Shiqs

Auditor of the accounts
i-Mumalik Amil Head of Pargana
He was the head of the military department Muqaddam Village headman
called diwan-i-arz,
Land type
He was not the commander-in-chief of the
Ariz-i- land assigned to officials as
army, since the Sultan himself commanded all Iqta land
mumalik iqtas
the armed forces
Under direct control of Sultan
Ariz’s department recruited, equiped and paid Khalisa/ Crown land + Revenues used for court
the army and royal household
Head of the public charities and ecclesiastical Inam land/ Madad-i- Land assigned or granted to
department known as diwan-i-risalat maash/ Suyurghal/ Waqf religious leaders and
land religious institutions
It was he who made grants in cash or land for
the construction and maintenance of
Taxation system
mosques, tombs, khanqahs and madrasas. Tax on property and land of
Sadr-us- Zakat Muslims collected by department of
sudur The funds of the department of charities were Relgious Sadr
utilised for the exclusive good of the Muslims tax Tax on Non-muslims or Zimmis in
only
Jizya exchange of protection (Life,
Property, Place of worship)
It had usually a separate treasury which
received all collections from zakat introduced Land tax from Khalisa cultivators
by Firoz shah Tughluq (Initially collected only by non-
Kharaj muslims) but later from both as
Head of the judicial department
Muslims increased due to mass
Secular
conversions
The qazis dispensed civil law based on Muslim tax
personal law (sharia) Tax on mines, treasure troves,
Khams
share in war booty
Qazi-ul-
An officer, known as the amir-i-dad presided
quzat Shirb Irrigation tax
over the secular court (mazalim) in the
Sultan’s absence Iqta system
There were the muftis who were the experts on First phase Started by Iltumish, as a revenue +
sharia law and gave fatwas, (legal rulings) 1206-90 Administrative unit
2nd stage Modified by Khaljis and Early Tughlaqs,

(1290-1351) Transfers of Iqtas became normal,
Gold Coins of 3rd stage Trend reversal by Firoz Tughlaq, fixed

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq 1351-1526 revenues from Iqtas, Hereditary posts
104
Trade Routes www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
Early medieval records in Describe voyages to Gujarat Coins of Delhi Sultenate

Cairo and Malabar The gold coins which Muhammad of Ghur struck in
For merchants from the imitation of the issues of the Hindu kings of Kanauj,
Cochin was entry point of India with the goddess Lakshmi on the obverse, are
Mediterranean
without a parallel in Islamic history.
Many Christian, Muslim and
Settled in Kerala
Jewish traders from the west
For the first forty years the currency consisted almost
Most of the merchants from Settled in Mangalore for Ginger entirely of copper: hardly have any gold coins been
Faras [Persia] and Yemen and pepper trade struck, and silver coins of the earlier Sultans are
Vasco de gama Arrived in Malabar in 1498 scarce.
Accounts of Ibn Batuta Iltutmish, however, issued several types of the silver
Ibn Batuta visited India during the reign of Muhammad- tanka, the earliest of which has a portrait of the king
bin-Tughlaq (1333-1347 AD). Born in Tangier, in Morocco, on horseback on the obverse.
he started his journey in 1325, overland to Mecca, across
Persia, and via Samarkand to Delhi. Gold, though minted by Masud, Nasir-ud-din
Mahmud, Balban and Jalalud-din Khalji, was not
He lived at the sultan’s court in Delhi for eight years and common until Ala-ud-din Khalji had enriched his
later served the sultan as an emissary to China, and treasury by conquests in south India. These gold coins
returned by sea via Sumatra, Sri Lanka, Kerala, Goa, and are replicas of the silver in weight and design.
Gujarat, before heading back to Morocco.
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq was the first Indian sovereign
In Turkestan, he found that “horses ... are very numerous to use the title Ghazi (Champion of the faith).
and the price of them is negligible.” He found Bengal to be
“a vast country, abounding in rice and nowhere in the The Indian type known as the dehliwala, with the
world have I seen any land where prices are lower than humped bull and the sovereign’s name in Nagari on
there.” the reverse, and the Delhi Chauhan type of horseman
on the obverse, lasted till the reign of Masud.
On the road from Goa to Quilon, he wrote, “I have never
seen a safer road than this, for they put to death anyone The bullion coins of Ala-ud-din Khalji are the first to
who steals a single nut, and if any fruit falls, no one picks it bear dates. The earliest copper of this period is small
up but the owner.” Paper production in India was started and insignificant. Some coins, as well as a few bullion
by the Turks and there was an extensive use of paper from pieces, bear the inscription adl, which may mean
the 14 th and 15 th centuries. simply currency. All copper is dateless.
Routes of Ibn Bututa
105
Architecture
Pleasing skyline, larger numbers of pillars to
Arch and Dome
support the roof not needed, large halls with
method Marked by the sloping walls or the ‘batter’
clear views Special
which gives the effect of strength and
features
Superior mortar Introduced by Turks solidarity to the building
Putting one stone over another, narrowing Use of cheaper greystone instead of
Slab and Beam the gap till it could be covered by a caping sandstones
Greystone
method stone or by putting a beam over a slab of Minimal decoration because of hardness of
stones carving
Geometric and Lodhis

Eschewed human or animal figures
Floral designs
Both Arch and Beam used Balconies,
New
Use of Quranic kiosks and caves of the Rajasthani-
Arabic Calligraphy was introduced Techniques
verses Gujarati style are used
Use of Hindu Placed on high platforms and in middle of
Bells, Lotus etc were also used Buildings
symobls gardens such as lodhi garden
Use of coloured Red, and yellow sand stone used + Marbles
Tombs Some are of Octagonal shape
stones used
Slave Dynasty/ Ilbaris Music

The Turks brought with them a number of new
Conversion of Quwwat-ul-islam mosque near the Qutub
Existing Minar in Delhi and the building at Ajmer called musical instruments, such as the rabab and sarangi
buildings into Arhai Din Ka Jhonpra (which had been a and new musical modes and regulations.
Mosques monastery)
Amir Khusrau introduced many new airs or ragas,
Demolition of
such as ghora, sanam. etc. He is credited with having
old Garbh- Construction of new arches at their place
grihas invented the sitar. The tabla, which is also attributed
to him instead developed during the late 17 th or
Founded by Aibak and completed by Iltumish
early 18th century. The Indian classical work
in 13th century, 71.4 metres tall and dedicated
Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the
to sufi saint Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki
reign of Firoz Tughluq.
Qutub Minar The use of red and white sand stone and
marble in panels and in the top stages, and The Sufi saint, Pir Bodhan, is supposed to have been
the ribbed effect is notable, many jain and one of the great musicians of the age.
hindu temples were destroyed in its
construction Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great music lover.
Khaljis The work, Man Kautuhal, in which all new musical
modes introduced by the Muslims were included,
'Siri' in Delhi (now destroyed), Also
was prepared under his patronage.
planned a tower construction but did
Capital city not begin, Added an entrance door to
Qutub Minar (Alai Darwaja), Dome
Literature
built on correct scientific measures The most notable Persian writer of the period was
Amir Khusrau (1252–1325). He created a new style of
Tughlaqs Persian which came to be called Sabaq-i-Hind or the
Built by Ghiyas-ud-din and style of India. Other important Persian poets were
Tughlaqabad
Mohammad Tughlaq Mir Hasan Dehlawi, Badra Chach, etc.
Blocked and an artificial lake was
Passage of Yamuna Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit works
created
into Persian. He wrote Tuti Namah (book of the
Tomb of Ghiyas-ud- Built by Mohammad Tughlaq built on a
parrot), written in the time of Muhammad Tughluq.
din Tughlaq platform
Built the famous Hauz Khas (Pleasure Zia also translated the old Indian treatise on sexology,
Firoz shah Tughlaq
resort) and Firoz shah kotla (Fort) the Kok Sastra, into Persian.
106
Historians
Wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Amir Khusrau
Minhaj-us-Siraj
Served during reign of Iltumish
Minhaj He was born in 1253 AD in Patiala, India. His father
Political history of Islam
served Sultan Iltutmish in a high position. He
Wrote Futuh-us-salatin emerged as one of the most original poets of India.
Isami Served during reign of Muhammad bin
Tughlaq
He composed Wast-ul-Hayat. The famous poet of
Firdausi Wrote Shahnama Persia, Sa'di sent him compliments.
Wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi and At the age of 36, that Khusrau became the poet-
Barani Fatawa-i-Jahandari, laureate of King Kaiqubad at Delhi.
Served during Md. Bin Tughlaq
Served during Firuz Tughluq to complete In Nuh Sipihr (1318), Khusrau's fascination with
Shams-i-Siraj Afif Barani’s unfinished work India's birds and animals, flowers and trees, its
Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi languages and people finds an impassioned
Wrote Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi, named
expression. It was indeed due to his Sufi orientation,
after Sultan Mubarak Shah of the Sayyid acquired mainly from his spiritual mentor,
Ahmad Sirhindi
dynasty Nizamuddin Auliya, that he chooses to appreciate
He was a Shia some aspects of Hindu religion and customs in Nuh
Sipihr.
Wrote Khazain-ul-Futuh
Amir Khusrau
About reign of Alauddin Khalji
Wrote Futuhat-i-Firuz shahi

Firoz shah tughlaq
Sirat-i-Firuz
Foreign Travellers Accounts

Marco Polo arrived on the Coromandel
Coast of India in AD 1292
He entered the kingdom of the Tamil
Pandyas near Tanjore
Marco Polo
He visited Southern India during the reign
of Rudramma Devi of the Kakatiya
Dynasty
Visited India during the reign of

Ibn Batuta Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1333-1347
AD)
Mahaun A Chinese traveler from 15th century
Italian traveler during Vijayanagar

Nicolo de conti
kingdom
Abdur Razzaq Persian traveler
Athanasius Nikitin Russian; wrote about South India
Varthema
Domingo Paes, First half of 16th century

Barbosa and
Fenao Nuniz
107
Overall Revision
1 AD
700 AD
100 AD
900 AD
400 AD
1000 AD
500 AD 600 AD
108
1200 AD www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
1300 AD
1500 AD
109
British conquests of India
110

Babur was a Chagatai Turk who fled ancestral lands
near Samarkand to escape Uzbek armies. He
penetrated Indian plains, and swept across north
India from Punjab to Bengal, though opposition
survived.
Fourteen years later, Sher Shah Sur declared a new
dynasty in Bengal and Bihar. Sher Shah’s armies then
drove Babur’s son, Humayun, into exile.
Soon after reconquering Delhi in 1555, Humayun
Introduction died there by accident. His fourteen year old son,
Akbar, ascended the throne in 1556, and his regent
Bairam Khan conquered strategic cities and
Agra (1526–1530; 1560–1571; 1598– subjugated Malwa and Rajasthan before he was
1648) removed as regent and assassinated.
Delhi (1530–1540; 1554–1556; 1639–
Capital Akbar (1556– 1605) continued to conquer with his
1857) armies that surpassed all before in their size, funding,
Lahore (1540–1554; 1586–1598) leadership, technology and success. His mantle was
Fatehpur Sikri (1571–1585) passed on to his only surviving son, Jahangir (1605–
1627), then in wars of succession, to his victorious
grandson, Shah Jahan (1627– 1658), and to his great-
Persian (official and court language) grandson, Aurangzeb (1658–1707).
Urdu (language of the ruling classes,
Common
later given official status) Aurangzeb's death was followed by imperial
languages fragmentation, though the dynasty survived until
Hindustani (lingua franca)
1858, when it was dethroned by the British.
Arabic (for religious ceremonies)
State religion: Sunni Islam (Hanafi) Babur (1526-1530)

Religion
Din-i Ilahi (1582–1605)
Timur side - Sheikh Mirza
Unitary absolute monarchy under
Parents (Father) - Changiz Khan
a federal structure
Side (Mother)
Government Centralized autocracy (1526–1719)
Oligarchic constitutional Chaghatayid (After
monarchy (1719–1857) Preferred to Call himself Changiz's second son)
Currency Rupee, Taka, dam
Ruler of Farghana
Initially appointed as
(Uzbekistan)
First conquered Kabul (Afghanistan)
List of Rulers Expeditions to India 1519-1523 (4 Times)
Babur 1526 – 1530 1526 - First battle of

Entry into India Panipat Vs Ibrahim Lodhi
1st Term: 1530 – 1540 (Governor of Lahore)
Humayun (Suri Dynasty: 1540 – 1555)
2nd Term: 1555 – 1556 Battle of Khanwa (Near
1527
Agra)
Akbar 1556 – 1605
Battle of Ghagra (Bihar) 1529
Jahangir 1605 – 1627
Death 1530 (Agra)
Shah Jahan 1627 – 1658
Burial Kabul, Afghanistan
Aurangzeb 1658 – 1707
Naqshbandiya Sufi
Follower of
Bahadur Shah I 1707 – 1712 Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar
Bahadur Shah II 1837 – 1857 Auto-biography Tuzuk-i-Baburi
111
Humayun (1530-1540 & 1555-56) www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

Eldest son of Babur sat on throne after his death. When he
was busy tackling the Afghans in the east, he received the Local Administration
alarming news that Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was moving
against the Mughal frontiers. Sarkars Sub-divisions of Provinces
Humayun hastily made a treaty with the rising Afghan Shiqdar-ai- In-Charge of Law and Order, General
leader Sher Khan Sur, leaving him in full control of the area
east of Banaras. Shiqdaran administration and Criminal justice
Marching towards Malwa, Humayun seized Mandu, Munsif-ai- In-Charge of Local revenue and Civil
Champaner and Ahmadabad as well. When Bahadur Shah Munsifan justice
of Gujarat marched to Ahmadabad, Askari fled to Agra. Both
Gujarat and Malwa had now passed out of Mughal control.
Pargana Sub-division of Sarkars
Sher shah sur seized the opportunity and finally In the battle
of Chausa (1539) he outwitted Humayun and destroyed Villages Sub-division of Parganas
almost the whole Mughal force.
Headman Controlled the Villages
Humayun again faced Sher shah alone in the battle of
Bilgram (1540), also known as the battle of Kanauj, and was
routed after which he left for Sind in exile. Revenue Administration
On his way to Sind, Humayun married Hamida Bano Begum. Source Land Revenue
and left for Jodhpur to seek Maldeva’s help. In 1542,
Hamida gave birth to Akbar. Humayun then set out for
Qandahar and then set off to seek help from Shah Tahmasp Assessment Area, Quality of land and Crop
in Iran.
Classification In 3 categories on basis of Yield
After lot of vacillation, the Shah gave him a force of 12,000
soldiers, with which he conquered Qandahar from Askari 33% of average of gross
and Kabul from Kamran. Computation
produce from all type of lands
Humayun reconquered India by defeating the Afghans in
1555, but his accidental death while coming down the steps Pattas Land deeds
of a library in 1556 cut short his aspirations for
consolidating Mughal suzerainty in India. Qabuliyans Revenue/ gifts
Sur Empire (1540-1555) Famine relief fund 2.5 seers per bigha
Sher Shah began his career with the administration of his Military Administration
father Hasan’s iqta at Sahasram in south Bihar.
Later he moved to the court of the Afghan ruler of Bihar, Recruitment Direct
Sultan Muhammad Nuhani, who gave him the title ‘Sher
Khan’ for his bravery. Chahra Descriptive rolls of soldiers
Sher shah defeated army of Maldeva rathore in Battle of Dagh Branding of Horses
Giri-Sumel (1544).
Later Sher Shah decided to capture the fort of ruler of Cantonments With garrisons
Kalinjar (Uttar Pradesh) and launched the attack. But he was
very badly burnt and died due to a freak accident in 1545. Commerce and Trade
After Sher Shah’s death, his second son, Jalal Khan, was
crowned, adopting the title Islam Shah, but his early death, Construction Roads, Sarai-khanas
from a fistula in 1552 dislocated the administrative
machinery.
Qashahs Market-towns
Before Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, the real power
lay in the hands of a Brahmin general, named Hemu. Currency
Central Administration Gold, Silver, Copper of Uniform
Coinage
Based on autocratic monarchy. standard
No actual powers to the ministers.
Constant supervision and control by the Sultan. Weights and
Standard
Its main defect was excessive centralisation. Measures
Customs During import and Sale
Responsibility of Loss On local headmen and

(Loot on roads etc) zamindars
112
Mapping www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
1525 CE
India
Great Mughals
Akbar (1556-1605) Won Panipat II (1556); Regency of
Bairam Khan (1556-60); Military campaigns – Malwa
(1561) to Khandesh (1601); Religious Reforms,
Tauhit-i-llahi & Sulh-i-kul; Rajput policy;
Administrative, revenue & military reforms;
Patronage to Culture; Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari & Akbar
Namah; Badauni's Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh.
Jahangir (1605-27) Carried out judicial reforms;
Married Mihrunnisa (Nurjahan); Peace with Ranas;
Rebellions of Khusru, Khurram & Mahabat Khan;
Wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri; Patronage to painting.
113
Akbar (1556- 1605) www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (25 October Sind 1591

Born
1542), Amarkot, Sindh, Pakistan)
Orrisa 1592
Died 27 October 1605 (aged 63)Fatehpur Sikri, Agra
Qandhar 1595
Burial Sikandra, Agra Khan-desh and

From Chand Biwi in (1593-1601)
Ahmadnagar (MH)
Ruqaiya Sultan Begum(m. 1556) Kabul From Hakim (1581)

Consorts Salima Sultan Begum (m. 1561)
Kashmir and
Mariam-uz-Zamani (m. 1562)[6] 1586
Balochistan
Raj Kunwari (m. 1570)

Nathi Bai (m. 1570) In 1585 Akbar moved to the north-west frontier in
Wives order to foil the attempts of the ambitious Abdullah
Bhakkari Begum (m. 1572) Khan Uzbek to seize Kabul, and stayed there until
Qasima Banu Begum (m. 1575) Abdullah Khan’s death in 1598. During his fourteen
years’ presence in the area, Akbar sent three
expeditions from his camp at Hasan Abdal.
Issue Jahangir, Shakr-un-Nissa Begum
One left for Kashmir and another set out against
Baluchistan. The third force went to subdue the
Afghan tribes and an Afghan religious movement
When Humayun died in 1556, Akbar was 14 and was on a called the Raushaniyas.
campaign against Afghans in Punjab. Bairam Khan became
the regent and Akbar became the crowned king. Akbar’s early military operations against the
Raushaniyas and the tribes were unsuccessful, and in
Afghans captured Agra-Bayana region and Delhi was seized 1586 his trusted friend Birbal (a Brahmin) was
by Hemu (previously served as a general and Wazir of Adil ambushed by the Yusufzais and killed.
Shah Suri of Sur Empire ).
Raja Bhagawan Das, one of the generals of the
Second battle of Panipat was fought between Hemu and Kashmir expedition, succeeded in persuading Yusuf
Akbar in 1556 in which Akbar finally won. Khan, the last ruler of Kashmir, to surrender. The army
sent by Akbar conquered Kashmir in 1586, and it was
Akbar's relations 'Atkah-Khail' were alienated because of made a sarkar of Kabul province.
Bairam Khan. Akbar wanted to rule independently when he
was 18 (1560) and was transferred from Agra to Delhi by The army sent against Baluchistan persuaded the
his step mother Maham Anaga. Baluchi chiefs to surrender and in 1590–1 Sind was
also conquered.
From there Akbar wrote to Bairam ordering him to leave
on a pilgrimage to Mecca. But court politics goaded Bairam Early in Akbar’s reign the Shah of Iran had captured
to revolt. When he finally surrendered Akbar ordered him Qandahar, so Akbar sent an army under his famous
to resume his pilgrimage. In 1561 Bairam was general Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. The governor of
unfortunately assassinated by an Afghan at Patan in Qandahar surrendered, and it became a part of the
Gujarat on his way to Mecca, but his four-year-old son, Mughal empire.
Abdur Rahim, was sent to court.
Ahmadnagar, Chand Bibi, defended it heroically.
Military Conquests
Raja Bharamal Kachchhwaha of Amber married his
North India From Agra to Gujarat and Bengal + Assam eldest daughter to Akbar. Raja Bhagawan Das (Raja
Bharamal’s heir) and Man Singh (his nephew and
adopted son) were subsequently given senior
Malwa from Baz Bahadur (1561), Ghrit-katanga positions in the imperial hierarchy.
North-west (Rani Durgavati and her minor son, Bir Narayan,
died fighting Mughals) and Gondwana (1564) One by one all the Rajput states were subjugated and
they submitted to Akbar. But the Ranas of Mewar
Buland Darwaja continued to defy Mughal suzerainty despite several
Built to commemorate victory in Gujarat (1572)
(1602) defeats, particularly the one in the battle of Haldighati
(1576) in which Rana Pratap was severely defeated by
East Bihar and Bengal (1574-76) the Mughal army under Man Singh.
Kabul From Hakim (1581)
Kashmir and
1586
Balochistan
114
Sulh-i-Kul Policy www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

Literally meaning “peace with all,” “universal peace,” or Many ragas are ascribed to Tansen and among them
“absolute peace” in Arabic, this term is drawn from a Sufi ragas such as Mian ki Malhar, Mian ki Todi and Darbari
mystic principle. Kanada are most famous.
Father Monserrate, a member of the first Jesuit mission at Today his followers are referred to as “Senia Gharana”.
Akbar’s court (1580–3), has left a lively account of the
religious debates during the journey.
Father Daniel Bartoli, a later Jesuit author, claims that after
Mansabdari System
his return from Kabul, Akbar made himself the founder and Mansab was a ranking system indicating Position of
head of a new religion, the Din Ilahi (Divine Faith). the holder in official hierarchy. It determined
status, payment, number of troops, horses and
Akbar expected his state grandees to follow the four equipment to be maintained by him.
degrees of devotion or discipleship, denoting readiness to
sacrifice their life, property, honour and religion. Mansab system included all public services (such as
military, civil and financial), except the judiciary.
In the Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl deals with a number of laws
made by Akbar for secularising the state, which were,
however, termed as ‘illegal’ by the orthodox Badauni. Main Features under Akbar
Akbar prohibited polygamy and child marriages, the Dagh and Chahra Dagh (branding of horses) and
circumcision of boys below the age of twelve, the slaughter chahra or tashiha (descriptive roll of soldiers) which
of animals on certain days totaling about half the year. were meant to decrease the possibility of fraud and
to fix rank according to the size of the contingent
maintained (maratib) and also to check evasion of
Actions Observations military obligation.
Construction of Ibadat-Khana
Initially only Sunnis were allowed They were introduced in the 18th regnal year of
at Fatehpur Sikri Akbar’s reign (1574).
Abdul Qadir Badauni and Abul
Principal debaters Zat and Sawar
Fazal
Theological Debates with multi The mansab system under Akbar came to be
Post battle of Haldighati
religion representatives represented by the dual rank of zat and sawar from
the 41st regnal year (1597).
Change in attitude All religions contain some truth
Zat determined the personal pay and status in the
A document (Written verdict) from
official hierarchy and Sawar determined the number
Mahzar (1579) of horsemen to be maintained and the salary for the
Ulema which empowered ruler maintenance of those horsemen.
Salim (Jahan-gir's revolt) Zat and Sawar had three categories: Those who had
sawar ranks equivalent to their zat ranks; those
Prince Salim, the long-awaited heir to the Mughal throne, whose sawar ranks were less than their zat ranks but
was born in 1569 due to the blessings of Shaikh Salim not lesser than half of their zat ranks; those whose
Chisti, after whom the infant was named. sawar ranks were less than half of their zat ranks.
His mother was a Kachchhwaha princess. But when prince Other Features
Salim rebelled, in Allahabad in 1601, Akbar asked Abul Fazl
to help deal with the rebellion. Direct subordination of mansabdars to the emperor.
Abul Fazl rushed to the north, but Salim had him killed by Grant of mansabs of 5,000 and above only to the
the Bundela chief, Bir Singh, near Gwalior on his way to princes and members of the royal family
Agra.
Salim had ignored his duties from 1591, refusing to lead an Mansab was not hereditary, but based on merit.
expedition either to the Deccan or to Transoxiana. Finally According to the Ain-i-Akbari, the ranks ranged from
when Akbar died in 1605, Salim ascended to the throne. the dahbashi (commander of 10) to the dah hazari
(commander of 10,000), taking the total to 66,
Tansen and Birbal though only 36 actually appear in the work.
Raja Birbal was a Brahmin and was a close associate of
Emperor Akbar. His original name was Mahesh Das. He Sawar rank was always normally either equal to or
was born in 1528 and his father’s name was Ganga Das. lower than the zat rank; sawar rank was always
Birbal was a great singer and poet in the court of Akbar. He preceded by the zat rank
was a master in Sanskrit, Persian and Hindi language.
Akbar was highly influenced by him. He died in 1586 Possibility of the existence of a zat rank without a
during a military expedition. sawar rank, but never a sawar rank without a zat
rank.
Tansen was the court musician of Akbar. He was also a
part of the “Nine Jewels” in Akbar’s court (navaratnas). He
was born in a Hindu community and had his musical
training under the great Swami Haridas. He then went to
the court of the Raja Ram Baghela, a great patron of the
arts. From there he migrated to the court of Akbar.
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Main Addition by Jahangir www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets
Rank Introduction of the du-aspa-sihaspa (2–3 horses) rank, Administration

literally meaning troopers having 2 or 3 horses; and hence
related to the sawar rank. Kingship Farri-i-izadi- Divine effulgence (By Abul Fazal)
Shaikh Abdul Wrote Nuriyya-i-Sultaniyya (Covering aspects
Its grant by the emperor to those selected nobles as a
special favour. It was also given to those mansabdars Haqq of Farri-i-izadi) during Jahangir's reign
engaged in military operations and expeditions. This rank
doubled the ordinary sawar rank. Internally Everything was under the Emperor
Changes by Shah Jahan They did not recognize any superior authority
Externally
(like Caliph)
Rule of one-third, one-fourth scaled down the obligations
of the Mallsahdars or Mansabdar. If a mallsahdar was Administrative Formally open to all but usually filled by
serving in a province where his jagir was, then his posts people of royal origin (Dynastic royalties)
contingent should be equal to at least 1/3rd of his sawar
rank; if elsewhere then only 1/4th; for those serving in
Baikh, Badakshan and Kabul, only 1/5th. Central Administration
Type Despotic Monarchy
Month Scales
Head of Executive, Legislative, Military,
Role of King
A mansabdar often found that the hasil (actual revenue Judiciary
collected from a jagir) was less than the jama (stipulated or
assessed revenue from a jagir), on which his salary was Senior Affixed with Royal Uzuk ring (Like
actually fixed. appointments Gazette)
So recognising this difference and its inevitability the Informal restraint Ulema (Islamic scholar congregation &
emperor classified Jagirs on the basis of hasil into ‘8-month on King Ministers
Jagir’ or ‘6-month Jagir’ i.e. the income from a jagir Representative of the King (Lost strength
assigned for one year actually yielded a revenue equal to Vakil
what was expected in 8 months or 6 months instead of 12 during Bairam khan's reign)
months. Head of revenue department as Diwan-i-
Wazir/ Diwan
Kul, Or Prime Minister as Wazir
The Jagirdari System Mir-Bakshi Head of Military department
Head of religious department
Actions Observations
Sadr-us-sudur Combination of Chief Sadr and Chief Qazi
Jagir/ Tuyul Unit of land (Head of Justice)
Secular judge, implemented Qazi's
Revenue of Jagir Assigned to a Mansabdar (Instead of Salary) Mir-adl
decisions
Mll-tasibhs & Mufti Subordinate to Qazis
Watan Jagirs Hereditary Jagirs of autonomous chiefs
Khan-i-saman Head of Royal household
Revenues were earmarked for maintenance of Buyutats Workshops
Khalisa lands
Imperial court/ personal expenditure of emperor
Diwan-i-Khalisa In charge of Crown-lands
Like the iqta system of Delhi sultenates, the assignment of Diwan-i-Tan In Charge of Jagirs
a jagir to a mansabdar did not confer any hereditary rights
to that jagir on the mansabdar. Mushrif-i-mumalik Accountant General
Mushtauf-i-mumalik Auditor General
He could enjoy the revenues of the jagir only as long as he
held the Mansab or official rank and rendered services to Daroga-i-dak Chauki Postmaster-General
the state.
The Mughal follwed the policy of frequent transfer of Mir-i-arz In Charge of Petitions
jagirs of the jagirdars. Mir-i-Mal In Charge of Privy purse
Thus, the jagir system was a subsidiary system of the all-in- Mir-i-tozak In Charge of Ceremonies
one mansab system.
Mir-Bahri In Charge of Ships and Boats
All jagirdars were mansabdars, but not all mansabdars
were jagirdars, because some mansabdars were paid in Mir-Manzil In Charge of Quarters
cash and not through jagirs. Mir-Atish In Charge of Artillery
Muhtasibs Public Moral police
116

Waqia navis Journalists
Khufia navis Secret letter writers Other Experiments
Har-karas Spies and special couriers New type of 'Zama' (Assessed revenue from
Zabti/ Bandobast
Ahadis Elite special troops a jagir) found by Raja Todar Mal (15th regnal
system
year)
Provincial Administration Karori system
Khalisa land divided into Circles, each
yielding revenue of one Karor
Suba Province (15 at time of death of Akbar)
Rope made by Bamboo sticks joined with
Uniform across all (Not dependent upon Tenab
Administration Iron rings for measuring lands (1575)
neighbours)
Land classified in 4 categories and a 10-years
Governor of a province state of every paragana was ascertained in
Subedar/ Sipeh-
Maintenance of law and order, enforcement of regard to the category of cultivation and
Salar/ Nayim
degrees, criminal justice etc level of prices
Dahshala system
Sube-diwan (Senior A. Polaj—Annually cultivated
Revenue administration (10 years system)
to Subedar) B. Parauti- Left fallow for max. 2 years
Bakshi Responsible to Mir-bakshi
C. Chachar - Fallow for 3-4 years
Local Administration D. Banjar- Uncultivated for 5 years
Sarkar Sub-division of Suba Introduced by Todar Mal in 1588
Illahi-Gaz
Pargana (Group of 33 Inches long
Sub-division of Sarkar
Villages) New type of Jama, with fixed cash rates
Based on Sur empire methodology Dastur-ul-Amal (Dasturs) for general crops and separate for
Cash crops for 10 years (Similar to MSP)
Mahals Fiscal purpose Parganas
Faujdar Administrative purpose Parganas Raja Todar Mal began his career in the service of Sher
Shah Suri under whose guidance he gained valuable
Thana Unit of Faujdar, controlled by Thanedar experience in the management of revenue affairs.
Uluq Horse post with royal horses at every 4 miles Next he served under Muzaffar Khan Turbati, the first
Dawa Foot post with three stations per Mile finance minister of Akbar and helped him to organize
the newly conquered Mughal provinces.
The centre appointed the officials of the provinces, sarkars
and paraganas, and hence they were directly responsible to When Akbar conquered Gujarat in 1573 he sent
the centre. There was deep centralization via frequent Todar Mal to organize the revenue settlement of the
transfers and oversight. province. He was then called upon to assume military
command and he played a conspicuous part in the
conquest of Bengal and in the suppression of a
Revenue Systems subsequent revolt there.
Upto 8th regnal year Sur Empire system with some modifiacation Akbar recognized his merit by promoting him to the
position of Wazir and Finance Minister and making
Need for Change Increasing Jagirs him a mansabdar of 7000
Field belongs to him who clears away Timber
Land ownership The greatest achievement of Todar Mal was his
Hereditary rights of peasants were recognised famous revenue settlement of the empire which has
since remained the foundation of Indian land revenue
Revenue ownership King via Zamindar and Jagirdar policy.
Calculation Fluctuating annual rates (As per yield) Under his instructions the revenue accounts were
3 ways revenue share:
kept in the Persian language and script.
Batai or Galla Baksh A: Post crop harvest via direct visits to field
System B. Heaps of Crops taken by officers
C. Pre-harvest crop determined state share
Sample survey basis became basis of mutually
Kankut System
agreed general estimate of produce
Nasaq System Revenue paid based on past experience
Via Ala-ud-din-Khilji to Sher shah suri to Akbar
Measurement
same = Division of land in 3 categories (Good,
categories
Bad and Middling)
117
Jahangir (1605 – 1627) www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

Original name Salim Nizamshahi re-made into Khandesh, Berar, Telangana
Title Jahangir (World Conqueror) 4 new Mughal Provinces Daulatabad
Ideals Similar to Akbar's 1st Viceroy of Deccan provinces
Aurangzeb
(1636-1644 and then in 1652)
Respect for all religions, remittance in some
local taxes, forbade killing of animals for food City of 'Khirki' founded by Malik
Practices Aurangabad Ambar made capital by
on some days, enhanced importance of
Mazolim court Aurangzeb
Peace treaty with Amar Singh (1615) {Maharana Aurangzeb's correspondence

Northern policy Adab-i-Alamgiri
Pratap's Son} with others (Mostly Shah-Jahan)
Against Malik Ambar (Slave of Ahmadnagar) Shah-Jahan fell Ill Suddenly (Led
Deccan policy 1657
beaten Mughal invasions to Civil War)
Jahangir's son who revolted (Was later blinded Dara Shikoh Crown Prince
Khusrau Shah Shuja Governor of Bengal
and imprisoned, died in 1621)
Aurangzeb Governor of Deccan
Guru Arjan dev (5th
Friend of Khusaru (He was beheaded) Murad Baksh Governor of Malwa and
Guru)
(All were sons of Shah-Jahan) Gujarat
Another son of Jahangir (Incompetent to
Shahar-yar
throne) Succession
Son of Jahangir, helped by Asaf Khan (1622-24)
Khurram Caught and sentenced to death on grounds of
revolted but surrendered and was pardoned
Apostasy (ridda or iritidad) by stating in his
Parvez Khan Another son of Jahangir (Died before 1627) Dara Shikoh
Majma-ul-Bahrain that Islam and Hinduism
A general of Malwa who staged coup along with were twin brothers (1659)
Mahabat Khan
Parvez khan (1625) but was later sent to Bengal
Jahangir died (Bhimbar, Kashmir) and Buried
1627
(Dilkusha garden, Lahore)
Lost in Battle of 'Khwaja' and had to flee
Autobiography of Jahangir (Mentions drinking Shah Shuja
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri Bengal towards Arakan
bouts, Appreciation for Nature)
Nur Jahan
In 1611 Jahangir married Mihr-un-nisa, the widow of Sher First formed alliance and later killed by
Murad Baksh
Afghan, who was killed fighting the governor of Bengal. Aurangzeb
Confined within the ladies' palace and died
After her marriage Mihr-unnisa was given the title Nur Shah-Jahan
Mahal (Light of the Palace) and, later, Nur Jahan (Light of there in 1666, buried in Taj Mahal
World). Formally crowned himself prince with title
Aurangzeb
Nur Jahan’s father, Itimad-ud-daula, had been appointed 'Alamgir'
joint-diwan long before the wedding. After his daughter’s
marriage to the emperor, he was promoted as wazir. Nur Aurangzeb (1658–1707)
Jahan’s elder brother, Mirza Abul Hasan, was given the title
Asaf Khan and was appointed khan-i-saman. Vs Chhatrasal in Bundelkhand
In 1612 Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later Campaigns Vs Shivaji in Maratha region
entitled Mumtaz Mahal), married Jahangir’s third son,
prince Khurram. Vs Kooch-bihar, Ahoms
Jats of Mathura and Agra (Because of
excesses of Abdul nabi faujdar of Mathura)
Shah-Jahan (1627-57)
(Gokla jamindar killed Abdul later and was
Original name Prince Khurram executed for this in 1669)
Title Shah-Jahan Second Jat rebellion lead by Chura Man
Assassinated Abul Fazal and became favored by (Strengthened Jat fort of Sinsai Bharatpur)
Bir Singh Bundela Rebellions
Shah-Jahan Satnami revolt of 1672
Shahji Bhonsle Maratha leader that served Shah-Jahan Beheading of 9th Guru Teg Bahadur
Fatah Khan Son of Malik Ambar, Surrendered to Mughals Killing of sons of 10th Guru Govind by Wazir
khan (Faujdar of Sirhind)
Ahmadnagar Won over by Shah-Jahan in 1636
Rebellion by prince Akbar with alliance of
Bijapur & Golkunda Signed treaties with Mughals Rajputs
118

Started in Sept. 1681
Economy during Mughal rule
Invasion of Bijapur under Sikandar Adil Shah
Annexation of Bijapur in 1686 (Made Mughal Capital) Peasants
Deccan
campaign Annexation of Golconda in 1687 Peasants living in their own villages
Execution of Sambhaji and his son 'Sahu' made mansab of with own lands
Khuda-Kashta
7000
Paid only customary revenue
Death of Aurangzeb in 1707 (89 years old)
Outsiders but cultivated rented
His failures are ascribed to his bigotry and narrow minded lands (Could become Khuda-kashta
religious policy. What caused the real breakdown, however, Pahis if they had Agricultural tools)
was his unrealistic estimate of the Deccan problems.
And after prince Akbar’s rebellion, Aurangzeb never trusted They were known as Uparis in MH
his remaining three sons. His main concern was as much to Mirasdar (Maharastra)
neutralise his sons’ intrigues as to destroy the Marathas.
Gharuhala or Gaveti Lower peasants, Paid taxes
(Rajasthan)
Religious Policy of Aurangzeb
Neither had lands nor had tools or
Initially Aurangzeb introduced a few administrative changes.
animals
A high-powered mans abdar (Iwaz Wajih) was appointed as Mazariyams Were dependent on Khudakashta
chief censor of morals (muhtasib) to prevent drinking, for crop supply
taking bhang and other drugs, forbidden and unlawful Were impoverished
deeds, and committing shameful acts such as adultery.
Zamindars
Subsequently, the enforcement of Sunni laws, the
suppression of all Shia practices, and the introduction of all Hereditary rulers of their respective
moral reforms were also incorporated into their duties. Status territories (Had Economic and Military
strength)
Finally, in 1699 they were allotted the task of destroying
Hindu temples. The celebration of the Iranian Nauroz A. Were Mansabdars of Mughals
festival, was banned. B. Were not Mansabdars were had to support
The kalmia was no longer stamped on coins, to prevent the Types via military
holy words from being defiled by unbelievers or heretics. C. Neither Mansabdar, Nor Military obligation
but paid tributes or personal homages
The north Indian period of Aurangzeb’s reign (1658–81) was
marked by a gradual departure from Akbar’s policy of Had ownership rights over personal lands +
coexistence. His early regulations were designed to offer Zamindari rights over Zamindari land
relief to Muslims and reduce urban taxation.
Customs duty on all imports was fixed in 1665 at 2 1/2 per Primary Did not perform revenue collection service
cent of their value in the case of Muslim traders and 5 per Zamindars for state
cent for Hindus.
Only received 'Malikana' or Customary
Two years later all customs duty for Muslims was abolished.
share of 'Surplus produce'
In 1669 a general order to demolish temples and Hindu Same as Primary zamindars but performed
centres of learning was issued.
service by collecting revenue from peasants
The celebrated Visvanatha temple of Banaras and the Intermediary for the state
Kesava Rai temple of Mathura were reduced to ruins. Zamindars
Received both Malikana + Nankar
In April 1679, he reimposed jizya despite Hindu protests.
(Additional share of surplus produce)
Crops
Cereals, millets, oil-seeds,
sugarcane, cotton, hemp, indigo,
Ain-i-Akbari + Foreign
poppies and betel were grown
travellers accounts say:
extensively
Ajmer Sugarcane were best in

Sugarcane
quality in 16th century
119
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Indigo Production centered in Sarkhij (Gujarat) and Bayana
(near Agra) Mughal Coinage
Sher Shah suri' innovations lay chiefly in two
Brought to Mughal court from Bijapur (MH) directions: first, the introduction of a new standard of
Tobacco
during Akbar (Banned during Jahangir's reign) 178 grains for silver, and one of about 330 grains for
copper, with its half, quarter, eighth and sixteenth
parts.
Chilli, Tomato and
Introduced in India by Portuguese
Potato These two new coins were subsequently known as
the rupee and the dam.
Repair of Firoz shah tuglaq's Yamuna canal The second innovation saw a large increase in the
Irrigation
Later reopened by Shah-Jahan (Nahr-i-Bihist) number of the mints: at least twenty three mint
names appear on the Sur coins.
Slow (No modern tools + Increased land
This coinage was followed by Mughals and was
Growth in Agriculture revenue + Zamindari + Jajmani system which finalized during reign of Akbar.
encourage production only for local use)
Mention large number of Gold and Silver

Art and Craft Ain-i-Akbari
coins varying from 2000 tolah to a few
Not distinct from Agriculturists as Art and Craft (Abul Fazl)
Artisans grains in weight
was mostly second job for families Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
Gigantic pieces were given as presents to
Manucci
Cash crops Tobacco (Introduced in 17th century) and others the ladies and ambassadors and in order
Hawkins
to store treasures
Cotton, Silk, Sugar, Jute, Dyes, Minerals, Arms,
Urban crafts Muhar (Standard gold coin) equivalent to
Saltpetre, Oils, Textiles Types of Coins
9 rupees
Bengal, Gujarat and Coromandel became the
Textile Adopted from Sher shah' currency
great emporiums of the textile trade
Rupee (Mentioned on a rupee of Agra minted in
Diamond Mined in Golconda
Akbar 47th regnal year)
Iron and Copper Singhbhum and Khetri
Wool Kashmir Half-Rupee Appears specially in Gujarat
Nisdr, Nur of Shan,

Trade and Commerce Khair Qabul
Silver coin by Jahangir
Easier and more used (Ganga, Brahmaputra Copper coin issued by Sher shah which
Inland Transport became base for copper coinage of
and Godavari basins) Dam
Mughals, also called Fulus or Sikka Fulus,
Difficult and Expensive because of trade Nisfi, Damra, Damri etc
duties
Road Transport Diversity of Mints were high
Grand Trunk road (Sher shah suri) from
Feature of Mughal Akbar had 76 mints (59 for copper, largest
Sonargaon (Bengal) to Lahore via Agra
Coinage known for any emperor), Silver known
Spices and Textiles via Malabar, Lahore and from 39 of them
Foreign Trade
Multan, Bengal, Coramandel
Aurangzeb in Raised silver mints to overall 70 while
decann copper mints reduced to 24
Banjaras Worked as courier for goods
Shrofies Specialized in Banking sector
Introduced first printing press in India in

Bhimji Parikh
Bombay 1674-75
Exports and Imports

Textiles, especially various kinds of cotton fabrics, indigo,
Exports raw silk, sugar, salt petre, pepper, opium and various kinds
of drugs and miscellaneous goods
Bullion, horses, metals, perfumes, drugs, China goods
Imports especially porcelain and silk, African slaves and European
wines
120
Mughal Culture
Inspired by the throne and emperor and not
Composite culture
by masses or their activities
Landscape Architecture
Neither purely Muslim nor purely Hindu Landscape architecture was brought in from Persia.
Babur commemorated his victory over Ibrahim Lodi in
Nature (Observed in architecture, Literature and 1526 with a large garden called Kabul Bagh at
Painting) Panipat.
Sulh-i-Kul
Akbar Most of the principal architectural projects of the
Majma-ul-Bahrain (Climax of religious were surrounded by park like enclosures. Especially
Dara Shikoh
tolerance under Dara) the gardens of Kashmir, of which the Shalimar and
Nishat Baghs are the most famous.
Payjama, Achkan, Sehra, Jama, Balushahi,
Mixture of traditions Shalimar Bagh at Lahore was built by Shah Jahan in
Gulabjamun, Barfi, Pulao, Hukka etc.
1637.
The plan of the Mughal gardens is worked out in a
Architecture regular arrangement of squares, often subdivided
into smaller squares to form the figure of the char
Started by Akbar (Agra fort in red sandstone) other bagh. Paved pathways and water channels follow the
forts in Lahore and Allahbad (Prayagraj) shapes of these squares, with oblique or curved lines
Fort Building used rarely or not at all.
Climax of Fort building during Shah Jahan (Red fort
Delhi - Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Khas)
Fatehpur Sikri (Palace cum fort by Akbar)
Many building in Fatehpur sikri were in Gujarat and

Palace
Bengal style (For Rajput wives) and with glazed blue
Building
tiles + Jami masjid + Buland darwaja + Jodha Bai's
Palace + Palaces of Mariam and Sultana + Birbal's
house + Panch Mahal (Shows Buddist Vihara style)
Humayun’s tomb (Built by widow Haji Begum and
architect was Mirak Mirza Ghiyath) at Delhi was the
first Mughal tomb to be placed in the centre of a
large park-like enclosure and it also marked the
beginning of the use of white marble by the
Painting
Mughals (It is built in Red sandstone) + Tomb of The Mughal pictures were small in size, and hence are
Salim chisti by Akbar
known as ‘miniature paintings’. It neither represented
the Indian emotions, nor the scenes from the daily
life of the Indian. It was mostly courtly and
Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near Agra was started by aristocratic.
Akbar himself, but completed by his son, Jahangir. Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd-al-Samad (Painters
Mausoleums Influence of Buddhist vihara could be seen in it Humayun who taught Akbar and worked for Humayun)
and constructed Hamza-namah
Tomb of Itimad-ud-daula at Agra, built by Nur Jahan
Was illiterate, but hired many artisans
for her father, was constructed wholly of white Akbar
(Mostly Hindu)
marble with pietra-dura (decoration of walls with
floral designs made of semiprecious stones) Tarrah Sketch
Ami Painting
During Shah Jahan’s reign large-scale use was made Chira-numa Portrait
of pietra-dura in his buildings, especially Taj Mahal, Sural Sural
built at the cost of Rs 50 lakhs at that time Rangamezi Colouring
supposedly by Ustad Isa. Mir Sayyid Ali, Abd-al-Samad, Baswan
During Babur’s reign four mosques, one each at Chief Painters (Mentioned in drawing Razm Namah which is
Sambhal, Panipat (in Kabul Bagh), Agra (old fort) during Akbar illustration of Mahabharata, Miskina,
and Ayodhya were built. Daswant
Maszids Jami Masjid by (Fatehpur Sikri) by Akbar Earliest Mughal illustrated manuscript,
Dastan-i-Amir-
Moti Masjid in Agra (Full Marble) by Shah Jahan Begun in 1550 under Humayun (25 years
Hamza
Jama Masjid in Delhi by Shah Jahan (Red work)
Sandstone) Mughal paintings and art influenced by
1580-1595
western forms (3d, Lighting, Shading, Clouds)
121
Illustration of Historical Manuscripts www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

during Akbar's reign. Artist mentioned
are: Baswan, Lal, Bhim Gujarati, Dharm Foreign travellers
Das, Madhu and Surdas Gujarati,
Tarikh-i-Alft Country Traveler/ Description
Miskina, Nanha, Burah, Saravana and
Jamiut-Tawarikh
Kanha. Father Monseratte (Resided in Fatehpur sikri
Darab Namah Portugal
with Akbar) + Duarte Barbosa
Shah Namah
Another series of sixty-one illustrations William Hawkins (Went to court of Jahangir) and
Timur Namah
of the Akhar Namah is perhaps a later obtained farman to trade in Surat
Babur Namah England
version (1605). The artists mentioned Sir Thomas Roe (1615) also obtained farman
here include Sankar, Daulat, Govardhan, John fryer (Contemporary of french Abbe Carre)
Inayat and Pidarat.
Francois Bernier (1656-58) wrote Travels in
Mughal empire during Shah Jahan's rule
(Hindu Vedanta Philosophy) Travernier (1640-67) was a diamond merchent
Yoga Vasisht
(Breaths of fellowship), a prose treatise France wrote Travels in India
Najhat-ul-Uns
by Jami on Sufi saints Abbe Carre (1672-74) wrote about Port towns
Thevenot (1626) described about Indigo
Jahangir
cultivation in 'Remonstrantie'
Aqa Riza, Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant,
Artists Employed Niccolai Mannuci wrote Storio de Mogor (Story
Manohar, Govardhan and Ustad Mansur
of the Mughals) (1653 to 1702) and this stands
Albums composed of mounted pictures of Italian to be the most authentic source for the life of
Muraqqa uniform size (40 ´ 24 cm). Completed around the Aurangzeb
1618
Idea came from Persia in 1570 and attained Russian Athanasius Nikitin
Decorative borders
perfection during Jahangir Denmark Francisco Pelsaert
Paintings of Nature, Increased Symbolism,
Mysticism, Sufi Shaikh, Full length subjects
Other features
against plain turquoise or green
backgrounds
Shah-Jahan
Mainly interested in Architecture
Issues Lost touch of Nature (Jahangir's)
Lost dynamic energy (Akbar's)
Visit of emperor + nobles + ladies to ascetics
and dervishes
Main Themes
Night scenes (First time)
Sihayi Qalam technique (First time)
Shah-Jahan on the peacock throne (Nadir
Famous paintings
shah took it during invasion of 1739)
Later period
Did not patronize any art, culture declined
Aurangzeb and lost any vitality (Some of his paintings
exist of old age)
1550-1750, co-existed with Mughals
Fresco-Bruno art was famous
Rajput school of Focused on people (Not much of kings)
Painting Depicted animals as deities
Was spiritual and entertaining (Not
materialistic like Mughal's)
Offshoot of Rajput school
Kangara of Pahari
Noted for displaying of emotions
School
Covered wider field of subjects
Akbar patronized Tansen, Aurangzeb banished singing in his

court but was a Veena player himself. Most important
development happened during Muhammad shah rangeela
(1720-48).
122
Society and Women www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

Hindu Society
Position of Women
Referred as 'Gentoos' by Europeans. Conflicting trends of
liberalism and catholicity on the one hand and Muslisms brought purdhah practice from
exclusiveness and conservatism on the other. foreign lands, Hindus adopted Purdah
Some of the Vaishnava and Tantric teachers recognized, to system as a protective measure (In higher
some extent, the religious and social rights of women as class or ruling society)
also of the Sudras. Some non Brahmin followers of
Chaitanya became spiritual preceptors (gurus) not only of Purda System
the three lower castes but also of Brahmins. In South Indians did not adopt Purdhah but
Maharashtra Tukaram, a Sudra, and in the Brahmaputra was confined only to members of Royal
valley Sankardev and Madhavdev, who were Kayasthas, household in Vijaynagara kingdom
had Brahmin disciples.
Some writers of’ the Smriti nibandhas had royal patrons No purdah in Hindu middle or lower class
and their injunctions carried political sanction. One of
them, Keshava Pandit, was a judge under the Maratha King Were prevalent and dowry was demanded
Sambhaji. Child
(However bride price practice could also be
Marriages
But there were eminent authors like Raghunandan and observed)
Ramnath of Bengal, Pitambar of Kamarup and Kamalakar
Bhatta of Maharashtra whose authority was accepted by In spite of the decision of the ulema in the
the Hindu society even though it was not backed by royal Ibadat Khana in Akbar’s times, Akbar had
patronage. issued definite orders that a man of
Monogamy
Muslim Society ordinary means should not possess more
Referred as 'Moors' by Europeans. As a result of than one wife unless the first proved to be
continuous immigration from the Muslim countries of barren.
Central and West Asia the Muslim population retained the
mixed character which it had acquired during the previous
centuries. Common among Muslims but were
Divorce prohibited for Hindu women, Customs of
In coastal regions the immigrants were primarily traders, Sati was prevalent among hinuds
hailing originally from Arabia and the Persian Gulf. As a
result of their regular or irregular unions with the local Muslim woman was entitled to a share in
Hindus or converts a number of Muslim communities of the inheritance with absolute right to
mixed origin had come into existence, e.g., the Navayats of
western India, the Mappillas or Moplahs of Malabar, and dispose it off
the Labbais of the Coromandel coast.
Mehr, or entente nuptial settlement, was
There were also a considerable number of Muslims of another safeguard for Muslim women
Abyssinian origin, most of whose ancestors were originally
imported as slaves. whereas a Hindu woman had no right to the
property of her husband’s parents
Muslims of foreign origin, formally united by Islam, had Property
racial and religious differences which influenced politics
and society. The Turanis (Central Asians) and the Afghans rights A Hindu woman was only entitled to
were Sunnis; the Persians (Iranians) were Shias. maintenance and residence expenses
besides movable property like ornaments,
Muslims of foreign origin considered as a distinct group, jewellery, etc.
constituted the principal element in the ruling class of the
Mughal period. They claimed superiority to the Hindustani
Muslims, i.e., Hindu converts and their descendants on the The women in the south under the Cholas
basis of birth, race and culture. (8th to 13th century), however, had the
There was no bar to inter-marriage on racial grounds. right to inherit property.
A Muslim of low birth could rise to a high rank in the Voluntary in South (No-restriction, no
nobility by dint of ability or through the favour of fortune.
encouragement)
Three classes are mentioned in a sixteenth-century Persian Mohammad bin Tuglaq banned for the first
work: time
The ruling class comprising the imperial family, the
nobility and the army Akbar did not ban it altogether but issued
Sati restrictions upon burning women against
The intelligentsia, comprising theologians (ulema), their inclinations
judges (qazis), men of learning and men of letters Aurangzeb altogether banned Sati (1664)
The class catering to pleasures, comprising musicians, In 1830 The Bengal Sati Regulation by Lord
minstrels and dancing girls. William Bentinck banned the practice of in
all of British India.
123
Decline of the Mughals www.delhiupscsecrets.com Delhi UPSC Secrets

Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I, repealed the religious
policies of his father and attempted to reform the
administration. "However, after his death in 1712, the
Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719
alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne", as
figureheads under the rule of the Sayyid king-makers.
During the reign of Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719–1748),
the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central
India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands.
The far-off Indian campaign of Nadir Shah, who had
previously reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of
West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with
the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal
power and prestige.
Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their own
affairs, and broke away to form independent kingdoms.
Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly
fragmented Mughal Empire, involved themselves and the
state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of
territory during the Carnatic Wars and the Bengal War.
The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II (1759–1806) made futile
attempts to reverse the Mughal decline but ultimately had
to seek the protection of the Emir of Afghanistan, Ahmed
Shah Abdali, which led to the Third Battle of Panipat
between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans (led by
Abdali) in 1761.
India 1751
In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control
and in 1784 they officially became the protectors of the
emperor in Delhi, a state of affairs that continued until the
Second Anglo-Maratha War.
Thereafter, the British East India Company became the
protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi. The British East
India Company took control of the former Mughal province
of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule
(Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of
British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent.
By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was
under the East India Company's control. After a crushing
defeat in the war of 1857–1858 which he nominally led, the
last Mughal, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was deposed by the
British East India Company and exiled in 1858.
Through the Government of India Act 1858 the British
Crown assumed direct control of East India Company-held
territories in India in the form of the new British Raj. In 1876
the British Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of
India.
Modern views on the decline
The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in
high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views
that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge.
Excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which
stripped away the will and the means to support the
regime. Failure of the regime to work with Hindu bankers,
whose financial support was increasingly needed; the
bankers then helped the Maratha and the British. Hindu
powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty. The
very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to
achieve a high degree of independence, thus weakening the
imperial court.
Indian economy went through deindustrialization in the
latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the
collapse of the Mughal Empire, with British rule later
causing further deindustrialization.
124

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JAI HIND! Arvind Kaynade

2 Indus valley civilization 12

6000 Neolithic settlements in Baluchistan

4000-3000 Initial Indus valley settlements

2700 Time of Indus seals found at Kish in Mesopotamia

2500 Early period of IVC

Major period of IVC

1750-1500 Decline of IVC - Aryan Immigration

1000 Iron period in India

817 Traditional date of the birth of Parsvanatha, the 23rd tirthankara

600 Beginning of 2nd urbanization of India, Rise of 16 Mahajanapadas

563-483 Period of Buddha

540-468 Period of Mahavira

542-413 Haryankas of Magadha

413-364 Shisunaga Dynasty

364-321 Nanda Dynasty

327-325 Alexander comes to India

326 Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum) and defeat of Porus (Purushottarn)

321-184 The Mauryan Empire

305-303 Chandragupta Maurya's war with Seleucus Nikator

272-268 Ashokan war of succession

268-232 Ashoka's period

260-257 Kalinga's conquest

257 Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism (Via Upagupta)

232-184 Later Mauryas

184-75 Sunga Dynasty (Pushyamitra-founder, Devabhumi-Iast Sunga)

182 Foundation of the Indo-Greek empire by Demetrius

166-150 Period of Menander

141 Saka's conquest of Bactria

94 Saka kings in North west India

75-28 Kanva Dynasty (Vasudeva-founder, Suserman-last Kanva)

50 Emergence of Satavahanas in Deccan; King Kharavela of Kalinga (Hathigumpha inscription)

20-46 Gondophernes, the greatest IndoParthian king in Taxila; St Thomas in India

46 Discovery of Monsoon winds by Hippalus (Greek sailor)

64 Chinese emperor Mingti sent agents to India for Buddhist texts

66 Arrival of Indian Buddhist monks, Kasyapa Matanga and Gobharana, in China

77 Pliny wrote Natural History

78 Saka Era begun (Under Kanishka)

78-110 Reign of Kanishka (Kushana Empire)

80-128 Gautamiputra Satkarni and Vasishtiputra Pulamayi (Satavahana Rule)

130-150 Rule of Rudraman I Satavahana

226 Sassanian dynasty established in Persia

250 Satavahana kingdom ended

320-335 Gupta Era begun under Chandragupta I

335-375 Samudragupta (Indian Nepoleon)

360 Sri-lankan embassy to Samudragupta's court

375-413 Chandragupta II reign + Peak of Sanskrit literature

405-411 Fabien or Fahan in India (During Chandragupta II)

413-455 Kumara-gupta I reign + Nalanda University