NCERT Ancient and Medieval History One

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Preface
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U Holistic Coverage of 50+ NCERT Books
U Thinking Points in and as ‘Points to Ponder’
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The Caricatures used are inspired by Alakh Pandey Sir and Sumit Rewri Sir.
Alakh Pandey Sumit Rewri

Contents
1. STONE AGE 1-10
2. THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION 11-26
3. VEDIC AGE 27-38
4. JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 39-61
5. AGE OF MAHAJANAPADAS 62-70
6. MAURYA’S AGE 71-77
7. POST MAURYAN AGE 78-86
8. GUPTA PERIOD 87-97
9. POST GUPTA PERIOD 98-110
10. SANGAM AGE AND SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS 111-118
11. ART AND CULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 119-132
12. INTRODUCTION TO MEDIEVAL HISTORY 133-139
13. IMPORTANT DYNASTIES IN THE EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD 140-147
14. DELHI SULTANATE 12TH TO 16TH CENTURY 148-163
15. THE MUGHALS 164-170
16. DECLINE OF MUGHALS AND RISE OF REGIONAL POWERS 171-178
17. BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT 179-196
18. MARATHAS 197-206
19. VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE 207-217
20. SOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA 218-236

1 Stone Age
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 - XI
NCERT (Political Theory), Chapter 2 and 8 - VIII NCERT (Social and Political Life-III), and Chapter
1 - VII NCERT (Social and Political Life-II).
Introduction
The Stone Age was the prehistoric cultural stage, or level of human development, that was
characterized by the creation and use of stone tools. It began some 3.3 million years ago. In this
age, people have lived along the banks of rivers for several hundred thousand years. Some of the
earliest people who lived here were skilled gatherers, that is, people who gathered their food. They
knew about the vast wealth of plants in the surrounding forests, and collected roots, fruits, and
other forest produce for their food and also hunted animals.
Where Did the Stone Age People Live?
' For a long time, people began to live along the banks of the Narmada River in the Indian
subcontinent.
' About 8000 years ago, some of the areas where women and men first began to grow crops, such
as wheat and barley, are located in the Sulaiman and Kirthar hills of Northwest India.
' People also began rearing animals like sheep, goats, and cattle and lived in villages.
' Some of the other areas where agriculture developed are:
* About 4700 years ago, some of the earliest cities flourished on the banks of the Indus River
and its tributaries.
* Later, about 2500 years ago, cities developed on the banks of the Ganga and its tributaries
and along the sea coasts.
Why Did People Travel in the Ancient Times?
' In ancient times, the area south of the Ganga was known as Magadha, now lying in the state
of Bihar. Its rulers were very powerful and had set up a large kingdom. Kingdoms were set up
in other parts of the country as well.
' Throughout history, people travelled from one part of the subcontinent to another.
' The hills and high mountains, including the Himalayas, deserts, rivers, and seas, made
journeys dangerous at times but never impossible.
' So, men and women moved in search of livelihood, as well as to escape from natural disasters
like floods or droughts.
' Sometimes, men marched in armies, conquering others’ lands.
' Besides, merchants travelled with caravans or ships, carrying valuable goods from place to place.
' Religious teachers walked from village to village, town to town, stopping to offer instruction and
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY advice on the way.
' Finally, some people perhaps travelled driven by a spirit of adventure, wanting to discover
new and exciting places. All these led to the sharing of ideas between people.
Names of the Land
We often use two of the words for our country, that is India and Bharat.
' The word India comes from the Indus, called Sindhu in Sanskrit. The Iranians and the
Greeks, who came through the northwest about 2500 years ago and were familiar with the
Indus, called it the Hindos or the Indos, and the land to the East of the river Indus was
called India.
' The name Bharata was used for a group of people who lived in the northwest, and who were
mentioned in the Rigveda, the earliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about 3500 years
ago). Later, it was used for the country.
Composed by
Sages Taught by Composed of
priests 1000 Hymns
‘sukta’ (well-said)
Rigveda
Recited and Language-Old/

not read Vedic Sanskrit
Ways of Finding out about the Past

There are several ways of finding out about the past:
Table 1.1: Ways of Finding Out About Our Past
± To search for and read books that were written long ago. These are called
manuscripts, because they were written by hand (this comes from the
Latin word ‘manu’, meaning hand).
± These were usually written on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared bark
of a tree known as the birch, which grows in the Himalayas.
± Over the years, many manuscripts were eaten away by insects, some
Manuscripts were destroyed, but many have survived, often preserved in temples and
monasteries.
± These books dealt with all kinds of subjects: religious beliefs and practices,
the lives of kings, medicine, and science.
± Besides, there were epics, poems and plays.
± Many of these were written in Sanskrit; others were in Prakrit (languages
used by ordinary people) and Tamil.
± We can also study inscriptions to find out about the past. Inscriptions are
writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal.
± Sometimes, kings got their orders inscribed so that people could see, read,
Inscriptions and obey them.
± There are other kinds of inscriptions as well, where men and women (including
kings and queens) recorded what they did.
± For example, kings often kept records of victories in battle.
2
Stone Age
The Palm Leaf Manuscript
± This diagram depicts a page from a palm-leaf manuscript. This

manuscript was written about a thousand years ago.
± The palm leaves were cut into pages and tied together to make books.
The Kandahar Inscription
± It is an old inscription. This inscription dates to about 2250 years ago

and was found in Kandahar, present-day Afghanistan.
± It was inscribed on the orders of a ruler named Ashoka.
± This inscription was inscribed in two different scripts and languages,
Greek (top) and Aramaic (below), which were used in this area.
Who are the Archaeologists and What Do They Do?

' An archaeologist is a person who studies human history and prehistory through the
excavation of sites and the analysis of artefacts and other physical remains.
' They study the remains of buildings made of stone and brick, paintings, and sculptures.
' They also explore and excavate (dig under the surface of the earth) to find tools, weapons,
pots, pans, ornaments, and coins.
' Some of these objects may be made of stone, others of bone, baked clay, or metal.
' Objects that are made of hard, imperishable substances usually survive for a long time.
' Archaeologists also look for bones of animals, birds, and fish to find out what people ate in the
past.
' Plant remains survive far more rarely. If seeds of grain or pieces of wood have been burnt, they
survive in a charred form.
How Do Archaeologists and Historians Use Sources?

' Left: A pot from an old city. Pots like these were used
about 4700 years ago.
' Right: An old silver coin. Coins, such as this one, was in
use from about 2500 years ago.
' Historians, that is, scholars who study the past, often
use the word ‘source’ to refer to the information found
from manuscripts, inscriptions, and archaeology.
' Once sources are found, learning about the past becomes
an adventure as we reconstruct it bit by bit.
' So, historians and archaeologists are like detectives, who use all these sources like clues to find
out about our pasts.
3
One Past or Many?
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY
' The word ‘pasts’ is plural to draw attention to the fact that the past was different for different
groups of people. For example, the lives of herders or farmers were different from those of kings
and queens, the lives of merchants were different from those of crafts persons, and so on.
' Also, as is true even today, people followed different POINTS TO PONDER
practices and customs in different parts of the country. The primary sources of information
For example, today, most people living in the Andaman for the study of History (like literary
Islands get their own food by fishing, hunting, and and archaeological) are generally
collecting forest produce. By contrast, most people living based on the information provided
in cities depend on others for supplies of food. by the patrons. Do you think then
' Differences such as these existed in the past as well. the primary sources are
a good repository for the
' Besides, there is another kind of difference. We know a
reconstruction of history?
great deal about kings and the battles they fought because
they kept records of their victories.
' Generally, ordinary people such as hunters, fishing folk,
gatherers, farmers or herders did not keep records of what they did.
What Do Dates Mean?
' A date is a specific time that can be named, for example, a particular day or a particular year.
' These years are counted from the date
generally assigned to the birth of Jesus Some Important Dates
Christ, the founder of Christianity.
± The beginning of agriculture (8000 years ago)
' So, 2000 means 2000 years after the birth ± The first cities on the Indus (4700 years ago)
of Christ. ± Cities in the Ganga valley, a big kingdom in
' All dates before the birth of Christ are Magadha (2500 years ago)
counted backward and usually have the ± The present (about 2000 AD/CE)
letters BC (Before Christ) added on.
' BC stands for ‘Before Christ.’
' You will sometimes find AD before dates. This stands for two Latin words, ‘Anno Domini’,
meaning ‘in the year of the Lord’ (i.e., Christ).
' So, 2012 can also be written as AD 2012.
' Sometimes, CE is used instead of AD and BCE instead of BC.
' The letters CE stand for ‘Common Era’ and BCE for ‘Before Common Era’.
' We use these terms because the Christian Era is now used in most countries of the world.
' In India, we began using this form of dating about two hundred years ago.
' And sometimes, the letters BP meaning ‘Before Present’ are used.
The Hunters - why were they on the Move?
' The people who lived in the subcontinent as early as two million years ago are described as
Hunter-Gatherers. The name comes from the way in which they got their food.
' Generally, they hunted wild animals, caught fish and birds, and gathered fruits, roots, nuts,
seeds, leaves, stalks, and eggs. Hunter-gatherers moved from place to place. There are many
reasons for this:
4
* First, if they had stayed at one place for a long time, they would have eaten up all the
Stone Age
available plant and animal resources. Therefore, they would have had to go elsewhere in
search of food.
* Second, animals move from place to place — either POINTS TO PONDER
in search of smaller prey or, in the case of deer and Hunters and gatherers are the
wild cattle, in search of grass and leaves. That is why history of all societies. Most of
those who hunted them had to follow their movements. these societies have progressed
to modern life. Still, we find some
* Third, plants and trees bear fruit in different
groups of tribes in different parts
seasons. So, people may have moved from season to of the world adhering to hunting
season in search of different kinds of plants. and gathering. Do you think these
* Fourth, people, plants, and animals need water to tribal groups are a true specimen
survive. Water is found in lakes, streams, and rivers. of historical hunter gatherers or
While many rivers and lakes are perennial (with water the social influences have
throughout the year), others are seasonal. People affected their lifestyle?
living on their banks would have had to go in search
of water during the dry seasons (winter and summer).
How do we know about the Hunter-Gatherers?
' Archaeologists have found some of the things Additional Information
hunter-gatherers made and used. ± The earliest stone toolmaking developed
' It is likely that people made and used tools of by at least 2.6 million years ago.
stone, wood, and bone, of which stone tools ± Many archaeological sites have been
have survived best. excavated, studied, and dated, which
consist of the accumulated debris from
' Some of these stone tools were used to cut meat making and using stone tools.
and bone, scrape bark (from trees) and hides ± Because stone tools are less
(animal skins), and chop fruit and roots. susceptible to destruction than
' Some may have been attached to handles of bone bones, stone artefacts typically offer
or wood to make spears and arrows for hunting. the best evidence of where and when
early humans lived, their geographic
' Other tools were used to chop wood, which was
dispersal, and their ability to survive in
used as firewood. Wood was also used to make a variety of habitats.
huts and tools.
Stone tools may also

have been used for:
Left: Digging the
ground to collect
edible roots.
Right: Stitching
clothes made out of
animal skin.
5
Important Sites
' Bhimbetka (in present-day Madhya Pradesh) is an old site with caves and rock shelters. People
chose these natural caves because they provided shelter from the rain, heat, and wind. These
rock shelters are close to the Narmada valley.
' Many of the caves in which these early people lived have
paintings on the walls. Some of the best examples
are from Madhya Pradesh and southern Uttar Pradesh.
These paintings show wild animals drawn with great
accuracy and skill.
' Traces of ash have been found in the Kurnool caves.
This suggests that people were familiar with the use
of fire. Fire could have been used for many things for
example as a source of light, to roast meat, and to
scare away animals.
Time Periods of Stone Age People

Palaeolithic
' Archaeologists have given lengthy names for the time that
POINTS TO PONDER
we are studying.
Different eras in history are
' They call the earliest period the Palaeolithic. This comes generally defined based on the
from two Greek words, ‘palaeo’, meaning old, and material which dominated the
‘lithos’, meaning stone. phase (E.g., Stone Age, Bronze Age
' The name points to the importance of finding stone tools. etc.). Do you think the progress
of history is always determined
' The Palaeolithic period extends from 2 million years
by material technology or there
ago to about 12,000 years ago.
are other factors which also
' This long stretch of time is divided into the Lower, Middle, contribute to the making of
and Upper Palaeolithic. history?
' This long span of time covers 99 percent of human history.
A Changing Environment
± Around 12,000 years ago, there were major changes in the climate of the world, with a shift
to relatively warm conditions.
± In many areas, this led to the development of Grasslands.
± This in turn, led to an increase in the number of deer, antelope, goats, sheep, and cattle,
i.e., animals that survived on grass.
± Those who hunted these animals now followed them, learning about their food habits and
their breeding seasons.
± It is likely that this helped people to start thinking about Herding and Rearing these animals
themselves.
± Fishing also became important.
Mesolithic
' The period when we find environmental changes, beginning about 12,000 years ago till about
10,000 years ago, is called the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age).
' Stone tools found during this period were generally tiny and are called microliths.
6
' Microliths were probably stuck onto handles of bone or wood to make tools such as saws
Stone Age
and sickles.
The Beginning of Farming and Herding

Farming
' Farming started when several grain-bearing grasses, including wheat, barley and rice grew
naturally in different parts of the subcontinent.
* Men, women, and children probably collected these grains as food and learnt where they
grew, and when they ripened.
* This may have led them to think about growing plants on their own. In this way, people
became farmers.
Animal Herding
' People started taming animals by leaving food for them near their shelters.
* The first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog.
* Later, people encouraged animals that were relatively gentle to come near the camps
where they lived.
* These animals, such as sheep, goats, cattle, and pig lived in herds, and most of them
ate grass.
* Often, people protected these animals from attacks by other wild animals.
* This is how they became Herders.
Domestication
' Domestication is the name given to the process in which people grow plants and look after
animals.
' Very often, plants and animals that are tended by people become different
from wild plants and animals. This is because people select plants and
animals for domestication.
* For example, they select those plants and animals that are not prone
to disease.
* They select plants that yield large-size grain and have strong stalks
capable of bearing the weight of the ripe grain. Seeds from selected
plants are preserved and sown to ensure that new plants (and seeds)
will have the same qualities.
* Amongst animals, those that are relatively gentle are selected for
breeding.
' As a result, gradually, domesticated animals and plants become
different from wild animals and plants. For example, the teeth and horns
of wild animals are usually much larger than those of domesticated
animals.
' Domestication was a gradual process that took Goat Sheep
place in many parts of the world. It began about
12,000 years ago. Domesticated
' Virtually all the plants and animals that we use as Animals
food today are a result of domestication. Some of
the earliest plants to be domesticated were wheat Pig
Cattle
and barley.
7
' The earliest domesticated animals include sheep and goat.
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY ' As grain had to be stored for both food and seed, people began making large clay pots or wove
baskets, or dug pits into the ground.
The First Farmers and Herders
' The evidence of early farmers and herders can be found all over the subcontinent. These sites
are from where archaeologists have found evidence of early farmers and herders.
' Some of the most important ones are in the north-west, in present-day Kashmir, and in east
and south India.
' To find out whether these sites were settlements of farmers and herders, scientists study
evidence of plants and animal bones.
' One of the most exciting findings includes remains of burnt grain. (These may have been
burnt accidentally or on purpose).
' Scientific study suggested that a number of crops were grown in different parts of the
subcontinent.
Towards A Settled Life
' Archaeologists have found traces of huts or houses at some sites. For instance, in Burzahom
(in present-day Kashmir), people built pit houses, which were dug into the ground, with steps
leading into them. They may have provided shelter in cold weather.
' Archaeologists have also found cooking
hearths both inside and outside the huts, Some Important Dates
which suggests that, depending on the ± The Mesolithic period (12,000-10,000 years
weather, people could cook food either ago)
indoors or outdoors. ± Beginnings of domestication (about 12,000
' Stone tools have been found from many years ago)
sites as well. ± Beginning of settlement at Mehrgarh (about
8000 years ago)
' Many of these are different from the earlier ± The beginning of the Neolithic (10,000 years
Palaeolithic tools, and that is why they are ago)
called Neolithic.
* These include tools that were polished
to give a fine cutting edge and mortars and pestles used for grinding grain and other
plant produce.
* Mortars and pestles are used even today, several thousand years later.
' At the same time, tools of the Palaeolithic types continued to
be made and used, and some tools were also made of bone.
POINTS TO PONDER
' Many kinds of earthen pots have also been found. These Out of the several transitions
were sometimes decorated and used for storing things. of eras in human history only
* People began using pots for cooking food, especially a few of them stand apart. This
grains like rice, wheat, and lentils which now became has led to several historians
an important part of the diet. categorising these transitions
into evolution and revolution.
' Besides, they began weaving cloth, using different kinds Why do you think the transi-
of materials, for example, cotton, that could now be tion to the neolithic era
grown. has been categorised as
' In many areas, men and women still continued to hunt ‘Neolithic Revolution’?
and gather food, and elsewhere people adopted farming
and herding slowly, over several thousand years.
8
Stone Age
A Closer Look — Living and Dying in Mehrgarh
' This site is located in a fertile plain near the Bolan Pass, which is one of the most important
routes to Iran.
' Mehrgarh was probably one of the places where people learnt to grow barley and wheat and
rear sheep and goats for the first time in this area.
' It is one of the earliest villages that we know about.

' At this site, many animal bones were found such as bones of deer, pig, sheep and goat.
9
' Other finds at Mehrgarh include remains of square or rectangular houses.
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY ' Each house had four or more compartments, some of which may have been used for storage.
Glossary
± Inscription: These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal.
± Archaeologists: Those who study things that were made and used in the past are called Archaeologists.
± Palaeolithic: This comes from two Greek words, ‘palaeo’, meaning old, and ‘lithos’, meaning stone.
± Mesolithic: The period beginning about 12,000 years ago till about 10,000 years ago is called the
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age).
± Microliths: Tiny stone tools found during the Mesolithic period are called Microliths.
± Domestication: Domestication is the process in which people grow plants and look after animals.

10
The Indus Valley
2 Civilisation
Introduction
The Indus valley civilization is also called the Ropar
Harappan culture. Named after Harappa, Dholavira Lothal
the first site where this unique culture was Harappa Chanhudaro
discovered, the civilisation is dated between
c. 2600 and 1900 BCE. There were earlier Domesticated
and later cultures, often called Early Mohonjodaro Kalibangan
Animals
Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same
area. The Harappan civilization is sometimes Koti-diji Surkotada
called the Mature Harappan culture to
distinguish it from these cultures. Daimabad Banavali
Rakhigarhi
Figure 2.1: Indus Valley Civilisation – Mature Phase

Beginning of the Civilization
' The civilisation began
around 2600 BCE and
continued in its mature
phase by 1900 BCE.
' There were several
archaeological cultures
in the region prior to the
Mature Harappan. These
cultures were associated
with distinctive pottery,
evidence of agriculture
and pastoralism, and
some crafts.
' Settlements were
generally small, and there
were virtually no large
buildings.
' It appears that there was
a break between the
Early Harappan and the
Harappan civilisation,
evident from large-scale
burning at some sites, as
well as the abandonment of
certain settlements.
Subsistence Strategies
' The Mature Harappan culture developed in some of the areas occupied by the Early Harappan
cultures. These cultures also shared certain common elements including subsistence strategies.
' The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish.
' Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains and
seeds. These are studied by Archaeo-botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains.
' Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame.
' Millets are found from sites in Gujarat.
' Finds of rice are relatively rare.
' Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig.
Studies done by archaeo-zoologists or zooarchaeologists indicate that these animals were
domesticated.
' Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial are also found. It is not known
whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting
communities.
' Bones of fish and fowl are also found.
Agricultural Technologies
' The prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain. Representations on seals and
terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from
this that oxen were used for ploughing.
12
' Moreover, terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at
The Indus Valley Civilisation

Banawali (Haryana).
' Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan),
associated with Early Harappan levels. The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to
each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together.
' Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required
for agriculture.
' Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but
not in Punjab or Sind. It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation.
' Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water
for agriculture.
Figure 2.2: Agricultural Tools of the Harappan Civilisation
Mohenjodaro
A Planned Urban Centre
Most unique feature of the Harappan civilisation was the development of urban centres. Although
Mohenjodaro is the most well-known site, the first site to be discovered was Harappa.
' The Mohenjodaro settlement is divided into two sections,
POINTS TO PONDER
one smaller but higher and the other much larger but
The traits of urban planning,
lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel and
covered drains, broad roads
the Lower Town respectively.
in grid patterns etc. are quite
* The Citadel owes its height to the fact that buildings evident in archaeological remains
were constructed on mud brick platforms. It was of IVC. Modern Indian cities are
walled, which meant that it was physically separated still struggling with some of these
from the Lower Town. amenities. Can you compare and
contrast modern cities with
* The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildings
that of the Harappan Cities?
were built on platforms, which served as foundations.
* Once the platforms were in place, all building activity
within the city was restricted to a fixed area on the
platforms. So, it seems that the settlement was first planned and then implemented
accordingly.
' Other signs of planning include bricks, which, whether sun-dried or baked, were of
a standardised ratio, where the length and breadth were four times and twice the height
respectively. Such bricks were used at all Harappan settlements.
13
citadel
Self
roads sufficient
meeting sector's
@90°
presence of Common
two granaries
storey drainage with
building stone cover common bath
IVC URBAN
PLANNING
veranda
Figure 2.3: Isometric Drawing of a House in Mohenjodaro
Laying out Drains and Roads:

' One of the most distinctive
features of Harappan cities was
the carefully planned drainage
system.
' In the Lower Town, roads and
streets were laid out along an
approximate “grid” pattern,
intersecting at right angles.
' Streets with drains were laid out
first and then houses built along
them.
' If domestic wastewater had to
flow into the street drains, every
house needed to have at least one
wall along a street.
Domestic Architecture:
' The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro
provides examples of residential
buildings.
' Many were centred on a courtyard,
with rooms on all sides. The
courtyard was probably the centre
of activities such as cooking and
weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather.
' There were no windows in the walls along the ground level.
' The main entrance did not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.
14
' Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall

to the street drains.
' Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof.
' Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside and perhaps
used by passers-by.
' Scholars have estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.
The Citadel
' On the Citadel, evidence of structures that were
probably used for special public purposes was Citadel
found. These include the warehouse – a massive
structure of which the lower brick portions remain, Lower city
while the upper portions, probably of wood, decayed
long ago – and the Great Bath.
* The Great Bath was a large

rectangular tank in a courtyard
surrounded by a corridor on all
four sides.
* There were two flights of steps
on the north and south leading
into the tank, which was made
watertight by setting bricks
on edge and using a mortar of
gypsum.
* There were rooms on three sides,
in one of which was a large well.
* Water from the tank flowed into a
huge drain. Across a lane to the
north, lay a smaller building with
eight bathrooms, four on each
15
side of a corridor, with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY corridor.
* The uniqueness of the structure has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind
of a special ritual bath.
Tracking Social Differences

Burials
' Archaeologists use certain strategies to find out whether there were social or economic
differences amongst people living within a particular culture. These include studying burials.
' The massive pyramids of Egypt were contemporaneous with the Harappan civilisation. Many
of these pyramids were royal burials, where enormous quantities of wealth were buried.
' At burials in Harappan sites, the dead were generally
laid in pits.
' There were differences in the way the burial pit was made
– in some instances, the hollowed-out spaces were
lined with bricks. These could be an indication of social
differences.
' Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps
indicating a belief that these could be used in the after life.
' Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and
women. In the excavations at the cemetery in Harappa
in the mid-1980s, an ornament consisting of three shell
rings, a jasper (a kind of semi-precious stone) bead and
hundreds of microbeads was found near the skull of a male.
' In some instances, the dead were buried with copper mirrors.
' But on the whole, it appears that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things
with the dead.
Luxury Items of the Indus Valley Civilization
' Another strategy to identify social differences is to study artefacts,
which archaeologists broadly classify as utilitarian and luxuries.
* The first category includes objects of daily use made
fairly easily out of ordinary materials such as stone or clay.
These include querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers (body
scrubbers), etc., and are usually found distributed throughout
settlements.
* Objects are luxuries if they are rare or made from costly, non-
local materials or with complicated technologies. Thus,
little pots of faience (a material made of ground sand or silica
mixed with colour and a gum and then fired) were probably
considered precious because they were difficult to make.
' Rare objects made of valuable materials are generally concentrated in large settlements
like Mohenjodaro and Harappa and are rarely found in the smaller settlements.
* For example, miniature pots of faience, perhaps used as perfume bottles, are found mostly
in Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
16
* Gold too was rare, probably precious – all the gold jewellery found at Harappan sites was

recovered from hoards.
Craft Production
' Some were decorated by incising or painting, and some
had designs etched onto them.
' Techniques for making beads differed according to the
material. Steatite, a very soft stone, was easily worked.
Some beads were moulded out of a paste made with
steatite powder. This makes a variety of shapes, unlike the
geometrical forms made out of harder stones.
' The red colour of carnelian was obtained by firing the
yellowish raw material and beads at various stages of
production. Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and
then finely flaked into the final form. Grinding, polishing
and drilling completed the process.
' Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.
' Nageshwar and Balakot, both settlements are near the coast. These were specialised centres
for making shell objects – including bangles, ladles and inlay – which were taken to other
settlements.
' Similarly, it is likely that finished products (such as beads) from Chanhudaro and Lothal were
taken to the large urban centres such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
Strategies for Procuring Materials

' A variety of materials was used for craft production. While some such
as clay were locally available, many such as stone, timber and metal
had to be procured from outside the alluvial plain.
' Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one
important means of transporting goods and people across land routes.
' Riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal
routes were also probably used.
Materials from the Subcontinent and Beyond
' The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various
ways. They established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot
in areas where shells were available.
17
' Other such sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, near the
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY best source of lapis lazuli, a blue stone that was apparently very
highly valued, and Lothal which was near sources of carnelian
(from Bharuch in Gujarat), steatite (from south Rajasthan and
north Gujarat) and metal (from Rajasthan).
' Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to
send expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan
(for copper) and south India (for gold).
' These expeditions established communication with local
communities. Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts such as
steatite microbeads in these areas are indications of such contact.
' There is evidence in the Khetri area for what archaeologists
call the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture, with its distinctive non-
Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects. It
is possible that the inhabitants of this region supplied copper to
the Harappans.
Contact with Distant Lands

' Copper was also probably brought from Oman. The Omani copper
and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a
common origin.
' A distinctive type of vessel, a large Harappan jar coated with
a thick layer of black clay has been found at Omani sites.
Such thick coatings prevent the percolation of liquids.
' Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE
refer to copper coming from a region called Magan, perhaps
a name for Oman, and interestingly enough copper found at
Mesopotamian sites also contains traces of nickel.
' Other archaeological finds suggestive of long-distance contacts
include Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads.
' It is worth noting that Mesopotamian texts mention contact
with regions named Dilmun (island of Bahrain), Magan and
Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region. They mention about
the products from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.
' Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers.
' Besides, depictions of ships and boats are also found on seals.
18

Seals, Script, Weights

The Harappan Seal
● The Harappan seal is possibly the most distinctive artefact of the Harappan or Indus
valley civilisation.
● It is made of a stone called steatite, seals like this one often contain animal motifs and
signs from a script that remains undeciphered.
● Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication.
* For instance, suppose a bag of goods is being sent from one place to another. Its mouth was
tied with rope and on the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were
pressed, leaving an impression. If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it
had not been tampered with.
* The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.
19
An Enigmatic Script
' Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the name and title of the
owner.
' Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs.
' Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was

evidently not alphabetical (where each sign stands for a vowel or
a consonant) as it has just too many signs – somewhere between
375 and 400.
' It is apparent that the script was written from right to left as
some seals show a wider spacing on the right and cramping on the
left, as if the engraver began working from the right and then ran
out of space.
Figure 2.4: Letters on An Ancient Sign Board
Weights
' Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert
and generally cubical, with no markings.
' The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while
the higher denominations followed the decimal system.
20
' The smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads.

' Metal scale-pans have also been found.
The extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts is evident in pottery seals, weights and bricks.
Notably, bricks, though obviously not produced in any single centre, were of a uniform ratio
throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat. Besides, labour was mobilised for making bricks
and for the construction of massive walls and platforms.
Discovery of “A new old civilisation”

± Various seals were discovered at Harappa by archaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni in the early
decades of the twentieth century, in layers that were definitely much older than Early Historic levels.
± Another archaeologist, Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Mohenjodaro, leading to the conjecture
that these sites were part of a single archaeological culture.
± Based on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery
of a new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.
± As S.N. Roy noted in The Story of Indian Archaeology, “Marshall left India three thousand years older
than he had found her.” This was because similar and unidentified seals were found at excavations at
Mesopotamian sites.
± It was then that the world knew not only of a new civilisation, but also of one contemporaneous with
Mesopotamia.
Ancient Authority
Palaces and Kings
' A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists but no
spectacular finds were associated with it.
' A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the “priest-king”. This is because
archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” and have found
parallels in the Indus region.
' But the ritual practices of the Harappan civilisation
are not well understood yet nor are there any means of
knowing whether those who performed them also held
political power.
' Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan
society had no rulers, and that everybody enjoyed
equal status. Others feel there was no single ruler
but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler,
Harappa another, and so forth.
' Yet others argue that there was a single state, given
the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned Figure 2.5: A “Priest-King”
settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and
the establishment of settlements near sources of raw
materials.
The End of Civilisation

' There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE, most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as
Cholistan had been abandoned.
' Simultaneously, there was an expansion of population into new settlements in Gujarat,
Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
21
' In the few Harappan sites that continued to be occupied after 1900 BCE, there appears to have
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY been a transformation of material culture, marked by the disappearance of the distinctive
artefacts of the civilisation – weights, seals, special beads.
' Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialisation also disappeared.
' House construction techniques deteriorated and large public structures were no longer
produced.
' Several explanations have been put forward for the decline of IVC. These range from climatic
change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers, to overuse
of the landscape. Some of these “causes” may hold for certain settlements, but they do not
explain the collapse of the entire civilisation.
' It appears that a strong unifying element, Some Important Dates
perhaps the Harappan state, came to an
end. This is evidenced by the disappearance ± Cotton cultivation at Mehrgarh (about 7000
of seals, the script, distinctive beads and years ago)
pottery, the shift from a standardised ± Beginning of cities (about 4700 years ago)
weight system to the use of local weights; ± Beginning of the end of these cities (about
and the decline and abandonment of cities. 3900 years ago)
' Overall, artefacts and settlements indicate ± The emergence of other cities (about 2500
a rural way of life in what are called “Late years ago)
Harappan” or “successor cultures”.
Figure 2.6: Areas of Late Harappan Occupation
22
Other Facets of Understanding Harappan Civilisation

Table 2.1: Facets of the Harappan Civilisation
± Mortimer Wheeler recognised that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy
of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines.
± The frontiers of the Harappan civilisation have little or no connection with
present-day national boundaries.
± However, with the partition of the subcontinent and the creation of Pakistan,
the major sites are now in Pakistani territory. This has spurred Indian
New Techniques and
archaeologists to try and locate sites in India.
Sites
± An extensive survey in Kutch has revealed a number of Harappan settlements
and explorations in Punjab and Haryana have been added to the list of
Harappan sites.
± While Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhigarhi and most recently Dholavira have
been discovered, explored and excavated as part of these efforts, fresh
explorations continue.
± It is not the Harappan script that helps in understanding the ancient
civilisation. Rather, it is material evidence that allows archaeologists to
better reconstruct Harappan life. This material could be pottery, tools,
ornaments, household objects, etc.
± Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally
Problems of Piecing
decompose, especially in tropical regions. But the things that survive are
Together the Past
stone, burnt clay (or terracotta), metal, etc.
± It is also important to remember that only broken or useless objects would
have been thrown away. Other things would probably have been recycled.
± Consequently, valuable artefacts that are found intact were either lost in
the past or hoarded and never retrieved.
± One simple principle of classification is in terms of material, such as
stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc.
± The second, and more complicated, is in terms of function: archaeologists
have to decide whether an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or
something meant for ritual use.
± An understanding of the function of an artefact is often shaped by its
resemblance with present-day things – beads, querns, stone blades and
Classifying Finds of
pots are obvious examples.
Archaeologists
± Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artefact by investigating
the context in which it was found: whether it was found in a house, in a
drain, in a grave, in a kiln.
± Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For
instance, though there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out
about clothing we have to depend on indirect evidence including depictions
in sculpture. Archaeologists have to develop frames of reference.
23
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Interpretation of Archaeological Findings
' Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which
seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have had a religious
significance. These included terracotta figurines of women,
heavily jewelled, some with elaborate head-dresses. These
were regarded as mother goddesses.
' Rare stone statue of men in an almost standardised posture,
seated with one hand on the knee – such as the “priest-king” –
was also similarly classified.
' In other instances, structures have been assigned ritual
significance. These include the Great Bath and fire altars
found at Kalibangan and Lothal.
' Religious beliefs and practices seem to depict ritual scenes.
Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature
worship.
' Some animals – such as the one-horned animal, often called
the “unicorn” – depicted on seals seem to be mythical.
' In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a
“yogic” posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has
been regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, that is, an early
form of one of the major deities of Hinduism.
' Besides, conical stone objects have been classified as lingas.
' Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the
assumption that later traditions provide parallels with earlier
ones. This is because archaeologists often move from the
known to the unknown. While it becomes more speculative
when we extend it to “religious” symbols. for instance, at the
“proto-Shiva” seals. The earliest religious text, the Rigveda
(compiled c. 1500-1000 BCE) mentions a god named Rudra,
which is a name used for Shiva in later Puranic traditions.
' However, unlike Shiva, Rudra in the Rigveda is neither
depicted as Pashupati (lord of animals in general and cattle
in particular), nor as a yogi. In other words, this depiction
does not match the description of Rudra in the Rigveda.
Timeline 1
Major Periods in Early Indian Archaeology
2 million BP (BEFORE PRESENT) Lower Palaeolithic
80,000 Middle Palaeolithic
35.000 Upper Palaeolithic
12,000 Mesolithic
10,000 Neolithic (early agriculturists and pastoralists) lished
6,000 Chalcolithic (first use of copper)
2600 BCE Harappan civilisation
24
1000 BCE Early iron, megalithic burials
600 BCE-400 CE Early Historic
(Note: All dates are approximate. Besides, there are wide variations in developments in different parts
of the subcontinent. Dates indicated are for the earliest evidence of each phase.)
Timeline 2
Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology
Nineteenth century
1875 Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal
Twentieth century
1921 M.S. Vats begins excavations at Harappa
1925 Excavations begin at Mohenjodaro
1946 R.E.M. Wheeler excavates at Harappa
1955 S.R. Rao begins excavations at Lothal
1960 B.B. Lal and B.K. Thapar begin excavations at Kalibangan
1974 M.R. Mughal begins explorations in Bahawalpur
1980 A team of German and Italian archaeologists begins surface
explorations at Mohenjodaro
1986 American team begins excavations at Harappa
1990 R.S. Bisht begins excavations at Dholavira
Conclusion
Harappan culture was associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture and pastoralism,
and some crafts. But around 3900 years ago, we found the beginning of a major change. People
stopped living in many of the cities. Writing, seals and weights were no longer used. Raw materials
brought from long distances became rare. In Mohenjodaro, we find that garbage piled up on the
streets, the drainage system broke down, and new, less impressive houses were built, even over
the streets.
Though we are not sure why this happened. Some scholars suggest that the rivers dried up. Others
suggest that there was deforestation. This could have happened because fuel was required for baking
bricks, and for smelting copper ores. Besides, grazing by large herds of cattle, sheep and goats
may have destroyed the green cover. In some areas, there were floods. But none of these reasons
can explain the end of all the cities. Flooding, or a river drying up would have had an effect in only
some areas.
It also appears as if the rulers lost control. In any case, the effects of the change are quite clear.
Sites in Sindh and west Punjab (present-day Pakistan) were abandoned, while many people moved
into newer, smaller settlements to the east and the south. New cities emerged only about 1400
years later.
25
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Glossary
± Citadel: The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher and the other much larger
but lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel and the Lower Town respectively.
± Scribe: Scribes were people who knew how to write, who helped prepare the seals, and perhaps wrote on
other materials that have not survived.
± Seal: The Harappan seal is possibly the most distinctive artefact of the Harappan or Indus valley
civilisation. It is made of a stone called steatite, seals like this one often contain animal motifs and signs
from a script that remains undeciphered.
± Specialist: A specialist is a person who is trained to do only one kind of work, for example, cutting stone,
or polishing beads, or carving seals.
± Raw material: Raw materials are substances that are either found naturally (such as wood, or ores of
metals) or produced by farmers or herders. These are then processed to produce finished goods.
± Plough: The plough was used to dig the earth for turning the soil and planting seeds. While real ploughs,
which were probably made of wood, have not survived, toy models have been found.
± Irrigation: Irrigation means that water was stored and supplied to the fields when the plants were
growing.

26
3 Vedic Age
Introduction
The Indian subcontinent has always been a melting pot of cultures, POINTS TO PONDER
ideas, and trade practices, a trait evident even during the Vedic age. The Vedic society shows clear
The Vedic age was a period of dynamic changes and innovations signs of taxation. However,
that laid the foundation for the complex socio-economic and monetisation seems to be absent
cultural tapestry that is modern India. The Rigveda, one of the or low as we see payments in the
ancient sacred texts, provides a glimpse into the early socio- form of cow, cattle, or agricultural
economic and religious life of this period, reflecting the agrarian produce. Do you think lack of
society, the significance of cattle, and the early compositions of monetisation inhibited the growth
hymns. Megaliths and iron tools from this era are indicative and development of urban culture
and led Vedic era to linger
of the advancements in construction and agriculture, two
around an agriculturalist-
aspects pivotal for the development of any civilization. This period peasant based economy?
also saw the evolution of trade networks and the use of punch-
marked coins, facilitating economic exchanges and contributing to
the growth of ancient Indian society in various aspects.
Rig Veda
The Rigveda, composed about 3500 years ago, is the oldest of the four Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda,
Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda). It is one of the oldest literary sources in the world.
' Composition of the Rigveda:
* It contains more than a thousand hymns, called sukta or “well-said,” praising various
gods and goddesses, with Agni, Indra, and Soma being particularly important.
* These hymns were composed by sages (rishis) and taught by priests to students who
memorised them with great care.
* Most were composed, taught, and learned by men, but a few were composed by women also.
' Language of the Rigveda:
* The language of the Rigveda was old, or Vedic Sanskrit, different from the Sanskrit learned
in schools today.
* Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-European language family, which includes some Indian
languages (e.g., Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Sindhi), Asian languages (e.g., Persian),
and many European languages (e.g., English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Spanish).
* For example, take the words ‘matr’ (Sanskrit), ‘ma’ (Hindi), and ‘mother’ (English).
' Other Language Families in the Subcontinent:
* Other languages in the subcontinent belong to different families.
* For example, Tibeto-Burman (north-east), Dravidian (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam),
and Austro-Asiatic (languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of central India).
' The Transition from Oral to Written Tradition:
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY * The Rigveda was recited and heard, not read.
* It was written down several centuries after its composition but printed less than 200 years ago.
' Study of Rigveda by Historians:
* Historians and archaeologists examine both material remains and written sources to
learn about the past.
* The Rigveda, one of the sources, contains hymns, some of which are dialogues.
* For example, a dialogue between sage Vishvamitra and rivers Beas and Sutlej, worshipped
as goddesses.
A page from a manuscript of the
Rigveda. this manuscript of the rigveda,
on birch bark, was found in Kashmir,
About 150 years ago, it was used to
prepare one of the earliest printed
texts of the rigveda, as well as an
english tranlation. It is now preserved
in a library in Pune, Maharashtra.
Figure 3.1. A page from a manuscript of the Rigveda
Vishvamitra and the Rivers

± The dialogue represents Vishvamitra asking the rivers to let him and his caravan cross safely, to which
the rivers agree.
± Historians suggest that this hymn shows that it was composed in the area where these rivers flow and in
a society where horses and cows were valued, as evident by the comparison of rivers to horses and cows.
± The hymn also suggests that other means of transport, like chariots were important as the rivers were
asked not to rise above the axles for safe crossing.
± Other rivers named in the Rigveda include the Indus and its tributaries, and the Sarasvati, while the
Ganga and Yamuna are named only once.
Figure 3.2. Physical Map of the Subcontinent
28
Socio-Economic Aspects of the Vedic age
Vedic Age
' The Importance of Cattle, Horses, and Chariots in Society:
* The Rigveda contains many prayers for cattle, children (especially sons), and horses,
indicating their importance in society.
* Horses were yoked to chariots used in battles, primarily fought to capture cattle, land (for
pasture and growing crops like barley), water, and people.
' Descriptions of People in the Rigveda:
* The obtained wealth was distributed among leaders, priests, and people, and some were
used for yajnas or sacrifices (offerings into fire for gods and goddesses), which could include
ghee, grain, and animals.
* Most men participated in wars, there was no regular army, but assemblies were there,
where war and peace matters were discussed, and leaders (often brave, skillful warriors)
were chosen.
' Words to Describe People:
* People in the Rigveda are described in terms of work, language, place, family,
communities, and cultural practices.
* Two groups described by work: Priests (brahmins) POINTS TO PONDER
performing rituals and rajas, different from later rajas Vedic literature in different
as they had no capitals, palaces, armies, or taxes, and phases talks about different
kinds of hierarchies. From a two-
sons did not automatically succeed fathers.
tier division in the beginning, the
* The community as a whole was described by two words: four-fold varna system and the
jana and vish, leading to references like Puru jana or untouchables emerged by the end
vish, Bharata jana or vish, Yadu jana or vish, etc. of the later Vedic age. Do you think
this segregation has divine genesis?
* Hymn composers described themselves as Aryas and Don’t you think such segregation
opponents as Dasas or Dasyus, who did not perform of human populations is a
sacrifices and probably spoke different languages. result of social elitism rather
Later, dasa (and dasi) meant slave, i.e., people captured than religious factors?
in war and treated as property.
* While the Rigveda was composed in the north-west,
there were other developments elsewhere.
Unravelling the Mysteries of Megaliths in Ancient India

Exploring archaeological evidence like megaliths is necessary, which sheds light on the practices and
cultures in other parts of ancient India during the Vedic period.
Silent Sentinels - The Story of the Megaliths
' Megaliths are large stone boulders arranged by people to mark burial sites.
' The practice started about 3000 years ago and was prevalent in the Deccan, South India,
north-east, and Kashmir.
' Some megalithic sites were on the surface, others underground.
29
Figure 3.3. A Map Showing Important Archaeological Sites
' Sometimes, a circle of stones or a single large stone indicates

underground burials. This type of megalith is known as a
cist. Some cists, like the one shown here, have port holes
that could be used as an entrance.
' Steps involved in making Megaliths: Finding suitable
stones, breaking boulders, shaping stones, digging pits,
transporting stones, placing stones in position, and burying
the dead.
' Common features of these burials include distinctive
Black and Red Ware pots, iron tools and weapons, horse Figure 3.4. A Megalith
skeletons and equipment, and stone and gold ornaments.
Left top: Horse equipment.
Left below: Axes
Below: A dagger
Figure 3.5. Iron Equipments Found from Megalithic Burials
30
Finding Out About Social Differences from Burial Sites
Vedic Age
' Archaeologists believe that objects found with a skeleton likely belonged to the deceased.
' Variations in the number and value of objects found in graves suggest social differences.
' For example, at Brahmagiri (refer to Figure 3.3. for the location), one skeleton was buried
with 33 gold beads, 2 stone beads, 4 copper bangles, and one conch shell, while others had
only a few pots, indicating differences in status, wealth, and possibly roles in society (chiefs vs
followers).
Study of Burial Spots for Specific Families
' Some megaliths contain multiple skeletons, suggesting that people, possibly from the same
family, were buried in the same place but at different times.
' Bodies of those who died later were added through portholes.
' Surface stone circles or boulders likely served as signposts for the burial site, allowing people
to return to the same spot whenever necessary.
Unearthed Secrets of Inamgaon: “Life, Death, and Occupations”
A Special Burial at Inamgaon

± Location: Inamgaon, on the river Ghod, was occupied between 3600 and 2700 years ago (refer to
Figure 3.3. for the location).
± Burial Practices: Adults buried in the ground, headed towards the north, sometimes within houses.
Vessels with food and water placed with the dead.
± Notable Burial: One man buried in a large clay jar in a five-roomed house with a granary in the center
of the settlement, body in a cross-legged position. This could possibly indicate a chief or a person of
high status.
± Determining Sex: The sex of a skeleton is sometimes deduced from accompanying objects, but a
better way is to examine the bone structure, particularly the hip/pelvic area.
Charaka Samhita: Ancient text by physician Charaka, stating the human body has 360 bones,
including teeth, joints, and cartilage, compared to 200 recognized in modern anatomy.
Insights from Skeletal Studies

± Difficulty in Differentiation: Not easy to differentiate between male and female skeletons based on
accompanying objects like jewellery, as men also wore ornaments.
± Accurate Method: Examine bone structure, particularly the hip/pelvic area, which is generally
larger in women for childbearing.
Occupations at Inamgaon
± Variety of Seeds: Seeds of wheat, barley, rice, pulses, millets, peas, and sesame were found.
± Animal Remains: Bones of various animals, many with cut marks indicating use as food. Animals
include cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, dog, horse, ass, pig, sambhar, spotted deer, blackbuck, antelope,
hare, mongoose, birds, crocodile, turtle, crab, and fish.
± Collected Fruits: Fruits like ber, amla, jamun, dates, and various berries were also collected.
31
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Transition to Economic Activities and Urban Centres
Iron Tools and Agriculture
' Iron and steel are commonly used in our daily lives today, but the
use of iron in the subcontinent began around 3000 years ago.
' Large collections of iron tools and weapons were discovered in the
megalithic burials.
' About 2500 years ago, there was a notable increase in the use of
iron tools, including axes for clearing forests and iron ploughshares
which were instrumental in increasing agricultural production.
Figure 3.6. Iron Tools
Enhancing Agricultural Output: The Role of Irrigation
' Flourishing villages were essential for the existence of the kings and kingdoms.
' In addition to new tools and the system of transplantation, irrigation was a crucial method
used to increase production.
' Irrigation works during this period included the construction of canals, wells, tanks, and
artificial lakes.
Villagers and Their Roles
' Villages in both southern and Vellalar
northern parts of the subcontinent (Large landowners)
consisted of at least three different
Uzhavar
categories of people. Southern
(ordinary ploughmen)
' In the Tamil Region:
* Large landowners were called Kadaisiyar & Adimai
Villagers &
‘Vellalar.’ (Landless labourers)
their roles
* Ordinary ploughmen were in Vedic Age
known as ‘uzhavar.’
* Landless labourers and slaves
Northern
were referred to as ‘kadaisiyar’
and ‘adimai.’ Gram Bhojaka (Village headman)
' In the Northern Part of the Grihapati (Independent farmers)
Country:
Dasa Karmakara (Landless labourers)
* The village headman was known
as the ‘grama bhojaka.’ This position was usually hereditary, held by men from the same
family for generations.
* The ‘grama bhojaka’ was often the largest landowner, employing slaves and hired workers
for cultivation.
* The king often used the ‘grama bhojaka’ to collect taxes, and he also functioned as a judge
and sometimes as a policeman.
* Other independent farmers, known as ‘grihapatis,’ were usually smaller landowners.
* Men and women known as ‘dasa karmakara’ did not own land and worked on fields owned
by others.
* Villages also had craftspersons such as blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, and weavers.
32
Vedic Age
Earliest Tamil Compositions
± Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years
ago.
± The texts were called Sangam because they were believed to have been composed and compiled in
assemblies (sangams) of poets in the city of Madurai.
Figure 3.7. Showing Important Cities and Kingdoms
Coins and Exchange in Ancient India

Archaeologists have found several thousand coins from this period, the
earliest of which were punch-marked coins used for about 500 years.
' Punch-marked Coins
* Generally rectangular, sometimes square or round, cut out of
metal sheets or made from flattened metal globules.
* Not inscribed, but stamped with symbols using dies or punches,
hence called punch-marked coins.
* Found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in
circulation until the early centuries CE.
33
' Other Means of Exchange:
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY * A short poem from the Sangam collection Read this short poem from the Sangam
describes the exchange of white paddy for collection:
salt, a commodity produced plentifully along As they carry the white paddy of their land to
the seacoast. exchange it for the salt of another, crossing
* The poem illustrates the journey of merchants the long roads in carts, through sands white
as moonlight, taking whole families, who
travelling in carts with their whole families hate to be left behind, the departure of the
across long roads and white sands to exchange salt merchants leaves the city empty.
their paddy for salt, leaving the city empty.
Mathura: A Multi-Functional City

± Mathura, located at the crossroads of two major travel and trade routes (Northwest to East and North
to South), has been an important settlement for over 2,500 years.
± It was surrounded by fortifications and had several shrines, with food provided by nearby farmers and
herders. It was also known for producing extremely fine sculptures.
± Around 2000 years ago, it became the second capital of the Kushanas and a significant religious
center with Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and centers for Krishna worship.
± Numerous inscriptions found on stone slabs and statues in Mathura record gifts made to monasteries
and shrines by people from various professions, including kings, queens, officers, merchants, and
craftspersons such as goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, and perfumers.
Crafts and Craftspersons

' Archaeological evidence shows the presence of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), a fine
pottery with a shiny black surface, which indicates the existence of crafts.
' Other crafts, like cloth manufacturing, were also important, as indicated by texts that mention
famous centres like Varanasi and Madurai, where both men and women worked.
Regulation of Crafts
' The Arthashastra details rules for spinning and weaving, specifying who could work, how
they should be paid, and the consequences for not completing work.
' It even details how interactions between the supervisor and the women workers should be
conducted.
' Rules for Spinning and Weaving from the Arthashastra
* The Arthashastra, an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and
military strategy, outlines specific rules for spinning and weaving.
* It lists the categories of women who could work in processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp,
and flax and stipulates how they should be paid based on the quality and quantity of
work.
* It also outlines the protocol for women who were not permitted to leave their homes,
the procedure for receiving wages, and the consequences for not completing work or
inappropriate behaviour by the superintendent.
Shrenis as Financial Institutions:
' Craftspersons and merchants formed associations called Shrenis, which handled various
aspects of production and trade, from training and procuring raw materials to distributing
finished products and organising trade.
34
Role of Shrenis:
Vedic Age
Primitive Economic
* Shrenis, or associations of craftspersons Financial association of
and merchants, played a crucial role in the Institute craftpersons
economic life of ancient India. Role of
* They were responsible for providing training Shrenis
to new workers, procuring raw materials, and
Organise Provide
distributing the finished products.
trade training
* Merchant shrenis organised trade, and shrenis
also served as banks where wealthy individuals could deposit money.
* This money was then invested, and the interest earned was either returned to the depositors
or used to support religious institutions like monasteries.
Ancient Trade Centers and Cultural Exchanges in the Indian Subcontinent

Arikamedu: A Hub for Trade
± Arikamedu, located in present-day Puducherry,
was a significant coastal settlement where ships from
distant lands unloaded their goods around 2200 to
1900 years ago.
± The site contains a massive brick structure, possibly
a warehouse, and various artefacts that indicate a
strong connection with the Mediterranean region and
Rome are as follows: Figure 3.8. Tamil-Brahmi Inscriptions.
● Pottery: Amphorae (tall double-handled jars), Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions
Arretine Ware (stamped red-glazed pottery named in Brahmi, which was used to write Tamil.
after a city in Italy), and locally made pottery with Roman designs.
● Roman Lamps, Glassware, and Gems: These artefacts, found at the site, indicate direct contact or
influence from Rome.
● Dyeing Vats and Beads: Small tanks that were probably used for dyeing cloth and beads made from
semi-precious stones and glass were also found at the site.
Barygaza: A Key Port in Ancient India

● Barygaza, known as Bharuch in modern times, was a key port located along a narrow and
challenging gulf. Skilled local fishermen, employed by the king, were needed to navigate ships into
the port.
● A Greek sailor provides an account of the goods imported and exported from Barygaza:
● Imports: Wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins.
● Exports: Plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk, and perfumes.
● Special Gifts for the King: Merchants brought gifts such as silver vessels, singing boys, beautiful
women, fine wines, and fine cloth for the king.
Analysis
± The presence of Mediterranean pottery, Roman lamps, glassware, and gems at Arikamedu, and the
import of wine and gold and silver coins at Barygaza indicate contact with Rome and the broader
Mediterranean world.
± Merchants might have brought gifts for the king to secure favor, ensure protection, or gain special
privileges for their trading activities.
± Two items that were not in use during Harappan times and can be underlined are gold and silver coins
and silk.
35
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)
± NBPW is a hard, wheel-made, metallic-cooking ware with a shiny
black surface.
± It is created by exposing the earthenware to very high
temperatures in a kiln, resulting in the blackening of its outer
surface, and then applying a fine black slip that gives the pottery a
mirror-like shine.
± This type of pottery is typically found in the northern part of the
subcontinent.
Trade and Traders

' The widespread presence of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) across the subcontinent
indicates extensive trade networks.
' Traders may have transported these Goods and their Uses
pottery items from production centres ± Black Pepper: Spice, preservative
to various regions for sale. ± Gems and Gold: Jewellery, currency, status symbol
' South India was renowned for its ± Sandalwood: Fragrance, carving, medicinal purposes
gold, spices (especially pepper), and
± Pearls and Corals: Jewellery, decoration
precious stones.
± Crops: Food, trading
' The high demand for pepper in the
Roman Empire earned it the nickname ± Foodstuffs: Consumption, trading
“black gold.” Traders transported ± Pottery: Storage, cooking, trading
these valuable goods to Rome via sea
and land routes, resulting in a significant number of Roman gold coins being found in South
India.
' Sea Routes and Monsoons:
* Traders utilised various sea routes, some along the coasts and others across the Arabian
Sea and the Bay of Bengal. They took advantage of the monsoon winds to expedite their
sea voyages.
* For example, sailors sailing from East Africa or Arabia to the western coast of the
subcontinent would use the south-west monsoon winds.
* Building sturdy ships was essential for undertaking these long journeys.
A Poem About Trade:

The Sangam literature, a collection of ancient Tamil poems, provides insights into the trade activities
of the time. This poem describes the variety of goods brought into Puhar, a major port on the eastern
coast.
We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems.
Here is one which describes the goods brought into Pulhar, an important port on the east coast:
“(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black perper in carts, Gems and gold
born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals
from the castern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka,
pottery from Mayanmar, And other rare and rich imports.”
36
New Kingdoms Along the Coasts
Vedic Age
' Rise of Powerful Chiefs and Kings:
* The southern half of the subcontinent, marked by a long coastline, hills, plateaus, and
fertile river valleys like the Kaveri, was controlled by powerful chiefs and kings mentioned
in the Sangam poems as the “muvendar,” a Tamil term for the heads of the Cholas,
Cheras, and Pandyas.
* These chiefs had two centres of power, one inland and one on the coast, with Puhar
(Kaveripattinam) and Madurai being particularly important cities.
' System of Gifts and Tributes:
* These chiefs did not collect regular taxes but received gifts from the people, collected tribute
from neighbouring areas, and distributed wealth among their supporters, including family,
soldiers, and poets.
* Poets, in return, composed poems praising the chiefs and were rewarded with valuable gifts.
' Satavahanas’ Control Over the Coasts:
* Around 200 years later, the Satavahanas became powerful in western India.
* Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni was a significant ruler who wanted to control the coasts,
possibly to regulate trade, collect taxes, and protect the region from potential invasions.
Silk Route and the Kushanas

' Importance of the Silk Route:
* The Silk Route was a network of trade routes connecting the East and West.
* Some kings tried to control large portions of this route to benefit from taxes, tributes, and
gifts brought by traders and, in return, provided protection against robbers.
' Kushanas’ Control Over the Silk Route:
* The Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and northwest India around 2000 years ago,
were the best-known rulers to control the Silk Route.
* Their major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura, with Taxila also being part of
their kingdom.
* During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia to the seaports at
the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire.
Conclusion
The Vedic age, as elucidated through the verses of the Rigveda, epitomises a transformative period
in the annals of the Indian subcontinent. The hymns, not just spiritual in essence, serve as vital
historical records, painting a vivid tableau of a society deeply rooted in its agrarian practices, with
cattle being paramount to its socio-economic fabric. Alongside, the emergence of megalithic structures
reveals the strides taken in construction, while the advent of iron tools underscores advancements in
agricultural techniques, proving instrumental in shaping communities. The intricate trade systems,
made efficient by the use of punch-marked coins, further propelled the society towards economic
prosperity. As we trace the journey from the nascent stages of the Vedic age to the end, it becomes
evident how deeply interconnected cultural, economic, and technological elements were in paving the
way for the multifaceted civilization that India would eventually become.
37
± Punch-marked Coins: Early coins made from metal sheets or flattened metal globules, stamped with
symbols using dies or punches.
± Mathura: An ancient city located at the crossroads of two major travel and trade routes, known for its
fine sculpture, religious centres, and as the second capital of the Kushanas.
± Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): A type of fine pottery with a shiny black surface found in the
northern part of the subcontinent.
± Arthashastra: An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy.
± Shrenis: Associations of craftspersons and merchants responsible for training, procuring raw materials,
distributing finished products, organizing trade, and serving as banks.
± Arikamedu: A significant coastal settlement in present-day Puducherry, known for its strong connection
with the Mediterranean region and Rome.
± Barygaza (Bharuch): A key ancient port located along a narrow and challenging gulf, known for its
imports and exports mentioned in an account by a Greek sailor.
± Muvendar: A Tamil term for the heads of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas mentioned in the Sangam
poems.
± Silk Route: A network of trade routes connecting the East and West, controlled partially by the Kushanas
during their rule.
± Kushanas: A dynasty that ruled over central Asia and northwest India around 2000 years ago, known
for controlling the Silk Route and having major centers of power in Peshawar, Mathura, and Taxila.

38
Jainism and
4 Buddhism
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Theme 4 – XII NCERT (Themes in
Indian History-I) and Chapter 6 – VI Class NCERT (Our Past-I).
Introduction
India, with its vast cultural and philosophical panorama, has
POINTS TO PONDER
been the birthplace of numerous spiritual traditions that have
In the Mahajanapadas Phase, we
shaped the lives and beliefs of millions. Two such profound
find mention of as many as 62
traditions were Buddhism and Jainism. Both originating around heterodox sects including Jainism
the same time frame, emerged as responses to the prevailing and Buddhism. Why do you think
socio-religious conditions and rapidly gained followers due to there was an upsurge in the origin
their unique perspectives on suffering, salvation, non-violence, of such plural religious
and asceticism. traditions? Do you think it
has impacted India’s culture
The profound teachings of Buddha, emphasised on the Four
forever?
Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, to the tenets of Jainism
put forth by Mahavira, emphasising Non-violence and rigorous
asceticism, remained at the core of these religions.
Causes of origin of Buddhism & Jainism
Emergence of cities & trade Agricultural economy
Varna System Kshatriya’s reaction

People’s liking for simple living
Buddhism
Background and Early Life of Buddha
' Noble Origin: Siddhartha (Gautama), later renowned as Buddha, graced the world approximately
2500 years ago.
' Historical Canvas: His lifetime coincided with pivotal societal shifts, marked by the ascendancy
of Mahajanapada kings and burgeoning urbanisation.
' Ancestral Lineage: A member of the Sakya gana, he hailed from the esteemed Kshatriya caste.
The Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment
' Global Impact: The Buddha emerged as a significant Hagiography
teacher, with his teachings resonating across the
± It is a biography of a saint or religious
subcontinent and regions like Central Asia, China, leader.
Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and ± Often praised achievements, may not
Indonesia. be literally accurate.
' The Spiritual Odyssey: Driven by a thirst for ± Important for understanding the
knowledge, he ventured outside his palace, engaging beliefs of followers of a particular
tradition.
in profound dialogues with diverse intellectuals.
' Moment of Illumination: It was under a peepal tree in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, that Siddhartha
transcended to become the enlightened Buddha.
' Source of Teachings: Buddha’s profound insights
and teachings are primarily drawn from various
Buddhist texts and hagiographies.
' Early Challenges: Born into comfort, the stark
realities of old age, disease, and death are three
things that jolted him, prompting his exit from royal
luxuries in pursuit of existential truths.
' Journey to Enlightenment: Siddhartha’s spiritual
quest saw him navigating various paths, from
rigorous bodily mortifications to deep meditation,
ultimately achieving enlightenment.
' Life’s Mission: Post-enlightenment, he dedicated Figure 4.1: A sculpture (c. 200 CE) from
his life to propagating dhamma, or the path of Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), depicting
righteous living. the departure of the Buddha from his
palace.
Teachings and Travels of Buddha
' Origin and Journey:
* Buddha’s first teachings were imparted at Sarnath, near Varanasi.
* Throughout his life, he journeyed extensively, enlightening many until his eventual passing
at Kusinara.
' Fundamental Teachings:
* Central to Buddha’s teachings is
the belief that life is pervaded Three Jewels of Buddhism
by suffering and unhappiness.
Such suffering primarily emerges
from unfulfilled desires, known as Dharma Buddha Sangha
‘tanha.’
* Buddha stressed the importance of
moderation, advocating a middle way to eliminate constant yearnings.
* He underscored the virtues of kindness and emphasised respect for all life forms.
* The concept of karma, the cause-and-effect principle of our actions, was a linchpin in
his teachings, influencing both present and future lives.
40
' Communication and Language:
Jainism and Buddhism

* To ensure his teachings were accessible to everyone, Buddha choose the Prakrit language
for his discourses.
* Buddha was a fervent advocate for critical thinking and individual reflection, allowing
followers to internalise and understand his teachings deeply.
' Documentation and Legacy:
POINTS TO PONDER
* Buddha’s teachings are majorly reconstructed from Buddhism and Jainism emerged
tales in the Sutta Pitaka. almost at the same time. Buddhism
gained great traction, whereas
* Some narratives within this collection speak of
Jainism could not penetrate. On
miraculous feats, while others are grounded in reason the other hand, Buddhism also
and persuasive dialogue. saw a great decline, but Jainism
has held on to its niche space even
' Philosophical Underpinnings:
till date. Can you think of the
* At the heart of Buddhist philosophy is the belief in factors that have led to such
the transient (anicca) and ever-changing nature of a state of affairs for both
the world. Buddhism and Jainism?
* The world, according to Buddha, is soulless (anatta),

signifying nothing remains permanent or eternal.
* A cornerstone of his teachings is the inherent sorrow (dukkha) that marks human
existence.
* According to Buddhism, to rise above these worldly afflictions, one must tread the path of
moderation, balancing between austere penance and indulgence.
* In the earliest interpretations of Buddhism, the existence, or non-existence, of a deity was
deemed irrelevant, placing the emphasis on individual spiritual growth.
Buddhism in Practice
' Advice to Sigala:
* A wealthy householder, includes:
* Treating servants and employees fairly.
* Looking after the needs of samanas (those who renounced the world) and Brahmanas
with affection and care.
* Behaving properly with parents, teacher, and wife.
' Social World:
* He was regarded as a human creation, not divine.
* He advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.
* He emphasised individual effort to transform social relations.
' Individual Agency and Righteous Action:
* Harnessing Inner Strength: Means to escape the cycle of rebirth, attain self-realisation,
and Nibbana (extinguishing of the ego and desire).
* Seeking Spiritual Solace: Ending the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the
world.
' Nirvana:
* He emphasised individual effort for liberation, “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you
must work out your own liberation.”
41
Preparation and Preservation of Buddhist Texts
' Oral Transmission:
* The Buddha and other teachers imparted knowledge orally through discussions
and debates, attendees included men, women, and possibly children who engaged in
discussions about the teachings.
' Compilation of Teachings:
* After the Buddha’s demise (c. fifth-fourth century BCE), his teachings were compiled by
disciples at a council of elders or senior monks at Vaishali.
* The compilations were known as Tripitaka, meaning ‘three baskets’ to hold different
types of texts.
' Types of Texts:
* Vinaya Pitaka: It includes rules and regulations for those in the sangha or monastic order.
* Sutta Pitaka: It includes
the core teachings of the Tripitakas
Buddha.
* Abhidhamma Pitaka:
It delves deeply into Sutta Pitaka Vinaya Pitaka
Abhidhamma Pitaka
philosophical matters.
' Written Documentation:
* The texts were initially transmitted orally and later documented and classified based on
length and subject matter.
' Spread of Buddhism and Texts:
* As Buddhism spread to new regions, such as Sri Lanka, additional texts like the Dipavamsa
and Mahavamsa were written, documented regional histories of Buddhism.
* Pilgrims like Fa Xian and Xuan Zang travelled from China to India to retrieved texts, which
were then translated by scholars in their countries.
' Preservation of Texts:
* Buddhist texts were preserved as manuscripts in monasteries across Asia for several
centuries.
* Modern translations of the texts have been prepared from Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, and
Tibetan texts.
Figure 4.2: A Buddhist manuscript in Sanskrit, c. twelfth century
42
Fatalists and Materialists

Table 4.1: Comparative Beliefs of Makkhali Gosala (Ajivikas) and Ajita Kesakambalin (Lokayatas)
Makkhali Gosala (Ajivikas Tradition) Ajita Kesakambali (Lokayatas Tradition)
He believed that neither virtue nor penance He denied the existence of alms, sacrifice, offerings,
could alter karma. and the next world.
According to him, pleasure and pain are Human beings are made up of four elements; after
predetermined and cannot be altered in the death, these elements return to their respective origins,
course of samsara (transmigration). and the senses pass into space.
In his view, everything is predetermined, like a The doctrine of gifts is empty lies; both fools and the
ball of string unwinding to its full length. wise perish and do not survive after death.
Note: Texts from the Ajivikas and Lokayatas traditions have not survived, so we only know about them from the
works of other traditions.
Followers of the Buddha

' The Sangha and Its Members:
* Buddha founded a sangha, an organisation of monk teachers of dhamma.
* Monks lived simply and were known as bhikkhus.
* Originally, only men were admitted. Women later joined, with the first being the Buddha’s
foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami.
* Regardless of their previous social status, all members were considered equal within the
sangha.
* The sangha’s functioning was based on consensus or voting.
' Women in the Sangha:
* Women who became part of the sangha were known as bhikkhunis.
* Many of these women became teachers of dhamma and were termed as theris.
* Ananda played a significant role in allowing women into the sangha.
' Diversity of the Buddha’s Followers:
* They included various social groups such as kings, wealthy individuals, workers, slaves,
and craftspeople.
* They all shed their former social identities upon joining the sangha.
' The Therigatha: Insights from Bhikkhunis
* It is a part of the Sutta Pitaka and offers verses from bhikkhunis.
* It provides insights about women’s experiences, both socially and spiritually.
* It contains verses such as the conversation between Punna, a slave woman, and a
Brahmana regarding rituals.
The Therigatha
This unique Buddhist text, part of the Sutta Pitaka, is a collection of verses composed by bhikkhunis. It
provides an insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences. Punna, a dasi or slave woman, went to
the river each morning to fetch water for her master’s household. There she would daily see a Brahmana
performing bathing rituals. One morning she spoke to him. The following are verses composed by Punna,
recording her conversation with the Brahmana:
± I am a water carrier:
± Even in the cold, I have always gone down to the water frightened of punishment
± Or the angry words of high class women. So what are you afraid of Brahmana,
± That makes you go down to the water
43
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY ± (Though) your limbs shake with the bitter cold?
± The Brahmana replied: I am doing good to prevent evil; anyone young or old who has done something
bad is freed by washing in water.
± Punna said:
± Whoever told you, You are freed from evil by washing in the water?
± In that case all the frogs and turtles Would go to heaven, and so would the water snakes and crocodiles!
± (Instead) Don't do that thing, the fear of which leads you to the water. Stop now Brahmana!
± Save your skin from the cold.
Which of the teachings of the Buddha are evident in this composition?
' Rules for Monks and Nuns (from the Vinaya Pitaka):
* It provides regulations regarding possessions like blankets/rugs and also contains rules
on accepting gifts and sharing them.
* It also contains proper procedures for setting and removing bedding in lodging etc.
Rules for Monks and Nuns
These are some of the rules laid down in the Vinaya Pitaka:
± When a new felt (blanket/rug) has been made by a bhikkhu, it should be kept for (at least) six years.
If after less than six years he should have another new felt (blanket/rug) made, regardless of whether
or not he has disposed of the first, then - unless he has been authorised by the bhikkhus - it is to be
forfeited and confessed.
± In case a bhikkhu arriving at a family residence is presented with cakes or cooked grain-meal, he may
accept two or three bowlfuls if he so desires. If he should accept more than that, it is to be confessed.
Having accepted the two or three bowlfuls and having taken them from there, he is to share them among
the bhikkhus. This is the proper course here.
± Should any bhikkhu, having set out bedding in a lodging belonging to the sangha - or having had it set
out and then on departing neither put it away nor have it put away, or should he go without taking leave,
it is to be confessed.
Can you explain why these rules were framed?
' Growth and Appeal of Buddhism:

* The growth of Buddhism saw rapid expansion during and after Buddha’s lifetime.
* It attracted those who were discontented with the prevailing religious practices and the
shifting societal milieu.
* Its emphasis on conduct, values, metta (fellow feeling), and karuna (compassion) were
pivotal allurements of the teachings and led to its wide appeal.
The Story of Kisagotami
± Here is a famous story about the Buddha.
± Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed
through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A
kind man took her to the Buddha.
± The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life."
± Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The
seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died."
± Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other
father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother- – had died.
± What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother?
44
Stupas

' Origin and Significance:
* Sacred places existed from early times, such as sites Chaitya may also have been
with unique trees, rocks, or awe-inspiring beauty. derived from the word chita,
meaning a funeral pyre and by
* Some sites had small shrines and were described as
extension a funerary mound.
chaityas.
* Buddhist literature highlights chaityas and places connected to Buddha’s life:
U Lumbini (birthplace),
U Bodh Gaya (enlightenment),
U Sarnath (first sermon), and
U Kusinagara (Nibbana or Nirvana).
* Emperor Asoka erected a
pillar at Lumbini marking his
visit approximately 200 years
post-Buddha’s time.
* Beyond Buddha’s life-related
sites, places with his relics
(bodily remains or personal
items) became sacred. These
sites housed mounds named
stupas.
* Although stupas might pre-
date Buddhism, they became
synonymous with it.
* Stupas were venerated as
emblems of both Buddha and
Buddhism.
* According to the
Ashokavadana, Ashoka
distributed Buddha’s relics
across major towns and built
stupas over them.
* By the second century BCE,
stupas had been constructed
in locations such as Bharhut,
Sanchi, and Sarnath.
' Stupa Construction:
* Inscriptions reveal donations
Figure 4.3: Major Buddhist Sites
for building and decorating
stupas where benefactors ranged from kings like the Satavahanas to guilds, individuals,
and monks.
* These inscriptions often detailed the donor’s identity, including names, hometowns,
professions, and relatives’ names.
45
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Why were stupas built
This is an excerpt from the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, part of the Sutta Pitaka:
As the Buddha lay dying, Ananda asked him:
“What are we to do Lord, with the remains of the Tathagata (another name for the Buddha)?”
The Buddha replied: “Hinder not yourselves Ananda by honouring the remains of the Tathagata. Be
zealous, be intent on your own good.”
But when pressed further, the Buddha said:
“At the four crossroads they should erect a thupa (Pali for stupa) to the Tathagata. And whosoever
shall there place garlands or perfume or make a salutation there, or become in its presence calm of
heart, that shall long be to them for a profit and joy.”

Figure 4.4: Plan of the Great Stupa at Sanchi with the image of an elevation of the Great Stupa
' The Structure of the Stupa:

* The stupa, meaning ‘heap’ in Sanskrit, began as a semi-circular earth mound (anda).
* Over time, its design grew complex, blending round and square shapes.
U Anda: Initial semi-circular mound.
U Harmika: A balcony-like structure symbolising the gods’ abode.
U Yashti: Mast arising from harmika, often topped with a chhatri (umbrella).
U Railings: marked a boundary between the sacred and secular.
* Early stupas like those at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone railings,
which resembled a bamboo or wooden fence. The gateways of these stupas were richly
carved and installed at the four cardinal points.
* Devotees entered through the east gateway, walking around the stupa clockwise, emulating
the Sun’s path.
* Later stupas, such as Amaravati and Shaji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar, featured intricate
carvings, niches, and sculptures.
46
The Rediscovery of Stupas: Amaravati vs. Sanchi

' Amaravati’s Rediscovery and Fate:
* In 1796, while planning to construct a temple, a local raja stumbled upon the Amaravati
stupa ruins, thinking it might conceal a treasure.
* British official Colin Mackenzie visited the site years later and documented various
sculptures but never published his findings.
* Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur in 1854, collected several Amaravati sculpture
panels, subsequently named the “Elliot marbles” in his honor.
* During the 1850s, Amaravati’s slabs were dispersed—to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in
Calcutta, the India Office in Madras, and even as far as London.
* H.H. Cole, an archaeologist, critiqued this approach, considering it a “suicidal and
indefensible policy” to let the nation lose its
ancient artworks.
U He advocated for originals to remain onsite
and museums to hold their plaster-cast
replicas.
U While his efforts didn’t save Amaravati, they
influenced decisions regarding other sites like
Sanchi.
' Sanchi’s Preservation:
* The state of preservation for Sanchi might be
attributed to the timing of its discovery and the
evolving appreciation for archaeological finds.
* By 1818, when Sanchi was “rediscovered”, three
gateways were intact, the fourth lay where it fell,
and the mound remained in good condition.
* Although suggestions were made to move its
gateway to Paris or London, a combination of
factors ensured Sanchi’s preservation.
* This contrasts sharply with Amaravati’s
mahachaitya, which is now a mere mound, Figure 4.5: The eastern gateway, Sanchi
stripped of its original grandeur.
A Glimpse of Sanchi
Sanchi in the 19th century

± Sanchi Kanakerha, located 20 miles north-east of Bhopal, has wonderful ancient
buildings, stone sculptures, statues of Buddha, and an ancient gateway.
± Major Alexander Cunningham carefully examined the ruins, took drawings,
deciphered the inscription, and bored shafts down the domes.
± Nineteenth-century Europeans, including the French and English, showed
interest in the Sanchi stupa, seeking permission from Shahjahan Begum to take
away the eastern gateway for display in a museum in France.
± Both the French and English were satisfied with plaster-cast copies, and the
original remained at the site, part of the Bhopal state. Figure 4.6:
Shahjehan Begum
47
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Preservation Efforts
± Shahjehan Begum and her successor, Sultan Jahan Begum, provided
money for the preservation of the ancient site.
± John Marshall dedicated his volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jahan, who
funded the museum, guesthouse, and the publication of the volumes.
± The stupa complex’s survival is due to wise decisions and good luck
in escaping the eyes of railway contractors, builders, and those
looking for finds to carry away to European museums.
± The Archaeological Survey of India successfully restored and
preserved the key archaeological site.
Sculpture in Buddhist Tradition

' Extraction and export of Sculptures: Sculptures were extracted from stupas and sent to
Europe because of their perceived beauty and worth.
' Depicting Tales through Sculptures:
* Storytellers would use scrolls or charanachitras to support their tales visually. An example
from Sanchi art historians identify as being from the Vessantara Jataka - a story of a
prince who forgoes everything for a Brahmana.
* Historians try to decode the meaning of sculptures by contrasting them with textual
records.
Figure 4.7: A section of the Gateway (left) and a part of the northern Gateway (Right)
' Symbolism in Sculptures:

* To comprehend Buddhist sculptures, art historians delved into Buddha’s hagiographies.
* Many early artists chose not to depict Buddha in human form, rather employing symbols:
U The empty seat symbolises Buddha’s meditation.
U The stupa represents
mahaparinirvana.
U The wheel denotes
Buddha’s first sermon at
Sarnath.
* Such symbols are not
literal; they signify events
from Buddha’s life, and
understanding them requires
familiarity with the traditions Figure 4.8: Setting in motion the Wheel of Dharma (Far Left),
behind the artworks. Worshipping the Stupa (Middle One), Worshipping the Bodhi
tree (Far Right),
48
' Incorporation of Popular Traditions

* Some Sanchi sculptures may not be directly rooted in
Buddhist ideas.
* One depicts a woman swinging from gateways, which
was identified as Shalabhanjika - a woman whose touch
made trees blossom.
* This was considered auspicious and was incorporated into
the stupa’s design.
* The synthesis of pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist beliefs
enriched Buddhism. Many Sanchi motifs hail from these
traditions.
* Sanchi also hosts a plethora of animal depictions like
elephants, horses, and monkeys.
* While some were from the Jatakas, others might have
been incorporated to enhance the liveliness of scenes.
* Animals often symbolised human traits; for instance,
elephants represent strength and wisdom.
* Another recurrent motif is a woman (potentially Buddha’s mother, Maya, or the goddess
Gajalakshmi) with elephants sprinkling water on her, suggesting consecration.
* Serpents, another frequent motif, seem to be from popular traditions not always documented
in texts.
* James Fergusson, an early art historian, saw Sanchi as a hub of tree and serpent worship
based solely on its images, not being acquainted with Buddhist literature.
Figure 4.10: A Serpent at

Figure 4.9: Gajalakshmi Sanchi
49
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Paintings from the Past: Ajanta Caves
While stone sculptures have largely withstood time’s
decay, paintings from the past, though more delicate, also
provide valuable historical insights. The Ajanta Caves in
Maharashtra house some of the most renowned ancient
paintings. These artworks:
± Depict Stories from the Jatakas: These tales revolve
around the Buddha’s previous lives and lessons.
± Showcase Daily Life: The paintings offer glimpses of
courtly life, everyday work, processions, and festivals
from that era.
± Embrace Advanced Artistic Techniques: The
Ajanta artists employed shading, imparting a three-
dimensional quality to the paintings.
± Feature Naturalistic Imagery: Many of the paintings
stand out for their lifelike portrayals, underscoring the
artists’ observational and technical prowess.
New Religious Traditions

Mahayana Buddhism:
' By the 1st century CE, Buddhist practices and ideas began evolving.
Earlier teachings that emphasised self-effort towards achieving
Nibbana or Nirvana were taken over gradually by the concept of
a saviour and the idea of Bodhisattvas (compassionate beings
helping others) started emerging.
' Worship of Buddha and Bodhisattva images became significant.
' This new approach was termed “Mahayana” (great vehicle), while
the older tradition was named “Hinayana” (lesser vehicle).
Hinayana or Theravada
While supporters of the Mahayana tradition referred to other Buddhists as
followers of “Hinayana” (meaning “lesser vehicle”), the adherents of this older
tradition didn’t use this term to describe themselves. Instead, they identified
themselves as “theravadins.” This term translates to “those who followed the
path of the old, respected teachers,” known as the “theras.”
Term Used Perspective Example Statement
Hinayana Mahayana “The Hinayana practices are not as evolved as our

Figure 4.11: An
Mahayana ones.”
image of the Buddha
Theravada Theravadin “We are theravadins, following the teachings of from Mathura, c. first
our respected theras.” century CE
50
Growth of Puranic Hinduism

' Notions of a saviour were prevalent not only in Buddhism but also in Hindu traditions like
Vaishnavism (worshipping Vishnu) and Shaivism (worshipping Shiva).
' Both emphasised the bhakti (devotion) bond between devotee and deity.
' In Vaishnavism, ten avatars or incarnations of Vishnu were recognized, each believed to save
the world from evil forces. Recognizing local deities as a form of Vishnu helped unify religious
traditions.
' Sculptures depicted deities like Shiva, symbolised by the linga, and highlighted their
attributes through symbols.
' The Puranas, written by Brahmanas, were essential in understanding these sculptures; they
narrated stories of gods and goddesses and were meant for everyone, including those outside
Vedic learning.
' Worship of Vasudeva-Krishna from the Mathura region spread across India.
Figure 4.12: The Varaha

or boar avatar of Vishnu
rescuing the earth goddess, Figure 4.13: An image of Durga, Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu)
Aihole (Karnataka)
Building Temples
' As stupas like those at Sanchi were being
established, the first temples for gods and
goddesses were constructed.
' The initial temple had a square room (garbhagriha)
with a doorway for worshippers.
' Over time, temples became complex, including
a shikhara over the shrine, assembly halls, walls,
gateways, and water supply.
' Some temples were carved out of large rocks,
resembling artificial caves. This rock-hollowing
tradition began around the third century BCE Figure 4.14 (a): Kailashnatha Temple,
and culminated in the eighth century with the Ellora, Maharashtra
Kailasanatha temple.
51
Figure 4.14 (b): A temple in Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh
Figure 4.15: Vishnu reclining on the serpent Sheshnag,

sculpture from Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh (Left) and
Entrance to a cave at Barabar, Bihar (Right)
Grappling With the Unfamiliar

' 19th Century European Scholars’ Perspective:
* Initial Encounter with Indian Sculptures: Initial confusion
upon encountering Indian sculptures of gods and goddesses.
* Reactions to Complex Forms: Often horrified by multi-armed,
multi-headed figures, and human-animal forms.
* The Greek Art Comparison: Attempted to understand Indian
sculptures by comparing them with ancient Greek art.
* Appreciation for Greek-Influenced Sculptures: Found certain
Buddha and Bodhisattva statues, especially from Taxila and
Peshawar, appealing due to their Greek-like appearance.
* Preference for the familiar: Using known benchmarks (Greek
art) to understand the unfamiliar (Indian art).
' Art Historians’ Reliance on Texts
* Historians often use textual traditions to decipher the Figure 4.16: A Bodhisattva
meanings of sculptures. from Gandhara
52
* Challenges arise when the artwork doesn’t match known stories or interpretations, like

in Mahabalipuram Sculpture.
' Mahabalipuram Sculpture Dilemma
* A significant rock sculpture in Tamil Nadu leaves historians divided.
* Some believe it depicts the Ganga river’s descent from heaven, considering a natural cleft
in the rock.
* Others argue it shows Arjuna from the Mahabharata performing penance, pointing to a
central figure of an ascetic.
Figure 4.17: A sculpture in Mahabalipuram
' Unrecorded Rituals and Beliefs

* Not all religious beliefs and practices were immortalised in monuments, sculptures, or
paintings.
* Daily practices and special occasion rituals might not have been recorded.
* Many communities didn’t feel the need for permanent records but had vibrant religious
and philosophical traditions.
* Moreover, the known artefacts represent just a fraction of past traditions.
Philosophical and Intellectual Traditions in Ancient India
' The Upanishads
* Background and Context: Rise of New Questions
* It emerged during a time of profound ± The Upanishads (c. sixth century BCE onwards)
show that people were curious about the
questioning and introspection and is
meaning of life, life after death, and rebirth,
classified as part of the later Vedic leading to hot debates.
texts. ± Thinkers were concerned with understanding
' Philosophical Underpinnings and expressing the ultimate reality, while
others outside the Vedic tradition questioned if
* It delved into subjects such as life after a single ultimate reality existed.
death and the significance of sacrifices ± People also began speculating on the
and introduced the notion of ‘atman’ significance of the sacrificial tradition.
or the individual soul, and ‘brahman,’
the universal soul, emphasising their Intrinsic unity.
53
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY The Wise Beggar: An Insight from the Chandogya The wise beggar
Upanishad Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of
± The Encounter: the most famous Upanishads, the Chhandogya
Upanishad.
● Sages Shaunaka and Abhipratarin, devotees of
the universal soul, are approached by a beggar Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who
during a meal. worshipped the universal soul.
● Initially, they refuse to offer any food to the Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and
beggar. asked for some food. “We cannot spare anything
± Philosophical Dialogue: for you,” Shaunaka said.
● The beggar questions the sages about their "Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar
understanding of the universal soul. asked.
● He points out that if the universal soul is "The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied.
omnipresent, it resides within him as well, "Ah! It means that you know that the universal
making him an intrinsic part of the universe. soul fills the entire world.”
± Realisation and Resolution:
"Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded.
● By denying him food, they inadvertently deny
sustenance to the universal soul itself. "If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills
me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the
● Recognizing the profound truth in the beggar’s
beggar asked.
words, the sages decide to share their meal with
him. "You speak the truth, O young brahmin."
Through a philosophical argument, the beggar illuminated "Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are
the sages on the omnipresence of the universal soul. By actually denying food to the universal soul."
emphasising his connection to the universe (and thus The sages realised the truth of what the beggar
the universal soul), he highlighted the contradiction in said, and shared their food with him.
their actions of worship and their refusal to share food.
How did the beggar convince the sages to share
Recognizing their oversight, the sages were convinced to
their food with him?
share their food with him.
' Format and Presentation
* The term “Upanishad” texts that are predominantly dialogic in nature signifies ‘approaching
and sitting near,’ indicative of the student-teacher discourse.
' Key Personalities
* While the discourse was dominated by male thinkers, primarily Brahmins and Rajas,
women thinkers like Gargi and Maitreyi also made significant contributions.
* The story of Satyakama Jabala showcases inclusivity, highlighting his journey from being
the son of a slave woman to becoming a celebrated thinker.
* Later, the ideas propounded in the Upanishads were further refined by Shankaracharya.
Six Schools of Indian Philosophy
Six distinguished philosophical traditions have shaped India’s intellectual discourse over centuries.
± Origin and Founders:
● Vaishesika: Pioneered by sage Kanada.
● Nyaya: Initiated by sage Gotama.
● Samkhya: Established by sage Kapila.
● Yoga: Propounded by sage Patanjali.
● Purva Mimamsa: Introduced by sage Jaimini.
● Vedanta or Uttara Mimamsa: Developed by sage Vyasa.
± Unifying Threads Amidst Diversity:
● While individual thinkers enriched these philosophies across generations, they collectively convey a
harmonised understanding of truth, as observed by Friedrich Max Muller.
54
Panini: The Master Grammarian
± Seminal Work: Panini stands out for his monumental contribution to Sanskrit grammar.
± Methodological Innovations:
● He devised a unique approach by categorising vowels and consonants systematically.
● Using algebraic formulae, Panini framed concise rules, approximating 3000 in number, for the
Sanskrit language.
Some Verses from the Upanishads

' The Chandogya Upanishad includes verses discussing the nature of the self and the true
sacrifice.
Verses from the Upanishads
Here are two verses from the Chhandogya Upanishad, a text composed in Sanskrit c. sixth century BCE:
The nature of the self
This self of mine within the heart, is smaller than paddy or barley or mustard or millet or the kernel of a seed
of millet. This self of mine within the heart is greater than the earth, greater than the intermediate space,
greater than heaven, greater than these worlds.
The true sacrifice
This one (the wind) that blows, this is surely a sacrifice While moving, it sanctifies all this; therefore it is
indeed a sacrifice.
Jainism: A Historical Overview

' Origin and Founding Figure: Vardhamana Mahavira Jaina
* Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, spread his The word
Jaina comes
teachings around 2500 years ago. from the term
* Born as a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, part of the Vajji sangha. Jina, meaning
conqueror.
* At the age of 30, he renounced his royal life, seeking enlightenment
Why do you
through a twelve-year spiritual journey in the forest. think the term
Jina was used
' Core Teachings and Principles:
for Mahavira?
* Mahavira’s doctrine Emphasised on renunciation to seek the truth.
Tri-Ratnas of Jainism
Right Action Right Knowledge Right Faith
* Ahimsa (Non-violence): Central to Jainism, stressing the sanctity of all life. Mahavira
proclaimed, “All beings long to live. To all things, life is dear.”
* Communication in Prakrit: To made teaching accessible to all various Prakrit forms
existed, such as Magadhi in Magadha.
' Lifestyle of the Jainas (Followers of Jainism):
* Strict adherence to simplicity, honesty, celibacy, and non-stealing.
* Jain monks practiced asceticism, including giving up clothing.
* Many followers became monks and nuns, while others supported them, especially by
providing food.
55
' Adoption and Spread of Jainism:
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY * Though the strict tenets were challenging, Jainism attracted many followers.
* Primarily supported by traders. Farmers found Jain rules hard due to the necessity to
protect crops by killing pests.
* Over centuries, Jainism spread across north India and further to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and
Karnataka.
' Documentation of Jain Teachings:
* Jain teachings were passed down orally for centuries.
* They were documented in their current form in Valabhi, Gujarat around 1500 years ago.
Message of Mahavira
' Jainism philosophy existed before Vardhamana, later known as
Mahavira. He was the 24th Tirthankara, Guided men and women
towards salvation.
* Jainism Beliefs:
U Monastic existence necessary for salvation.
* world is animated,
* non-injury to all living beings,
* cycle of birth and rebirth shaped by karma,
* asceticism and penance required for salvation.
' Five Vows of Jain Monks and Nuns:
* abstain from killing,
* Abstain from stealing,
* Abstain from lying,
Figure 4.18: An image
* observe celibacy, of a tirthankara from
* abstain from possessing property. Mathura
' Mahavira’s teachings were recorded by disciples, often as stories.
' Example from Uttaradhyayana Sutta: Queen Kamalavati persuading her husband to renounce
the world.
Figure 4.19: A page from fourteenth-century Jaina Manuscript
56
Spread of Jainism

' Spread to many parts of India.
' Literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil preserved in temple libraries.
' Early stone sculptures of Jaina Tirthankaras found throughout the subcontinent.
The Sangha and Its Essence
' Philosophical Foundation:
* Both Mahavira and Buddha shared the conviction that one can only achieve true
enlightenment by relinquishing worldly desires. To facilitate this, they initiated the
concept of the Sangha, a specialised community for those willing to renounce worldly
life.
' Membership Criteria:
* The Sangha was inclusive, welcoming men from all walks of life.
* Specific permissions were needed for certain individuals: children required parental
consent, slaves needed their master’s permission, royal employees had to got the king’s
nod, and debtors needed clearance from creditors.
* Women could join, but only with their husband’s consent.
' Organisational Setup:
* The Sangha had distinct branches for men and women.
* Its members, known as bhikkhus (for men) and bhikkhunis (for women), led austere
lives. Their days were predominantly filled with meditation.
* For sustenance, they ventured into nearby areas during designated hours to beg for
food.
' Community Dynamics:
* The Sangha fostered a spirit of camaraderie. Members not only sought enlightenment but
also provided support to each other.
* To maintain harmony and address grievances, regular meetings were convened.
' Diversity of the Sangha:
* The Sangha was a melting pot of diverse backgrounds: from Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and
merchants to labourers, barbers, courtesans, and even slaves.
* This diverse group played a pivotal role in documenting Buddha’s teachings. They were also
responsible for crafting evocative poems, encapsulating their profound experiences within
the Sangha.
Viharas: The Abodes of Monks and Nuns
' Evolution of Viharas: Initially, Jaina and Buddhist monks wandered and only settled during
the rainy season in temporary shelters or natural caves. As support grown, the need for
permanent monasteries, or viharas, arose. Viharas evolved from wooden structures to brick
ones, and eventually, some were carved into hills.
57
Figure 4.20: A cave hollowed out in the hills. This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra.
Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters.
' Donations and Local Support: Rich merchants, landowners, or even kings often donated land
for vihara construction. In return for their donations, the monks and nuns imparted teachings
to the local populace.
' Spread of Buddhism: Over time, Buddhism propagated throughout the subcontinent and even
beyond its boundaries. Mahayana Buddhism introduced two major shifts:
' Representation of Buddha: Instead of symbolising Buddha with signs like the peepal tree,
direct statues started being sculpted in places like Mathura and Taxila.
' Belief in Bodhisattvas: These enlightened beings chose to remain in the world to aid and
educate others rather than retreat into isolation. This belief found traction across Central Asia,
China, Korea, and Japan.
' Buddhism in Southern India: In regions like western and southern India, caves were carved
into hills to house monks.
Ashramas: The Four Stages of Life

± Understanding Ashramas: An ashrama signifies a life stage. The four recognized stages are
brahmacharya (student life), grihastha (householder), vanaprastha (forest dweller), and
sannyasa (renunciant).
± Life in these Stages: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas first spent their early years in
Vedic study, followed by household duties post-marriage, and eventually retreated to forests for
meditation. Ultimately, they renounced everything to become sanyasi.
± Comparison with Sangha Life: The ashrama system allowed periodic meditation, whereas life in
the Sangha was a continuous pursuit of enlightenment and teaching.
' Buddhism’s Expansion to Southeast Asia: Buddhism made its way southeast to countries
like Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, and others. Theravada Buddhism, an older
variant, was predominant in these regions.
58
Pilgrims: The Travelers of Faith
± Famous Chinese Buddhist Pilgrims: Pilgrims like Fa Xian, Xuan Zang, and I-Qing journeyed
from China to visit Buddhist places and monasteries in the subcontinent.
± Accounts of Their Travels: These pilgrims documented their often-perilous journeys, described
countries, monasteries, and the scriptures they acquired.
Nalanda: The Beacon of Buddhist Learning

± Description by Xuan Zang: Nalanda in Bihar stood as the Gupta period’s most renowned Buddhist
monastery. Xuan Zang lauded the knowledgeable teachers, the sincerity in following Buddha’s
teachings, and the rigorous intellectual entry tests. Only a fraction, often less than three in ten,
could answer the challenging questions posed at the monastery’s entrance.
± Reasons for Xuan Zang’s Keenness to Study in Nalanda:
● The exceptional talent and skill of Nalanda’s teachers.
● The strict and sincere adherence to Buddha’s teachings.
● The vibrant intellectual environment with continuous discussions.
● A platform where scholars from various cities converged to resolve doubts.
● The challenging and competitive entry process, ensuring only the most intellectually capable
could enter.
Conclusion
Buddhism and Jainism, though distinct in their teachings and practices, share common ground
in their quest for enlightenment and salvation. Buddha’s emphasis on the middle path, a way of
life avoiding extremes of indulgence and austerity, complements the Jain emphasis on rigorous
asceticism and the sanctity of all life forms. Both religions,
POINTS TO PONDER
through narratives like the renunciation tales of Buddha and
Buddhism and Jainism emerged as
Jain stories such as Queen Kamalavati’s persuasion of her sects in opposition to Brahmanic
husband to renounce worldly life, offer profound insights into Tradition. However, in due course
human nature, suffering, and the paths to transcendence. The of time, they lost their distinct taste
ancient sculptures, texts, and artefacts that have survived the and in present context they
sands of time serve as silent witnesses to the indelible marks. have more similarities to
These philosophies have etched on India’s cultural and spiritual Hinduism than differences.
landscape. Through their enduring legacies, Buddhism and Why?
Jainism beckon humanity to introspect, evolve, and embark on
the timeless journey towards inner peace and enlightenment.
Timeline and Events

Timeline 1 Major Religious Developments
1500-1000 BCE Early Vedic traditions
1000-500 BCE Later Vedic traditions
sixth century BCE Early Upanishads; Jainism, Buddhism
third century BCE First stupas
second century BCE onwards Development of Mahayana Buddhism,

Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and goddess cults
third century CE Earliest temples
59
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Timeline 2 Landmarks in the Discovery and Preservation of Early Monuments and Sculpture
Year Events
1814 Founding of the Indian Museum, Calcutta
1834 Publication of Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus, by Ram Raja; Cunningham
explores the stupa at Sarnath
1835 -1842 James Fergusson surveys major archaeological sites
1851 Establishment of the Government Museum, Madras
1854 Alexander Cunningham publishes Bhilsa Topes, one of the earliest works on Sanchi
1878 Rajendra Lala Mitra publishes Buddha Gaya: The Heritage of Sakya Muni
1880 H.H. Cole appointed Curator of Ancient Monuments
1888 Passing of the Treasure Trove Act, giving the government the right to acquire all
objects of archaeological interest
1914 John Marshall and Alfred Foucher publish The Monuments of Sanchi
1923 John Marshall publishes the Conservation Manual
1955 Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru lays the foundation stone of the National Museum,
New Delhi
1989 Sanchi declared a World Heritage Site
Glossary
± Buddhism: A religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, emphasizing the Four
Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
± Jainism: An ancient Indian religion emphasizing non-violence, non-possessiveness, and asceticism,
founded by Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara.
± Tirthankara: Spiritual teachers in Jainism who guide men and women across the river of existence.
± Nirvana: A state of perfect happiness and liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth.
± Dharma: The principle of cosmic order, often translated as duty, religion, or moral law.
± Asceticism: Severe self-discipline and abstention from all indulgence, typically for religious reasons.
± Karma: The sum of a person’s actions, which decide their fate in future existences.
± Samsara: The cycle of death and rebirth.
± Bodhisattva: A person on the path to Buddhahood.
± Stupa: A dome-shaped structure erected as a Buddhist shrine.
± Arhat: Someone who has attained the goal of the religious life in Buddhism.
± Vardhamana: Another name for Mahavira.
± Upanishad: Ancient Sanskrit texts that form the basis for the spiritual philosophy embedded in the
Vedas.
± Monasticism: Religious way of life where one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to
spiritual work.
± Eightfold Path: The path to nirvana consists of eight aspects in which an aspirant must become practiced.
± Four Noble Truths: The four central beliefs containing the essence of Buddhist teaching.
± Prakrit: An ancient Indian language used in Jain texts.
± Uttaradhyayana Sutta: Jain scriptures where many teachings and stories of Mahavira are recorded.
60
± Sangha: A community of monks and nuns.
± Rigveda: The oldest of the four sacred Hindu scriptures.
± Meditation: A practice to train attention and awareness, achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm
state.
± Mahayana: A major branch of Buddhism focusing on the path of a Bodhisattva.
± Theravada: The more traditional form of Buddhism, emphasizing the path of an Arhat.
± Bhikshu/Bhikshuni: Buddhist monk/nun.
± Ahimsa: The principle of non-violence towards all living things.
± Sramana: A wandering monk in certain ascetic traditions of ancient India.
± Mathura: An ancient city in India, significant in both Jain and Buddhist traditions.
± Celibacy: The state of abstaining from marriage and sexual relations for religious reasons.
± Tripitaka: Traditional term for the Buddhist scriptures.
± Middle Path: The path advocated by Buddha, which avoids extremes of indulgence and austerity.

61
Age of
5 Mahajanapadas
Introduction
In the later Vedic period (1000-600 BCE,), references to Janapadas and Mahajanapadas began to
appear, with early Vedic literature mentioning at least nine Janapadas and various ethnic groups.
By the sixth century B.C.E, Panini mentioned 22 Janapadas, highlighting Magadha, Kosala, and
Vatsa as particularly important. Early Buddhist and Jain texts provide further clarity, listing
16 Mahajanapadas, albeit with variations in names, possibly reflecting differing political conditions
and the authors’ geographical awareness. This serves as an Introduction to the complex landscape
of early Indian politics.
Geographical Scope
' The Mahajanapadas covered only a part of India, mostly situated north of the Vindhyas, and
extended from the north-west frontier to Bihar, leaving out Bengal, eastern India, and most of
South India.
' However, Buddhist texts show familiarity with the entire Indian subcontinent.
KAMBOJA Map 1
Early states and their capitals
Pushkalavati
GANDHARA Taxila
Indraprastha
Ahichchhatra
MALLA
KURU
SHURASENA PANCHALA Kusinagara
Shravasti
Mathura VAJJI (VRIJJI)
KOSHALA ANGA
MATSYA Vaishali
KASHI Champa
MAGADHA
Kaushambi Varanasi Rajgir
VATSA
CHEDI VANGA
AVANTI
Ujjayini
Arabian Sea
Bay of Bengal
ASHMAKA
Sketch map not to scale
Figure 5.1: The Mahajanapadas

The Mahajanapadas
Age of Mahajanapadas
Table 5.1: Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas Related Information
± It is located in the modern districts of Monghyr and Bhagalpur in Bihar.

Anga
± Its capital was Champa.
± It is located in districts of Patna, Gaya, and parts of Shahabad in Bihar.

Magadha ± Its capital was Rajagriha or Girivraj.
± Magadha experimented with the republican system three times.
± It is located in the North of the river Ganga in Bihar.

± Its capital was Vasishli.
± Included important families like Lichchhavis, Videhas, and Jnatrika.
Vajji
± Helped by nine ganas of the Mallas and nine of Kasi against Magadha.
± Defeated and assimilated into the Magadha empire by Ajatashatru.
± Mahavira was born into the Jnatrika family.
± Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur, and Siddharthnagar in eastern

Uttar Pradesh.
Malla ± It had two capitals, Kushinagar or kushinara and Pava.
± Part of eastern Uttar Pradesh; Kshatriyas of the Ikshvaku dynasty.
± Nine ganas of the Mallas helped Vajjis against Magadha.
± It is located in modern-day Varanasi.

Kasi
± It was a monarchy.
± It was located in the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich etc.
± Its capital was Sravasti.
± Ayodhya was an important city in Kosala. It was not significantly settled before
Kosala
the sixth century B.C.
± It also included the tribal republican territory of the Sakyas, with its capital
identified as Piprahwa in Basti district and Lumbini in Nepal.
± Its capital was Kausambi.
± It was situated along the Yamuna River.
Vatsa
± The Vatsas were originally a Kuru clan that shifted from Hastinapur to
Kaushambi near Allahabad in the sixth century B.C
± It was located in the modern Bundelkhand area.

Chedi
± Its capital was Shuktimati.
± Modern Haryana and Delhi area to the west of river Yamuna.

Kuru
± Its capital was Indraprastha (modern Delhi).
± Area of western Uttar Pradesh up to the east of river Yamuna.

Panchala ± Its capital was north Panchala capital -Ahichchhatra or southern Panchal
capital- Kampilya.
± It covered Brij Mandal.

Surasena
± Its capital was Mathura.
63
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY ± It included the area of Alwar, Bharatpur, and Jaipur in Rajasthan.
Matsya
± Its capital was Viratanagari.
± It covered modern-day Malwa.

Avanti ± Its capitals were north Avanti capital - ujjaini and south Avanti capital-
mahishamati
± It was situated between the rivers Narmada and Godavari.

Ashmaka
± Its capital was Potana.
± Western part of Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.

Gandhara
± Its capital was Taxila and Pushkalavati.
± Identified with the modern district of Hazara in Pakistan.

Kamboja
± Its capital was Pooncha.
Anga
Kosi
Magadha
Kosale
Vaji
Vasta Malla
Chedi Mahajanapadas Kuru
Surasena Panchal
Avanti Matsya
Gandhara Ashmaka
Kamboja
Features of Mahajanapadas
The sixth century BCE marks a pivotal era in early Indian history, characterized by significant
developments:
Political Developments: POINTS TO PONDER

In the era of Mahajanapadas, we find
' Emergence of States and Cities: This period saw the rise a multitude of political centers, but
of early states and urban centers, increased iron usage, this phase lacked large empires.
and the Introduction of coinage. What factors do you think were
responsible for the absence of large
' Growth of Philosophies: During this period, diverse empires that emerged in
systems of thought, notably Buddhism and Jainism, later phases?
emerged.
64
Capital Cities: Each Mahajanpada had a fortified capital city. Famous cities like Champa,
'
Rajagriha, Sravasti, Saket, Kausambi, and Kasi were the capitals of various Mahajanapadas.
' Republican States: The period also saw notable republican states, including Mallas of Kushinagar,
Sakyas of Kapilavastu, Koliyas of Ramagrama, Moriyas of Pipphalivana, and Lichchhavi of
Vaishali.
' Governance Structure:
* Most mahajanapadas were monarchies, but ‘ganas’ or ‘sanghas’, were oligarchies where
power was distributed among several men, collectively called ‘rajas’.
* Both Mahavira and Buddha were part of such ganas. In certain cases, like the Vajji sangha,
resources like land were controlled collectively.
' Military and Bureaucracy: Over time, some states developed standing armies and maintained
regular bureaucracies, while others relied on militias, often consisting of peasants.
Economic Developments:
' Changes in Agriculture during Mahajanapadas:
* Iron Ploughshares: The Introduction of iron ploughshares allowed for better tilling of
heavy, clayey soil, leading to increased grain production.
* Paddy Transplantation: Instead of scattering seeds, saplings were grown and then
transplanted to fields, resulting in higher survival and increased production.
' Taxes:
* Dharmasutras (composed by Brahmanas) provided guidelines to gather tax from cultivators,
traders, and artisans.
* As the rulers of the Mahajanapadas were building huge forts and maintaining big armies,
they needed more resources.
* Instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the
janapadas, they started collecting regular taxes by employing dedicated officials to collect taxes.
U There were taxes on crops, on craftspersons, and on goods through trade.
U Taxes on crops were the most important. This was because most people were farmers.
Usually, the tax was fixed at 1/6th of what was produced. This was known as bhaga
or a share.
U There were taxes on crafts persons as well. These could have been in the form of labour.
For example, a weaver or a smith may have had to work for a day every month for the king.
U Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce, and hunters and gatherers had to
provide forest produce to the raja.
' Trade Developments:
* New urban centers like Pataliputra, Ujjayini, and Puhar emerged, as capitals of
Mahajanapadas. These cities were strategically located along communication routes—
riverine, land, and coast.
* Extensive land and river routes connected the subcontinent to Central Asia and beyond.
Overseas routes extended from the Arabian Sea to Africa and West Asia and from the Bay of
Bengal to Southeast Asia and China. These routes were traversed by peddlers, merchants,
and seafarers, often under the protection of rulers.
65
Figure 5.2: Some Important Kingdoms and Towns
Magadh Empire
POINTS TO PONDER
' The political history of India from the sixth The Shishunaga and Nanda Dynasties:
century B.C. onwards is the history of struggles ± According to Buddhist tradition, Udayin and
between these sixteen states for supremacy. his successors were unworthy, leading to the
Ultimately, the kingdom of Magadha emerged Establishment of Shishunaga dynasty.
to be the most powerful and succeeded in ± The Puranas consider Spelling mistake
founding an empire. -shishunaga as the founder of the
Shishunaga dynasty which was later
' Founding Dynasties: succeeded by the Nanda Dynasty.
* Four significant royal dynasties emerged ± Mahapadma Nanda founded the Nanda
in the 6th century B.C.E (Haryankas of Dynasty and was a military genius.
Magadha, Ikshvakus of Kosala, Pauravas ± Mahapadma defeated prominent
of Vatsa, and Pradyotas of Avanti) which Kshatriya families, establishing an
aimed for supremacy by annexing or empire covering most of northern
India.
threatening minor states.
66
* By the 5th century B.C.E, the main contest was between the Haryankas of Magadha and
the Ikshvakus of Kosala.
* Magadha emerged as the dominant power, with Ajatasatru becoming the founder of
Magadhan supremacy.
' The Foundation of Pataliputra:
* Initially, Rajgir or Rajagriha (house of the king) was the capital of Magadha, which was a
fortified settlement, located amongst hills.
* Later, in the fourth century BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra, present-day Patna,
commanding routes of communication along the Ganga.
Causes for the Rise of Magadha
' Visionary Leadership:
* Spearheaded by ambitious rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, and Mahapadma Nanda.
* Employed strategic acumen and military might for territorial expansion.
' Geographical Advantages and Economic Strength:
POINTS TO PONDER
* Abundant iron deposits near Rajgir provided a The Mahajanapadas seem
technological edge in weaponry. concentrated more in certain
regions of India. It becomes more
* The capitals at Rajgir and later Pataliputra were
interesting to note their proximity
strategically located and naturally fortified. to the riverine belts. What
* Fertile lands in the middle Gangetic plain led to high factors would have led to such
agricultural yields. a regional concentration of the
Mahajanapadas? Do you find such
* The rise of trade and commerce bolstered the state’s a phenomenon where cities
economy. and rivers co-exist in the
modern world?
* Economic prosperity enabled the maintenance of a
well-equipped army.
' Military Innovation:
* First to Deployed elephants in warfare on a large scale.
* Leveraged natural resources for military advantage.
' Social Diversity and Cohesion:
* A melting pot of diverse groups, including the Kiratas and Magadhas.
* Recent Aryanization infused society with a new zeal for expansion.
Vajji Sangha
' Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as
gana or sangha.
' In a gana or a sangha, there were many rulers, and each one was known as a raja.
' These rajas performed rituals together. They met in assemblies and decided what had to be
done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy,
they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat.
' Women, dasas, and kammakaras (landless agricultural labourers) could not participate in
these assemblies.
67
Captical: Vaishali (Bihar)
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Perform rituals together
Multiple Rajas Decision-making through discussion

and debate
Meet in assemblies
Government Type: Gana or Sangha
Vajji Women Example Defense strategies against
enemies
Exclusions Dasas
Kamnakaras
By powerful kingdoms
Conquest Attempts
Lasted until conqered by Gupta rulers
around 1500 years ago
Figure 5.3: Understanding Vajji’s Government Structure
An account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some
of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago.
Ajatasattu and the Vajjis
' Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha
to get his advice on the matter.
' The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that
they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as:
* They held full and frequent public assemblies.
* They met and acted together.
* They followed established rules.
* They respected, supported, and listened to elders.
* Vajji women were not held by force or captured.
* Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages.
* Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave
the country freely.
In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least
three differences.
Foreign Invasions
Persian Invasion:
' In northeastern India, smaller regions joined the Magadhan empire, while northwestern India
remained divided, with the Kamboja, Gandhara, and Madra in constant conflict.
' Taking advantage of the division in northwest India, the Iranian ruler Darius invaded Punjab
and Sindh in 516 B.C.E
' The exact duration of Persian rule in India is uncertain, but it appears that India remained a
part of the Iranian Empire until Alexander’s invasion of the Indian subcontinent.
' Indian soldiers were part of the Achaemenian army that fought against Greece and Alexander,
suggesting Persian influence until around 330 B.C.E
68
Alexander’s Invasion
' In the 4th century B.C.E, Alexander of Macedonia conquered Asia Minor, Iraq, and Iran. He
then set his sights on India due to legends of wealth and his interest in geography.
' Northwest India’s political landscape suited Alexander’s plans, with multiple independent
monarchies and tribal republics.
' Alexander conquered these regions, including those led by Ambhi and Porus. Ambhi of Taxila
submitted willingly, while Porus resisted fiercely but earned Alexander’s respect. After defeating
Porus, Alexander restored his kingdom and forged an alliance.
' Alexander’s advance halted at the Beas River due to a mutiny among his soldiers who were
tired and sick from ten years of non-stop battles. India’s tough conditions and their learning
about the powerful Nanda dynasty in Magadha made them unwilling to go further east.
' Despite Alexander’s desire to press on, his soldiers refused, forcing him to retreat. His dream
of an eastern empire was left unattained.
Results of India’s Contact with Iran/Persia

' Trade and Commerce:
* The contact provided a boost to trade between India and Iran.
* Iranian coins have been found in the north-west frontier region of India.
* Through the Iranians, the Greeks became aware of India’s wealth.
' Art and Architecture:
* Iranian influence is evident in Mauryan sculpture in later times.
* Monuments from Asoka’s time, particularly the bell-shaped capitals, show Iranian influence.
' Language and Edicts:
* The Iranian scribes introduced the Kharosthi script to India.
* This script was used in some of Asoka’s inscriptions and remained in use until the 3rd
century A.D.
* The preamble of Asoka’s edicts and certain words within them also reflect Iranian influence.
For example, the term “lipi” in Asoka’s edicts is derived from the Iranian term “dipl.”
Conclusion
The Age of Mahajanapadas was a complex era, serving as political, cultural, and economic
hubs in ancient India. Advancements in epigraphy have enriched our understanding of this
period, but inscriptions alone are not definitive historical sources. The enduring impact of
foreign invasions and the rise of key cities and trade routes underscore the period’s complexity.
Overall, this era and its epigraphic discoveries offer valuable insights into the diverse history of
the Indian subcontinent.
69
' Janapadas: Janapada means the land where the jana (community) settled down. It is a word used in
both Prakrit and Sanskrit.
' Rajas: Those who performed big sacrifices were recognized as rajas of janapadas.
' Mahajanapadas: Group of important Janardan Early Buddhist and Jaina texts referred to sixteen
major states termed as mahajanapadas. Vedic literature mentions nine Janapadas, while Panini’s
work mentions 22.
' Vajji Confederation: Vajji was a unique confederation of eight ganas, with Lichchhavis being the most
prominent. Mahavira, the 24th Jain Tirthankara, was born into one of the Vajji families.
' Transplantation: It is the technique of moving a plant from one place to another where it has been
growing and replanting remove it to maintain flow during the growing season.
' Dharmasutras: Dharmasutras are a collection of Sanskrit prose texts that form the earliest source of
Hindu law.
' Gahapati: A gahapati was the owner, master, or head of a household, who exercised control over the
women, children and workers who shared a common residence. Sometimes the term was used as a
marker of status for men belonging to the urban elite, including wealthy merchants.
' Gana: It is used for a group that has many members.
' Sangha: It means organisation or association.

70
6 Maurya's Age
Early States and Economies
' Developments after the end of the Harappan civilisation were:
* Emergence of early states, empires, and kingdoms.
* Rigveda was composed by people living along the Indus and its tributaries.
* Agricultural settlements emerged in many parts of the subcontinent, including North
India, the Deccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka.
* Evidence of pastoral populations in the Deccan and further South.
* New modes of disposal of the dead, including the making of elaborate stone structures
known as megaliths, emerged in Central and South India from the first millennium
BCE.
' Historians attempt to understand these developments by drawing on a range of sources –
inscriptions, texts, coins, and visual material.
The Sixteen Mahajanapadas:
' The sixth century BCE was an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of
iron, and the development of coinage. It also witnessed the
growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Janapada means the land
where a jana (a people,
Jainism.
clan or tribe) sets its foot or
' Buddhist and Jaina texts mention, amongst other things, sixteen settles. It is a word used in
states known as Mahajanapadas (Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, both Prakrit and Sanskrit.
Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara, and Avanti were amongst the
most important Mahajanapadas).
' Characteristics of Mahajanapadas:
* Most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some, known as ganas or sanghas, were
oligarchies, where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas.
E.g., Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such ganas.
* Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.
* Dharma sutras, the Sanskrit texts composed by Brahmanas, laid down norms for rulers
(as well as for other social categories), who were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas.
* Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders, and artisans.
* Some states acquired standing armies and maintained regular bureaucracies. Others
continued to depend on the militia, recruited often from the peasantry.
Figure 6.1: Early States and Their Capital
First Among the Sixteen: Magadha

Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in POINTS TO PONDER
present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada, The Gangetic region, particularly
due to the following reasons: the Purvanchal belt, started
with empires like the Mauryas,
' Ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara,
Shungas, and Guptas. What might
Ajatasattu, and Mahapadma Nanda were the best known, be the reasons that such large
and their ministers, who helped implement their policies. empires could not be established in
' Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially this region after the Ancient
productive. Period?
' Iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) were accessible

and provided resources for tools and weapons.
' Elephants, an important component of the army, were
found in forests in the region.
' Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.
72
Rajagriha (capital city) was a fortified settlement, located
Maurya's Age
'
amongst hills. Later, in the fourth century BCE, the capital Inscriptions
was shifted to Pataliputra, present-day Patna, commanding Inscriptions are writings
routes of communication along the Ganga. Rajagriha is the engraved on hard surfaces
such as stone, metal or
Prakrit name for present-day Rajgir in Bihar, which was the
pottery. They usually
capital of Magadha. Interestingly, the old name means “house record the achievements,
of the king.” activities or ideas of those
who commissioned them
An Early Mauryan Empire and include the exploits of
The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of the Mauryan kings, or donations made by
Empire (322-185 BCE). The founder of the empire, Chandragupta women and men to religious
Maurya, extended control as far northwest as Afghanistan and institutions. Inscriptions are
Baluchistan. His grandson Ashoka, arguably the most famous ruler virtually permanent records,
of early India, conquered Kalinga (present-day coastal Orissa). some of which carry dates.
Others are dated on the basis
of palaeography or styles of
writing, with a fair amount
of precision. For instance. in
c. 250 BCE the letter “a” was
written like this: . By c. 500
CE, it was written like this:
The earliest inscriptions
were in Prakrit, a name for
languages used by ordinary
people. Names of rulers such
as Ajatasattu and Asoka,
known from Prakrit texts
and inscriptions, have been
spelt in their Prakrit forms
in this chapter. You will also
find terms in languages such
as Pali, Tamil and Sanskrit,
which too were used to write
inscriptions and texts. It is
possible that people spoke in
other languages as well, even
though these were not used
for writing.
Figure 6.2: The Mauryan Empire
Finding About the Mauryas

Sources to Reconstruct the History of the Mauryan Empire:
' Archaeological finds, especially sculptures such Yaksha and yakshini.
' Contemporary works, such as the account of Megasthenes (a Greek ambassador to the court
of Chandragupta Maurya).
' Arthashastra, parts of which were probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya, traditionally
believed to be the Minister of Chandragupta.
' Later Buddhist, Jaina, and Puranic literature, as well as Sanskrit literary works.
73
The inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE) on rocks and pillars are often regarded as
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY '
the most valuable sources.
Empire vs Kingdom
' Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms and need
to be protected by big armies.
' So also, they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes.
Ashoka’s Dhamma:
' Asoka, one of the greatest rulers of the
Mauryan empire, was also the first ruler
who inscribed his messages to his subjects
and officials on stone surfaces, natural rocks,
and polished pillars.
' Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in
Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi
script, while some in the northwest of the
subcontinent were written in Kharosthi. The
Aramaic and Greek scripts were also used
for inscriptions in Afghanistan.
' He used the inscriptions to proclaim what
he understood to be dhamma. This included respect towards elders, generosity towards
Brahmanas and those who renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants kindly, and
respect for religions and traditions other than one’s own.
' He appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta, POINTS TO PONDER
who went from place to place for teaching people about Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma
propagated peace and non-violence.
dhamma. On the other hand, Ashoka
' Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about continued to possess a massive
military establishment. Do you think
dhamma to other countries, such as Syria, Egypt, and Ashoka’s Dhamma policy
Greece. He also sent his son Mahendra and daughter was an ethical principle or a
strategic move to win wars
Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka.
without even fighting?
Administering the Empire:
' Regions included within the empire were just too diverse (from the hilly terrain of Afghanistan
and the coast of Orissa) to have a uniform administrative setup. Hence, there were five major
political centres in the empire, the capital, Pataliputra, and the provincial centres of Taxila,
Ujjayini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri.
' Administrative control was strongest in areas around the capital and the provincial centres.
' Officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons, and traders, who
lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s
orders.
' Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport and to collect
tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for
74
blankets, and south India for its gold and precious
Maurya's Age
POINTS TO PONDER
stones. It is possible that these resources were
The Mauryas established themselves
collected as tribute. as one of the largest empires in Indian
' There were also the forested regions. People living history. If we look at the technological
in these areas were more or less independent, but developments, transportation technology, and
communication channels of the time, it would
may have been expected to provide elephants,
appear that the administration of such an
timber, honey, and wax to Mauryan officials. empire was almost an impossible task. How
' Megasthenes mentions a committee with do you think the Mauryas managed to hold
six subcommittees for coordinating military together such a vast empire with
activities. the help of a rudimentary level of
development?
' Ashoka also tried to hold his empire together by
propagating dhamma, with the help of dhamma
mahamatta, special officers appointed to
spread the message of dhamma.
New Notions of Kingship

Chiefs and Kings in the South:
' The new kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan Chiefs and Chiefdoms
and further south are as follows: A chief is a powerful man whose position may
' Chiefdoms of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas or may not be hereditary. He derives support
in Tamilakam (the name of the ancient Tamil from his kinfolk. His functions may include
performing special rituals, leadership
country, which included parts of present-day
in warfare, and arbitrating disputes. He
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, in addition to Tamil receives gifts from his subordinates (unlike
Nadu), ruled over Southern India. kings who usually collect taxes) and often
' Satavahanas ruled over parts of western and central distributes these amongst his supporters.
India (c. second century BCE-second century CE). Generally, there are no regular armies and
officials in chiefdoms.
' The Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin,
established kingdoms in the north-western and
western parts of the subcontinent.
Divine Kings:
' One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities. This strategy
was best exemplified by the Kushanas (c. first century BCE first century CE), who ruled over
a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northwest India.
' Kushanas considered themselves godlike and adopted titles like devaputra, or “son of god,”
possibly inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves “sons of heaven.”
' Prashastis were usually composed in praise of kings. The Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the
Allahabad Pillar Inscription) was composed in Sanskrit by the court poet of Samudragupta,
Harishena.
Samantas:
' Samantas had control over local resources, including land.
' They offered homage and provided military support to rulers; hence, powerful samantas
could become kings; conversely, weak rulers might find themselves being reduced to positions
of subordination.
75
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY A Changing Countryside
Popular Perceptions of Kings:
' Ordinary people did not leave accounts of their thoughts and experiences. The perception
of people about kings can be understood by examining stories contained in anthologies such
as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra.
' The Jatakas were written in Pali around the middle of the first millennium CE.
' Many of these stories probably originated as popular oral tales that were later committed to
writing. One such example is Gandatindu Jataka, which describes the plight of the subjects.
Strategies For Increasing Production:
' The shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river valleys such as those of
the Ganga and the Kaveri from c. sixth century BCE.
' The iron-tipped ploughshare was used to turn
Transplantation is used for paddy cultivation in
the alluvial soil in areas that had high rainfall, areas where water is plentiful. Here, seeds are
whereas those in arid and hilly areas continued first broadcast; when the saplings have
practising hoe agriculture. grown they are transplanted in waterlogged
fields. This ensures a higher ratio of survival
' The Introduction of transplantation in parts of saplings and higher yields.
of Ganga Valley led to a dramatic increase in the
production of paddy.
' Use of irrigation through wells and tanks, and less commonly, canals. Communities, as well
as individuals, organised the construction of irrigation works.
Differences in Rural Society:
' Even though these technologies often led to an increase in production, the benefits were very
uneven:
* There was a growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture because
of differential access to land, labour, and some of the new technologies, i.e., landless
agricultural labourers, small peasants, as
well as large landholders.
Gahapati
* The term gahapati was often used in Pali A gahapati was the owner, master or head of
texts to designate the second and third a household, who exercised control over the
categories. women, children, slaves and workers who
shared a common residence. He was also the
* The large landholders, as well as the owner of the resources - land, animals and
village headman (whose position was often other things that belonged to the household.
hereditary), emerged as powerful figures, and Sometimes the term was used as a marker of
often exercised control over other cultivators. status for men belonging to the urban elite,
including wealthy merchants.
* Early Tamil literature (the Sangam texts)
also mentioned different categories of people
living in the villages: large landowners or Vellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar, and slaves
or adimai.
76
Land Grants and New Rural Elites:
Maurya's Age
' From the early centuries of the Common Era,
grants of land were made, many of which were
recorded in inscriptions.
' Some of these inscriptions were on stone, but
most were on copper plates, which were probably
given as a record of the transaction to those who
received the land.
' These grants were mainly to religious
institutions or to Brahmanas. An agrahara was land granted to a Brahmana, who
was usually exempted from paying land revenue
' Most inscriptions were in Sanskrit. In some and other dues to the king, and was often given
cases, and especially from the seventh century the right to collect these dues from the local
onwards, part of the inscription was in Sanskrit, people.
while the rest was in a local language such as
Tamil or Telugu.
POINTS TO PONDER
' There were regional variations in the sizes of land
Mauryas established meticulous
donated, ranging from small plots to vast stretches of bureaucratic structures. Modern
uncultivated land and the rights given to donees. political systems like India also
' Impact of Land Grants: function with the help of bureau-
cratic systems. Can you think of
* They were part of a strategy adopted by ruling lineages the differences between the An-
to extend agriculture to new areas. cient and modern bureaucracy?
Can you differentiate on aspects
* Also, to win allies because of the weakening political like: Mode of recruitment,
power due to the dominating influence of samantas. training, payment, role spe-
* Kings were losing control: they wanted to present at cialisation and duties and
responsibilities.
least a façade of power.

77
7 Post Mauryan Age
Central Asian Contacts and Their Results
' The period, which began in about 200 B.C., did not witness a large empire like that of the
Mauryas, but it is notable for intimate and widespread contacts between Central Asia and
India.
' In eastern India, central India, and the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number
of native rulers, such as the Sungas, the Kanvas, and the Satavahanas.
' In north-western India, they were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central
Asia.
Indo-Greeks Scythians or
Major Foreign SAKAS
Invaders to India
after the decline
of Mauryas
Kushanas
The Indo-Greeks
Reasons for Invasion
' One important cause of invasions was the weakness of the Selucid empire, which had been
established in Bactria and the adjoining areas of Iran called Parthia.
' Because of growing pressure from the Scythian tribe, the Bactrian Greeks were forced to
invade India.
' The successors of Asoka were too weak to stem the tide of foreign invaders.
' A series of invasions took place from about 200 B.C. The first to cross the Hindu Kush were
the Greeks, who ruled Bactria, lying south of the Oxus River, the area covered by north
Afghanistan.
Indo-Greek or Bactrian Greek
' The first to invade India were the Greeks, who are called the Indo-Greeks or Bactrian Greeks.
' At the beginning of the second century B.C., the Indo-Greeks occupied a large part of north-
western India, much larger than that conquered by Alexander. They pushed forward as far
as Ayodhya and Pataliputra, but the Greeks failed to establish united rule in India.
' The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 B.C.); he is also known by the
name Milinda. He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, who is also known as Nagarjuna.
' The questions of Milinda and Nagasena answers were recorded in the form of a book known as
Post Mauryan Age

Milinda Panho.
' The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins that can be definitely attributed to
the Kings, unlike punch-marked coins, which cannot be assigned with certainty to any dynasty.
' The Greek rule is also memorable on account of the Introduction of Hellenistic art features
in the north-west frontier of India, giving rise to the Gandhara art.
The Sakas
' The Sakas, or the Scythians, attacked Bactria and Parthia and captured them from the Greek
rulers. Following the footsteps of the Greeks, the Sakas gradually extended their rule over
northwestern India.
' There were two different groups of Sakas – the Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and the
Western Satraps ruling over Maharashtra.
' The founder of Saka rule in India in the first century B.C. was Maues. His son and successor
was Azes I, who was considered to be the founder of the Vikrama era.
' Sakas’s rulers of Taxila were overthrown by the Parthians.
Rudradaman I
± He was famous in history because of the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudarsana Lake in the
semi-arid zone of Kathiawar. This lake had been in use for irrigation for a long time and was as old as
the Mauryas.
± He was a great lover of Sanskrit and issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
Kushanas
' The Kushanas were a branch of the Yuchi tribe, whose original home was central Asia. They
first came to Bactria, displacing the Sakas. Then they gradually moved to the Kabul valley and
seized the Gandhara region.
' The founder of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I. He occupied the
Kabul valley and issued coins in his name.
' The early Kushan kings issued numerous gold coins with a higher gold content than what
is found in the Gupta coins.
' Mathura was their second capital in India, the first being Purushapura or Peshawar, where
Kanishka erected a monastery and a huge Stupa or relic tower, which excited the wonder of
foreign travelers.
' Wima Kadphises or Kadphises II (son of Kadaphises I) conquered the whole of northwestern
India as far as Mathura. He issued gold coins with high-sounding titles like the ‘Lord of the
Whole World’ etc. He was a devotee of Lord Siva.
Kanishka (78 – 120 A.D.)
Kushana dynasty
' Kanishka was the most important ruler
of the Kushana dynasty. He was the Founder of sakaera
founder of the Saka era, which started
from 78 A.D. Kanishka Embrace Buddhism
' The empire of Kanishka was a vast one (78-120 AD) Promoted Mahayana
extending from Gandhara in the West to
Buddhism
Benares in the East and from Kashmir Asvaghasha
in the North to Malwa in the South. His Patronized Buddhist
Vasumitra
capital was Purushapura, or modern- Scholars
day Peshawar. 4th Buddhist Council Nagarjune
79
' Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign. However, his coins exhibit
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY the images of not only Buddha but also Greek and Hindu gods. It reflects the Kanishka’s
tolerance towards other religions.
' In the age of Kanishka, Mahayana Buddhism came into vogue, which is different in many
aspects from the religion taught by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka. In Mahayana
Buddhism, the Buddha came to be worshiped with
POINTS TO PONDER
flowers, garments, perfumes, and lamps; also, image
Buddhism in India has always
worship and rituals developed.
been backed by great personalities.
' Kanishka also sent missionaries to Central Asia and Initially, it was backed by Buddha
China for the propagation of the new faith. himself, then by Ashoka, and then
by Kaniksha. A recent strand
' He patronized Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra,
of Buddhism has been heavily
Asvaghosha, and Nagarjuna. inspired by the Ambedkarite
* Asvagosha was a great philosopher, poet, and movement. Do you think Buddhism
dramatist. He was the author of Buddhacharita. has lost its ancient flavour
in present times, or its the
* Nagarjuna from South India adorned the court of reincarnation of the same
Kanishka. traditional Buddhist ideas?
* The famous physician of ancient India, Charaka, was
also patronized by him.
' Fourth Buddhist Council:
* Convened by Kanishka to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and doctrine.
* Held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar in Kashmir under the Presidency of
Vasumitra.
* The Council prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas, and the Mahayana
doctrine was given final shape.
Impact of Central Asian Contacts

' Structures and Pottery:
* The Saka-Kushan phase registered a distinct advance in building activities:
U Use of burnt bricks for flooring and tiles for both flooring and roofing.
U Construction of brick wells.
* The pottery was red ware, both plain and polished, with medium to fine fabric.
' Trade and Economy: The Sakas and Kushans did not have their own script, language, or
religion; they adopted these elements of culture from India. They became an integral part of
Indian society, to which they contributed considerably.
* They introduced better cavalry and the use of riding horses on a large scale. The Sakas
and the Kushans were excellent horsemen. Their passionate love for horsemanship
is attested by numerous equestrian terracotta figures of Kushan times discovered from
Bagram in Afghanistan.
* The Sakas and Kushans introduced turban, trousers, and heavy long coats. Even now,
the Afghans and Punjabis wear turbans, and the sherwani is a successor of the long coat.
* The Central Asians also brought in caps, helmets, and boots, which were used by warriors.
* The Kushans controlled the Silk Route, which started from China and passed through
their empire in Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran, and Western Asia, which formed part
80
of the Roman empire in the eastern Mediterranean zone. This route was a source of great
Post Mauryan Age

income for the Kushans, and they built a large, prosperous empire because of the tolls
levied from the traders.
' Polity:
* The Sakas and the Kushans imposed their rule on numerous petty native princes
through feudatory organization.
* The Sakas and the Kushans strengthened the idea of the divine of kingship. The Kushan
kings were called Sons of God.
* They also introduced the satrap system of government. The empire was divided into
numerous satrapies, and each satrapy was placed under the rule of a satrap.
* Some curious practices, such as hereditary dual rule, two kings ruling in the same
kingdom at one and the same time, were introduced.
' New Elements in Indian Society:
* The Greeks, the Sakas, the Parthians, and the Kushans; most of them came as conquerors
but got absorbed into Indian society as a warrior. In no other period of ancient Indian
history were foreigners assimilated into Indian society on such a large scale as they
were in post-Mauryan times.
* The lawgiver Manu stated that the Sakas and the Parthians were the Kshatriyas who
had fallen from their duties. In other words, they came to be considered as second-class
kshatriyas.
' Origin of Mahayana Buddhism:
* Buddhism in its original form was too puritanical and too abstract for foreigners who
wanted something concrete and intelligible.
* The invaders could not understand the existing philosophical doctrines of Buddhism.
* Characteristics of Mahayana Buddhism (or The Great Wheel):
U The image of the Buddha began to be worshiped.
U The doors of this sect were opened to all sections of the people.
U Those who did not subscribe to the newly founded sect came to be known as the followers
of the Hinayana or the Small Wheel.
U Kanishka became its greatest patron.
' Gandhara Art:
* The home of the Gandhara school of art is the territory in and around Peshawar in
northwestern India during the first and second centuries A.D.
* It originated during the reign of Indo-Greek rulers, but the real patrons of this school of art
were the Sakas and the Kushanas, particularly Kanishka.
* The Buddhist stupas erected during this period had a Graeco-Roman architectural
impact. The height of the stupa was raised, and ornamentation was added to the structure
of the stupa. These changes made the stupa more attractive.
* Features of Gandhara Art:
U Gandhara art was a blend of Indian and Graeco-Roman elements.
U Sculptures of the Buddha in various sizes, shapes, and postures.
U The reliefs depict Buddha’s birth, his renunciation, and his preaching.
U Molding the human body in a realistic manner with minute attention to physical
features like muscles, mustache, and curly hair.
U Thick drapery with large and bold fold lines.
81
Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation, and symbolic expressions.
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY U
U The main theme was the new form of Buddhism – Mahayanism – and the evolution of
an image of Buddha.
' Mathura School of Art:
* The school of art that developed at Mathura in modern Uttar Pradesh is called Mathura
art. It flourished in the first century A.D.
* The Mathura school of art developed on indigenous lines.
* Features of Mathura Art:
U The Buddha images exhibit the spiritual feeling on his face, which was largely absent
in the Gandhara school.
U Mathura school also carved out the images of Shiva and Vishnu along with their
consorts Parvathi and Lakshmi; also, the female figures of yakshinis and apsaras were
beautifully carved.
* During the same period, beautiful works of art at several places South of the Vindhyas
were noticed. In Andhra Pradesh, Nagarjuna Konda and Amaravati became great centers
of Buddhist art.
' Literature and Learning:
* The foreign princes patronized and cultivated Sanskrit literature, and inscriptions began
to be composed in chaste Sanskrit, although the use of Prakrit in composing inscriptions
continued till the fourth century A.D. and even later.
* The earliest specimen of the kavya style is found in the inscription of Rudradaman in
Kathiawar in about A.D. 150.
* Asvaghosha enjoyed the patronage of the Kushans. He wrote the Buddhacharita, the
biography of the Buddha, and composed Saundarananda, which is a fine example of
Sanskrit kavya.
* The progress of Mahayana Buddhism led to the composition of numerous avadanas, which
were composed in Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit. Some of the important books of this genre
were the Mahavastu and the Divyavadana.
* The foreigners also contributed to the development of the Indian theater by introducing
the use of the curtain. Since the curtain was borrowed from the Greeks, it came to be
known as Yavanika.
Indo-Greek coins Kushana coins
' Science and Technology:

* Indian astrology came to be influenced by Greek ideas, and from the Greek term horoscope,
the term horasastra used for astrology in Sanskrit.
82
* Charaka and Susruta dealt with medicine, botany, and chemistry subjects. In Charaka
Post Mauryan Age

Samhita, names of numerous plants and herbs from which drugs are to be prepared for
the use of patients were recorded.
* The practice of making leather shoes began in India during this period.
* Working in glass during this period was especially influenced by foreign ideas and
practices. In no other period in India did glassmaking make such progress as it did during
this period.
Aftermath of the Mauryan Empire

After the death of Asoka, his successors were not able to keep the vast Mauryan Empire intact. The
provinces started declaring their independence. Northwest India slipped out of the control of the
Mauryas, and a series of foreign invasions affected this region. Kalinga declared its independence,
and in the further South, the Satavahanas established their independent rule. As a result, the
Mauryan rule was confined to the Gangetic Valley, and it was soon replaced by the Sunga
dynasty.
Sunga Dynasty
' The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the commander-in-chief
under the Mauryas. He assassinated the last Mauryan ruler and usurped the throne.
' Pushyamitra Sunga:
* The most important challenge to the Sunga rule was to protect North India against the
invasions of the Bactrian Greeks from the northwest; however, Pushyamitra succeeded
in regaining the lost territory.
* He also fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga, who invaded North India.
* Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. He performed two Ashvamedha
sacrifices.
* During his reign, the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and
further improved.
The rule of the Sungas was important because they defended the Gangetic Valley from foreign
invasions. In the cultural sphere, the Sungas revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice. They also
promoted the growth of Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language. In short, the Sunga rule was a
brilliant anticipation of the golden age of the Guptas.
Satavahanas
The most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and in central India
were the Satavahanas. They set up their power in the upper Godavari valley, which at present
produces rich and diverse crops in Maharashtra. Gradually the Satavahanas extended their power
over Karnataka and Andhra; their greatest competitors were the Sakas, who had established their
power in the upper Deccan and western India.
' In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of the
Mauryas. Their rule lasted for about 450 years. They were also known as the Andhras.
' Sources:
* The Puranas and inscriptions remain important sources for the history of Satavahanas.
* Among the inscriptions, the Nasik and Nanaghad inscriptions throw much light on the
reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni.
* The coins issued by the Satavahanas are also helpful in knowing the economic conditions
of that period.
83
' The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. He was succeeded by Krishna, who
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY extended the kingdom up to Nasik in the West. The third king was Sri Satakarni, who conquered
western Malwa and Berar.
Gautamiputra Satakarni
± The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty; ruled for a period of 24 years from 106 to 130 A.D.
± His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his mother, Gautami Balasri.
± Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole of Deccan and expanded his empire. His victory over
Nagapana, the ruler of Malwa, was remarkable.
± He extended the Satavahana power up to the mouth of the Krishna River.
± He patronized Brahmanism. Yet, he also gave donations to Buddhists.
± He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed. They reveal the naval power and
maritime trade of the Satavahanas.
Aspects of Material Culture:

' The material culture of the Deccan under the Satavahanas was a fusion of local elements and
northern ingredients.
' There was not much change in the form of the hoes from megalithic to the Satavahana phase.
Only hoes were now fully and properly socketed.
Figure 7.1: The Satavahana Empire
84
' At a site in Karimnagar district, even a blacksmith’s shop has been discovered. Satavahanas
Post Mauryan Age

may have exploited the iron ores of Karimnagar and Warangal; also, evidence of ancient gold
workings has been found in the Kolar fields.
' The Satavahanas may have used gold as bullion, for they did not issue gold coins as the
Kushans did; they issued mostly lead coins, which are found in the Deccan. They also issued
potin, copper, and bronze money.
' The people of the Deccan knew the art of paddy transplantation, and in the first two centuries,
the area between the Krishna and the Godavari, especially at the mouths of the two rivers,
formed a great rice bowl. The people of the Deccan also produced cotton.
' Through contact with the north, the people of the Deccan learnt the use of coins, burnt
bricks, ringwells, etc. which facilitated them in thick habitations. We also found covered
drains underground to lead wastewater into soakage pits.
Economic Conditions
' There was remarkable progress in the fields of trade and industry during the Satavahana
rule.
' Merchants organized guilds to increase their activities. The craft guilds organized by different
craftsmen such as potters, weavers, and oil pressers, also came into existence.
' Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade.
' The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas commercial activity. As Ptolemy mentions
many ports in the Deccan, the greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west
Deccan. Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports.
Social Order
' The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism as they built chaityas and viharas; they also made
grants of villages and lands to Buddhist monks.
' Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with the performance of Ashvamedha and
Raja suya sacrifices.
' Satavahanas were brahmanized, and their most famous king Gautamiputra Satakarni claims
to have established the four-fold varna system, which had fallen into disorder.
' According to the Dharmasastras, it was the function of the Kshatriyas to rule, but the
Satavahana called themselves Brahmanas, which shows that the Andhras were a tribal people
who were brought within the fold of Hindu society as a mixed caste.
' Increasing craft and commerce in this period brought many merchants and artisans to the
forefront. Merchants took pride in naming themselves after the towns to which they belonged.
' Satavahanas show traces of a matrilineal social structure; it was customary for their king to
be named after his mother. Names such as Gautamiputra and Vasisthlputra indicate that in
their society, mothers enjoyed a great deal of Importance.
Pattern of Administration
' The Satavahana rulers strove for the royal ideal set forth in the Dharmasastras. The king
was represented as the upholder of dharma.
' The Satavahana king is represented as possessing the qualities of ancient gods such as
Rama, Bhima, Kesava, Arjuna, etc. He is compared in prowess and luster to these legendary
figures and to supernatural forces.
' The Satavahanas kept some of the administrative units found in Asokan times; for example,
the district was called ahara, and officials were known as amatyas and mahamatras.
85
' Certain military and feudal elements in the administration:
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY * Senapati was appointed as provincial governor.
* Administration in the rural areas was placed in the hands of Gaulmika, who was the head
of a military regiment.
* Kataka and Skandhavaras were military camps and settlements that served as
administrative centers so long as the king was there. Thus, coercion played an important
part in the Satavahana administration.
' The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to Brahmanas and
Buddhist monks.
' The Satavahana kingdom had three grades of feudatories:
* The highest grade was formed by the king, who was called raja and who had the right to
strike coins.
* The second grade was formed by the Mahabhoja and the third grade by the Senapati.
Architecture
' In the Satavahana phase, many temples and monasteries were cut out of the solid rock in
the north-western Deccan or Maharashtra.
' The two common structures were the temple which was called chaitya, and the monastery,
which was called vihara.
* The chaitya was a large hall with a number of POINTS TO PONDER
The post-Mauryan period saw
columns, and the vihara consisted of a central hall
the rise of kingdoms of migrants
entered by a doorway from a verandah in front. in the Indian subcontinent. Both
* The viharas or monasteries were excavated near the before and after this era, we
chaityas for the residence of monks in the rainy season. find strong indigenous empires.
Similar patterns can be seen in the
' The chaitya of Karle in the western Deccan, is an Medieval Period. What, according
impressive specimen of massive rock architecture. to you, are the reasons for
' The Krishna-Godavari region was famous for independent alternate rules of indigenous
rulers and rulers with foreign
Buddhist structures; of which stupas at Amaravati and
backgrounds?
Nagarjunakonda are well renowned.

86
8 Gupta Period
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapters 9 and 10 - Class VI
(Our Past-I) and Chapters 2 and 3 - Class XII (Themes in India History-I).
Introduction
After the breakup of the Mauryan empire, the Satvahanas, and the Kushans emerged as two large
political powers. The Gupta Empire established its sway over a good part of the former dominions
of both the Kushans and Satavahanas. Although the Gupta empire was not as large as the Maurya
empire, it kept North India politically united for more than a century from 355 A.D. to 455 A.D.
Geographical Extent of the Gupta Empire

' The original kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar at the end of the third
century A.D.
Figure 8.1: Extent of Gupta Empire

' Uttar Pradesh as the Centre of Power:
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY * Early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in UP.
* Prayag was the place from where the Guptas operated and fanned out in different directions.
* The Guptas set up their rule over Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Prayag (modern
Allahabad), Saketa (modern Ayodhya) and Magadha.
Important Gupta Rulers

' Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty (but Chandragupta Maurya is credited with
expanding the empire). He founded this dynasty in 275 AD and ruled till 300 AD.
' The Gupta period is called the Golden Age in the History of Ancient India due to their
contribution to the field of art and literature.
Sri Gupta Ghatotkach Chandragupta I Samudragupta Chandragupts II

(275-300 CE) (300-320 CE) (320-335 CE) (235-380 CE) (380-412 CE)
Chandragupta I (320 AD – 335 AD)

' He was the first important king of the Gupta dynasty.
' He married a Lichchhavi princess, most probably from Nepal, which strengthened his position.
' The Guptas were probably Vaishyas, and hence marriage into a Kshatriya family lent them
prestige.
Samudragupta (335 AD – 380 AD)
' Samudragupta enlarged the Gupta dynasty enormously.
' He was the opposite of Ashoka. Ashoka
believed in a policy of peace and non- Prashastis
aggression, but Samudragupta delighted ± Prashasti is a Sanskrit word meaning ‘in praise
in violence and conquest. of.’ Prashastis are long inscriptions, written in
praise of the kings. From the time of the Guptas,
' Titles: Chandragupta, Samudragupta’s
Prashastis became very important.
father, was the first ruler of the Gupta
± Most Prashastis also mention the ancestors of
dynasty who adopted the grand title of
the ruler. For example, there is one Prashasti
Maharaj-Adhiraj. This title was also that mentions Samudragupta’s great-grandfather,
used by Samudragupta. grandfather, father, and mother.
' Court Poet: His court poet was ± Prashasti of Samudragupta: Samudragupta was
Harisena, who also authored Allahabad a famous ruler of the Gupta dynasty. Allahabad
Pillar Inscription. Pillar Inscription (the same pillar that carries
the inscriptions of the peace-loving Ashoka)
' The places and the countries conquered is a Prashasti on Samudragupta’s military
by Samudragupta can be divided into achievements. The poem was composed in Sanskrit
five groups: by the court poet, Harishena. The poet praised the
King as a warrior and equal to God.
* Group One: It includes the princes of
± The Prashasti described four different kinds
the Ganga-Yamuna doab who were
of rulers and Samudragupta’s policies towards
defeated and whose kingdoms were them. These are the rulers of Aryavarta, the
incorporated into the Gupta empire. rulers of Dakshinapatha, Neighbouring states like
Assam, Coastal Bengal and States ruled by the
* Group Two: It includes the rulers of
descendants of the Kushanas.
the eastern Himalayan states and of
88
some frontier states such as Nepal, Assam, and Bengal, which were made to feel the weight
Gupta Period
of Samudragupta’s arms. It also covers some republics of Punjab.
* Group Three: It includes the forest kingdoms situated in the Vindhya region and known as
Atavika Rajya, which was brought under the control of Samudragupta.
* Group Four: It includes twelve rulers of the eastern Deccan and South India who were
conquered and liberated. Samudragupta’s arms reached as far as Kanchi in Tamil Nadu,
where the Pallavas were compelled to recognize his suzerainty.
* Group Five: It includes the names of the Shakas and Kushans, some of them ruling in
Afghanistan. It is said that Samudragupta swept them out of power and received the
submission of the rulers of distant lands.
' Foreign Relations:
* According to a Chinese source, Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a missionary to
Samudragupta for permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya. This was granted, and
the temple developed into a huge monastic establishment.
* According to the eulogistic inscription from Allahabad, Samudragupta never knew any
defeat, and in this sense, he is called the ‘Napoleon of India.’
' There is no doubt that Samudragupta forcibly unified the greater part of India under him, and
his power was felt in a much larger area.
Chandragupta II (380 AD – 412 AD)
' Expansion of Empire: The reign of Chandragupta II saw
the high watermark of the Gupta empire. He extended the
limits of the empire by marriage alliance, and conquest.
* By Means of Matrimonial Alliance: Chandragupta
II got his daughter Prabhavati married to a Vakataka
prince who belonged to Brahmana caste and ruled in
central India. Chandragupta exercised indirect control
over the Vakataka kingdom in central India.
* By Means of Conquest: He was able to conquer
western Malwa and Gujarat, which was under the
control of Saka for four centuries. This conquest gave
Chandragupta control over the western sea coast, Figure 8.2: Iron Pillar Inscription
famous for trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its chief
city Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital by Chandragupta II.
' The exploits of a king called Chandra are glorified in an Iron Pillar inscription fixed near
Qutub Minar in Delhi. He established
Social Religious
Gupta authority in north-western India
developments developments
and in a good portion of Bengal.
' Title: Chandragupta II adopted the title
of Vikramaditya, which had been first Dimension Art &
Science &
used by a Ujjain ruler in 57 BC as a mark of Gupta arohitecture
technological
of victory over the Shaka Kshatrapas of
development period
western India.
' Court Poet: The court of Chandragupta Economic
II was adorned by numerous scholars, Administrative
Developments
including Kalidasa and Amarasimha. system
89
' Foreign Travellers: It was in Chandragupta’s II reign that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY (399 AD - 414 AD) visited India and wrote an elaborate account of the life of its people.
Administrative System During the Gupta Period

' The Gupta kings adopted pompous titles such as Parameshvara, Maharajadhiraja and Parama
Bhattaraka, which signify that they ruled over many lesser kings in their empire. This was in
contrast to the Maurya rulers.
' Kingship was hereditary, but royal power was limited by the absence of a firm adherence to
primogeniture. The throne did not always go to the eldest son.
Military Strength
' The king maintained a large standing army, which was supplemented by the forces occasionally
provided by the feudatories.
' Cavalry came to the forefront and chariots receded into the background.
' Horse archery became prominent in military tactics.
Land Reforms
' Taxes: During the Gupta period, land taxes increased in number, and those on trade and
commerce decreased. Taxes generally ranged between one fourth to one sixth of the
produce.
' Forced labour: In central and western India, the villagers were also subjected to forced labour
called Vishti by the royal army and officials.
Judicial System
' Better than others: The judicial system was far more developed under the Guptas than in
earlier times.
' Several law books were compiled in this period.
' Demarcation of law: For the first time, civil and criminal law were clearly defined and
demarcated.
* Criminal Law: Theft and adultery came under criminal law.
* Civil Law: Disputes regarding various types of property came under civil law.
* Elaborate laws were laid down about inheritance. POINTS TO PONDER
' During this period also, many laws continued to be based The Guild system seems to be well
on differences in varnas. developed in the Gupta age. Can
' The king was the Final Judge: It was the duty of the you think of the advantages offered
king to uphold the law. The king tried cases with the help to its participants? Was it purely
of Brahmana priests. economic, or did it have social
' Guilds Development: The guilds of artisans, merchants, status, judicial powers, and
and others were governed by their own laws. Seals from policing functions attached
Vaishali and from Bhita near Allahabad indicate that to it?
these guilds flourished exceedingly well in Gupta times.
Bureaucratic System
' The Gupta bureaucracy was not as elaborate as that of the Mauryas.
' The most important officers in the Gupta empire were the Kumaramatyas.
' Since the Guptas were possibly Vaishyas, recruitment was not confined to the upper varnas
only.
90
Administrative Division of Gupta Empire
Gupta Period
' The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration. The empire was divided
into divisions (bhuktis), and each bhukti was placed under the charge of a uparika.
Bhukti Vishayas Vlthls

Rajya Agrahara/Patta
(Division) (District) (Units)
Administrative Division of Gupta Empire

' The bhuktis were divided into districts (vishayas), which were placed under the charge of
vishayapati.
' In eastern India, the vishayas were divided into vithis which again were divided into villages.
* Village Administration:
U The village headman became more important in Gupta times. He managed the village
affairs with the assistance of elders.
U With the administration of a village or a small town leading local elements were
associated. No land transactions could be affected without their consent.
* Urban Administration:
U Urban administration body was well organized professional bodies.
U The seals from Vaisali show that artisans, merchants, and scribes served in the same
corporate body, and in this capacity, they obviously conducted the affairs of the towns.
U Besides this common organization, artisans and bankers were organized into their own
separate guilds.
* Guild Administration:
U Separate guilds for each profession, like artisans, traders, silk weavers, and oil
pressers.
U These guilds, especially those of merchants, enjoyed certain immunities. In any case,
they could look after the affairs of their own members and punish those who violated
the customs and laws of the guild.
' The system of administration described above applied only to North Bengal, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, and some adjoining areas of Madhya Pradesh, which were ruled directly by the officers
appointed by the Gupta kings.
' A major part of the empire was held by feudatory chiefs, many of whom had been subjugated
by Samudragupta.
Feudal System
' Charters for ruling in the areas:
* The vassals who lived on the fringe of the empire carried out three obligations.
U First offered homage to the sovereign by personal attendance at his court,
U Second paid tribute to him and
U Third presented his daughters in marriage.
* In return for these, they obtained charters for ruling in the areas. The charters marked with
the royal Garuda seal seem to have been issued to the vassals.
* The Guptas thus had several tributary princes in Madhya Pradesh and elsewhere. The
subordinate position of the princes turned them into feudal vassals.
91
' Grant of fiscal and administrative concessions:
* This was the second important feudal development which was granted to priests and
administrators.
* This practice was started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas. The practice became a regular
affair in Gupta times, particularly in Madhya Pradesh.
* Religious functionaries were granted land, free of tax forever, and they were authorized to
collect from the peasants all the taxes which could have otherwise gone to the emperor.
* The villages granted to the beneficiaries could not be entered by royal agents, retainers, etc.
The beneficiaries were also empowered to punish the criminals.
' Officials were paid in cash and land grants:
* Whether state officials were paid by grants of land in Gupta times is not clear. The abundance
of gold coins suggests that higher officials were paid in cash. But many officers may have
been paid by land grants.
' Small number of officials:
* Much of the imperial administration was managed by feudatories and beneficiaries.
* The participation of leading artisans, merchants, elders, etc., in rural and urban
administration also reduced the need for large officials.
* The Guptas neither needed nor possessed the elaborate administrative machinery of Maurya
times and in several ways, their political system appears to be feudal.
Economic Development During the Gupta Period

' Fa-Hsien, who visited different parts of the Gupta empire, threw some light on the economic
life of the people of Gupta times. He told that Magadha was full of cities, and its rich people
supported Buddhism and gave to charities. This caused huge investment to the pocket of the
exchequer.
' Decline in foreign trade:
* Passing the art of silk growing to Europeans: Till A.D. 550, India carried on some trade
with the Eastern Roman Empire, to which it exported silk. Around A.D. 550, the people of
the Eastern Roman Empire learnt the art of growing silk from the Chinese. This adversely
affected the export trade of India.
* Decline in demand for Indian silk: Even before the middle of the sixth century AD, the
demand for Indian silk abroad had slackened.
* Giving up work by silk weavers: In the middle of the fifth century, a guild of silk weavers
left their original home in western India i.e., Lata (Gujarat), and migrated to Mandsaur,
where they gave up their original occupation and took to other professions.
' Emergence of priestly landlords at the cost of local peasants:
* Land grants made to the priests certainly brought many virgin areas under cultivation. But
these beneficiaries were imposed from above on the local tribal peasants, who were reduced
to a lower status.
* In central and western India, the peasants were also subjected to forced labour.
92
Social Development During the Gupta Period
Gupta Period
Position of Brahamans
BRAHMINS
' Brahamans were still superior as Priests
they received large land grants. KSHATRIYAS
' The Guptas, who were originally Warriors and rulers
vaisyas, came to be looked upon as VAISYAS
Kshatriyas by the Brahmanas. Skilled traders, merchants,
and minor officials
' The Brahmanas represented the SUDRAS
Gupta kings as possessing the Unskilled workers
attributes of gods, and the Gupta PARIAH
Outcastes, “Untouchables”
princes became great supporters of
“Children of God”
the Brahmanical order.
Figure 8.3: Position of Brahamanas
' The Brahmanas accumulated wealth
on account of numerous land grants.
So, they claimed many privileges, which are listed in the law book of Narada.
Caste and Sub-caste
' The castes proliferated into numerous sub-castes as a result of two factors:
* Large number of foreigners had been assimilated into Indian society, and each group of
foreigners was considered a kind of Hindu caste. Since the foreigners mainly came as
conquerors, they were given the status of the Kshatriya in society. For example, the Hunas,
who appeared in India towards the close of the fifth century, ultimately came to be recognized
as one of the thirty-six clans of the Rajputs.
* The other reason for the increase in the number of castes was the absorption of many tribal
peoples into Brahmanical society by way of land grants.
' The ruling chiefs of the tribes were ascribed a respectable origin. But most of the rest of the
tribal people were given a low origin.
Position of Sudra and Women
' The position of sudras and women improved in this period.
' They were now permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas.
' They could also worship a new god called Krishna.

' From the seventh century onwards,
the sudras were mainly represented as Chandalas
agriculturists; in the earlier period, they Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien informs us that the
always appeared as servants, slaves, chandalas lived outside the village and dealt in meat
and agricultural labourers working for and flesh. Whenever they entered the town, the upper
caste people kept themselves at a distance from them
the three higher varnas. But during this
because the road was supposed to have been polluted
period, the untouchables increased in by them.
number, especially the chandalas.
93
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Religious Developments During the Gupta Period
Status of Buddhism
' Buddhism no longer received royal patronage in the Gupta period.
' Fa-Hsien gives the impression that this religion was in a very flourishing state.
But really, Buddhism was not so important in the Gupta period as it was in the Figure 8.4:
days of Asoka and Kanishka. Image of
Buddha from
' Especially, it suffered in Magadha.
Sarnath
Status of Brahmanism
' Brahmanism had come to the forefront. The two gods
who commanded the worship of their followers were
Vishnu and Shiva.
' Vishnu: He emerged as the god of devotion and
came to be represented as the saviour of the Varna
system. A whole Purana called the Vishnupurana
was compiled in his honour.
* A law book called the Vishnusmriti was also
named after Vishnu. By the fourth century A.D.,
there appeared the famous Vaishnava work
Bhagavad Gita, which taught devotion to Lord
Krishna and stressed the performance of the
functions assigned to each varna.
' Shiva: A few Gupta kings even worshipped Shiva,
the god of destruction. He came in the front rank at
a later stage and was not as important as Vishnu in
the early phase of the Gupta rule.
' Idol worship in the temples became a common
feature of Hinduism from the Gupta period.
' The Gupta kings followed a Policy of Tolerance Figure 8.5: Nara Narayana from Deogarh
towards the different religious sects.
Art and Architecture During the Gupta Period

' The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of Ancient India.
Princes and richer people could divert a part of their income
for the support of those who were engaged in art and literature.
' Both Samudragupta and Chandragupta were patrons of art
and literature. Samudragupta was represented on his coins
playing the lute (vina) and Chandragupta II is credited with
maintaining in his court nine luminaries or great scholars.
' Numerous images of the Buddha were fashioned. A two-meter-
high bronze image of the Buddha at Sultanganj in Bhagalpur.
Figure 8.6: Temple at Sanchi
Fa-hsien saw an over 25-metre-high image of the Buddha built during Gupta Period
made of copper, but it is not traceable now.
94
Gupta Period
POINTS TO PONDER
The Gupta Age is often referred
to as the Golden Age of Indian
History. We saw unprecedented
progress in the intellectual,
literary, art, mathematics and
science, astronomy, etc. during
this period. However, several
social evils seem to have crept into
society. Do you think it is a sign
of cultural lag or there were
other factors which led to the
social backwardness?

Figure 8.7: Brick Temple at Bhitargaon
Paintings
' Beautiful images of the Buddha were made at Sarnath and Mathura.
' Since the Guptas were supporters of Brahmanism, for the first time, we get images of Vishnu,
Siva, and some other Hindu gods in the Gupta period.
' The chief god appears in the middle, and his retainers and subordinates appear on the same
panel all around him. This represents a clear social distinction and hierarchy.
Painting at Ajanta
± It is the greatest specimen of Buddhist art of the Gupta times.
± They depict various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and the previous
Buddhas.
± These paintings are lifelike and natural.
± They are marked by the brilliance of their colors, which have not faded even
after 14 centuries or so.
Architecture
' The Gupta period was poor in architecture.
' The Buddhist university at Nalanda was set up in the fifth century, and
its earliest structure, made of brick, belongs to this period.
Coins
' Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers.
These coins facilitated long-distance transactions from which kings also
benefited.
Figure 8.8: Gold
' From the sixth century CE onwards, finds of gold coins taper off. Coins of Gupta
Period
95
Literature
' Secular literature: The Gupta period is remarkable for the production of secular literature. 13
plays written by Bhasa also belonged to this period. Kalidasa wrote Abkhijnanasakuntalam,
which was one of the earliest Indian works to be translated into European languages.
' Plays: Two things can be noted about the plays; first, these are all comedies and no tragedies,
and secondly, characters of the higher and lower classes do not speak the same language
(women and sudras featured in these plays use Prakrit)
' Religious literature: The two great epics, namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were
finally compiled probably in the fourth century AD.
' The Puranas follow the lines of the epics; they are full of myths, legends, sermons, etc., which
were meant for the education and edification of the common people.
' Other Literary Work:
* The Gupta period also saw the compilation of various Smritis, or law books written in
verse. The phase of writing commentaries on the Smritis began after the Gupta period.
* The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and
Patanjali.
* This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosa by Amarasimha,
who was a luminary in the court of Chandragupta II.
' On the whole, the Gupta period was a bright phase in the history of classical literature. It
developed an ornate style, which was different from the old simple Sanskrit. There is no doubt
that Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas.
Science and Technology
' Mathematics:
* Aryabhatta, who belonged to Pataliputra, wrote Aryabhatiya. He was also well-versed in
various kinds of calculations.
* A Gupta inscription of 448 A.D. Iron Pillar in Delhi
from Allahabad district suggests ± In the case of iron objects, the best
that the Decimal system was example is the iron pillar found at
known in India at the beginning Delhi near Mehrauli.
of the fifth century AD. ± It was manufactured in the fourth
century A.D., the pillar has not
' Astronomy: A book called Romaka gathered any rust in the subsequent
Siddhanta was compiled, which was 15 centuries, which is a great tribute
influenced by Greek ideas. to the technological skill of the
' Metallurgy: craftsmen.
* The Gupta craftsmen distinguished ± It was impossible to produce such a
pillar in any iron foundry in the West
themselves by their work in iron until about a century ago.
and bronze. ± It is a pity that the later craftsmen
* There are several bronze images could not develop this knowledge
of the Buddha, which began to be further.
produced on a considerable scale
because of the knowledge of advanced iron technology.
Reasons for the Decline of the Gupta Empire
' Invasion by Hunas: The successors of Chandragupta II had to face an invasion by the Hunas
(who excelled in horsemanship and who possibly used stirrups made of metal) from Central
Asia in the second half of the fifth century A.D.
96
' Rise of Feudatories: The Gupta empire was further undermined by the rise of the feudatories.
Gupta Period
The governors appointed by the Gupta kings in north Bengal and their feudatories in Samatata
or south-east Bengal tended to become independent.
' Loss of Trade: The loss of western India, which seems to have been complete by the end of the
fifth century, must have deprived the Guptas of the rich revenues from trade and commerce
and crippled them economically, and the princess of Thaneswar established their power in
Haryana and then gradually moved on to Kannauj.
' Large Professional Army: The Gupta state may have found it difficult to maintain a large
professional army on account of the growing practice of land grants for religious and other
purposes, which was bound to reduce their revenues.
' Decline in foreign trade: Their income may have further been affected by the decline of foreign
trade.
' Yasodharman of Malwa: The Malwa prince successfully challenged the authority of the Guptas
and set up, in 532 A.D., Pillars of Victory commemorating his conquest of almost the whole
of northern India.
' After the middle of the fifth century, the Gupta kings made desperate attempts to maintain
their gold currency by reducing the content of pure gold in it. But this proved to no avail.
' Although the rule of the imperial Guptas lingered till the middle of the sixth century A.D., the
imperial glory had ended a century earlier.
Conclusion
The Gupta Empire is considered the most important period of ancient India. The Golden Age witnessed
by India due to its contribution to art and architecture is still evident. It was unparalleled to other
dynasties, which showed improvement in the status of women and sudras, worship of idols, etc.
After the death of Chandragupta II, the successive rulers were not effective in expanding the Gupta
empire. The fall of the Gupta empire led to the emergence of numerous ruling dynasties in different
parts of northern India.
Glossary
± Dharmashastras: It is a collection of ancient Sanskrit texts that give the codes of conduct and moral
principles Dharma for Hindus.
± Maharajadhiraja: ‘Great king of kings,’ a prestigious indication of the princely state’s particularly high
rank.
± Doab: The area of land between two rivers that meet, such as the one between the Ganges and the
Yamuna in India.
± Suzerainty: The right of a country to partly control another.
± Primogeniture: The system in which only the eldest child, especially the eldest son, receives all the
property when their father dies.
± Feudatory: A person who holds lands by feudal tenure.
± Manusmriti: Also known as the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts
and constitutions among the many Dharmaśāstras of Hinduism.
± Luminaries: A person who inspires or influences others, especially one prominent in a particular sphere.
± Ornate: Covered with a lot of small, complicated designs as decoration.
± Lexicon: All the words and phrases used in a particular language or subject; all the words and phrases
used and known by a particular person or group of people.

97
9 Post Gupta Period
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter 9- VI NCERT (Our Past-I) and
Chapter 3- XII NCERT (Themes in Indian History -I)
Introduction
The Guptas, with their seat of power in UP and Bihar, ruled over north and western India for about
160 years until the mid-sixth century. Then north India again splits up into several kingdoms. The
white Hunas established their supremacy over Kashmir, Punjab, and western India from about
AD 500 onwards. North and western India passed under the control of about half a dozen feudatories
who parcelled out the Gupta empire among themselves. Gradually one of these dynasties ruling at
Thanesar in Haryana extended its authority over all the other feudatories. The ruler who brought
this was Harshavardhana (AD 606 - 647).
Post Gupta Dynasties
Ikshvakus Harsha
Pallavas Chalukyas
Kadamba Vakataka
Ganga
Harshavardhan (606 - 647 AD)
Kannauj as the Seat of Power:

± The city of Kannauj, situated in the Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh, shot up to political
prominence from the second half of the sixth century.
± Its emergence as a centre of political power from Harsha onwards typifies the advent of the feudal age in
north India, just as Pataliputra largely represents the pre-feudal order.
± It was located right in the middle of the doab and was well-fortified in the seventh century. So, to exercise
control over both the eastern and western wings of the doab. Soldiers could be moved by both land and
water routes.
Post Gupta Period
Figure 9.1: Geographical Extent of Harsha’s Empire
Geographical Extent of the Harsha’s Empire:

' Seat of power: Harsha made Kannauj the seat of his power.
' Rule in North India: Harsha is called the last great Hindu emperor of North India, but this
is only partly true. He established his hold practically over the whole of north India except
Kashmir. Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Orissa were under his direct control,
but his sphere of influence spread over a much wider area.
' Southward extent: In the South, Harsha’s march was stopped on the Narmada River by the
Chalukyan king Pulakesin, who ruled over a great part of modern Karnataka and Maharashtra
with his capital in Badami in the modern Bijapur district of Karnataka.
Hsuan Tsang
± He was a Chinese pilgrim who came to India in 629 A.D. to study at the Buddhist University of
Nalanda. He stayed in India for 15 years and returned in 645 AD.
± He describes Harsha’s court and life in those days, and this account is richer and more reliable than
that of Fa Hsien. It sheds light on the social and economic life as well as the religious sects of the
period.
± The Chinese account shows that Pataliputra was in a state of decline, as was Vaishali. On the other
hand, Prayag and Kanauj in the doab had become important.
99
Administrative System
' Feudal System: His administration was feudal and decentralized. Ministers and high officers
of the state were endowed with land. The feudal practice of rewarding and paying officers
with grants of land seems to have begun under Harsha.
' Land Grant: Land grants continued to be made to priests for special services rendered to the
state. In addition, Harsha is credited with the grant of land to the officers by charters.
' Division of Revenue: The Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang informs us that Harsha’s revenue was
divided into four parts as for the expenditure of the king; for scholars; for officials and public
servants; for religious purposes.
' Military Power: Harsha’s military strength was a result of collaboration with his feudatories,
who provided both soldiers and horses, allowing him to maintain a vast and formidable army.
' Poor Law and Order: Law and order was not well maintained. Even the Chinese pilgrim
Hsuan Tsang, was robbed of his belongings. The robbery was considered to be a second
treason for which the right hand of the robber was amputated.
Social Development
' The Brahmans and Kshatriyas are reported to have led a simple life, but the nobles and
priests led a luxurious life.
' Hsuan Tsang calls the shudras as agriculturists, which is significant.
' Untouchables, such as scavengers and executioners, lived outside the village.
Religious Developments
' Harsha’s Religious Beliefs: Harsha followed a tolerant religious policy. A Shaiva in his early
years, he gradually became a great patron of Buddhism. As a devout Buddhist, he convened a
grand assembly at Kannauj to publicize the doctrines of Mahayana widely.
' Buddhism: The Buddhists were divided into 18 sects when the Hsuan Tsang was in India. The
old centres of Buddhism had fallen on bad days.
Literature
' Harshacharitra: Banabhatta gives us a flattering account of the early years of his patron in his
book Harshacharita in an ornate style.
' Plays: Harsha wrote three plays (Priyadarshika, Ratnavali, and Nagananda), and he rewarded
and patronized literary men.
Nalanda:
± It was the most famous, which maintained a great
Buddhist university meant for Buddhist monks. It is
said to have had as many as 10,000 students, all
monks.
± They were taught Buddhist philosophy at the
Mahayana school.
± In AD 670, another Chinese pilgrim, I-Tsing, visited
Nalanda, and he mentioned that only 3000 monks
lived there.
± The monastery at Nalanda was supported by the
revenues of 200 villages. Nalanda thus had a huge
monastic establishment during the reign of Harshavardhana.
100
Ikshvakus (225 - 340 AD)
Post Gupta Period

' After the decline of Satavahana in the eastern part of the peninsula, there arose the Ikshvakus
in the Krishna-Guntur region. They ruled from 225 AD to 340 AD.
' They seem to have been a local tribe who adopted the exalted name of the Ikshvakus to
demonstrate the antiquity of their lineage.
' They have left behind many monuments at the Nagarjuna Konda Dharani Kota.
' They started the practice of land grants in the Krishna-Guntur region, where several of their
copper plate charters have been discovered.
' The Ikshvakus were followed by the Pallavas.
Pallavas (275 - 897 AD)

' After the decline of Ikshvakus, the Pallava dynasty emerged as a powerful dynasty in South
India between 275 to 897 AD.
' The term Pallava means creeper and it is a Sanskrit version of the Tamil word tondai.
Geographical Extent of Pallavas
' The Pallavas were possibly a local tribe who established their authority in the Tondainadu, or
the land of creepers.
' The authority of the Pallavas extended over both southern Andhra and northern Tamil Nadu.
' They set up their capital at Kanchi, identical to modern Kanchipuram, which under them
became a town of temples and Vedic learning.
Figure 9.2: Pallava Empire in 645 A.D.
101
Important Pallava Rulers:
' Pallava king Simhavarman defeated the Ikshvaku king Rudrapurushadatta in 300 CE and
established Pallava rule in Coastal Andhra.
' Simhavarman: It is believed that Simhavarman (280- 335 CE) was the founder of this dynasty
and Sivaskandavarman who ruled probably about the beginning of the fourth century CE,
seems to have been the greatest of the early Pallavas.
' Simhavishnu: He defeated the Kalabhras and laid the foundation for the establishment of the
“Age of the Imperial Pallavas”.
' Mahendravarman I (590 – 630 CE): He was a versatile genius. The long-drawn Pallava-
Chalukya conflict began during his period.
' Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE):
* He had the title Mahamalla or Mamalla.
* He expedited to Sri Lanka, to reinstate the Sinhalese prince Manavarman.
* During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchi and noted that Buddhism
and Jainism flourished in the city besides Hinduism.
* Besides he was a great builder having constructed Mamallappuram and created the
Monolithic Rathas (Rock-cut Rathas) during his reign.
' Mahendravarman II (668 – 670 CE): He ruled for a very short period of two years since he was
killed by Chalukya king Vikramaditya I.
' Paramesvaravarman I (670 – 695 CE): He finally won a decisive victory over the Chalukyas
and their ally, the Gangas.
' Narasimhavarman II (695 – 722 CE): He had the title “Rajasimha”. He enjoyed a peaceful
reign and is credited with the construction of large and beautiful temples like the Shore temple
at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi.
' Nandivarman II (731 – 795 CE): He was a worshipper of Vishnu and a great patron of learning.
During his reign, several old temples were renovated, and new ones, like the Vaikuntaperumal
temple at Kanchi, were constructed.
Administrative System of Pallavas:
' It was a monarchy system. The title “Dharma-Maharaja” assumed by the kings shows that they
exercised their rule righteously.
' Division of state:
* The Pallava state was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was administered by officers
appointed by the king.
* The village was the basic unit of administration. There were different types of villages like
villages with inter-caste populations, Brahmadeya and Devadana existed during this period.
The village administration was run by various local autonomous assemblies.
' There were three types of villages in South India:
* Ur: It was the usual type of village, which was inhabited by peasant castes, who perhaps
held their land in common; it was the responsibility of the village headman to collect and
pay taxes on their behalf. These villages were mainly found in southern Tamil Nadu.
* Sabha: These villages consisted of Brahmadeya villages or those granted to the Brahmanas
and of Agrahara villages. The Brahmana owners enjoyed individual rights in the land but
also carried on their activities collectively.
102
* Nagaram: This type of village consisted of traders and merchants. This possibly happened
Post Gupta Period

because trade declined, and merchants moved to villages.
' Land revenue was the major source of income. Taxes were levied on professions, marriages,
the manufacture of salt, sugar, and textiles, draught cattle, etc.
Discontent of the Peasant and The Kalabhra Revolt:

± Resources were needed to carry out wars, cultivate art and literature, promote religion, and maintain the
administrative staff. These were apparently provided by the peasantry. Therefore, the peasants were
burdened.
± The Pallavas granted numerous villages free of taxes largely to the Brahmanas. There are as many as 16
land charters of the early Pallavas.
± As many as 18 kinds of immunities were granted to the Brahmanas in a Pallava grant of the fourth
century.
± The Brahmanas therefore emerged as an important class at the expense of the peasantry, from
whom they collected their dues directly and received gifts as a good portion of the taxes collected by the
king from his subjects.
± Thus, the situation seems to have proved oppressive, and eventually, it caused a revolt led by
the Kalabhras in the sixth century. The revolt affected the Pallavas as well as their neighbouring
contemporaries.
± The Kalabhras were called evil rulers who overthrew innumerable kings and established their hold on
the Tamil land. They put an end to the Brahmadeya Rights granted to the Brahmanas in numerous
villages.
± Significantly, the Kalabhras revolt could be put down only through the joint efforts of the Pandyas, the
Pallavas, and the Chalukyas of Badami.
± It is also said that the Kalabhras had imprisoned the Chola, the Pandya, and the Chera kings.
± The confederacy of the kings against the Kalabhras, who had revoked the land grants made to the
Brahmanas, shows that the revolt was directed against the existing social and political order in
south India.
Religion:
' Most of the Pallava kings were followers
of both Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
The Pallava kings assumed not only the
title “Dharma-Maharaja” but also the
champions of Vedic sacrifices like
Asvamedha and Vajapeya.
' This paved the way for the rise of the Vedic
religion. Besides the performance of Vedic
sacrifices, the worship of gods Brahma,
Vishnu, and Shiva became popular.
' From the 7th century onwards, the
Nayanars and Alvars contributed to the
growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This Figure 9.3: Ratha Temple at Mahabalipuram
is known as the Bhakti movement.
' As a result, Buddhism and Jainism lost the royal patronage and mass support though they
were still very active in the Pallava kingdom, which is evident from the testimony of Hieun
Tsang.
103
Literature
' The Pallavas were the great patrons of learning.
' University of Kanchi: It became the nucleus of learning and intellectualism. It attracted
students from different parts of India and abroad. The founder of the Kadamba dynasty,
Mayurasarman, studied Vedas at this university.
' Sanskrit Works: The Kiratarjuniyam of Bharavi, Dasakumaracharita of Dandi and the
Mattavilasaprahasana of Mahendravarman I were the best Sanskrit works of the period.
' Tamil Literature: Tiruvelluvar, the author of ‘kural’, lived during this period. Perundevanar
was patronized by Nandivarman II, and he translated Mahabharata into Tamil.
* The ‘Thevaram’ composed by the Nayanars and ‘Nalayaradivyaprabhandam’ composed
by the Alvars represent the religious literature of the period.
Art and Architecture
' The Pallava kings constructed a
number of stone temples in the
seventh and eighth centuries to house
these gods.
' The most famous of them are the seven
Ratha temples at Mahabalipuram.
These were built in the seventh century
by Narasimhavarman, who founded
the port city of Mahabalipuram or
Mamallapuram. Mahabalipuram is
also famous for the Shore temple.
' In addition, the Pallavas constructed
several such structural temples at
their capital Kanchi. For example, the Figure 9.4: Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram
Kailashnath temple was built in the
eighth century.
Mandaps Raths
Mahendravaram Narsimha Stage Rajsimha Stage Nandivarman Stage

Stage (eg. Draupadi Rath) (eg. Shore temple & (eg. Matagenswasa
mahabalipuram) temple Kanchipuram)
Development of Temple Architecture under Pallavas
Decline of Pallavas
' Attack by Several Kings: The beginning of the end of Pallava supremacy over South India
started after Vikramaditya II’s attack and the temporary occupation of Kanchi. Also, the
Pandyas, the Western Gangas, and the Rashtrakutas attacked the Pallava kingdom.
' Seizure of Kanchi: The Chola king Aditya I defeated Aparjitavarman and seized the Kanchi
region. With this, the Pallava domination over South India came to an end.
104
Post Gupta Period
Conflict between Pallavas and Chalukyas
± The long struggle for supremacy lasted from the 6th to 8th century AD between two to establish
supremacy over the land lying between Krishna and the Tungabhadra.
± The Pandyas, who were in control of the Madurai and Tinnevelly districts of Tamil Nadu, also joined the
struggle.
± Conquest of Pulakeshin II:
● The first important event in this long conflict took place during the reign of Pulakeshin II (AD 609 -
642), the most famous Chalukya king.
● He overthrew the Kadamba capital at Banavasi and compelled the Gangas of Mysore to acknowledge
his suzerainty.
● He also defeated Harsha’s army on the Narmada and checked his advance towards the Deccan.
● He even reached the Pallava capital to capture it, but the Pallavas purchased peace by ceding their
northern provinces to Pulakeshin II.
● Around AD 610, he also conquered the entire area between Krishna and Godavari, which came to
be known as the province of Vengi. Here, a branch of the main dynasty was set up and is known as
the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. However, Pulakeshin’s second invasion of Pallava territory failed.
± Retaliation of Pallavas:
● The Pallava king Narasimhavarman (AD 630 - 668) occupied the Chalukya capital at Vatapi in about
AD 642 and even killed Pulakesin II.
● Narasimhavarman assumed the title of Vatapikonda or the conqueror of Vatapi.
● He even defeated the Cholas, the Cheras, the Pandyas, and the Kalabhras.
± The Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (AD 733 - 745) overran Kanchi three times. In AD 740, he completely
routed the Pallavas. However, the Chalukyas hegemony was ended in AD 757 by the Rashtrakutas.
Kadambas (345 - 540 AD)

' The Kadamba kingdom was founded by Mayurasharman. It is said that he came to receive
education at Kanchi but was unceremoniously driven out. Due to this insult, the Kadamba
chief set up his camp in a forest and defeated the Pallavas, possibly with the help of the forest
tribes.
' Eventually, the Pallavas avenged the defeat but recognized the Kadamba authority by formally
investing Mayurasharman with the royal insignia.
' Mayurasharman is said to have performed eighteen Ashwamedha or horse sacrifices and
granted numerous villages to Brahmanas.
' The Kadambas established their capital at Vaijayanti or Banavasi in the north Kanara district
of Karnataka.
Gangas (250 - 1004 AD)

' The Gangas were another important contemporary dynasty of the Pallavas.
' They established their kingdom in southern Karnataka around the fourth century. Their
kingdom was situated between that of the Pallavas in the east and of the Kadambas in the
west.
105
' They are called the Western Gangas or Gangas of Mysore to differentiate them from the
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Eastern Gangas who ruled in Kalinga from the fifth century onwards.
' For most of the time, the Western Gangas were feudatories of the Pallavas. Their earliest capital
was located at Kolar, which may have helped the rise of this dynasty due to gold mines.
' The Western Gangas made land grants mostly to the Jainas.
Vakatakas (250 - 500 AD)

' Vakataka succeeded Satavahanas in northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha (Berar) in the
middle of the third century. The Vakatakas were Brahmanas.
' They were great champions of the Brahmanical religion and performed numerous Vedic
sacrifices.
' Their political history is of more importance to North India than to South India. Chandragupta
II got his daughter Prabhavati Gupta married to the Vakataka prince and, with its support,
succeeded in conquering Gujarat and the adjoining parts of western India from the Sakas in
the last quarter of the fourth century A.D.
' Culturally, Vakatakas kingdom became a channel for transmitting Brahmanical ideas and
social institutions to the south.
' The Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of Badami, who played an
important role in the history of the Deccan and south India for about two centuries.
Chalukyas (243 - 757 AD)

' The Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of Badami, who played an important
role in the history of the Deccan and south India for about two centuries until AD 757, when
they were overthrown by their feudatories, the Rashtrakutas.
' The Chalukyas claimed their descent from Brahma or Manu or the Moon. They boast
that their ancestors ruled at Ayodhya, but all this was done to claim legitimacy and
respectability.
Chalukya’s Prashasti
± The best-known Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin II. We know about him from a prashasti, composed
by his court poet Ravikirti.
± This tells us about his ancestors, who are traced back through four generations from father to son.
Pulakeshin evidently got the kingdom from his uncle.
± According to Ravikirti, he led expeditions along both the west and the east coasts. Besides, he checked
the advance of Harsha.
± Pulakeshin also attacked the Pallava king, who took shelter behind the walls of Kanchipuram.
106
Post Gupta Period
Figure 9.5: Chalukya Empire
Geographical Extent of the Chalukya Empire

' The Chalukyas set up their kingdom towards the beginning of the sixth century in the western
Deccan. They established their capital at Vatapi, modern Badami, in the district of Bijapur,
which forms a part of Karnataka.
' Later they branched into several independent ruling houses, but the main branch continued
to rule at Vatapi for two centuries.
Important Chalukya Rulers

Chalukyas of Badami
' Pulakesi I: He established the Chalukya dynasty in A.D. 550 and took Vatapi under his
control and made it his capital. They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of
Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan.
' Pulakesi II: He had been perhaps the greatest emperor of the Badami Chalukyas. Pulakesi II
extended the Chalukya empire up to the north extent of the Pallava kingdom and halted the
southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada.
107
' Vikramaditya I: The Chalukya empire recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire.
' Vikramaditya II: The empire reached a peak during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II.
' Eventually, the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga overthrew the last Badami Chalukya king
Kirtivarman I in 753.
Chalukyas of Kalyani:
' The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 C.E., after over 200 years of dormancy when the
Rashtrakutas dominated much of the Deccan.
' The reign of the Kalyani Chalukyas had been a Golden age in Kannada literature.
' Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi in 1000 C.E. (Bijapur district),
overthrew Karka II and re-established the Chalukyan kingdom, and recovered most of the
Chalukya empire.
' This dynasty came to be known as the Western Chalukya Dynasty or Later Chalukya dynasty.
' With the rise of the Hoysalas, Kakatiya and Seuna, the Western Chalukyas went into their final
dissolution in 1180 C.E.
Figure 9.6: Durga Temple, Aihole
Art and Architecture

' The period of the Badami Chalukya dynasty saw art flourish in South India. They erected
numerous temples at Aihole, from about AD 610. The work was continued in the adjacent
towns of Badami and Pattadakal. Pattadakal has ten temples built in the seventh and
eighth centuries. The most celebrated of which are the Papanatha temple (AD 680) and the
Virupaksha temple (AD 740).
' Durga Temple: It is an 8th-century Hindu temple, located POINTS TO PONDER
in Aihole. Originally dedicated to Surya, it has the most Starting from Chalukyas, we see
embellished and largest relief panels in Aihole depicting great temple building activity in the
plateau and deep south regions. What
artwork of Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism and
factors were responsible for
Vedic deities. Apart from its fine carvings, it is notable for temple architecture reaching
its apsidal plan – a rare example among early Chalukyan its zenith in these regions?
Hindu temple architecture.
108
Literature
Post Gupta Period

' The rule of the Chalukyas embodies a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu
languages.
' The three gems of Kannada literature, Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna, and Ranna belonged to
that period.
Administrative System of Chalukya

' Tax: The government levied taxes called Herjunka, Kirukula, Bilkode, and Pannaya.
' Division of Empire:
* The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), then into smaller Rashtrakas
(Mandala), Vishaya (district), and Bhoga (a group of ten villages).
* Groups of Mahajanas (learned Brahmins), looked after Agraharas (like Ghatika or place of
higher learning) like the ones at Badami (2000 mahajans) and Aihole (500 mahajanas).
' Army: The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephant corps, and a powerful navy. Rashtrakuta
inscriptions use the term Karnatabala referring to their powerful armies.
Religion:
' They initially followed Vedic Hinduism, as seen in the various temples dedicated to many
popular Hindu deities with Aihole
' Later, from the time of Vikramaditya I, the people took an inclination towards Shaivism, and
sects like Pashupata, Kapalikas, and Kalamukhas existed.
' They actively encouraged Jainism, attested to by one of the Badami cave temples and other
Jain temples in the Aihole complex.
Social Development During Chalukyas

' Society was dominated by princes and priests.
' The princes claimed the status of Brahmanas or Kshatriyas, though many of them were local
clan chiefs promoted to the second varna through benefactions made to the priests.
' The priests invented respectable family trees for these chiefs and traced their descent from
age-old solar and lunar dynasties. This process enabled the new rulers to acquire acceptability
in the eyes of the people.
' In this phase, the priest gained influence and authority because of land grants. Below the
princes and priests came the peasantry, which was
POINTS TO PONDER
divided into numerous castes. Possibly most of them were
There was a clear decline in the
called as sudras in the Brahmanical system.
quality of work in art, architecture,
' The title dharma-maharaja, therefore, is adopted by the and culture post the Gupta period,
Vakataka, Pallava, Kadamba, and Western Ganga kings. particularly in North India. We saw
The real founder of the Pallava power, Simhavarman, is the revival of a large kingdom later
on in the 13th Century AD. Do you
credited with coming to the rescue of dharma when it was
think the Political fragmentation was
beset with the evils typical of the Kaliyuga. one of the major reasons for
' Sati may have been absent as widows like Vinayavathi this? What might have been
and Vijayanka are mentioned in the records. the other factors responsible
for this?
' Devadasis appeared in temples.
109
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Conclusion
In the post-Gupta period, many kingdoms came into existence that were relatively smaller than the
Gupta empire. Except for Harsha, most of the kingdoms were small. This period saw a large number
of regional politics but a stable State structure. After the decline of these empires, the regional
powers consolidated themselves and played an important role in the history of subsequent periods.
Timeline Events
300 AD Pallava king Simhavarma defeated the Ikshvaku king Rudrapurushadatta and
established Pallava rule in Coastal Andhra.
550 AD Pulakesi I established the Chalukya dynasty and took Vatapi under his control, and
made it his capital.
629 AD Chinese pilgrim who came to India.
642 AD The Pallava king Narasimhavarman occupied the Chalukya capital at Vatapi and killed
Pulakesin II.
670 AD Chinese pilgrim, I-Tsing, visited Nalanda
753 AD Rashtrakuta Dantidurga overthrew the last Badami Chalukya king Kirtivarman I.
757 AD Chalukyas hegemony was ended by the Rashtrakutas.
Glossary
± Sovereignty: The power that a country has to control its government.
± Ornate: Covered with a lot of small, complicated designs as decoration.
± Patronage: The support, especially financial, that is given to a person or an organization by a patron.
± Exalted: To make somebody rise to a higher rank or position.
± Asvamedha: A ritual for Horse sacrifices.
± Vajapeya: The ritual consisted of a chariot race in which a royal chariot was made to win against all
kinsmen.
± Eulogy: A speech or piece of writing that says good things about somebody/something.
± Suzerainty: The right of a country to partly control another.
± Insignia: The symbol, sign, etc. that shows that somebody is a member of, or has a particular position
in, a group or an organization.
± Apsidal: In the form of or resembling an apse (a large semicircular or polygonal recess in a temple,
arched or with a domed roof and typically at the temple’s eastern end).

110
Sangam Age
10 and South Indian
Kingdoms
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapters 8 and 10 Class VI NCERT
(Our Pasts I) and XI History book of the Tamil Nadu Board.
Introduction
The Sangam Age in ancient India, roughly between 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE, was a
vibrant period of Tamil literature, art, and culture. This chapter delves into the rich poetry, trade
networks, and social life of this era, offering insights into the historical richness of Sangam age,
mainly focusing on political and socio-cultural aspects of three kingdoms of South India namely
Chola, Chera and Pandyas.
Evidences About Sangam Period

Numismatic Evidence
' Pre-Satavahana chieftains’ coins and those of the Satavahanas from Andhra-Karnataka, as
well as coins from the Cheras, Cholas,
Pandyas, and Sangam Age chieftains
provide info about Sangam period.
' Roman copper, silver, and gold
coins also provide insights into trade
connections.
Literary Sources
' Tamil Texts: Includes the Sangam
and post-Sangam literature, providing
cultural and historical information.
Kingdoms of Sangam Age
Cholas
Territory and Core Region of Cholas
' The Cholas established their dominance
in central and northern Tamil Nadu.
' Their primary area of rule was
the fertile Kaveri delta, known as Figure 10.1: South Indian Kingdoms
Cholamandalam.
' Uraiyur, located near Tiruchirapalli town, served as their capital.
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY ' Puhar or Kaviripattinam functioned as an alternate royal residence and a significant port
town.
' The tiger was their emblem.
Karikalan’s Reign and Achievements POINTS TO PONDER
The Sangam age in the Deep South
' Karikalan, the son of Ilanjetchenni, is celebrated as the exhibits features of an egalitarian
greatest Chola ruler of the Sangam age. society, particularly in the social
domain. The absence of caste and
' His military prowess was highlighted by his victory over other ethnic identities is clearly
the Cheras and Pandyas, with support from eleven Velir evident. However, in the same era,
chieftains at Venni. social differentiation persisted in
' Karikalan’s contributions included transforming forests other parts of India. Do you think
into habitable areas, promoting agriculture through the Sangam Region was culturally
aloof to the rest of India or absence
irrigation projects along the Kaveri, and constructing
of hierarchy can be attributed to
reservoirs. the absence of a centralised
' Kaviripattinam prospered as a bustling port under his state?
rule.
' Poet Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar’s composition,
Pattinappalai, vividly described the bustling trade
activity during Karikalan’s rule.
Other Notable Chola Kings
Karkanad
' Perunarkilli, another Chola king, is known for performing the Kongunad
Vedic sacrifice known as Rajasuyam.
' Succession Dispute: Following Karikalan’s death, a succession Ku- Chola
dispute emerged between the Puhar and Uraiyur branches of danad
Chera
the Chola royal family. Pandya
The Cholas, with their significant territorial control, thriving trade Venad
through Kaviripattinam, and the leadership of Karikalan, left an Najinad
indelible mark on the Sangam period, contributing to the region’s
Sangam Age
development and prosperity.
Cheras
Territory and Capital
' The Cheras exercised their control over central and northern regions of Kerala and the
Kongu region in Tamil Nadu.
' Their capital was Vanji, which is often identified with Karur, while some scholars suggest it
might be Thiruvanchikulam in Kerala.
' Scholars generally agree that there were two main branches of the Chera family in which the
Poraiya branch ruled from Karur in present-day Tamil Nadu.
Chera Kings and Inscriptions
' The Patitrupathu mentions eight Chera kings, detailing their territory and fame.
' Inscriptions found near Pugalur, close to Karur, provide information about Chera kings
spanning three generations.
112
Prominent Chera Kings
Sangam Age and South Indian Kingdoms

' Imayavaramban Nedun-cheralathan and Chenguttuvan were notable Chera rulers.
' Chenguttuvan, known for defeating several chieftains, played a crucial role in suppressing
piracy and ensuring the security of an important port Musiri.
' While Silapathikaram mentions Chenguttuvan’s north Indian expedition, this event is absent
in Sangam poems.
' Chenguttuvan is believed to have ruled for fifty-six years and supported both orthodox and
heterodox religions.
Chera Coinage
' Some Cheras issued copper and lead coins bearing Tamil-Brahmi legends, emulating Roman
coinage.
' Chellirumporai was a Chera king who issued coins in his name.
' Other Chera coins featured their emblem of a bow and arrow but lacked inscriptions.
The Cheras, with their diverse territorial control, notable rulers like Chenguttuvan, and intriguing
coinage, made significant contributions to the historical and cultural landscape of South India
during the Sangam period.
Pandyas
Territory and Region of Pandyas
' The Pandyas were the rulers of Madurai, a prominent city in Tamil Nadu.
' Korkai was their main port, situated near the confluence of the Thampraparani river and the
Bay of Bengal.
* Korkai was famous for its pearl fishing and chank diving activities.
* The Periplus referred to Korkoi port as ‘Kolkoi’.
' Further, Pandyas expanded their influence into southern Kerala and controlled the port of
Nelkynda, located near Kottayam.
' Fish was the emblem associated with the Pandyas.
Notable Pandya Kings
' The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscription references Pandya king Nedunchezhiyan from the
2nd century BCE.
' Maduraikanchi mentions Mudukudumi-Peruvazhuthi, another Nedunchezhiyan, known for
his victory at Talaiyalanganam.
' Mudukudimi-Peruvazhuthi is mentioned in Velvikkudi copper plates from the 8th century,
where he donated land to Brahmins.
' He issued coins with the legend “Peruvazhuthi” to commemorate his performance of Vedic
sacrifices.
Military Achievements
' Nedunchezhiyan is praised for his victory over a combined army of the Chera, Chola, and five
Velir chieftains at Talayalanganam.
' He is credited with capturing Milalai and Mutthuru, two important places held by a Vel chief.
' Nedunchezhiyan is also acknowledged as the lord of Korkai and the overlord of the southern
Paratavar, a martial and fishing community along the Tirunelveli coast.
113
Pandya Coinage
' Their coins typically featured an elephant on one side
and a stylized fish image on the other.
Patronage of Tamil Sangams
' Tradition holds that the Pandyas patronized the Tamil
Sangams, facilitating the compilation of Sangam poems.
' While Sangam poems mention the names of several
Pandya kings, details about their succession and regnal
years are unclear.
The Pandyas left a significant mark on South Indian history,
known for their trade through Korkai, patronage of culture,
and notable rulers like Nedunchezhiyan. Figure 10.2: Coin of Pandyan
King Peruvazhuthi
Social Formation in the Ancient Tamil Region
' Sangam poems provide insights into the social structure of ancient Tamilagam.
' Further, Vendar wars in the Sangam Age aimed to expand their territories, potentially leading
to social disparities.
' War captives were mentioned, and references to slaves also existed.
' Women actively participated in economic production, and the era saw a significant number of
female poets.
' This eco-regional division reflects a close relationship between the environment and cultural
practices of the time.
Ideology and Religion
Formal religious activities in South India trace back to the time of Ashoka, with the spread of
Buddhism to the region.
' The Satavahanas, Sangam kings, and
Ikshvahus supported Vedic sacrifices, for
which evidence is provided in Sangam texts.
' Amaravathi, Nagarjunakonda, Kaviripattinam,
and Kanchipuram feature Buddhist centres
and stupas.
' However, compared to Jainism, Buddhism’s Figure 10.3: Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.
presence in Tamil Nadu is limited to a few sites. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions
in Brahmi, which was used to write Tamil.
' Tamil Nadu’s numerous cave shelters with
Tamil Brahmi inscriptions indicate Jainism’s stronger influence.
' Jains contributed substantially to Tamil literature during the post-Sangam centuries.
Sangam Literature POINTS TO PONDER
The Sangam age appears in history
' Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam
to have originated from the ruins
literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. of megalithic culture. Unlike other
' These texts were called Sangam because they were regions, the intellectual and literary
supposed to have been composed and compiled in developments in the Sangam
assemblies (known as Sangam) of poets that were held age outpaced other regions.
in the city of Madurai. The Tamil terms mentioned above What might have been the
main reasons for this?
are found in Sangam literature.
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' Some of the best epics were written during this period:

* Silappadikaram, a famous Tamil epic, was composed by a poet named Ilango, around 1800
years ago. It is a story of Kovalan, his wife Kannagi and the courtesan named Madhavi.
* Manimekalai, another Tamil epic, was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. It
describes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.
A Description from the Silappadikaram

Here is how the poet describes Kannagi’s grief
“O witness of my grief, you cannot console me. Is it right that your body, fairer than pure gold,
lies unwashed here in the dust? Is it just that in the red glow of the twilight, your handsome chest,
framed with a flower wreath, lies thrown down on the bare earth, while I remain alone, helpless
and abandoned to despair? Is there no god? Is there no god in this country? Can there be a god in
a land where the sword of the king is used for the murder of innocent strangers? Is there no god,
no god?”
Tamil Polity in Sangam Age

Political Structures
The ‘thinai’ classification system reflects varying socio-economic developments in different localities.
This is mirrored in the political structures of the time, with three levels of rulers:
' Vendar: Kings governing larger, fertile territories.
' Velir: Numerous chiefs controlling geographically diverse regions, primarily hilly and forested
areas.
' Kizhar: Leaders of villages or small territories. They were chiefs of tribal communities in specific
areas.
Political Ascendency of The Vendar (Kings)
' The Vendar, emerging from Iron Age chiefs (1100-300 BCE), rose to prominence during the
early historic period.
' Some chiefs evolved into Vendar, gaining authority over pastoral and agricultural regions,
while others remained as Velir chieftains, especially in the marginal areas.
* For example, Athiyamans, including those mentioned in Ashoka’s inscriptions as
Satiyaputra, couldn’t attain the status of Chola, Pandya, and Chera Vendar.
' Vendar subjugated chieftains and clashed with other two Vendars, mobilizing warriors and
earning titles like Kadungo, Imayavaramban, and Vanavaramban to distinguish themselves.
' They patronized poets and bards, hosting them in their courts (avaiyam) to enhance their
prestige, territory, and towns.
* For instance, Chola King Karikalan offered a huge amount of gold coins to poet
Uruttirankannanar, composer of Pattinappalai.
Velir Chiefs
' Chiefs like Athiyaman, Pari, Ay, Evvi, and Irungo commanded vast areas rich in natural resources.
' They were generous patrons of poets and bards and possessed military power, often engaging
in wars, particularly over cattle.
' On various occasions, they united against one or another of the three main kingdoms of Cheras,
Cholas, Pandyas.
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Kizhar
' These were leaders of small territories and were present at lowest strata in political structures.
' These territories later came to be known as Nadu, and were like villages in region.
Debate on Political Organization
' Scholars hold differing views on the political structure of the three kingdoms during the Sangam
Age.
' A recent perspective argues that polities of 3 kingdoms were pre-state chiefdoms. This view is
supported by arguments like use:
* No social stratification was noticed in this period.
* Proper territorial association was absent.
* Prevalence of destructive warfare which hindered agricultural development.
* No evidence of taxation as in North India.
' However, the dominant view suggests a well-organized state society. Proponent of this view
argue that use:
* The Marutham region shows signs of social differentiation.
* The territorial associations of the Muvendar (main ruling families) are evident and supported
by Greco-Roman texts from the 1st century CE.
* Warfare for territorial expansion is a prominent theme in Puratthinai literature.
* Evidence of taxation exists, including taxes at highways and the port of Kaveripattinam,
with Chera kings receiving resources from hills and the Musiri port.
* Trade played a significant role between the late 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE.
The debate surrounding the political organization of the Sangam Age reflects the complexity of this
historical period, with evidence for both the state society and pre-state chiefdoms.
Economy
Land Classification of Region
' Ancient Tamilagam was categorized into five eco-regions based on the ‘thinai’ concept and
each region had distinct characteristics shaped by environmental conditions and culture.
* Kurinji: Hilly region, focused on hunting and gathering activities.
* Marutham: Riverine tract, centered around agriculture with ploughs and irrigation.
* Mullai: Forested region, characterized by pastoralism and shifting cultivation.
* Neythal: Coastal land, where fishing and salt-making were prominent.
* Palai: Arid land unsuitable for farming, leading to cattle theft and robbery as livelihoods.
Craft Production
' Craft production was diverse, encompassing bronze vessels, beads, goldworks, textiles, shell
bangles, ornaments, glass, iron smithy, and pottery.
' Major urban centers like Arikamedu, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam, Madurai,
Korkai, and Pattanam in Kerala were hubs for craft production.
' Maduraikanchi mentioned both day and night markets selling various craft goods.
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Trade and Raw Materials

' Raw materials for crafts were not universally available, leading to the exchange of precious and
semi-precious stones for other commodities.
' Non-Tamil speakers, primarily traders, were present in certain
craft centers and towns, indicating trade connections with
distant regions.
' The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions included terms like vanikan,
chattan and nigama related to trade.
' Salt merchants known as umanar travelled in the bullock carts
with their families for trade. Chattu referred to the itinerary and Figure 10.4: Stones for
mobile merchants. ornaments, Pattanam
' Barter was common in trade, although coins were also used,
with Roman coins circulating as bullion.
' Long-distance trade linked the Tamil region with Roman Empire and Southeast Asia, particularly
through major ports with evidence of Roman artifacts, reflecting active maritime commerce and
foreign contacts.
Age of Kalabhras - Post Sangam Period
Kalabhra Period (c. 300 CE - 600 CE)

' This period follows the Sangam Age and precedes the Pallava-Pandya period in Tamil history.
' Traditionally labeled as a “dark age” due to disappearance of the three traditional Tamil
kingdoms (Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas) under the Kalabhras’ occupation.
' Some believe that this period led to the loss of valuable aspects of Tamil culture.
Re-assessment of the Kalabhra Period

' Modern interpretations reject the “dark age” label.
' During this time, significant Tamil works like Tirukkural, Silappathikaram, and Manimekalai
were composed.
' Non-orthodox religions like Jainism and Buddhism, gained influence, which led orthodox
Vedic-Puranic scholars to portray the Kalabhras negatively.
Transition to Enlarged State Societies
' The period is seen as a transition phase toward larger state societies, with the Pallavas ruling
northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in the south from the 6th century onwards.
' Initially, these rulers patronized Jainism and Buddhism, later shifted towards orthodox Vedic-
Puranic religions like Saivism and Vaishnavism.
' Despite this shift, the influence of Jainism and Buddhism remained strong, leading to some
aversion from the emerging Bhakti cults of Saivism and Vaishnavism.
Conclusion
The Sangam period represents a crucial phase in South Indian history, marked by the coexistence
of powerful dynasties, vibrant trade networks, and a flourishing cultural distinctiveness. The
Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, with their distinctive emblems and territorial influence, played pivotal
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roles in shaping the landscape. Their dynamic political structures, flourishing trade connections
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY and rich cultural heritage serve as a testament to the vitality of the Sangam period in early Indian
history.
Timeline Event
300 BCE - 300 CE Sangam Age
100 CE Start of composition of Sangam texts
300 CE - 600 CE Kalabhra period (Post Sangam period)
Glossary:
± Amalgamate: Combine or merge different elements or entities into a unified or cohesive whole or structure.
± Ancient ports: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, Musiri, Korkoi, Nelkynda, etc. were major ancient ports.
± Commemoration: Marks remembrance, often through ceremonies, monuments, or events, honouring
important people, moments, or achievements.
± Corroborate: To support or confirm a statement or claim with additional evidence or information.
± Exalted: Highly esteemed, revered, or praised, often signifying a superior or elevated status or quality.
± Insignia: It is a distinctive symbol or badge used to represent a group, organization, or rank.
± Interregnum: A period of temporary suspension or interruption in a continuous process or government.
± Munificence: Generosity and lavishness in bestowing wealth, favours, or resources upon others, often
with great liberality.
± Numismatic: The study and collection of coins, often involving their historical, cultural, and monetary
significance.
± Tamil Epics: Tirukkural, Silappathikaram, and Manimekalai were major Tamil Epics.

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Art and Culture in
11 Ancient India
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter 10 - VI NCERT (Our Past-I) and
Chapter 4 - XII NCERT (Themes in Indian History -I)
Introduction
The art and architecture of ancient India is a captivating journey through the rich cultural heritage of
the Indian subcontinent. From the intricate sculptures of temples to the grandeur of palace complexes,
in this chapter, we will explore the creative expressions and architectural marvels that flourished
over thousands of years, reflecting the diversity and spirituality of ancient Indian civilizations.
Background: Sacrifices and Debates

Around the mid-1st millennium BCE, significant thinkers like Zarathustra, Kong Zi, Socrates,
Mahavira, and Buddha emerged worldwide. They tried to explore the mysteries of existence and
the relationship between humans & cosmic order. They also attempted to understand various pre-
existing traditions like sacrifices, religious beliefs, etc.
The Sacrificial Tradition
' Early Vedic tradition, mainly known from Rigveda (1500-1000 BCE), highlighted sacrificial
traditions and included hymns praising deities like Agni, Indra, and Soma.
' Initially, rituals involved collective sacrifices; however, between 1000-500 BCE, these
sacrifices were performed by the household heads for domestic welfare.
' More elaborate sacrifices like Raja suya and Ashvamedha were performed by chiefs and kings.
They relied mainly on Brahmana priests for ritual execution.
New Questions
' Upanishads (sixth century BCE) gave rise to new questions where people were curious about
the meaning of life and life after death.
' Thinkers questioned the nature of ultimate reality, both within and beyond Vedic tradition.
' The significance of sacrificial tradition also became a subject of contemplation.
Debates and Discussions
' Topics of Vedic traditions, beliefs, practices, etc., became the basis for various debates and
discussions. For instance, Buddhist texts reveal vibrant debates among 64 different schools
of thought.
' Philosophers traveled widely, engaging in discussions and trying to validate their philosophies.
' Debates occurred in kutagarashalas (huts) and groves where mendicants halted.
Visionaries like Mahavira and Buddha challenged Vedic authority and emphasized individual
agency, offering liberation from worldly existence.
' This was in clear contrast to the Brahminical stance, which used to determine individuals’
existence by birth in a particular caste or gender.
How were Buddhist Texts Prepared and Preserved?

' The Buddha (and other teachers) taught orally – through discussion and debate. Men and women
(perhaps children as well) attended these discourses and discussed what they heard. None of the
Buddha’s speeches were written down during his lifetime. After his death (c. 483 BCE), his teachings
were compiled by his disciples at a council of “elders” or senior monks at Vesali (Pali for Vaishali in
present-day Bihar). These compilations were known as Tripitaka – literally, three baskets to hold
different types of texts. They were first transmitted orally and then written and classified according to
length as well as subject matter.
' The Vinaya Pitaka included rules and regulations for those who joined the sangha or monastic order;
the Buddha’s teachings were included in the Sutta Pitaka; and the Abhidhamma Pitaka dealt with
philosophical matters.
' As Buddhism travelled to new regions such as Sri Lanka, other texts such as the Dipavamsa (literally,
the chronicle of the island) and Mahavamsa (the great chronicle) were written, containing regional
histories of Buddhism.
' Many of these works contained biographies of the Buddha. Some of the oldest texts are in Pali, while
later compositions are in Sanskrit.
' When Buddhism spread to East Asia, pilgrims such as Fa Xian and Xuan Zang travelled from China
to India in search of texts. These they took back to their own country, where they were translated by
scholars. Indian Buddhist teachers also travelled to faraway places, carrying texts to disseminate the
teachings of the Buddha.
' Buddhist texts were preserved in manuscripts for several centuries in monasteries in different parts
of Asia. Modern translations have been prepared from Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan texts.
Beyond Worldly Pleasures

Thinkers like Mahavira and Buddha challenged People’s liking
the authority of Vedas, ceremonial sacrifices, for simple living Varna
religious practices etc. and at the same time System
promoted simplistic ways for liberation from Causes of
worldly desires and sorrows. Their teachings Emergence origin of
led to the development of world religions in the of cities & Buddhism &
form of Jainism & Buddhism. trade Jainism
Mahavira and Jainism Kshatriya’s
Agricultural reaction
The Message of Mahavira: economy
' The basic philosophy of Jaina existed

in the pre-Mahavira period. There
were 23 Jaina Tirthankaras before Tri-Ratnas of Jainism
Vardhamana Mahavira, who became
the 24th Tirthankara in the 6th
century BCE. Right Action Right Knowledge Right Faith
' Jainism’s basic idea is that all things
possess life, including stones and
water.
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' Its central principle is non-violence (ahinsa), especially towards all living beings. Other
Art and Culture in Ancient India

teachings included-
* Karma shapes the cycle of birth-rebirth; asceticism
and penance break it.
* Monasticism was essential for liberation from karma.
' Jain monks/nuns uphold five vows: no killing, no
stealing, no lying, celibacy and no ownership.
The Spread of Jainism:
' Jainism’s expansion across India paralleled Buddhism. Jaina scholars authored diverse texts
in languages like Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Tamil, with preserved manuscripts in temple libraries.
' Early stone sculptures linked to Jainism have been found at various subcontinental sites.
Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment

Early Life and Awakening:
' Born as a Siddhartha, he was raised in luxury as the son of a Sakya clan chief, secluded from
life’s hardships.
' His first exposure to the world outside the palace shocked him, encountering old age, sickness,
death, and a homeless mendicant.
The Path to Enlightenment:
' Disturbed by the inevitability of human decay, Siddhartha chose the
mendicant’s path after witnessing the mendicant’s serene demeanour.
' After leaving the palace, he explored various paths, including extreme
ascetic practices, leading to a situation of near death.
' Abandoning severe methods, Siddhartha engaged in meditation, leading
to his enlightenment and subsequent recognition as the Buddha or
Enlightened One.
Life After Becoming Buddha:
' Post-enlightenment, Buddha dedicated his life to teaching the dhamma or the path of
righteous living.
' Buddha’s journey from sheltered royalty to enlightenment remains a foundational story in
Buddhism, influencing followers for self-discovery and understanding.
Spread of Buddha’s Message:
' Buddha, a highly influential teacher, disseminated his teachings across centuries throughout
the Indian subcontinent and beyond.
' His message reached areas from Central Asia to East Asia (China, Korea, Japan), and across
the seas to regions like Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.
Teachings of the Buddha
Teachings from Stories:
' The Buddha’s teachings are reconstructed from stories,
mostly found in the Sutta Pitaka. Abhidhammapitaka
' He employed reason and persuasion, not supernatural
displays, to convince people. Tripitakas
' His interactions with people, like a grief-stricken mother, Sutta Vinava
emphasized understanding and acceptance. pitaka pitaka
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Buddhist Philosophy:
' Buddhist philosophy highlights the transient (anicca) nature of the world, which is in
constant flux.
' The world is also soulless (anatta), lacking permanence or eternal essence.
' Intrinsic sorrow (dukkha) is part of human existence.
' The path to transcendence involves moderation between extreme asceticism and indulgence.
Non-Theistic Approach:
' The existence of gods was secondary in early Buddhism.

' The Buddha viewed the social world as human-made, not divinely created.
' Kings and Gahapatis were advised to be ethical, emphasizing human responsibility.
Individual Transformation:
' Buddhism emphasized individual effort to escape the cycle of rebirth.

' Righteous action and individual agency were vital to achieving Self-Realization and Nibbana
(Nirvana), extinguishing ego and desire.
' His last piece of advice: “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your
liberation” signifies the role of individuals in their journeys towards liberation.
Followers of the Buddha
Formation of the Sangha:
' Buddha gathered disciples, forming the sangha – a Buddha

community of monks, who became dhamma teachers.
' Monks, known as bhikkhus, lived simply, owning Three Jewels
necessities and relying on alms received from the lay people. of Buddhism
' Later, women were admitted into the sangha, facilitated Dharma Sangha
by Ananda’s persuasion, Mahapajapati Gotami was the
first bhikkhuni.
Social Diversity in the Sangha:
' Buddha’s followers encompassed various social strata, from kings and wealthy individuals
to workers and slaves.
' Equality prevailed within the sangha, as all members shed previous social identities upon
joining.
Internal Structure and Decision-making:
' Sangha’s functioning resembled ganas and sanghas, employing consensus in discussions.
' In cases of disagreement, voting was used to determine decisions.
Buddhism’s Rapid Growth:
' Buddhism gained momentum during Buddha’s life and post his passing, attracting those
disillusioned with existing religious norms and grappling with social upheaval.
' Buddhist teachings emphasized conduct, values, and compassion over birth-based claims
of superiority.
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Ideas of metta (fellow feeling)

'
and karuna (compassion),
especially towards the
vulnerable, drew people to
Buddhism.
' The sangha’s establishment
facilitated the expansion of
Buddhist principles and
attracted diverse followers,
from rulers to the marginalized.
The emphasis on equality and
compassion within the sangha,
coupled with Buddhism’s
principles of conduct, resonated
with individuals seeking
spiritual direction amidst
societal changes.
Emergence of Buddhist Sites
' The Buddhist concepts evolved
through interactions with
various traditions, including
Brahmanas and Jainas,
influencing the formation of
ideas and practices. Sacred
places played an important role
in these interactions.
' Certain places were deemed sacred due to unique features like special trees, distinct rocks, or
natural beauty. These sites featured small shrines and were referred to as chaityas.
' Buddhist texts mention chaityas and also sites connected to Buddha’s life. Locations such as
Lumbini (birthplace), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sarnath (first sermon) and Kusinagara
(nirvana) gained sacred status.
' Over the time, these sites gained reverence, evolving into sacred pilgrimage destinations with
the patronage of rulers. For instance, Ashoka, around 200 years after Buddha, erected a pillar
at Lumbini to mark his visit.
' These sacred sites reflect the interplay of ideas and practices, shaping the landscape of
Buddhism’s evolution.
About Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka:

' The Sutta Pitaka contains verses by Bhikkhunis, offering insights into women’s spiritual and societal
experiences.
' The Vinaya Pitaka outlines rules for Bhikkhus, like the limits on accepting food, the proper handling
of bedding in sangha lodgings etc.
' These texts provide a window into early Buddhist teachings and practices, shedding light on gender
dynamics and ethical principles.
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NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Stupas
Why were the Stupas Built?
' Stupas, revered for housing relics like
Buddha’s remains, were sacred sites.
Possibly starting from the pre-Buddhist
era, they became emblematic of
Buddhism.
' According to Ashokavadana, Ashoka
distributed relics and commissioned
stupas in significant towns. By the 2nd
century BCE, several stupas, including
those at Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath,
Figure 11.1: A votive inscription from Sanchi
were constructed.
Some Famous Stupas
Amaravati Stupa The largest Buddhist Stupa in Andhra Pradesh was made 2000 years ago.
Sanchi Stupa The Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is one of the oldest stupas. It holds UNESCO
World Heritage status.
Mahabodhi Temple It is situated in Bodh Gaya, Bihar. It is here, that Buddha had attained
enlightenment. It holds UNESCO World Heritage status.
Inscriptions on Stupas
' Inscriptions on stupas’ railings and pillars give details about donations for their construction
and adornment.
' Kings like the Satavahanas, merchant and artisan guilds, and even ivory workers, contributed
to the construction of stupas.
' Numerous individuals, including women and monks also contributed and mentioned their
names, hometowns, occupations, relatives etc. on railings.
' Inscriptions underscore diverse support and participation in monument-building.
Glimpse of Sanchi
' Sanchi Kanakhera, near Bhopal, houses remarkable ancient buildings, including stone sculptures,
Buddha statues, and an ancient gateway.Major Alexander Cunningham, a European scholar,
meticulously studied the ruins, deciphered inscriptions, and
conducted investigations.
' Europeans in the 19th century held a keen interest in the Sanchi
stupa, with French and English requests to move the eastern gateway.
However, they had to satisfy themselves with Plaster-cast copies of
the same.
' Bhopal rulers, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum funded
preservation efforts and constructed a museum and guesthouse.
John Marshall dedicated volumes to Sultan Jehan Begum for these
efforts.
' Sanchi’s survival owes much to wise decisions of avoiding demolition,
and the Archaeological Survey of India’s restoration.
' Sanchi is crucial in understanding early Buddhism, revealing stories
through texts, architecture, inscriptions and sculptures, offering
insights into its origin, significance and history.
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Construction of the Stupa

' Stupas as Architectural Marvels: Stupas, meaning mounds, showcase the exceptional
craftsmanship of ancient Indian artisans. These structures vary in size, shape and design, but
share common features.
' The Relic Casket: At the core of the stupa, a small box called the relic casket was placed. It
held sacred artefacts such as the bodily remains of Buddha or his disciples, their possessions,
precious stones and coins.
' Construction Process: The relic casket was initially covered with earth and then layered with
mud brick or baked brick. This core was subsequently enclosed by a dome-like structure, often
adorned with intricately carved stone slabs.
' Devotional Path: A pradakshina patha encircled the stupa. Devotees walked clockwise along
this path as a gesture of devotion. Both railings and gateways surrounding the path were
frequently adorned with sculptures depicting religious themes.
' Amaravati’s Magnificent Stupa: Amaravati, once housed a magnificent stupa adorned with
stone carvings dating back around 2000 years.
' Rock-Cut Caves: In addition to stupas, ancient builders created intricate artificial caves by
hollowing out rock. These caves were often elaborately decorated with sculptures and painted
walls.
Structure of the Stupa

' Origin and Structure: Stupa originated as
an earth mound (anda), later evolving into a
more complex form, blending round and square
elements.
' Components: It featured a Harmika (balcony-
like structure) atop the mound, symbolizing the
divine realm. A Mast (yashti) with an Umbrella
(chhatri) extended from the Harmika. A railing
separated sacred space from the secular one.
' Purpose: Stupas were built for sacred reverence
and meditation.
' Early Stupas: Early stupas like those at Sanchi
and Bharhut were simple, adorned with stone
railings and richly carved gateways.
' Ritual Circumambulation: Worshippers circled
the mound clockwise, emulating the sun’s path.
' Carvings: Later stupas, like Amaravati and
Figure 11.2: Plan of Great
Shahji-ki-Dheri, displayed elaborate niches and Stupa at Sanch
sculptures on the mound.
Stupas’ evolution from simple to ornate forms symbolizes the depth of spiritual significance in
Buddhist architecture.
“Discovering” Stupas - The Fate of Amaravati and Sanchi
125
Stupa Histories and Discoveries
' Each stupa has a unique history, some involving their construction, while others pertain to
discoveries.
' In 1796 CE, a local raja accidentally uncovered Amaravati stupa’s ruins while planning a
temple, expecting treasure.
' British official Colin Mackenzie documented the site in the early 19th century but didn’t
publish the findings.
Significant Discovery and Removal
' Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur, explored Amaravati in 1854 CE and collected
sculptures known as Elliot marbles.
' Amaravati’s magnificence became evident, leading to slabs’ dispersal to different places such as
Calcutta’s Asiatic Society, India Office in Madras and London.
' British administrators often displayed these sculptures in their gardens, contributing to their
dispersal.
Views on Preservation
' Archaeologist H.H. Cole believed preserving sculptures on-site was
essential, advocating for plaster-cast replicas in museums.
' Cole’s idea wasn’t embraced for Amaravati, unlike Sanchi where in-situ
preservation was adopted.
Sanchi vs Amaravati Preservation
' Sanchi’s survival and preservation was facilitated by its discovery in 1818
CE, with three intact gateways and a well-preserved mound.
' Despite suggestions to relocate Sanchi’s gateway, several factors retained
it on-site.
' In contrast, Amaravati was discovered earlier, possibly before scholars
grasped the importance of the finds on location.
' Amaravati’s maha chaitya lost its significance due to the gradual removal
of artefacts, resulting in its current insignificance. Figure 11.3: Iron
Pillar at Mehrauli,
Sculpture Delhi
Sculptures are artefacts produced by carving or shaping materials such as clay or stone. Many such
sculptures were taken from stupas in Europe due to their perceived beauty and value. Those who
encountered them, desired possession, leading to their removal. Let us examine few of these artefacts
closely.
Stories Embedded in Sculptures
' Sculptures like those in Sanchi offer visual narratives akin to storytelling. For example, a
seemingly rural scene in Sanchi depicts the Vessantara Jataka, the story of a prince’s
selflessness.
' Historians compare sculptures with textual sources to decipher their meanings.
Symbols of Worship
' Early Buddhist sculptures often symbolize events through non-literal representations. For
example, the Empty seat signifies Buddha’s meditation, the Stupa represents Mahaparinibbana
(passing away), and the Wheel signifies Buddha’s first sermon.
' Scholars need familiarity with Buddha’s hagiographies to understand symbolic sculptures.
126
Incorporating Popular Traditions

' Sanchi’s sculpture integrate diverse
beliefs and ideas.
' Some sculptures are not directly linked
to Buddhism, like the Shalabhanjika
motif, which depicts a woman near a
tree.
' Animal depictions, like elephants,
symbolize strength and wisdom. Figure 11.4: A part of the northern
gateway at Sanchi
' A figure surrounded by lotuses and
elephants might represent Maya, the
Buddha’s mother, or the goddess Gajalaksmi.
' The serpent motif, identified with tree and serpent worship found by James Fergusson,
highlights the influence of diverse traditions.
Sanchi’s Complex Tapestry

' Sculptures at Sanchi reveal a blend of Buddhist and
non-Buddhist concepts.
' Historians analyze these artworks in the context of
cultural, religious and popular traditions.
' The process requires cross-referencing textual,
artistic, and historical information to understand the
nuanced stories and symbols.
' Such explorations uncover the intricate interplay
between beliefs, art and traditions that enrich the
Figure 11.5: Gajalakshmi
narratives depicted in the stone.
New Religious Traditions
Development of Mahayana Buddhism

' By the 1st century CE, Buddhist ideas and practices started
changing.
' Early teachings emphasized individual effort for enlightenment.
' Gradually the Idea of Saviour emerged, it was believed to be
someone who would ensure salvation.
' The concept of Bodhisattvas arose, they were compassionate
beings accumulating merit to aid others instead of seeking Figure 11.6: Image of
personal enlightenment. Buddha Statue, Mathura
' Worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas became vital. This was termed as Mahayana or Great
vehicle, which was in contrast with Hinayana or Lesser vehicle.
127
Growth of Puranic Hinduism
' Similar saviour ideas emerged in Hindu traditions like Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
' Vaishnavism centred on Vishnu, with cults around
avatars (incarnations) to rescue the world from disorder
and evil.
' Various avatars became popular in different regions,
unifying belief in Vishnu’s diverse forms.
' Worship was visualized as love and devotion (bhakti).
' Shaivism honoured Shiva, often represented by the linga,
though occasionally as a human figure.
' Complex deity representations were conveyed through Figure 11.7: The Varaha or
symbols like headdresses, ornaments and audio. boar avatar of Vishnu rescuing
the earth goddess, Aihole
Puranas and Stories (Karnataka), sixth century CE
' Puranas, compiled by Brahmanas in the first millennium CE, contained stories of gods and
goddesses.
' Written in simple Sanskrit verse, accessible to all, including women and Shudras who did not
have access to Vedic learning.
' Content in Puranas evolved through interactions among people, by sharing ideas and beliefs.
' Local deities like Vasudeva-Krishna gained prominence and spread over centuries.
Temple Architecture and Evolution

' The temple is regarded as a sacred place
for Hindus, Buddhists, and other religions,
often housing deities like Lord Shiva or
Goddess Durga, where worship takes place.
Various evolutions in temple architecture
took place in this period.
' As sites like Sanchi’s stupas took shape,
temples housing deities were also
constructed. These were the earliest Hindu Figure 11.8: Temple in Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh,
temples dedicated to deities like Vishnu, 5th Century CE.
Shiva and Durga.
Kalash/Trishul (Finial)
Kalash Amalak
Amalak Shikhara
Vimana (Shikhara) Garbhagriha (Sanctum
sanctorum)
Garbhagriha Mandap
Intricated
Semi-open
carving (Prayer hall)
mandap Upraised
platform Stairs
Stairs
Nagara Style of Temple Nagara Style of Temple
128
' Early temples had Garbhagriha (central chamber) for worship, gradually topped by the

Shikhara (tower).
' Temple walls were adorned with sculptures.
' Later temples evolved into complex structures with assembly halls, walls, gateways and water
arrangements.
Distinctive Temples
' A unique aspect of some Raths
early temples was that Mandaps
they were carved from
Mahendravaram Narsimha stage
huge rocks, forming stage (eg. Draupaldi Path)
artificial caves.
' Ancient artificial cave
construction existed,
dating back to Ashoka’s Rajsimha stage
Figure 11.9: Kailashnatha
Nandivrarman stage (eg. Mahabali puram)
time (3rd century (eg. Metagenswara tample Temple, Ellora Maharashtra
BCE), mainly for Ajivika Kanchipuream) - The entire structure is
carved out of a single piece
renouncers. Development of Temple Architecture under patlavas
of rock.
' This tradition evolved
and culminated in the 8th century CE with the Kailasanatha temple in Ellora.
' Copper-plate inscription at Ellora temple highlights the awe of the chief sculptor at completing
the remarkable structure.
Some Key Features of Temple
Garbhagriha Mandapa Shikhara

The most important part of the A pillared hall that is used for The tower that rises above the
temple. worship and other religious vimana.
activities.
The deity is housed in It is often located in front of the It is often decorated with sculptures
Garbhagriha. garbhagriha. and other ornamentation.
Books
The people of ancient India wrote a variety of books, including epics, Puranas, and religious texts
which have contributed immensely to the literary tradition of India.
Epics
The epics are long compositions about heroic men and women and stories about gods. Major epics
in Indian history are:
' Mahabharata and Ramayana are renowned Sanskrit epics.
' Kalidasa authored the famous poem “Meghaduta.”
' The Tamil epic “Silappadikaram” was composed by the poet Ilango around 1800 years ago.
' “Manimekalai” another Tamil epic by poet Sattanar, dates back around 1400 years.
129
The Puranas
' Purana is a Sanskrit text narrating stories of Hindu deities, cosmology, philosophy, and history.
It includes worship guidelines for the gods and goddesses.
Stories by Ordinary People
' Several of these stories, such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra, were compiled into
collections. They were depicted in paintings at sites like Ajanta and appeared on the stupas’
railings.
Books on Science
' Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, authored the Aryabhatiyam in Sanskrit.
' He made significant contributions including a scientific eclipse explanation and an accurate
method to calculate circle circumference.
' Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskaracharya were also notable contemporaries in
the field.
Paintings
The paintings of the Ajanta, Bagh, and Sittanavasal caves provide a glimpse into the art and
culture of ancient India.
Can We “See” Everything?

Diverse visual expressions in architecture, sculpture, and painting of the past offer a window into
cultural heritage. Much of these have been destroyed, and the remnants underscore the artistic
talents of the creators. Though scholars have highlighted the historical values of these structures,
there remain certain challenges regarding their understanding and interpretation.
' Interpreting Intent: Despite preservation, comprehending the artists’ messages and historical
perceptions remains a challenge.
' Cultural Context: Deciphering the ancient significance of these works, and their impact on
people 2,000 years ago, is a complex endeavor.
Interpreting Unfamiliar Sculptures: European Scholars’ Perspective
' 19th-century European scholars initially struggled to understand Indian sculptures of gods
and goddesses.
' They often found these sculptures strange, with multiple arms, heads, and combinations of
human and animal forms.
' To make sense of these unfamiliar images, scholars compared them to sculptures from
ancient Greece.
' While Indian art was sometimes considered inferior
to Greek art, scholars were excited when they found
sculptures of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas influenced
by Greek models.
' These sculptures were predominantly found in the
northwest, in cities like Taxila and Peshawar, established
by Indo-Greek rulers in the 2nd century BCE.
' European scholars adopted a common strategy of using
familiar standards to comprehend the unfamiliar.
130
Challenges of Text and Image Correlation: Mahabalipuram’s Enigmatic Sculpture

' Art historians often rely on textual traditions to interpret the meaning of sculptures. However,
this strategy is not always straightforward.
' A notable example is a famous sculpture in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, which vividly
depicts a story. Art historians are divided on its interpretation despite consulting Puranas
and epics.
* Some believe it represents the descent of the river Ganga from heaven, with the rock’s cleft
symbolizing the river.
* Others argue it depicts a Mahabharata story, where Arjuna performs penance on a riverbank
to obtain arms, emphasizing the central ascetic figure.
Conclusion
Thus, art and culture in ancient India played a multifaceted role in shaping and reflecting the culture
of the time. It served as a powerful medium for expressing religious, social, and aesthetic values.
These artistic creations not only adorned the physical landscape but also provided a window into the
beliefs and customs of ancient Indian society, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to inspire and
captivate people around the world today. The following timeliness provides a reference for historical
developments we studied in this chapter.
Timeline 1
Major Religious Developments
1500-1000 BCE Early Vedic traditions
1000-500 BCE Later Vedic traditions
Sixth century BCE Early Upanishads: Jainism, Buddhism
Third century First stupas
Second century nce onwards Development of Mahayana Buddhism, Vaishnavism,
Shaivism and goddess cults
Third century First stupas
Third century CE Earliest temples
Timeline 2
Landmarks in the Discovery and Preservation Early
Monuments and Sculpture
Nineteenth century
1814 Founding of the Indian Museum, Calcutta
1834 Publication of Essay on the Architecture of the
Hindus. by Ram Raja: Cunningham explores the
stupa at Sarnath
1835 -1842 James Fergusson surveys major archaeological sites
1851 Establishment of the Government Museum, Madras
1854 Alexander Cunningham publishes Bhusa Topes, one

of the earliest works on Sanchi
131
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY 1878 Rajendra Lala Mitra publishes Buddha Gaya: The
Herttage of Sakya Munt
1880 H.H. Cole appointed Curator of Ancient Monuments
1888 Passing of the Treasure Trove Act, giving the
government the right to acquire all objects of
archaeological interest
Twentieth century
1914 John Marshall and Alfred Foucher publish The
Monuments of Sanchi
1923 John Marshall publishes the Conservation Manual
1955 Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru lays the foundation
stone of the National Museum, New Delhi
1989 Sanchi declared a World Heritage Site
Glossary
± Hagiography: Writing about the lives, virtues, and miracles of saints and holy figures, often with a
reverential or idealized tone
± Upanishads: Ancient Indian philosophical texts exploring the nature of reality, the self, and spiritual
wisdom, forming the basis of Hindu philosophy.
± Kutagarashala: A traditional Indian guest house or shelter where travellers and guests are provided with
accommodation and hospitality.
± Sutta Pitaka: A key Buddhist scripture, part of the Tripitaka, containing Buddha’s teachings, doctrines,
and discourses on various subjects.
± Abhidhamma Pitaka: The third division of the Buddhist Pali Canon, delving into advanced philosophical
and psychological analysis of Buddhist teachings.
± Tirthankaras: Jainism, enlightened spiritual teachers who guide followers towards liberation, embodying
virtue, wisdom, and asceticism.
± Gahapatis: Prosperous landowners in ancient India, contributing to the agrarian economy and often
holding social and political influence.
± Bhikkhuni: A fully ordained Buddhist nun, playing a significant spiritual role in the Buddhist monastic
community.
± Nibbana: Spelled as Nirvana, is a Buddhist concept representing spiritual enlightenment, liberation, and
freedom from suffering and desire.
± Mahaparinibbana: The final nirvana of Buddha, signifying his death and liberation from the cycle of
reincarnation.
± Jatakas: Ancient folk tales from India, recounting the Buddha’s past lives and moral lessons, emphasizing
compassion and virtues.
± Monasticism: It is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully
to spiritual work.
± Ajivikas: They have often been described as fatalists, which means those who believe that everything is
predetermined.

132
Introduction To
12 Medieval History
Introduction
From this chapter, we are starting our journey to the historical POINTS TO PONDER
period of Medieval India, spanning roughly from the 7th to Generally, in the Western context,
the 18th century. It delves into the rich history of kingdoms, the 5th and 15th century AD are
dynasties, cultures, and significant events that shaped this generally taken to be the dividing
era, offering a glimpse into the diverse and complex history of point between the Ancient, Medieval,
the Indian subcontinent during this time. and Modern periods. However, in
the Indian context, historians make
Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years this distinction in the 8th and 18th
centuries. What according to you
History is a process of continuous evolution; various is the basis of this division
changes take place over a span of a thousand years. For between different epochs of
instance, consider the following example of 2 maps of the history?
Indian subcontinent.
Figure 12.1: Map created by Arab geographer Figure 12.2: Map crafted by a French
Al-Idrisi in 1154 CE Cartographer in the 1720s.
Over the 600-year gap, evolving knowledge about the subcontinent helped to develop a new map
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY which improved accuracy. On similar lines, changes in political, socio-economic, and cultural aspects
lead to evolutionary changes in society.
Turkish Invasion Khilji Dynashy Sayyid Dynasty & Lodhi

(1000 AD –1206 AD) (1290 –1320 AD) Dynasty (1414 –1526 AD)
Slave Dyrasty Tughlaq Dynasty Vijay nagara Empire

(1206 –1290 AD) Mughal Dynasty (1320 –1412 AD) (1336 –1565 AD)
(1526 –1857 AD)
Maratha Dynasty Bahamani Kingdom

(1674 –1819 AD) (1346 – 1689 AD)
Brief Timeline of Medieval Indian History
New and Old Terminologies

' As information produced changes with time, languages and meanings also change in similar
contexts.
' Historical records exist in various languages that changed over time, affecting meanings.
* For instance, “Hindustan” exemplifies changing meanings. It originally referred to areas
like Punjab, Haryana, and the Ganga-Yamuna region during the Delhi Sultanate.
* The term’s extent was altered with the Sultanate, but it never included South India.
* Babur, in the 16th century, used “Hindustan” to describe the subcontinent’s geography,
fauna and culture. This idea was echoed by Poet Amir Khusrau in his works in the 14th
century.
* This meaning of “Hindustan” lacked modern political and national connotations in the past.
' Hence, historians must be cautious with terms as they carried different meanings in the past.
For example, “Foreigner” meant any stranger in medieval times, not limited to nationality.
Words like “Pardesi” (Hindi) and “Ajnabi” (Persian) convey POINTS TO PONDER
similar ideas. The first wave of Islamic attacks
Thinking About Time and Historical Periods occurred in the 8th century AD in
Sindh under Raja Dahir which went
' Historians perceive time not merely as the passage of in favour of Mohommad Bin Qasim.
hours, days, or years but as a reflection of shifts in social We do not find any such attempts
and economic structures, the evolution of ideas, and the to win any further territories for
around the next 3 centuries.
transformation of beliefs.
Later, from the 11th century,
' Simplifying the study of time, historians categorize the we find the constant interest of
past into periods characterized by shared attributes. Islamic rulers in expanding into
the Indian subcontinent. Can you
* For example, in the 19th century, British historians
analyze the situation in the Indian
divided India’s history into three periods — “Hindu,” Subcontinent and outside
“Muslim,” and “British” — focusing primarily on India which led to such a
rulers’ religions and neglecting other pivotal changes state of calmness?
in economy, society and culture.
134
' However, contemporary historians lean towards identifying economic and social factors as key
Introduction To Medieval History

elements in different historical moments.
' Earlier historical exploration encompassed various early societies, including hunter-gatherers,
early farmers, urban dwellers, and early empires.
' But now, focus often centers on the “Medieval” era, focusing on the proliferation of peasant
societies, the ascendancy of regional and imperial states— sometimes at the expense of pastoral
and forest communities— the growth of Hinduism and Islam as major religions, and the advent
of European trading enterprises.
Historians and Their Sources

Historical Sources and Evolution:
I Siwistan VII Sarsuti XIII Kara XIX Gujarat

II Uchch VIII Kuhram XIV Awadh XX Devagiri
III Multan IX Hansi XV Bihar XXI Tilingana
IV Kalanaur X Delhi XVI Lakhnauti XXII Talanj
V Lahor XI Badayun XVII Jajnagar XXIII Dvarasamudra
VI Samana XII Qannauj XVIII Malwa XXIV Ma'bar
Figure 12.3: Map of Provinces of the Delhi Sultanate during
Muhammad Tughluq’s reign according to the Egyptian source
Masalik al-Absar fi Mamalik al-Amsar of Shihabuddin Umari.
' The increasing availability of paper led to the writing of holy texts, rulers’ chronicles, letters,
saints’ teachings, petitions, judicial records, and more. For example, a map highlighting
provinces of Delhi sultanate during Mohammad Tughluq’s reign.
' Historians use diverse sources to understand the past, based on the period and nature of research.
' For instance, to study ancient history of the Gupta dynasty and Harshavardhana eras,
historians relied on sources like coins, inscriptions, architecture, and textual records.
' However, changes occur for studying the medieval period as new means gained prominence for
maintaining records in this period of around 700 CE to 1750 CE.
135
' Although Historians continued using coins, inscriptions, architecture, and texts for this era,
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY they started focusing more on textual records that gained prominence during this time, which
also gradually replaced other sources.
Challenges with Manuscripts and Translations:
' Translations of historical manuscripts and other
sources gained prominence in this period.
' Wealthy individuals, rulers, monasteries, and temples
collected manuscripts. Manuscripts held detailed
information but were challenging to use.
' Lack of Printing Press meant manuscripts were
copied by hand, leading to small changes over
time. Scribes introduced modifications, resulting in
significant differences between manuscript versions.
' Also, authors sometimes revised their works at different
Figure 12.4: A painting of a scribe
times, further complicating interpretation.
making a copy of a manuscript. This
* For Example, Ziyauddin Barani’s 14th-century painting is only 10.5 cm by 7.1 cm in
chronicle, has two differing versions. size. Because of its size it is called a
miniature. Miniature paintings were
Historians read various manuscript versions to reconstruct sometimes used to illustrate the texts
the original text but rarely do original manuscripts exist of manuscripts. They were so beautiful
today. Therefore, historians have to rely on copies by later that later collectors often took the
scribes and translations by authors. Hence, they have to manuscripts apart and sold just the
keep in mind the above distortions while interpreting the miniatures.
historical sources.
Figure 12.5: Different kinds of handwriting could make the reading of Persian and Arabic difficult. The Nastaliq
style (on the left) is cursive and easy to read, and the shikaste (on the right) is denser and more difficult.
Political, Economic and Social Transformations

New Diverse Developments and Their Impacts:
' Historians faced a daunting task of analyzing history due to
diverse developments between the period of 700 CE and 1750 CE.
' New technologies emerged, like the Persian wheel for irrigation,
spinning wheel for weaving and firearms for combat.
' Arrival of new foods and beverages such as potatoes, corn,
chillies, tea, and coffee.
' These innovations were mainly brought by outside people who
also brought with them other novel ideas which led to significant
social, economic, political and cultural shifts in this era. Figure 12.6: A Persian Wheel
136
Emergence of New Social and Political Groups:

' This era was marked by increased mobility as people traveled extensively for opportunities.
' Subcontinent’s vast wealth attracted people striving to make their fortunes.
' This led to the emergence of new political groups like Rajput, Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms
and Kayasthas who seized opportunities for political influence.
* For instance, Rajputs, derived from “Rajaputra,” gained prominence as a warrior group.
The term applied broadly to warriors with Kshatriya caste status, including rulers, soldiers,
and commanders. Rajputs were mainly characterized by a chivalric code of extreme valor
and loyalty.
Changes in Economic Life:
' In this period, gradual forest clearing and agricultural expansion occurred.
' Changes forced forest dwellers to migrate while others turned to farming and became peasants.
' Peasants started getting influenced by regional markets, chieftains, religious institutions and
temples.
' New social differences emerged due to varying land ownership, cattle rearing, and a
combination of artisanal work with farming.
Rise of New Social Hierarchies:
' Society grew differentiated with people organized into jatis or caste and sub-castes, i.e. ranking
within jatis based on background, occupation, power and resources.
' The status of individuals varied across areas, and jatis started formulating rules that were
governed by an assembly of elders or jati panchayat.
' Jatis also adhered to village rules, and multiple villages governed by chieftains were small
state units.
Region and Empire

' This period witnessed changing political Language and Region
equations over a period of time. Prominent
± In 1318, the poet Amir Khusrau noted
states like Cholas, Tughlaqs and Mughals
that there was a different language in every
governed vast territories, spanning various region of this land: Sindhi, Lahori, Kashmiri,
regions. Dvarsamudri (in southern Karnataka),
' Various textual sources gave detailed Telangani (in Andhra Pradesh), Gujari
information about rulers and their (in Gujarat), Ma‘bari (in Tamil Nadu), Gauri,
governance. Historians view some of the (in Bengal)… Awadhi (in eastern Uttar Pradesh)
and Hindawi (in the area around Delhi).
claims in sources as exaggerated conquests,
yet they seek to understand rulers’ motives ± Amir Khusrau went on to explain that in
contrast to these languages, there was
for claiming to have control over different
Sanskrit which did not belong to any region.
parts of the subcontinent. It was an old language, and “common people
* For example, A Sanskrit prashasti do not know it; only the Brahmanas do”.
hailed Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban
as ruler of a vast empire from Bengal in the East to Ghazni (Afghanistan) in the West, and
also included the whole South India.
Regional Dynamics under Imperial Rule:
' By 700 CE, regions had unique geography, language, and cultural traits, tied to specific
ruling dynasties.
137
' Intermittent conflicts marked this era, with occasional emergence of pan-regional empires like
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Cholas, Khaljis, Tughlaqs and Mughals. Though empires ruled for significant period of time,
not all empires were equally stable or successful.
Legacy of Imperial and Pan-Regional Rule:
' The Mughal decline in the 18th century led to the resurgence of regional states. Imperial
rule left a lasting impact on regions, altering their character.
' Regions inherited legacies of diverse states that ruled them, shaping distinct and shared
traditions. This influence extended to governance, economic management, elite cultures, and
language.
' Although regions experienced larger forces of pan-regional integration in this period, they
maintained their unique identities and distinctiveness.
Old and New Religions

' Over a thousand years of history, we are witnessing significant developments in religious
traditions.
' As individual beliefs are linked with social and community structures. Hence as the social
world changes, the beliefs of people also change accordingly.
' On the same lines, important changes in religious aspects occurred in this period, such as
the rise of modern Hinduism, the emergence of Bhakti movements, and the advent of new
religions like Islam.
Evolution of Hinduism:
' This era saw crucial changes in Hinduism. New deities were worshipped, and temples were
constructed under royal patronage.
' Brahmanas, or priests, gained prominence in society due to their Sanskrit knowledge. Support
from rulers enhanced the Brahmanas’ dominant position.
' These changes led to the rise of Modern Hinduism we experience today.
Emergence of the Bhakti Movement:
' A key development was the rise of the bhakti movement.
' It introduced the concept of a loving, personal deity accessible without priestly intervention
or elaborate rituals.
Introduction of New Religions:
' The period also marked the arrival of new religions in the subcontinent.
' Merchants and migrants introduced the teachings of the holy Quran to India in the seventh
century, which brought Islam to India.
Advent and Diversity of Islam:
' Muslims regard the Quran as their holy book, affirming the sovereignty of one God, Allah.
' Islam’s adherents interpreted it diversely, leading to various schools of thought.
' Rulers supported Islam and learned theologians (ulama) played influential roles.
' With the progression of time and as a result of cultural interpretations, different sects emerged
within Islam:
* Shia Muslims followed the leadership of Ali, while Sunni Muslims accepted early leaders
(Khalifas) and their successors.
138
* Variations extended to schools of law (Hanafi and Shafi’i) and theological and mystic

traditions.
Conclusion
Throughout this millennium of Indian history, substantial transformations took place. The 16th
and 18th centuries stood distinctly apart from the 8th or 11th centuries. Hence, categorizing the
entire period as a single historical entity poses challenges. Additionally, the contrast between
the “medieval” and “modern” periods is common. “Modernity” implies material progress and
intellectual advancement, potentially suggesting a lack of change during the medieval era. Yet, we
understand that the medieval period was marked by significant transformations. Societies across
the subcontinent underwent frequent metamorphoses, with various regions achieving economic
prosperity that garnered the attention of European trading companies.
Glossary
± Cartographer: A person who makes maps.
± Archive: A place where documents and manuscripts are stored. Today all national and state governments
have archives where they keep all their old official records and transactions.
± Habitat: Refers to the environment of a region and the social and economic lifestyle of its residents.
± Patron: An influential, wealthy individual who supports another person – an artist, a craftsperson, a
learned man or a noble.

139
Important Dynasties in
13 the Early Medieval Period
Introduction
In Medieval India, the landscape was marked by the rise of powerful kings and the emergence of
diverse kingdoms. This period, spanning roughly from the 7th to 12th century CE, witnessed the
establishment of formidable dynasties, cultural achievements, and significant political developments
that shaped the subcontinent's history. Many new dynasties emerged after the seventh century.
The Emergence of New Dynasties

The historical accounts highlight the dynamic nature of political power and social mobility in ancient
and medieval India. It shows how individuals and families with military skills and ambition could
rise in status and establish their kingdoms, even challenging the authority of established rulers.
Figure 13.1: Major kingdoms between the seventh and twelfth Centuries CE.
Regional Power Structures:
Important Dynasties in the Early Medieval Period

' By the seventh century CE, the Indian subcontinent had developed a complex system of regional
power structures.
' These structures included not only established kings and rulers but also influential landlords and
warrior chiefs in different regions.
Acknowledgment by Kings:
' Existing kings often recognized these landlords and warrior chiefs as their subordinates or
samantas.
' This acknowledgment was usually accompanied by certain expectations, such as the provision
of gifts to the ruling king, attendance at the king's court, and military support when required.
Titles and Declarations:
' As these samantas gained power and wealth, they often assumed grand titles like
“maha-samanta” or “maha-mandaleshvara”, signifying their elevated status as great lords of
a particular region or circle.
' Sometimes, they even asserted their independence from their overlords and became
autonomous rulers. For example, initially, the Rashtrakuta dynasty in the Deccan was
subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka, but later on, the Rashtrakuta chief Dantidurga
overthrew his Chalukya overlord in the mid-eighth century CE. This act marked their assertion
of independence.
Rituals and Social Status:
' In some instances, rulers like Dantidurga performed rituals like the "hiranya-garbha," which was
believed to lead to a "rebirth" as a Kshatriya (warrior class) even if the individual was not born
into that caste.
' Such rituals were often conducted with the assistance of Brahmanas (priests) who played a role
in legitimizing their rule.
Enterprising Families:
' Additionally, some individuals from enterprising families chose to abandon their traditional
professions and pursue military careers.
' This allowed them to carve out their kingdoms. An example includes the Brahmanas
Mayurasharman, who established a kingdom in Karnataka and Harichandra, who did the
same in Rajasthan under the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty.
Administration in the Kingdoms
Titles of Kings:
' Many kings in ancient Indian kingdoms adopted grandiose titles such as "Maharaja-adhiraja"
(great king, overlord of kings) and "Tribhuvana-chakravartin" (lord of the three worlds) to signify
their power and authority.
Power Sharing:
' Despite their lofty titles, these kings often shared power with various groups, including their
samantas (feudal lords) and associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas (priestly class).
' This indicates that governance in these kingdoms was not solely centralised but had Elements of
Decentralisation.
Resource Collection:
' The rulers collected resources primarily from the producers in their kingdoms, including peasants,
cattle-keepers and artisans.
' These individuals were often compelled to surrender a portion of their produce, which was
sometimes categorised as "Rent" claimed by the king who asserted ownership of the land.
141
Revenue from Traders:
' In addition to agricultural produce,
revenue was also collected from traders.
' This revenue was used to fund various
aspects of the king's rule, including the
maintenance of the royal establishment,
the construction of temples and forts,
and the financing of military endeavours.
War and Plunder:
' Kings often used these resources to wage
wars.
' Successful wars could lead to the
acquisition of wealth through plunder,
the annexation of new lands, and control
over important trade routes.
' War was seen as a means to increase the
kingdom's wealth and power.
Hereditary Positions:
' Many key positions in the administration, Figure 13.2: Wall relief from Cave 15, Ellora,
including those responsible for revenue showing Vishnu as Narasimha, the man-lion. It is a
collection and military command, were work of the Rashtrakuta period.
often hereditary.
' This means that these positions were passed down within influential families and could be held
by close relatives of the king.
' This practice helped maintain continuity and loyalty within the ruling elite.
Prashastis and Land Grants

Prashastis as Propaganda:
' Prashastis were royal eulogies or panegyric
texts that often contained exaggerated or Achievements of Nagabhata:
idealised accounts of rulers' achievements. ± Many rulers described their achievements in
prashasti.
' While they may not always have been factually
± One prashasti, written in Sanskrit and
accurate, they served as a means for rulers to found in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh,
depict themselves in a favourable light. describes the exploits of Nagabhata, a
Pratihara king, as follows: The kings of
' These texts were typically composed by learned Andhra, Saindhava (Sind), Vidarbha (part of
Brahmanas who had a role not only in religious Maharashtra) and Kalinga (part of Orissa)
and intellectual matters but sometimes also in fell before him even as he was a prince … He
won a victory over Chakrayudha (the ruler
the administration. of Kanauj) … He defeated the king of Vanga
' Kings would reward Brahmanas for their (part of Bengal), Anarta (part of Gujarat),
Malava (part of Madhya Pradesh), Kirata
services with grants of land. (forest peoples), Turushka (Turks), Vatsa,
Matsya (both kingdoms in north India) …
142
Copper Plate Inscriptions:

' The granting of land to Brahmanas and other
individuals was documented on copper plates.
' These inscriptions served as legal records
of land ownership and other privileges.
' They were given to those who received the
land as a form of official confirmation and
proof of their rights.
' Uttaramerur Inscriptions: These inscriptions
describe the presence of separate committees
within the sabha responsible for various
tasks, such as irrigation works, gardens,
and temple management. The process of
selecting committee members is also detailed,
involving the use of tickets and a random
selection method.
Figure 13.3: This is a set of copper plates recording
a grant of land made by a ruler in the ninth
Kalhana's Historical Account: century, written partly in Sanskrit and partly in
' Kalhana, an author from the twelfth century, is Tamil. The ring holding the plates together is
known for his Sanskrit poem that provides a secured with the royal seal, to indicate that this is
an authentic document.
historical account of the rulers of Kashmir.
' He used a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts, and
earlier histories to compile his work.
' This approach aimed to provide a more balanced and comprehensive view of the history of
Kashmir and its rulers.
' Historical accounts of Kalhana stand out because he was willing to be critical of rulers and their
policies. This is in contrast to the idealised narratives often found in prashastis. Kalhana's work
is valued for its attempt to present a more realistic and critical assessment of historical events and
figures.
Warfare for Wealth

Regional Dynasties and Power Struggles:
' Different ruling dynasties were often based in specific regions of India but sought to expand
their influence and control over other areas.
' For example, Kanauj in the Ganga Valley was a particularly coveted region, leading to conflicts
among the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties. This long-standing struggle
involving three parties is known as the “Tripartite Struggle”.
Temples as Symbols and Targets:
' Rulers in ancient India often demonstrated their power and wealth by building large temples.
' However, when these rulers engaged in conflicts or wars, they sometimes targeted temples,
especially those known for their riches.
' This was a way to not only weaken their adversaries but also acquire wealth to fund their
endeavours.
143
' For example, Mahmud of Ghazni, who hailed from Afghanistan, conducted a series of raids on the
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Indian subcontinent between 1000 and 1025 CE. While he claimed religious motives, his primary
targets were the wealthy temples of India, including the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat.
Expansionist Efforts:
' The Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, ruled over the Delhi and Ajmer regions and
attempted to expand their rule westward and eastward.
' They encountered opposition from other dynasties, such as the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the
Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh.
Prithviraj III and Sultan Muhammad Ghori:
' Prithviraj III was a Chahamana ruler who achieved a notable victory over an Afghan ruler
named Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 CE. However, he suffered defeat at Ghori's hands
the following year, in 1192 CE.
These battles and policies have importance of their own. They are not merely struggles for land and wealth
but are significant events in Indian history that changed the course of history at various points in time.
A Closer Look at the Cholas

Rise of Cholas:
' Initial Rise to Power: The Cholas, initially a minor chiefly family from Uraiyur, rose to power
in the Kaveri delta in the middle of the ninth century CE. They overthrew the Muttaraiyar
family, who were previously subordinate to
the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. This
marked the beginning of the Chola dynasty's
ascendancy.
' Foundation of Thanjavur: Vijayalaya,
a Chola ruler, played a significant role in
capturing the delta from the Muttaraiyar
and establishing the town of Thanjavur. He
also built a temple dedicated to the goddess
Nishumbhasudini in the town.
' Territorial Expansion: Successive Chola
rulers expanded their kingdom by conquering
neighbouring regions. They absorbed the
Pandyan and Pallava territories to the south
and north, respectively. Rajaraja I, one of the
most powerful Chola rulers, came to power in
985 CE and further expanded their control
over these areas.
' Administration Reforms: Rajaraja I
reorganised the administration of the Chola
empire during his reign. His son, Rajendra I, Figure 13.4: Chola Kingdom and its Neighbour
continued and expanded these administrative
policies.
' Military Expeditions: The Cholas, under Rajendra I, conducted military expeditions that extended
beyond the Indian subcontinent. They invaded the Ganga Valley, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asian
countries, even developing a navy for these campaigns.
144
Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculpture

Temples as Centers of Life:
' The temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, built by Rajaraja I and Rajendra I
respectively, are particularly noted for their artistic and POINTS TO PONDER
architectural excellence. Pallavas and Cholas proved to be
' Chola temples played a central role in the communities that the most important temple builders
surrounded them. They served as centres of craft production in the south. Do you think it was
and were endowed with land by rulers and others. strong religiosity or demonstration
of grandness of their empires which
' The income generated from this land supported various acted as the motivation
specialists, including priests, artisans, musicians, behind temple building?
dancers, and more, thereby contributing to economic,
social, and cultural life.
Bronze Sculpture:
' One of the most distinctive crafts associated with Chola temples was the
making of bronze images.
' Chola bronze sculptures are renowned for their quality and artistry,
particularly those of deities. Occasionally, bronze images were also
created to represent devotees.
Agriculture and Irrigation:
' Development of Agriculture: While agriculture had been present in other
parts of Tamil Nadu before, large-scale cultivation in the Kaveri delta
region began around the fifth or sixth century. Kaveri River tributaries also
serve as a source of moisture for agriculture, especially rice cultivation. Figure 13.5: Chola
In many areas, two crops were grown in a single year, indicating the Bronze sculpture.
productivity of the agricultural practices.
' Artificial Irrigation: To ensure sufficient water for crops, artificial irrigation was employed.
Various methods were used, including the digging of wells in some areas and the construction
of large tanks to collect rainwater in others. These methods helped in providing a steady and
reliable water supply to the fields.
' Agriculture played a pivotal role in the Chola dynasty's prosperity, and their ability to harness the
water resources of the Kaveri River through advanced irrigation techniques, was instrumental
in their success.
Figure 13.6: A ninth-century sluice gate in Tamil Nadu. It regulated the

outflow of water from a tank into the channels that irrigated the fields.
145
The Administration of the Empire:
' Settlements and Nadu: The administration was organised at the grassroots level, starting
with settlements of peasants known as "ur." These settlements prospered with the spread of
irrigation agriculture. Groups of such villages came together to form larger units called “nadu.”
' Administrative Functions: The village
council and the nadu were responsible for Types of Land:
various administrative functions, which Chola inscriptions mention several categories
included dispensing justice and collecting of land:
taxes. These functions were crucial for ± Vellanvagai land of non-Brahmana
maintaining order and governance at the local peasant proprietors,
level. ± Brahmadeya land gifted to Brahmanas,
' Role of Rich Peasants: Rich peasants held ± Shalabhoga land for the maintenance of a
school devadasi,
considerable influence over the affairs of the
± Tirunamattukkani land gifted to temples,
nadu. They played a pivotal role in local
± Pallichchhandam land was donated to
administration under the supervision of the
Jaina institutions.
central Chola government. The Chola kings
often honoured some of these wealthy
landowners with titles like “muvendavelan” (peasant serving three kings) and “araiyar”
(chief) as a sign of respect. These landowners were also entrusted with important state offices
at the central level.
' Brahmana Settlements: Brahmanas
received land grants or “Brahmadeya” Four hundred taxes!
from the Chola kings. This led to the ± The inscriptions of the Cholas who ruled
emergence of numerous Brahmana in Tamil Nadu refer to more than 400
terms for different kinds of taxes.
settlements in the Kaveri Valley and other
± The most frequently mentioned tax is
parts of South India. Each brahmadeya
vetti, taken not in cash but in the form
had its assembly or “sabha,” consisting of forced labour, and kadamai, or land
of prominent Brahmana landholders who revenue.
played important roles in local governance. ± There were also taxes on thatching the
house, the use of a ladder to climb palm
' Efficient Assemblies: The assemblies,
trees, a cess on succession to family
including those of Brahmanas, worked property, etc.
efficiently and played significant roles in
decision-making. Detailed records of their
decisions were often inscribed on the stone
walls of temples. This practice helped to maintain transparency and accountability in
administration.
' Traders' Associations: In towns, associations of traders known as “Nagarams” occasionally
performed administrative functions. These groups likely played a role in managing trade-related
matters within urban centres.
POINTS TO PONDER
In India, we find several instances of tripartite struggles. Two well-known examples are the
struggle between Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas or between Rashtrakutas, Palas, and
Prathiharas. These power struggles never led to the emergence of one victor. But it created
ground for perpetual enmity. Do you think these struggles acted as magnets attracting foreign
intrusions?
146
Conclusion

Thus, we learned about the intricate history of ancient India, characterized by territorial conflicts,
power dynamics and political rivalries among diverse dynasties. We also understood the significance
of artistic activities like temple architecture and prashastis, where the former reached the zenith of
its development during the Chola empire. These political developments in the Early Medieval Period
laid the foundations for the rise of the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire as all Indian regimes,
which is covered in subsequent chapters of Medieval India.
Timeline Events
753 CE Establishment of the Rashtrakura Empire by Dantidurga
985 CE Rajaraja I ascended to the throne of the Chola Empire.
1025 CE Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Somnath Temple.
Glossary
± Eulogy: A speech or piece of writing that praises someone or something highly, especially a
tribute to someone who has just died.
± Thatcher: A person whose job is making roofs from straw or reeds.
± Periyapuranam: A twelfth-century Tamil work, which informs us about the lives of ordinary
men and women.
± Pulaiyas: A name used for a social group considered “outcastes” by Brahmanas and Vellala.
± Sluice gate: A sliding gate made of wood or metal that is commonly used to control water
levels and flow rates in rivers and canals.

147
Delhi Sultanate
14 12th to 16th Century
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses Chapter 4 of Our Past-II (VII NCERT ), Chapter 1 (Theme V)
of Theme in Indian History-II (XII NCERT) and Chapters 6 and 7 of Old NCERT Medieval India.
Introduction
Delhi did not play a significant role as a capital city until the 12th century AD. However, it became
an important city under the rule of Tomara Rajputs and Chauhan (Chahamanas) of Ajmer in this
century. The transformation of Delhi into a major Capital city controlling vast areas began with
the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the early thirteenth century. The Delhi Sultanate
comprised five dynasties. Several new cities were built in the Delhi region during the rule of the
Delhi Sultans, including Dehli-i-Kuhna, Siri and Jahanpanah.
Struggle For Monarchy

' Fragmented Political Landscape: After the
establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by Qutb-ud- Important Rulers of Delhi
din Aibak in 1206 AD, there were multiple rulers EARLY TURKISH RULERS (1206-1290 AD)
and dynasties, leading to a fragmented political
landscape. Qutbuddin Aybak 1206 – 1210
' Autonomy of Iqtadars: Powerful feudal lords Shamsuddin Iltutmish 1210 – 1236
and military commanders, known as Iqtadars,
Raziyya 1236 – 1240
held significant autonomy, challenging central
authority. Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266 – 1287
' Succession Disputes and Dynastic Conflicts: KHALII DYNASTY (1290-1320 AD)
Succession disputes and conflicts among different
dynasties led to political instability, weakening Jalaluddin Khalji 1290 – 1296
the monarchy’s control. Alauddin Khali 1296 – 1316
' External Threats and Invasion: Invasions
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1414 AD)
by Mongols and other external threats further
destabilised the sultanate and diverted resources Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq 1320 – 1324
from centralization efforts.
Muhammad Tughluq 1324 – 1351
' Attempted Administrative Reforms: Several
sultans, like Alauddin Khilji and Muhammad Firuz Shah Tughluq 1351 – 1388
bin Tughluq, attempted administrative reforms to SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451 AD)
strengthen the monarchy, including tax reforms
and centralization of power. Khizr Khan 1414 – 1421
' Consolidation by Balban: Some sultans LODI DYNASTY (1451-1526 AD)
successfully consolidated power, like Balban, who
ruthlessly suppressed nobles and strengthened Bahlul Lodi 1451 – 1489
royal authority.
' Influence of Religion: The role of
Delhi Sultanate 12th to 16th Century

religious leaders and Ulemas in shaping
the monarchy’s policies and legitimacy
was significant.
' Influence of Persian Culture: Persian
culture and the Persian administrative
system played a role in centralization
efforts, unifying diverse regions under
a common administrative language and
system.
Early Turkish Rulers (Slave Dynasty)

Iltutmish (1211–1236 AD)
' Iltutmish was an early Delhi sultanate Map 14.1: Sultanate cities of Delhi, Thirteenth-
Fourteenth centuries
ruler who consolidated and strengthened
the empire. He successfully navigated
succession challenges, quelled revolts
and asserted his authority.
' Iltutmish’s reign marked the
establishment of a stable monarchy,
with significant achievements in
administration, justice and military
expansion.
' He introduced the Iqta system, which
rewarded military officers with land
grants, ensuring their loyalty.
' Iltutmish continued the policies of
religious tolerance, protecting the rights
of non-Muslims.
Map 14.2: Cities Captured by ltutmish
' His notable architectural legacy includes
the Qutub Minar in Delhi.
' His rule laid the foundation for the
Minhaj-i Siraj thought about Raziyya
stability and longevity of the Delhi
Sultanate in medieval India. ± Minhaj-i Siraj was a 13th century Persian historian
believed that Queen Raziyya's rule contradicted
Razia (1236 – 1239 AD) the ideal social order established by God.
± He questioned how she could possess excellent
' Sultan Iltutmish’s daughter, Raziyya, qualities when, according to him, women were
became Sultan in 1236 AD and was a meant to be subordinate to men.
remarkable figure in the history of the ± Raziyya included her lineage as the daughter of
Delhi Sultanate. Sultan Iltutmish on her inscriptions and coins.
' She broke gender norms by becoming the ± On contradiction, Queen Rudramadevi, of the
first and only female ruler of Delhi. Kakatiya dynasty, pretended to be a man on her
inscriptions and she changed her name to present
' Raziyya was known for her intelligence, herself as male.
military prowess, and commitment to
± Queen Didda, who ruled in Kashmir, was
administrative reforms. affectionately referred to as ‘didi’ or ‘elder sister’
' Her reign faced opposition from by her subjects.
conservative nobles who resisted a female
ruler.
149
' Despite her short rule, she aimed to centralize power, improve administration and promote
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY religious tolerance.
' Raziyya’s attempts at asserting authority faced many challenges, leading to her eventual
dethronement and tragic end.
' Nevertheless, her legacy as a pioneering female ruler in a male-dominated era remains
noteworthy in Indian history.
' Minhaj-i Siraj acknowledged her competence but felt uncomfortable with a female ruler.
' She was dethroned in 1240 AD.
Balban (1246 – 1287 AD)
POINTS TO PONDER
' The era of Balban (1246-1287 AD) in the Delhi Sultanate The theory of divine kinship can
was marked by strong authoritarian rule. be found in practice during the
' Ghiyasuddin Balban, a former slave, established a Ancient Era. We find a resurgence
during the Mamluk dynasty
powerful monarchy, suppressing nobles’ influence.
which continued throughout the
' He introduced a policy of blood and iron, using ruthless Medieval Period. Kings were seen
tactics to maintain control. as representatives of God. Can you
compare and contrast the
' Balban implemented a strict law-and-order regime,
conception of the divine king
including a spy network to curb dissent. in Ancient and Medieval Era?
' His focus on centralised authority and military strength aimed
to restore stability, but it also intensified nobles’ grievances.
' Due to his iron-fisted rule, Balban’s efforts laid the groundwork for a more centralized and
powerful sultanate, influencing later rulers in medieval India.
Challenges to the Delhi Sultanate during the 13th Century

External Threat (Mongol Invasion)
' The Mongols posed a significant challenge to the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century.
' Led by Genghis Khan and later his successors, the Mongol Empire expanded rapidly and
encroached upon the northwest frontier of India.
' This region experienced frequent Mongol incursions, resulting in instability and insecurity.
' The Delhi Sultanate, particularly during the reign of Alauddin Khilji, had to fortify its defences
and launch military campaigns to deter Mongol invasions.
' The problem of the northwest frontier remained a persistent security concern for successive
rulers, requiring constant vigilance and military preparedness to protect the sultanate from
external threats.
Internal Threats (Rebellions and Struggle for Territorial Consolidation)
' Internal rebellions and the struggle for territorial consolidation were recurring challenges
for the Delhi Sultanate in medieval India. Succession disputes, noble discontent, and regional
uprisings often disrupted the stability of the empire.
' The Mongol invasions in the 13th century posed an external threat, diverting resources and
attention from internal consolidation efforts.
' Religious movements like the Bhakti and Sufi movements also contributed to social and
religious upheaval.
' To address these issues and strengthen their rule, sultans employed various strategies,
including military campaigns, administrative reforms, infrastructure development and
religious tolerance.
150
' However, despite their efforts, the Delhi Sultanate continued to grapple with periodic rebellions,

invasions and territorial fragmentation, making the quest for consolidation a persistent
challenge throughout its history.
Khalji or Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)

' The Khalji dynasty, under the leadership
of Jalaluddin Khalji, ascended to power
in 1290 AD.
' Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 AD) came to
the throne by treacherously murdering
his uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin
Khalji.
' Alauddin Khalji, known for his military
prowess and administrative reforms,
expanded the Delhi Sultanate’s territory.
' He successfully defended against
Mongol invasions and launched
campaigns in the Deccan and South
India.
' His reign also saw the introduction of
market reforms like the ‘controlled
market’ system and the strengthening
of the agricultural sector.
' Alauddin’s military achievements and
efficient administration left a lasting
impact on the Delhi Sultanate.
Map 14.3: Alauddin Khalji’s campaign
Internal reforms by Alauddin Khilji
' Political Reforms
* He aimed at creating a more efficient and centralized state with a strong focus on military
and economic stability.
* Reduced provincial governor powers, and adopted a method of centralized administration.
' Economic Reforms
* Alauddin Khalji Regulated the prices of essential goods to prevent inflation.
* He introduced the “Gaz-i-Alauddin” for land and revenue assessment.
* He also imposed taxes on agriculture and introduced the “Dagh” system for tax assessment.
* A system of measurement and assessment called the “diwan-i-mustakhraj” was
established to ensure revenue collection and fund the army.
* He undertook construction of forts, roads, and reservoirs. Also Introduced copper coins
with fixed values.
* He implemented strict measures against grain hoarding and established Khalisa
(state-controlled granaries for a stable supply).
* He standardized weights and measures to ensure fair trade.
* The government officials conducted regular market inspections.
* He also imposed restrictions on taverns and gambling.
151
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY The Tughlaqs (1320 –1414 AD)
' Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq established a new dynasty in 1320 AD which Lasted till 1414.
' The Tughlaqs provided three competent rulers: Ghiyasuddin, his son Muhammad bin
Tughlaq (1324-51 AD ), and his nephew Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88 AD ).
' The first two of these sultans ruled over an empire that comprised almost the entire country.
The empire of Firuz was smaller but even then it was almost as large as that ruled over by
Alauddin Khalji.
' After the death of Firuz, the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated and north India was divided into a
series of small states.
' Although the Tughlaqs continued to rule till 1414 AD, the invasion of Delhi by Timur in 1398 AD
may be said to mark the end of the Tughlaq empire.
Muhammad Bin Tughluq (1325 –1351 AD)
POINTS TO PONDER
' His reign witnessed extensive administrative reforms,
Muhammad bin Tughluq (MBT)
which proved to be costly and unpopular.
introduced many reforms from
' He embarked on ambitious military campaigns but faced which he backtracked in due
setbacks. His reign witnessed administrative centralization course. On the other hand, many
and improved revenue collection. reforms introduced by Allaudin
Khilji proved successful to a large
' Muhammad Tughluq’s rule is marked by both innovation extent. Why do you think MBT
and turmoil, exemplifying the complexities of governance failed? Was there any issue
in medieval India. in his ideas or the way he
implemented them?
' Despite the challenges, he extended the Sultanate’s control
to the Deccan and parts of South India, Left a legacy of
administrative innovation and territorial expansion.
' Being the Sultan of Delhi during the 14th century AD, he is known for his ambitious and often
controversial experiments and policies.
' Transfer of Capital: Muhammad Tughluq famously transferred the capital of the Delhi
Sultanate from Delhi to Daulatabad in the Deccan in 1327 AD. This move was aimed at
better administration of the southern regions but proved to be logistically challenging and
unpopular.
' Token Currency: He introduced token currency made of copper and brass. The idea was to
control the money supply and facilitate tax collection. However, it led to economic chaos and a
loss of confidence in the currency.
Consolidation and Expansion of Delhi Sultanate

' Consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate was initiated during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Balban,
and this process continued with further expansion under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad
Tughluq.
' Alauddin Khalji’s military campaigns saw the empire’s territorial growth, particularly in the
Deccan and parts of South India.
' Muhammad bin Tughluq’s reign witnessed campaigns in the Deccan and South India as well,
although the ambitious capital shift to Daulatabad led to administrative challenges.
' These expansions helped the Sultanate exert influence over a vast geographical area, contributing
to its historical significance.
152
Administration under Delhi Sultanate

Sultan as Central Authority
' The sultan was the supreme authority in the Delhi Sultanate.
' The Sultan held absolute power and was
Appointment of Slaves
considered both the political and religious
leader of the state. ± Early Delhi Sultans, particularly
Iltutmish, preferred appointing special
' Decisions related to governance, taxation, slaves known as ‘bandagan’ in Persian
justice, and foreign policy were made by the for key roles.
sultan and his advisors. ± These slaves were purchased for military
' The sultan used titles like “Sikandar-i-Sani” service and underwent rigorous training
(Second Alexander) and “Zil-e-Ilahi” (Shadow to hold crucial political offices.
of God) to emphasise their authority and divine ± Their complete dependence on the Sultan
right to rule. fostered trust and reliability in the
administration.
' They also minted coins with their names and
titles.
' Court of Advisors: The sultan had a court of advisors, including important ministers, scholars,
and religious leaders, who helped in the administration of the empire.
' Sultan as Supreme Military Commander: The sultan served as the supreme military
commander, leading campaigns and maintaining control over the army, which was a crucial
aspect of governance in a turbulent era.
' Administration of Justice: The sultan played a central role in the administration of justice.
Islamic legal principles - Islamic law (Sharia) was applied, and Qazis (Islamic judges) were
appointed to ensure fair trials.
' Autocratic Rule: The sultan held absolute authority and often ruled with an autocratic style.
Administrative Structure
' Divisions of Administration:
* The administration was divided into various departments, including Diwan-i-Wizarat
(revenue department), Diwan-i-Arz (military department), Diwan-i-Insha
(correspondence department), and Diwan-i-Risalat (department of religious affairs).
* The nobility, consisting of Turkish and Afghan nobles, played a crucial role in governing
the empire.
* They were given land grants (iqtas) in exchange for military service and revenue collection.
' Iqta System:
* The successive sultans emphasised revenue collection, and they introduced systems like
the Iqta system, where revenue-generating territories were granted to military commanders
in exchange for military service.
* Iqtadars were appointed to collect taxes in their respective regions and maintain law
and order.
* Revenue was primarily collected from land taxes, including the Khams and Kharaj. Khams
is a title of leadership, whereas Kharaj is an agricultural land tax historically imposed in
Islamic societies.
' Military Administration:
* The military administration was vital for maintaining the empire’s control.
153
* The sultan maintained a well-organised military, including cavalry, infantry and elephant
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY corps. The military played a vital role in defending the empire and expanding its territory.
' Coinage:
* The sultans issued their coins, which facilitated trade and economic transactions. Coins
like the silver Tanka and copper Jital were widely used.
' Communication and Correspondence:
* The Diwan-i-Insha managed communication between the central administration and
regional officials.
* It played a crucial role in the exchange of royal edicts and official correspondence.
' Central Control and Bureaucracy:
* The central administration aimed to maintain strict control over the provinces.
* Bureaucrats assisted in the functioning of various departments and ensured the smooth
governance of the empire.
' Language and Culture of Administration:
* Persian was the official language of administration during the Delhi Sultanate.
* Persian art and culture had a significant influence on the administration.
Nobles
± Nobles, also known as the aristocracy or the amirs, were a privileged class of aristocrats who
held significant power and influence in the Sultanate.
± Many nobles were prominent military leaders who commanded the sultan's armies. They were
responsible for maintaining law and order in their respective territories.
± Nobles were rewarded with land grants known as 'iqta' in exchange for their military service.
These grants were hereditary, but the sultan retained ultimate ownership.
± Nobles often held key administrative positions in the sultanate, overseeing various aspects of
governance, including finance and justice.
± Many nobles were patrons of art and culture, contributing to the flourishing of Persian and
Islamic culture in India. They sponsored scholars, poets, and artists.
± The relationship between the sultan and the nobles resembled a feudal system, with land grants
and military service forming the basis of this relationship.
± The nobility was marked by intense rivalries and court intrigues as different factions vied for
power and influence within the sultan's court.
± Nobles enjoyed significant privileges, including social status, wealth, and access to education.
They lived in luxury compared to the common people.
Provincial and Local Administration

' Provincial Governors (Walis):
* The Delhi Sultanate was divided into provinces, each administered by a provincial governor
known as a “wali.”
* These governors were appointed by the sultan and had both administrative and military
authority in their respective regions.
' Appointment of Military Commanders as Governors (Muqtis):
* Khalji and Tughluq monarchs followed the tradition of appointing military commanders
as governors (muqtis) of various territories known as iqta.
* Muqtis’ responsibilities included leading military campaigns and maintaining law and
order in their assigned iqta.
154
* They received revenue from their

Effective Control of Muqtis:
territories as salary and used it to pay
± Effective control over muqtis was ensured
their soldiers.
by making their offices non-heritable and
' District Administrators: shifting them frequently. These stringent
* Each province was further divided into conditions of service were strictly enforced.
districts, and the district administrators ± State-appointed accountants monitored
revenue collection and ensured that
were known as “shiqdars” or “amils.”
muqtis collected only prescribed taxes and
* They were responsible for revenue maintained the required number of soldiers.
collection, law enforcement, and
maintaining order at the local level.
* Revenue officials assessed land and collected taxes from the peasants, with a significant
portion going to the state treasury.
' Law and Order:
* The local administration played a crucial role in maintaining law and order.
* Qazis (Islamic judges) were responsible for resolving disputes according to Islamic law
(Sharia).
* Local military commanders, known as “faujdars” or “Nayaks,” were responsible for
defence and maintaining peace.
' Town Administration:
* Cities and towns had their administrators, such as the “shahna” or “kotwal.”
* They oversaw urban governance, including trade regulations, sanitation, and security.
' Role of Local Nobility:
* Local nobles, including feudal lords and zamindars, had significant influence in provincial
and district administration. They often acted as intermediaries between the state and the
peasantry.
' Judicial System:
* The Islamic legal system was prevalent, with qazis presiding over civil and criminal cases
based on Sharia law. Hindu personal law continued to apply to non-Muslim communities.
' Taxation System:
* The state collected various taxes, including the jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims), kharaj
(land tax), and customs duties. Tax rates varied depending on the region and local
conditions.
* Delhi Sultans exerted authority over hinterland areas, compelling landed chieftains
(Samanta aristocrats) and rich landlords to accept their rule.
* Sultanate administrators measured land and kept meticulous records, with some old
chieftains and landlords serving as revenue collectors and assessors.
* Three types of taxes were imposed: kharaj (on cultivation), tax on cattle, and tax on
houses.
' Communication and Reporting:
* Provincial governors maintained regular communication with the central authority in Delhi,
reporting on local matters, revenue collection and security.
Economy under Delhi Sultanate
' The Delhi Sultanate inherited a well-established economic system from its predecessors, with
agriculture as the backbone of the economy.
155
' Agrarian Economy:
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY * The majority of the population was engaged in agriculture, producing food crops like wheat,
rice, and barley.
* Peasant Class: Peasants, often referred to as “ryots” or “cultivators,” formed the backbone
of the agrarian economy. They were responsible for farming the land and paying taxes to
the state.
* Land Ownership: Land ownership was concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite,
including the sultans, nobility and religious institutions. Peasants had limited rights over
the land they cultivated.
* Zamindars role: The rural gentry, often referred to as “zamindars” or “landlords,” played
an intermediary role between the state and the peasants. They collected taxes on behalf of
the government and sometimes acted as local administrators.
* Impact of Invasions: Invasions and wars during the Delhi Sultanate period could disrupt
agricultural activities, leading to widespread suffering among the rural population.
' Trade and Commerce:
* Trade flourished under the Delhi Sultanate due to the location of India on the Silk Road.
* Major trade routes connected India with Central Asia, the Middle East and China.
' Foreign Trade:
* The Delhi Sultanate engaged in foreign trade
Merchants and Guilds:
with regions like Persia, China, and the
Middle East which brought in new ideas and ± Merchants played a crucial role in
facilitating trade, both within the
technologies. empire and with foreign regions.
* Exports included textiles, spices, and indigo, ± Guilds or associations of merchants,
while imports comprised luxury goods like known as "Srenis" or "Mahajans,"
silk, gold and precious stones. regulated trade activities, ensured
fair business practices, and provided
* Industrial Activities: Various industries, support to members.
such as textile manufacturing, metalwork, ± Urban centers like Delhi, Multan, and
and pottery, thrived during this period. Lahore became vibrant commercial
hubs, attracting traders and merchants
' Urban Centers: Cities like Delhi, Agra and Lahore
from various regions.
became important centres of trade and commerce.
± Internal trade thrived, with goods
They were known for their bustling markets and
like textiles, spices, metals and
skilled artisans. agricultural products being traded
' Infrastructure: extensively.
* The Sultanate invested in infrastructure
development, including the construction of roads, bridges, and irrigation systems to improve
agricultural productivity.
* The Sultans constructed markets (bazaars) and caravanserais to facilitate trade and
commerce.
Society under Delhi Sultanate
' Diverse Population: Towns in the Delhi Sultanate were inhabited by a diverse population,
including rulers, nobles, bureaucrats, merchants, artisans and labourers.
' Religious Diversity: Medieval India was characterised by religious diversity. Hindus, Muslims,
Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs coexisted, although the ruling elite was predominantly Muslim.
156
' Caste System:

* The caste system remained a significant aspect Reasons for Choosing Slave Over Son:
of social life. Society was divided into numerous Loyalty and Dependability, Education and
castes, each with its role and occupation. Training, Absence of Heir Conflicts, Social
Status, and Cultural Norms
* A strict code of conduct and etiquette existed.
Respect for elders and social superiors was emphasised.
' Slavery:
* Slavery existed in medieval India, with slaves being acquired through conquest and
purchase.
* Slaves were utilised for various tasks, such as working in households, agricultural labour
and construction projects.
' Position of Women:
* The status of women varied based on their social and economic backgrounds.
* While some women had prominent roles in administration and art, others faced restrictions
in terms of education and mobility.
* Regrettably, practices like sati (widow self-immolation) and child marriage continued
during this period, although they were not universal.
' Literature and Language:
* Persian became the language of administration and culture during this period. Persian
poetry, literature and historical works gained prominence.
' Social Hierarchy:
* Society was divided into various social strata, including nobles, scholars, artisans, traders
and labourers. The nobility and religious scholars held high positions.
* Impact of Bhakti and Sufi Movements:
' Sufi mysticism and bhakti movements also played a role in shaping cultural practices.
* Sufism gained popularity during this period and Sufi saints played a significant role in
spreading Islam and promoting communal harmony.
' Education:
* Education was primarily religious and centred around madrasas (Islamic schools) where
students learned Quranic studies and Persian language and literature.
* The interaction of people from different backgrounds in urban areas led to cultural exchange
and the blending of traditions,
contributing to the rich tapestry of
mediaeval Indian culture.
Art and Architecture under Delhi
Sultanate
' The Delhi Sultanate period witnessed the
flourishing of art and culture.
' Some sultans were known for their
patronage of art, culture, and architecture.
They commissioned grand mosques, forts,
and other structures that showcased their
power and wealth.
157
' Architecture, particularly Indo-Islamic architecture, thrived with the construction of
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY monuments like the Qutb Minar and Jama Masjid.
' Artisans played a crucial role in the urban economy. They were skilled craftsmen who produced
a wide range of goods, including textiles, metalwork, pottery and jewellery.
Religion under Delhi Sultanate
' Religious Tolerance and Religious Diversity:
* While Islam was the official religion, sultans, particularly during the early years, practised
religious tolerance and allowed the peaceful coexistence of different religious communities
within the empire.
* The Delhi Sultanate was characterised by a diverse population practising various religions,
including Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Jainism and others.
* Sultans often made endowments to religious institutions, both Hindu and Muslim,
contributing to the promotion of religious activities.
' Religious Administration:
* The administration also included religious officials like “muftis” and “imams” who played
roles in religious guidance and practices.
* Mosques and religious institutions were often supported by state resources.
* Some sultans, like Alauddin Khilji, appointed Hindu officials to high administrative
positions, reflecting a degree of inclusivity.
' Protection of Places of Worship: The Delhi Sultanate, for the most part, protected the places
of worship of different religions from vandalism and destruction.
' Jizya Tax: While non-Muslims were generally allowed to practice their faith freely, they were
sometimes subject to the Jizya tax, which was a poll tax on non-Muslims. However, this tax did
not always indicate religious persecution and was primarily a source of revenue.
' Religious Conversion: Some conversions to Islam did occur, but they were often voluntary and
not the result of force or coercion.
' Religious Scholars:
* Delhi Sultanate saw the presence of renowned religious scholars from both Hindu and
Muslim traditions, contributing to religious discourse and interfaith dialogue.
* The relative religious freedom and tolerance promoted social cohesion among diverse
communities, contributing to a culturally vibrant society.
Do You Know?
± The term ‘masjid’ in Arabic refers to a place where Muslims prostrate in reverence to Allah
Congregational mosques (masjid-i-jami or jama masjid) are places where Muslims pray
together.
± In these mosques, the congregation selects a respected and learned male as their leader
(Imam) for prayer rituals and Friday sermons (khutba).
± During prayers, Muslims face Mecca, which in India is to the west, referred to as the qible.
Delhi Sultans constructed numerous mosques across the subcontinent to assert their role
as protectors of Islam and Muslims.
± Mosques played a crucial role in fostering a sense of community among bellevers who
shared a belief system and a code of conduct, especially as Muslims came from diverse
backgrounds.
158
Delhi Sultanate in 15th-16th Century

' During this period the following two significant dynasties, the Sayyids and the Lodis, held sway
over the region until 1526 AD.
' Emergence of Regional Kingdoms:
* By this time, several regions in India had gained independence from central authority and
established prosperous states with their capitals.
* These regions included Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and the entire
southern part of India. Additionally, this era marked the rise of new ruling groups,
particularly the Afghans and the Rajputs.
' Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545 AD):
* He began his career as the manager of a small territory in Bihar under the patronage
of his uncle. Eventually, he challenged and defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun
(1530 –1540 AD, 1555 –1556 AD).
* Sher Shah’s conquests included capturing Delhi, where he established his dynasty.
* Although the Sur dynasty’s rule lasted only fifteen years, he introduced a highly effective
administration system that borrowed elements from Alauddin Khalji’s rule and refined
them.
* Sher Shah’s administration served as a model for the Mughal emperor Akbar (1556–1605 AD),
who adopted and further improved upon Sher Shah’s administrative practices when he
consolidated and expanded the Mughal Empire.
* This period played a crucial role in shaping the administrative structure of the Mughal
Empire.
History Through the Eyes of Travellers

' Travellers like Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta and François Bernier came from diverse social and
cultural backgrounds.
' They often paid more attention to everyday activities and practices that indigenous writers
might have taken for granted, considering them routine and not worthy of recording.
' This difference in perspective adds depth and interest to their travel accounts.
' Overall, the travellers’ accounts provide unique insights into the social and cultural aspects
of the regions they visited, shedding light on aspects of life that may have been overlooked by
local writers.
' Two important travellers of the Delhi Sultanate were Al-Biruni from Uzbekistan
(11th century AD) and Ibn Battuta from Morocco (14th century AD).
Al-Biruni
' Al-Biruni, who was born in 973 AD in Khwarizm, which is now Uzbekistan, was a scholar
who spoke numerous languages, including Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit.
Furthermore, he was well-versed in Greek philosophy, owing to Arabic translations.
' In 1017 AD, Sultan Mahmud invaded Khwarizm and took Al-Biruni, along with other scholars,
to his capital, Ghazni.
' In Ghazni, Al-Biruni became interested in India, a common scholarly pursuit at the time.
' Al-Biruni spent time with Brahmana priests and scholars, learned Sanskrit, and studied
religious and philosophical texts.
' He translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic, including Patanjali’s work on grammar.
159
' He also translated the works of Euclid, a Greek mathematician, into Sanskrit for them,
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY showcasing his commitment to cross-cultural exchange and learning.
Kitab-Ul-Hind
' The book is written in Arabic, Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is known for its simplicity and clarity.
' The text is extensive, consisting of 80 chapters that cover a wide range of subjects like Religion
and philosophy, Festivals, Astronomy, Alchemy, Manners and customs, Social life,
Weights and measures, Iconography, Laws and metrology.
Al-Biruni: Sanskritic Tradition
' Al-Biruni identified three main barriers to understanding Indian society: language differences,
religious disparities and local insularity.
' Al-Biruni characterized Sanskrit as a complex language with an extensive vocabulary.
' He linked it to Arabic in terms of the wide range of words and inflections.
Al-Biruni’s Perspectives on the Caste System:
' Al-Biruni attempted to explain the caste system by drawing parallels with social categories in
ancient Persia.
' He highlighted that social divisions existed in other societies and it is not unique to India.
' Al-Biruni also mentioned that in Islam, all men were considered as equals.
' Al-Biruni disapproved of the idea of pollution, emphasising the natural order’s cleansing
principles.
● Influenced by the study of Sanskrit texts, particularly from the perspective of the Brahmanas,
he said that in real life, the caste system was less rigid.
' Antyaja categories (born outside the system) often provided inexpensive labour to peasants
and zamindars.
' Social oppression existed, but they were also included within economic networks.
' Varnas System:
* Brahmana: The highest caste, created from the head of Brahman (symbolising nature).
They are considered the best of mankind by Hindus.
* Kshatriya: Next in rank, created from the shoulders and hands of Brahman. Their status
is only slightly below that of Brahmanas.
* Vaishya: Created from the thigh of Brahman.
* Shudra: Created from the feet of Brahman.
Ibn Battuta
' In the 14th century AD, the subcontinent was part of a global network of communication.
' Ibn Battuta travelled extensively, visiting sacred shrines, meeting rulers and experiencing
cosmopolitan cultures.
' Urban centres had people speaking various languages like Arabic, Persian, Turkish, etc.,
sharing information and stories.
Rihla
' Ibn Battuta’s book of travel is called “Rihla,” which was written in Arabic. This book provides
deep insights into the social and cultural life of the Indian subcontinent in the fourteenth
century.
160
' His curiosity about Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reputation as a patron of arts and

letters led him to Delhi.
' The Sultan, impressed by Ibn Battuta’s scholarship, appointed him as the Qazi or judge of
Delhi.
' Ibn Battuta served in this role for several years, but unfortunately, he later fell out of favour
with the Sultan and was eventually imprisoned.
' After resolving the Sultan’s misunderstanding, Ibn Battuta was reinstated in imperial service
in 1342 AD.
' He travelled extensively in India, from Malabar to Sumatra, before embarking on a mission to
China as the Sultan’s envoy to the Mongol ruler.
' In China, he explored as far as Beijing but decided to return home in 1347 AD.
' Ibn Battuta’s accounts are often compared to those of Marco Polo, who also travelled to China
and India in the late thirteenth century AD.
Indian Cities
' Indian cities were prosperous and densely populated, although occasionally disrupted by
wars.
' Delhi was the largest city in India, and Daulatabad in Maharashtra was also sizable.
' Bazaars served as economic and cultural hubs, often featuring mosques, temples, and spaces
for performances.
' Towns derived wealth from surplus appropriation from villages. Indian agriculture was
productive, yielding two crops per year.
' The subcontinent was connected to inter-Asian trade networks.
' Indian textiles, including cotton cloth, muslins, silks, brocade, and satin, were in high
demand, bringing profits to artisans and merchants.
' Fine muslin was particularly expensive, affordable only to nobles and the very wealthy.
Indian Postal System
' There were two postal methods in use: the horse post (uluq), relying on royal horses stationed
every four miles, and the foot post (dawa), with three stations per mile and couriers on foot.
' Both methods were crucial for communication and the transportation of goods in ancient
times, with the footpost being particularly favoured for speed and specific cargo like Khurasan
fruits.
' Efficient postal system for sending information, remitting credit and dispatching goods
quickly.
' News reports from spies could reach the Sultan in five days through the postal system.
Women Slaves
' The emperor assigns one of his slaves to each noble, regardless of their status, to act as a spy.
' Female scavengers were appointed by the emperor to enter houses without notice.
' These female scavengers gather information from slave girls and relay it.
' Many female slaves were captured during raids and expeditions.
' Ibn Battuta, for example, purchased slaves as gifts, including horses and camels, for various
rulers he encountered during his travels.
' Some female slaves in the service of rulers were skilled in music and dance, and their
performances were enjoyed at royal events.
161
' Slaves were commonly used for domestic labour, including carrying people on palanquins or
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY dola.
' Female slaves, particularly for domestic work, were relatively affordable, and many families
kept one or two.
' European travellers often highlighted the treatment of women as a significant difference between
Western and Eastern societies.
Impact of European Travellers
' European travellers’ writings played a significant role in shaping Europeans’ perception of
India.
' Their books were printed and circulated, contributing to the creation of an image of India in
Europe.
Limitations of Travelers’ Observations
' Travellers’ accounts offer glimpses into the lives of people during the period but are shaped by
their contexts and perspectives.
' There were aspects of social life that travellers may not have noticed.
' Experiences and observations of individuals from the subcontinent who ventured into distant
lands remain relatively unknown and require further exploration by historians.
Conclusion
Understanding the different regimes of the Delhi Sultanate provides insight into how governance and
authority were structured during mediaeval India and its impact on the economic and social life of
the time.
Timeline of the Delhi Sultanate

Year Events
1. Ghulam Dynasty (1206 – 1290)
1206 Qutb-ud-din Aibak establishes the Delhi Sultanate after the Battle of Tarain.
1210 Death of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, succeeded by his slave Iltutmish.
1236 Razia Sultana becomes the first female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
1290 End of the Ghulam Dynasty with the assassination of Nasiruddin Mahmud.
2. Khalji Dynasty (1290 – 1320)
1290 Jalal-ud-din Khalji becomes the ruler after overthrowing the last Ghulam Sultan,
1296 Alauddin Khalji ascends to the throne and establishes a strong central administration.
1316 Death of Alauddin Khalji; end of the Khalji Dynasty
3. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 – 1414)
1320 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq establishes the Tughlaq Dynasty.
1335 –1342 Reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, known for his ambitious but controversial policies.
1398 Timur invades Delhi and causes significant destruction.
1414 End of the Tughlaq Dynasty with the assassination of Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq.
162
4. Sayyid Dynasty (1414 – 1451)
1414 Khizr Khan founds the Sayyid Dynasty after the decline of the Tughlaq Dynasty.
1451 End of the Sayyid Dynasty with the rise of the Lodi Dynasty.
5. Lodi Dynasty (1451 – 1526)
1451 Bahlul Khan Lodi becomes the Sultan and establishes the Lodi Dynasty.
1526 The First Battle of Panipat takes place, leading to the downfall of the Lodi Dynasty and the
establishment of the Mughal Empire in India.
Glossary
± Chahalgani: A council of forty in medieval Persian governance.
± Gaz-i-Alauddin: A medieval Persian tax on agricultural produce.
± Dagh: A Persian term for a mark or seal.
± Jitals: Medieval Indian silver coins used during the Delhi Sultanate period.
± Iqta: A land revenue assignment system where officials (iqtadars) received the right to collect taxes from
specific regions in exchange for military service.
± Tarikh: Historical chronicles and records documenting events and important dates in medieval India.
± Garrison: Military personnel stationed in fortresses or strategic locations to defend against invasions
and maintain control over territories.
± Mongol: Invading Central Asian nomadic tribes who posed a significant threat to medieval Indian
kingdoms during the 13th century.
± Gender: A society with distinct roles and expectations for men and women, reflecting traditional gender
norms and divisions.
± Kharja: Land revenue collected from non-irrigated or rain-fed agricultural lands, often forming a
significant part of the state's revenue income.
± Client: Someone who is under the protection of another; a dependent or hanger-on.
± Metrology is the science of measurement.
± Birthright: Privileges based on one’s birth or lineage. Often associated with the belief that certain
families or individuals inherit rights or positions, such as nobles inheriting the right to govern due to
their family background.
± Gender Distinctions: Refers to the social and biological differences between women and men. These
differences are sometimes used to argue that men are superior to women in various aspects of life or
society.

163
15 The Mughals
Bibliography: This Chapter encompasses a summary of Chapter 4 – VII NCERT (Our Past II) and
Chapter 1 – XII NCERT (Themes in Indian History II).
Introduction
The Mughal Empire, one of the most influential dynasties in Indian history, emerged from descendants
of two significant lineages. Their mother's lineage is traced back to Genghis Khan, the Mongol ruler
who governed parts of China and Central Asia until he died in 1227 AD. On their father’s side, they
were the successors of Timur, a prominent ruler of Iran, Iraq, and modern-day Turkey, who passed
away in 1404 AD. Mughals preferred to be associated with Timurid ancestry. To commemorate their
lineage, each Mughal ruler had portraits created featuring both Timur and themselves.
Mughal Military Campaigns

' The early years of the
Mughal Empire were
marked by military
campaigns, beginning with
Babur, the first Mughal
emperor (1526-1530 AD).
' Babur ascended to the
throne of Ferghana in
1494 AD at the tender age
of 12 years but was forced
to relinquish his ancestral
throne due to the invasion
of another Mongol faction,
the Uzbeks.
' Babur seized Kabul in 1504
AD after years of wandering.
' In 1526 AD, Babur achieved
a significant victory over the
Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi,
at the first Battle of Panipat,
capturing both Delhi and Agra. Figure 15.1: Military campaigns under Akbar and Aurangzeb.
Mughal Traditions of Succession
The Mughals
' The Mughals held unique traditions of succession
Akbar Nama and Ain-i Akbari
that diverged from the prevailing practice of
primogeniture, where the eldest son inherits ± Akbar ordered one of his close friends
his father's estate. and courtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a
history of his reign.
' Instead, they followed the Mughal and Timurid
± Abul Fazl wrote a three-volume
custom of coparcenary inheritance, where the history of Akbar’s reign, titled
inheritance was divided among all the sons. Akbar Nama.
Mughal's Relation with Rajputs ± The first volume dealt with Akbar’s
ancestors and the second volume
' They engaged in constant campaigns against those recorded the events of Akbar’s reign.
who resisted their authority, but as their power grew, ± The third volume is the Ain-
many other rulers voluntarily aligned with them. i-Akbari. It deals with Akbar’s
The Rajputs, in particular, illustrate this pattern. administration, household, army,
the revenues and the geography
' Many Rajput families forged alliances through of his empire. It also provides rich
matrimonial ties with Mughal households, often details about the traditions and
resulting in high-ranking positions. culture of the people living in India.
' Nevertheless, resistance persisted, with the Sisodiya ± The most interesting aspect about the
Rajputs of Mewar staunchly refusing Mughal authority Ain-i-Akbari is its rich statistical
details about things as diverse as
for an extended period. After their eventual defeat, the
crops, yields, prices, wages and
Mughals treated them honourably, returning their lands revenues.
(watan) as assignments (watan jagir).
Did you know?

± The mother of Jahangir was a Kachhwaha princess, daughter of the Rajput ruler of Amber
(modern-day Jaipur).
± The mother of Shah Jahan was a Rathor princess, daughter of the Rajput ruler of Marwar
(Jodhpur).
Administrative System During Mughal Period

Mansabdars and Jagirdars:
' The expansion of the Mughal Empire necessitated the recruitment of a diverse group of
individuals into their administration.
' Initially comprised of Turkish nobles (Turanis), the Mughals were later joined by Iranians,
Indian Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas, and other groups with the title of "mansabdars,"
which meant individuals holding a "mansab" or rank.
' The Mughals implemented mansabdari, a grading system used to determine three key factors:
rank, salary, and military responsibilities.
Suba (Province) Subedar (Governor)
' The "zat" value, a numerical ranking, determined
Faujdar (low & order)
both rank and salary, with higher values
Sarkar (District) Amalguzar
indicating greater prestige and larger salaries.
(assessment & Collection of revenue)
' Mansabdars were tasked with maintaining a Parganas (Sub-district)
Shiqdar (Executive officer)
specified number of cavalrymen called "Sawar,"
and they received salaries in the form of revenue Village Maqaddam (village head man)
assignments known as "Jagirs."
Mughal Administration
165
' Unlike "muqtis," most mansabdars did not reside in or
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY govern their jagirs, instead delegated revenue collection to POINTS TO PONDER
The Mughal phase of Indian History
their servants while they served in other regions. took many shocks in the form of
Humayun’s defeat, the weak leadership
' During Akbar's reign, jagirs were meticulously assessed of Jahangir, and later clashes with the
to ensure that their revenues matched the salaries of the Ahom and Maratha kingdoms. Still, it
mansabdars. However, by Aurangzeb's era, this balance proved to be one of the most resilient
had eroded, resulting in actual revenue collections falling empires in the history of India. Do you
short of the granted sums. think it was the leaders or mode
of political organisation which
' The proliferation of mansabdars and delays in jagir was the prime strength of the
assignments exacerbated the issue, with many jagirdars Mughal Sultanate?
attempting to extract as much revenue as possible during their tenure.
' Aurangzeb struggled to control these developments, leading to severe hardships for the
peasantry.
POINTS TO PONDER
Zabt:
The land revenue system
' It was a revenue collection system implemented during of Mughals devised by Raja
the Mughal Empire, particularly during the reign of Akbar. Todarmal became one of the
most efficient systems of its
' It involved assessing taxes in cash for each crop based on time. However, Guptas, Mauryas
extensive surveys of crop yields, prices, and cultivated areas and Cholas also had their own
conducted by the revenue minister of Akbar, Todar Mal meticulously designed revenue
from 1570 to 1580 AD. systems. Can you compare and
find out the changes introduced
' Zabt was employed where Mughal administrators could
by Todarmal which
effectively survey land and maintain accurate records, but seemingly made the
this was not feasible in regions like Gujarat and Bengal. system much superior to
its predecessors?
Zamindars:
' Zamindars were intermediaries responsible for collecting taxes on agricultural produce from
peasants on behalf of the Mughal rulers.
' They included both local village headmen and influential chieftains who played a key role in the
tax collection process in various regions.
' Zamindars held significant power in some areas, and exploitation by Mughal administrators
could incite rebellion.
' Occasionally, zamindars and peasants of the same caste formed alliances to oppose Mughal
authority, resulting in peasant revolts that challenged the stability of the Mughal Empire,
especially in the late seventeenth century.
The Mughal Empire: Post 16th Century

' The Mughal Empire of the seventeenth century experienced a period of notable administrative
and military efficiency, resulting in substantial economic prosperity and commercial success.
' Economic Disparity:
* Foreign travellers often described it as a land of great wealth, but they were equally
struck by the stark disparities between extreme poverty and immense opulence.
* This inequality was exemplified by the fact that only 445 individuals, a mere 5.6 per cent
of the total mansabdars, received a significant 61.5 per cent of the empire's estimated
revenue as salaries for themselves and their troops during Shah Jahan's reign.
166
* This skewed distribution left little capital for investment in the hands of peasants and
The Mughals
artisans, hindering their ability to improve productivity.
' Rise of Mughal Elites:
* The affluence of the Mughal elite contributed to their substantial power in the late
seventeenth century. As the Mughal emperor's authority slowly declined, his officials in
various regions emerged as influential centers of power.
* These officials established new dynasties and controlled provinces like Hyderabad and
Awadh while still recognizing the Mughal emperor in Delhi as their nominal leader.
* However, by the eighteenth century, these provinces had solidified their independent
political identities.
Mughal Rule Through Traveler’s Eyes

' The arrival of the Portuguese in India around 1500 AD marked the beginning of detailed
European accounts of Indian social customs and religious practices. Notably, the Jesuit
Roberto Nobili translated Indian texts into European languages.
' Duarte Barbosa: A Portuguese writer, provided a comprehensive account of trade and society
in South India. Subsequently, in the 17th century, Dutch, English, and French travellers
explored India.
' Pelsaert: A Dutch traveller, in the early 17th century, was appalled by the severe poverty in
the subcontinent. He blamed the state, noting that peasants barely had enough to eat due to
heavy taxation.
' Jean-Baptiste Tavernier: A famous French jeweller, who made multiple journeys, focusing
on India's trade. Some, like the Italian doctor Manucci, chose to settle in India.
' Francois Bernier: He was a Frenchman who spent twelve years in the Mughal Empire, serving
as a physician, intellectual, and scientist at the Mughal court.
* Initially, he served as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah
Jahan, and later became an intellectual and scientist alongside Danishmand Khan, an
Armenian noble at the Mughal court.
Francois Bernier’s Account of India

' Bernier dedicated his major work to Louis XIV, the French king, and composed other works in
the form of letters to influential officials.
' Bernier’s writings were subsequently translated into English, Dutch, German, and Italian
within five years. His French account was reprinted eight times between 1670 and 1725 AD,
while the English version had three reprints by 1684 AD.
* This contrasted with Arabic and Persian accounts, which mainly circulated as manuscripts
and were rarely published before 1800 AD.
' Imperial Karkhanas:
* Bernier provides a detailed account of imperial karkhanas or workshops
in which various artisans work.
* These workshops include embroiderers, goldsmiths, painters, lacquer
workers, joiners, turners, tailors, and shoemakers, as well as silk,
brocade, and muslin manufacturers.
* Artisans work from morning to evening routinely without aspiring for
better opportunities in life. Figure 15.2:
Francois Bernier
167
' Socio-Religious Conditions:
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY * Bernier portrayed Indian society as divided into two extremes: a wealthy ruling class
and a mass of impoverished people, with no significant middle class.
* He also witnessed an event of child sati in Lahore.
' Economic Conditions:
* Many parts of India, including Bengal, were incredibly fertile, surpassing even Egypt in rice,
corn, and various goods like silks, cotton, and indigo.
* Despite some indolence, the population were engaged in manufacturing textiles, gold, silver,
and more. India also played a role in the circulation of gold and silver globally.
* Indian merchants, like the mahajans in the West, had tight-knit communities. In urban
areas, the nagarsheth led them.
* Professionals like physicians (hakim or vaid), teachers (pundit or Mulla), lawyers (wakil)
and artists served different patrons, including the public.
Bernier’s Comparison of Mughal India and West/Europe

' Bernier extensively travelled across India, documenting
his observations and often drawing comparisons Additional Information:
between India and Europe in his writings. ± Mughal official documents do
' In his descriptions, Bernier frequently portrayed India not indicate that the state owned
as lagging behind Europe, although this assessment all the land.
was not always accurate. ± Abu'l Fazl, a chronicler during
Akbar's reign, referred to land
' Model of Governance: Bernier warned that if European revenue as "remunerations of
kings adopted the Mughal model of governance, sovereignty," signifying it as a
their kingdoms would become impoverished, poorly payment for protection rather
developed, and filled with neglected cities, ultimately than rent on land ownership.
leading to decline and desolation. ± European travellers might have
' Land Ownership: Bernier noted a fundamental misunderstood this as rent due
distinction between Mughal India and Europe the to high revenue demands. In
reality, it was a tax on crops, not
absence of private land ownership in India.
land ownership.
* He believed that crown ownership hindered
economic development, as landholders couldn't
invest for the long term, leading to declining living standards and agricultural woes, except
for the ruling elite.
Additional Information:
Nur Jahan’s influence in Jahangir’s Court:
± Mehrunnisa married the emperor Jahangir in 1611 and received the title, Nur Jahan.
± She remained extremely loyal and supportive to the monarch. As a mark of honor, Jahangir
struck silver coins bearing his own titles on one side, and on the other, the inscription
“struck in the name of Queen Begum, Nur Jahan.”
± The adjoining document is an order (Farman) of Nur Jahan. The square seal states,
“Command of her most Sublime and Elevated Majesty Nur Jahan Padshah Begum.”
± The round seal states, “By the sun of Shah Nur Jahan she became as brilliant as the
moon; may Nur Jahan Padshah be the lady of the age”.
168
Conclusion
The Mughals
In the late seventeenth century, the Mughal elite wielded enormous wealth and resources, making
them a formidable force in India. However, as the authority of the Mughal emperor began to wane,
his servants emerged as influential centers of power in various regions. These elites established
new dynasties and assumed control over provinces such as Hyderabad and Awadh. Although they
maintained a nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor in Delhi, by the eighteenth century, the
provinces of the empire had solidified their independent political identities.
Timeline Events
1526 Establishment of Mughal Empire in India by Babur.
1556 Akbar ascended to the throne of the Mughal Empire.
1605 Jahangir became the ruler of the Mughal Empire.
The English East India Company was granted permission to

1611
establish a trading post in India.
1628 Shah Jahan takes over the throne of Delhi.
Aurangzeb ascended to the throne after imprisoning his

1658
father, Shah Jahan.
1739 Persian ruler Nadir Shah invaded Delhi and sacked the city.
The British East India Company defeated the Nawab of Bengal

1757
at the Battle of Plassey, establishing British control over Bengal.
The Third Battle of Panipat between the Marathas and
1761
Ahmad Shah Abdali of Afghanistan took place.
The British secured the Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, and
1765
Odisha through the Treaty of Allahabad.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy
1857-1858
Mutiny, took place, leading to the end of the Mughal Empire.
169
± Coparcenary: A type of property ownership wherein multiple people inherit the same property, and each
person owns an undivided, transferable interest in the property.
± Primogeniture: A system of inheritance in which a person's property passes to their firstborn legitimate
child upon their death.
± Sawars: These were the cavalrymen that Mansabdar was supposed to maintain.
± Jagirs: These were the revenue assignments given to the Mansabdars.
± Watan: These were the conquered lands of the defeated kings.
± Mansabdar: A diverse group of individuals in the Mughal administration holding a "mansab" or rank
were called Mansabdars.
± Jagirdar: Jagirdars were part of the Mughal administration having land as revenue assignments, jagir
was the land assigned.
± Mahajan/Nagarshen: Mahajan or Nagarshen was the title given to the merchants in western India
during Mughal rule.
± Seth: The term Seth was used for the chief of the Mahajans or merchants in western India.
± Sati: Sati was a practice wherein a widow would set herself on fire by sitting atop the funeral pyre of her
husband.
± Zat: It was a numerical ranking value that was used to determine both rank and salary of an official in
the Mughal court.
± Muqtis: Muqtis were the individuals residing inside the land assigned (Iqta) to them for revenue and
governance.
± Turrani: Turranis were the nobles of Turkish origin in the Mughal court.
± Zabt: It was a revenue collection system that involved assessing taxes in cash for each crop based on
extensive surveys of crop yields, prices, and cultivated areas.
± Karkhanas: Karkhanas were the imperial workshops where various craftsmen worked.
± Hakim: Hakim was an individual practising as a physician.
± Wakil: Wakil was an individual practising as a lawyer.
± Sulh-i-Kul: Akbar’s policy of "universal peace" (Sulh-i-Kul), wherein people of different religions coexisted
peacefully.

170
Decline of Mughals
16 and Rise of
Regional Powers
Bibliography: This Chapter encompasses a summary of Chapter 8 - VII NCERT of Our Past II.
Introduction
During the 18th and 19th century, the once-mighty Mughal Empire faced internal strife and external
pressures, leading to its decline. As the Mughal power waned, various regional powers and kingdoms
emerged across the Indian subcontinent, marking a significant shift in political dynamics and setting
the stage for a diverse and fragmented landscape in medieval India.
The Crisis of the Empire and the Later Mughals

' The Mughal Empire reached its pinnacle of success but began to experience a series of crises in
the late 17th century. These challenges were multifaceted and stemmed from various sources.
Map 16.1: State formations in the 18th Century

NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Decline of Empire
Deccan policy of Aurangzeb Rich Harvest and Empty Coffers
' Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy was utterly ± Financial bankruptcy of the empire was evident
unsuccessful which depleted the military in peasants reaping abundant harvests, but lords
and financial resources of the empire. not receiving any benefits due to the collapse of
order and administration. This crisis left lords
Later Mughals and Nobility unable to maintain armed forces or pay soldiers
and horsemen.
' Decline of efficiency of imperial ± Additionally, in 1739, Nadir Shah of Iran sacked
administration in later Mughal period Delhi, plundering immense wealth, and was
led to strengthening of mansabdars i.e., followed by Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali,
nobles. who conducted multiple raids in north India
between 1748 and 1761, worsening the empire's
' This caused the shifting of power into
economic and political turmoil.
the hands of provincial governors, local
chieftains, and other groups.
' The Mughal Empire, already under immense pressure,
POINTS TO PONDER
faced further weakening due to rivalries among noble
Some Historians point to the reign
groups, primarily the Iranis and Turanis of Turkish of Aurangzeb and his weak warring
descent. successors as the prime reason
' Subsequent emperors were controlled by these noble for the decline of the Mughal
groups, rendering them mere puppets, with some empire. However, looking at the
emperors even assassinated. then developments of western
civilisation during the period, don’t
Peasant Revolts you think all technologically
backward empires were
' Northern and western regions of the empire faced peasant doomed to fail?
and zamindari rebellions, often triggered by escalating
taxes or the ambitions of influential local chieftains.
' These groups strengthened their positions by seizing economic resources, further eroding
Mughal authority.
Loss of Central Power
' Nobles appointed as Governors (subadars) wielded substantial political, economic, and military
power within their territories, weakening central authority.
' Facilitated emergence of regional powers in Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad.
Consequently, these multifaceted crises caused the empire’s decline and a significant transformation
in the political and economic landscape of India.
Nadir Shah’s Attack on Delhi

Nadir Shah attacked and plundered Delhi in 1739 CE. Contemporary accounts vividly portrayed the aftermath
of Nadir Shah’s invasion in Delhi.
± One record detailed the immense loot from the Mughal treasury, including sixty lakhs of rupees, thousands
of gold coins, nearly one crore worth of gold items, almost fifty crores worth of priceless jewels, including
the Peacock throne.
172
Decline of Mughals and Rise of Regional Powers
± Another account depicted the invasion’s impact on Delhi, where those who were once in power faced
dire circumstances, revered individuals struggled even for water, recluses were forcibly brought out of
seclusion, the affluent were reduced to begging, trendsetters in clothing were now naked, property owners
found themselves homeless, and the once-thriving New City (Shahjahanabad) was reduced to ruins.
± Nadir Shah also attacked and destroyed the old quarters of the city, obliterating an entire world that
existed there.
Nadir Shah’s attack was followed by a series of invasions by Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali between
1748 CE to 1761 CE.
Map 16.2: British territories in the mid-eighteenth century
173
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Rise of Regional Powers
The Rajput
' Many Rajput rulers had accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals, but Mewar was the only
Rajput state which defied Mughal authority.
' Rana Pratap ascended the throne at Mewar in 1572, with Udaipur and large part of Mewar
under his control.
' A series of envoys were sent to the Rana to persuade him to accept Mughal suzerainty, but he
stood his ground.
Rajput’s Influence and Expansion:

' In the 18th century, Rajput kings,
primarily from Amber and Jodhpur, who Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur
had served the Mughals with distinction, ± Raja Jai Singh enjoyed a period of considerable
sought to expand their influence beyond influence, serving as the governor of Agra for
12 years and overseeing Malwa for 5 to 6 years.
their traditional territories.
He commanded a substantial army, possessed
' Rajputs held key positions, with rulers artillery, and accumulated significant wealth. His
like Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and Sawai dominion stretched from Delhi to the banks of the
Narmada River.
Raja Jai Singh of Amber governing
± Sawai Jai Singh, the ruler of Amber, initiated the
Gujarat and Malwa, respectively.
construction of five astronomical observatories,
Emperor Jahandar Shah renewed these each located in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura,
appointments in 1713. and Varanasi. These observatories, commonly
referred to as Jantar Mantar, were equipped with
' Rajputs also attempted to seize adjacent
various instruments designed for the study of
imperial lands, annexing Nagaur and celestial objects and phenomena.
capturing parts of Bundi.
' Sawai Raja Jai Singh established Jaipur as his capital POINTS TO PONDER
and became the subadar of Agra in 1722. Indian monumental heritage,
' However, Maratha incursions from the 1740s limited their particularly in Rajputana fort
palaces are now being converted
territorial expansion, marking a significant shift in regional as hotels and tourist attractions.
power dynamics. This has provided greater global
visibility to Indian architecture
Architecture: and contributed to its renovation.
However, don't you think it has
' Many Rajput chieftains built a number of forts on hill tops hampered the aesthetics
which became the centers of power. related to cultural assets of
India?
' With extensive fortifications, these majestic structures
housed urban centers, palaces, temples, trading centers,
water harvesting structures and other buildings.
' For instance, The Chittorgarh fort contained many water bodies varying from talabs (ponds)
to kundis (wells), baolis (stepwells), etc.
174
Figure 16.1: Mehrangarh Fort Jodhpur
The Sikhs
' In the 17th century, the Sikhs organized themselves politically in the Punjab region, engaging
in battles led by Guru Gobind Singh against Rajput and Mughal rulers.
' Khalsa: In the 18th century, Sikh groups known as jathas and misls formed a powerful collective
called the Dal Khalsa, making decisions at Amritsar during key festivals and implementing a
protection tax system for cultivators.
* Guru Gobind Singh’s teachings inspired the Khalsa to believe in their destiny to rule (raj
karega Khalsa).
* After Guru Gobind Singh’s death in 1708, the Khalsa, under Banda Bahadur’s leadership,
revolted against the Mughals, establishing their own rule with a unique coinage
system.
' Sikh Resistance and Expansion: Their well-organized structure allowed them to resist Mughal
governors and Ahmad Shah Abdali, leading to the minting of their coins in 1765, mirroring
those from Banda Bahadur’s era.
* By the late 18th century, Sikh territories extended from the Indus to the Jamuna rivers,
although they were fragmented under various rulers.
* Maharaja Ranjit Singh eventually unified these factions and established his capital in
Lahore in 1799, marking a significant moment in Sikh history.
175
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY The Marathas
Rise of Marathas under Shivaji:
' The emergence of the Maratha kingdom
was a significant development in the Baji Rao Ballal
resistance against Mughal rule. Shivaji, ± Baji Rao I, also known as Baji Rao Ballal, was the
born in 1630 CE to Shahaji and Jija Bai, son of Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath.
played a pivotal role in establishing this ± He was a great Maratha general who is credited to
powerful regional kingdom. have expanded the Maratha kingdom beyond the
Vindhyas and is known for his military campaigns
' Supported by influential warrior families against Malwa, Bundelkhand, Gujarat and the
known as Deshmukh, Shivaji relied on Portuguese.
highly mobile peasant-pastoralists called
kunbis as the backbone of the Maratha
army. With these forces, he challenged the Mughals in the Indian peninsula.
' Shivaji’s career began under the guidance of his mother and guardian, Dada Konddev, and he
swiftly expanded his influence by occupying Javali and becoming the undisputed leader of the
Mavala Highlands.
' His legendary exploits against the forces of Bijapur and the Mughals, marked by Guerrilla
Warfare Tactics, solidified his reputation.
' Shivaji also laid the foundations of a robust Maratha state by introducing an efficient
administrative system supported by a revenue collection method based on Chauth and
Sardeshmukhi.
Consolidation of power under Peshwas:
' After Shivaji’s demise, effective leadership in the Maratha state was assumed by a Chitpavan
Brahmin family, serving as Peshwas or principal ministers, with Poona as the capital.
' Under the Peshwas, the Marathas developed a successful military strategy that involved
raiding cities, engaging Mughal armies in vulnerable areas, and bypassing fortified regions.
' Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire expanded, eroding Mughal authority. They
captured Malwa and Gujarat by the 1720s and were recognized as overlords of the Deccan
peninsula by the 1730s.
' They could levy Chauth and sardeshmukhi throughout the region. In 1737, a raid on Delhi
expanded their influence into Rajasthan, Punjab, Bengal, Orissa, Karnataka, and the
southern regions.
' These territories paid tribute to acknowledge Maratha sovereignty, although they were not
formally included in the Maratha empire.
' This expansion brought immense resources but also made other rulers hostile toward the
Marathas, leading to a lack of support during the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
Administration and Trade:
' Parallel to their military campaigns, the Marathas developed an effective administrative
system that considered local conditions when introducing revenue demands. This approach
encouraged agriculture and trade revival.
' Maratha chiefs, like Sindhia of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda, and Bhonsle of Nagpur, gained
resources to build powerful armies.
' Cities like Ujjain and Indore flourished under Maratha patronage, becoming commercial and
cultural hubs.
176
' New trade routes emerged within Maratha-controlled regions, boosting economic activity.

' For instance, the Chanderi region’s silk production found a new market in Poona, while
Burhanpur expanded its trade network to include Poona, Nagpur, Lucknow, and Allahabad,
further contributing to the prosperity and growth of these cities.
The Jat’s
Region of Influence:
' The Jat’s consolidated their authority in the late 17th and 18th centuries. Led by Churaman,
they extended their influence over lands to the west of Delhi and, by the 1680s, established
dominance in the region between the two major Mughal cities, Delhi and Agra. At one point,
they effectively controlled Agra itself.
' The Jat’s were prosperous farmers, fostering economic growth in areas under their influence,
with towns like Panipat and Ballabhgarh emerging as significant trade hubs.
Emergence of Rulers
' Suraj Mal: The power of the Jat’s reached its zenith under Suraj Mal who consolidated the Jat
state at Bharatpur (in present day Rajasthan) during 1756 –1763.
* The areas under the political control of Suraj Mal broadly included parts of modern eastern
Rajasthan, southern Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi.
* Suraj Mal built a number of forts and palaces and the famous Lohagarh fort in Bharatpur
is regarded as one of the strongest forts built in this region.
' Jawahir Shah: In 1739, during Nadir Shah’s sack of Delhi, many prominent individuals from
the city sought refuge in Bharatpur. Suraj Mal’s son, Jawahir Shah, commanded a force of
30,000 troops and enlisted an additional 20,000 Maratha and 15,000 Sikh soldiers to confront
the Mughals.
Architecture
' While the Bharatpur fort exhibited a conventional architectural style, at Dig, the Jat’s
constructed an intricate Garden Palace that blended elements from designs seen in Amber
and Agra.
' The palace’s structures were inspired by architectural forms initially associated with royalty
during the reign of Shah Jahan.
Figure 16.2: Eighteenth-century palace complex with “Bangla Dome” at Dig
177
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Conclusion
In the 18th century, India saw a transformative shift with decline of the Mughal empire and the
rise of regional powers. Emergence of Sikhs, Marathas and Jat’s and consolidation of power by the
British caused significant changes in 18th and 19th century, which resulted in enormous socio,
economic and political developments in contemporary India leading to the evolution of new chapters
in modern history.
Timeline
Time Events
1707 CE Death of Aurangzeb.
1739 CE Attack of Nadir Shah on Delhi
1748 - 1761 CE Invasions of Ahmed Shah Abdali
1761 CE 3rd Battle of Panipat
1799 CE Establishment of capital at Lahore by Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
Glossary
± Chauth: Chauth was the 1/4th or 25 per cent of the land revenue claimed by zamindars. In the Deccan,
this was collected by the Marathas.
± Guerilla War: Guerrilla warfare is a military strategy and tactic that involves small, often irregular, forces
using hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, and sabotage to disrupt and wear down a larger, more conventional
enemy. Guerrilla warfare relies on surprise and quick mobility.
± Jantar-Mantar: Jantar Mantar is a collection of astronomical observatories built by Sawai Jai Singh II
who himself was an astronomer, in the 18th century.
± Nobles: Group of influential people in Mughal court often belonging to a particular race, region.
± Peacock Throne: The Peacock Throne was a grand royal throne which was originally created during the
reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th century. The Peacock Throne was a symbol of the
Mughal Empire’s wealth and power.
± Sardeshmukhi: It was 9 –10 per cent of the land revenue paid to the head revenue collector in the
Deccan.
± Subadars: Subadars were the provincial governors with control over a particular province (Suba).
± Suzerainty: Suzerainty is a hierarchical political relationship in which a dominant state, the suzerain,
exerts control over a subordinate state, the vassal, which retains some internal autonomy while
acknowledging the suzerain’s authority.

178
Bhakti and Sufi
17 Movement
Bibliography: The chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter 6 - Class VII (Our Past-II) and
Theme 6 - Class XII(Themes in Indian History-II).
Introduction
India, between the 8th and 18th centuries, witnessed a big change in how people practiced and
thought about religion. In the south, groups like the Alvars and Nayanars sang from their heart
about their gods.
In the north, people like Kabir and Guru Nanak talked about a universal idea of god and goodness.
At the same time, Sufism, a spiritual way of following Islam, grew strong roots in India.
Bhakti and Sufi Movements
Origins:
' The eighth century marked the beginning of the Bhakti and Sufi movements where emotional
expressions are witnessed in rituals such as bhajans, kirtans, and qawwalis.
Early Religious Practices:

' Earlier various groups honored their distinct gods and goddesses before kingdoms dominated.
Shifts in Socio-religious thought:

' As towns and empires grew, beliefs about cyclical rebirths based on deeds gained traction and
society began accepting birth-based social hierarchies and caste privileges.
Dissent and Alternative Paths:

' Buddhism and Jainism: Some turned to the teachings of Buddha and Jaina. They believed
in the potential to surpass social biases and end the cycle of rebirths through personal effort.
' Rise of Bhakti: The Bhagavadgita propagated the idea of devotion (bhakti) to a Supreme God
as a means to liberation.
Rise of Prominent Deities:

' Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga emerged as central figures in religious worship.
' Regional deities began aligning with these primary entities.
' Local myths merged into the broader Puranic narratives.
' The Puranas introduced a new idea: the grace of God was not bound by caste.
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY The Beginning of Bhakti
± Bhakti, central to later Hindu practices, emphasized
devotion, particularly towards deities like Shiva,
Vishnu, and Durga.
± This form of worship, rooted in deep devotion to a
chosen deity, was democratized:
● Everyone, regardless of socio-economic or caste
status, could practice bhakti.
● The Bhagavad Gita, a revered Hindu scripture,
Figure 17.1: A page from a south Indian
encapsulated the principles of bhakti. manuscript of the Bhagavad Gita.
A New Wave of Bhakti in South India – Nayanars and Alvars

Nayanars and Alvars emerged in South India as prominent Bhakti sects. Nayanars and Alvars were
the saint-poets devoted to Lord Shiva and Vishnu respectively.
Table 17.1: A comparison between Nayanars and Alvars
Feature Nayanars Alvars

Devotion Shiva Vishnu
Origin Period 7th-9th centuries 7th-9th centuries
Number 63 12
Backgrounds Potters, “untouchables”, peasants, hunters, Varied backgrounds
soldiers, Brahmanas, chiefs
Notable Figures Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, Manikkavasagar Periyalvar, Andal, Tondaradippodi
Alvar, Nammalvar
Key Compilations Tevaram and Tiruvacakam Divya Prabandham
Emergence of the Movements in South India (7th-9th centuries):

' Nayanars and Alvars originated from varied castes, POINTS TO PONDER
including “Untouchables” like Pulaiyar and Panars. Out of the many intellectual churnings
experienced by Indian society, the
' They criticized Buddhists and Jains and preached
Bhakti movement stands apart. What
fervent devotion to Shiva or Vishnu for salvation. factors do you think makes the Bhakti
' They drew from Sangam literature’s ideals of love movement a unique endeavor in
search of a social renaissance of
and heroism and combined them with bhakti values. Indian Society? Why is it called
' As they traveled, they composed melodious poems a ‘Movement’?
in praise of village deities and set them to music.
Integration of Bhakti with Temple Culture (10th-12th centuries):
' During this period, Chola and Pandya kings built grand temples around shrines visited by
these saint-poets.
' This strengthened the connection between the bhakti tradition and temple worship.
' Historians now use the compiled poems and hagiographies from this era to understand the
bhakti tradition.
180
Bhakti and Sufi Movement
Devotion Expressed by Manikkavasagar:
In his composition, Manikkavasagar describes the deity as entering his
“vile body of flesh” as if it were a “temple of gold.”
He speaks of the lord removing his sorrows, birth, death, and illusions,
showcasing his inseparable bond with the divine.
Figure 17.2: A bronze

image of Manikkavasagar
Devotional Literature Compilations The chaturvedin (Brahmana versed in

± Nalayira Divyaprabandham: A tenth-century anthology of the four Vedas) and the "outcaste"
the 12 Alvars’ compositions, encompassing “four thousand This is an excerpt from a composition
sacred compositions”. of an Alvar named Tondaradippodi, who
± Tevaram: A tenth-century collection of hymns from was a Brahmana.
Nayanars, namely, Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar, You (Vishnu) manifestly like those
curated based on their musical essence. "servants" who express their love for your
Religious Developments feet, though they may be born outcastes,
± Tamil Bhaktas’ Influence: Ideas from Tamil bhaktas, more than the Chaturvedins who are
especially Vaishnavas, were incorporated into Sanskrit strangers and without allegiance to your
traditions, leading to the Bhagavata Purana’s composition. service.
± Maharashtrian Bhakti: The 13th century marked the Do you think Tondaradippodi was
emergence of bhakti traditions in Maharashtra. opposed to the caste system?
Philosophy and Bhakti:
Shankara (8th Century, Kerala):

' Doctrine: He advocated Advaita, emphasizing the unity between the individual soul and the
Supreme God as the Ultimate Reality.
' Views on Brahman:
* Shankara described Brahman as the sole Ultimate Reality, which is formless and without
attributes.
* He perceived the world as an illusion or maya.
* He emphasized the need for renouncing the world and seeking knowledge to truly
understand Brahman and attain salvation.
Ramanuja (11th Century, Tamil Nadu):
' Influences: He was profoundly influenced by the teachings of the Alvars.
181
Doctrine: He introduced the concept of
Vishishtadvaita, suggesting a qualified oneness,
where the soul, even after merging with the
Supreme God, retains its distinctness.
' Beliefs on Devotion:
* He believed that profound devotion to Vishnu
was the best way to achieve salvation.
* He asserted that Vishnu, in His grace, assists
the devotee in attaining union with Him.
' Legacy: His teachings played a significant role in
influencing the new wave of bhakti that sprouted
in north India.
Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka:
' Origins: In the 12th century, Basavanna, a minister
in the Kalachuri court, initiated the Virashaiva or
Lingayat movement.
' Lingayat Practices: They worship Shiva as a linga, with men wearing a small lingam pendant.
Contrary to Brahmanical customs, they bury their dead.
' Challenging Orthodoxy: Lingayats opposed caste distinctions and “pollution” concepts. They
rejected the rebirth theory, drawing followers from marginalized groups. They also supported
practices disapproved by Dharmashastras.
' Documentation: Insights into this tradition are from Kannada ‘vachanas’, penned by movement
members.
Basavanna’s Virashaivism
± Origin: The movement took root in Karnataka in the
mid-twelfth century, spearheaded by Basavanna and
supported by peers like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi.
± Contrast to Tamil Bhakti Movement: Earlier discussions
highlighted the linkage between the Tamil bhakti
movement and temple worship. Virashaivism emerged as
a counter-reaction to this trend.
± Key Principles:
● They staunchly advocated for the equality of all
human beings, challenging the prevailing Brahmanical
perspectives on caste and the treatment of women.
● They expressed firm opposition to all forms of rituals
and the worship of idols.
Vaishnava Poet-Saints of Maharashtra

± Prominent Figures: Jnaneshwar, Namadeva, Eknath, and Tukaram stand out as eminent devotees of
Lord Vitthala.
± Varkari Sect: Their devotion to Lord Vitthala birthed the Varkari sect, which highlighted the importance
of an annual pilgrimage to Pandharpur.
± Significance of Vitthala Cult: This cult emerged as a formidable avenue for devotion and resonated
deeply with the masses, marking its widespread popularity.
182
Bhakti Movement in the Deccan

' Era of Saint-Poets: From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries, Maharashtra became
the epicenter for numerous saint-poets. Their soul-stirring songs in simple Marathi continue
to uplift many.
' Prominent Figures: Key figures include Dnyaneshwar (Gyaneshwar), Namdev, Eknath, and
Tukaram. Noteworthy women saints like Sakhubai and the family of Chokhamela, who hailed
from the “untouchable” Mahar caste, also played significant roles.
' Focus of Devotion: The regional bhakti tradition centered around the Vitthala temple in
Pandharpur and embraced the idea of a personal god residing in every individual’s heart.
' Rejection of Traditional Norms:
* These saint-poets distanced themselves from all
forms of ritualism and any external show of religious
devoutness.
* They denounced societal distinctions based on
birth.
* Contrary to popular practices, they dismissed
the concept of renunciation. They chose to lead
ordinary lives with their families, earning livelihoods,
and selflessly serving those in distress.
' Emergence of Humanistic Bhakti: They proposed that
true devotion lay in empathizing with and alleviating
the suffering of others. Echoing this sentiment, the
renowned Gujarati saint, Narsi Mehta proclaimed, “True
Vaishnavas are those who perceive the pain of others.”
POINTS TO PONDER
The Bhakti movement suggested revolutionary changes to Indian society. However, it failed to fulfill
its intended purpose. Do you think the social base was ripe enough to absorb such changes having
far reaching consequences at that time? Do you think the ideas of Bhakti and Sufi Saints were far
ahead of their times?
Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis

These were religious groups who followed Bhakti traditions in northern India and criticised traditional
religions and oppressive social order. They were featured by:
' Critique of Conventional Religion: These religious factions emerged as critics of ritualistic
practices and other facets of traditional religion. They employed straightforward, logical
arguments to challenge the existing religious and social paradigms.
' Focus on Renunciation: Central to their belief was the idea
of abandoning worldly ties. For them, the path to salvation
was deeply rooted in:
* Meditating on the formless Ultimate Reality.
* Achieving a sense of unity with this omnipresent force.
' Methods for Spiritual Attainment:
* Intense training of both the mind and body was
emphasized. Practices incorporated yoga asanas, specific
breathing exercises, and deep meditation.
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' Popularity Among Lower Castes: These groups resonated particularly with the “low” castes,
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY offering them spiritual solace and a path away from traditional caste hierarchies.
' Influence on Devotional Religion: Their challenges to mainstream religious practices laid the
foundation for devotional religion to gain momentum, especially in northern India.
Religious Evolution in North India Post-13th Century

Backdrop:
' The post-13th century era witnessed a bhakti movement resurgence in North India, amidst
influences from Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, various bhakti facets, and
teachings of Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis.
' During this period, emerging kingdoms, diverse professions, and evolving societal roles marked
significant transformations.
Audience and Spread:
' Craftspersons, peasants, traders, and laborers formed the core audience of these new-age
saints, further disseminating their teachings.
Notable Figures and Their Teachings:
' Kabir & Guru Nanak: Both disavowed all orthodox religions.
' Tulsidas: Advocated accessibility of existing beliefs and practices to all. His work
“Ramcharitmanas” in Awadhi is renowned both for its literary and devotional aspects.
' Surdas: A fervent Krishna devotee whose compositions are found in the Sursagar, Sur Saravali,
and Sahitya Lahari.
' Sankaradeva of Assam: Promoted devotion to Vishnu, pioneering namcars. His devotion
essence, known as Eka Sarana Nama Dharma, stems from the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata
Purana. Among his works is the “Kirtana-ghosha”. He also backed the establishment of satra,
monastic institutions for knowledge dissemination.
' Others: Figures like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas, and Mirabai also significantly contributed. Mirabai’s
bhajans, emphasizing devotion to Krishna, challenged upper caste norms and resonated with
the masses in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Characteristics and Transmission:
' Composed in regional dialects, most saints’ works gained immense popularity and were orally
passed down across generations, often getting infused with listeners’ experiences.
Music and Bhakti Movement:
' A notable Bhakti movement byproduct is its contribution to music.
* Jayadeva wrote “Gita Govinda” in Sanskrit, it is written in specific ragas and talas which
stands testament to this.
* Moreover, the use of bhajan, kirtan, and abhang by these saints, which highlighted
emotional experiences, resonated deeply with common folks.
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Figure 17.3: A map showing major bhakti saints and the regions associated with them
New Devotional Paths: Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India

Many poet-saints explored new socio-religious ideas through dialogue.
We’ll explore three influential figures from this era.
Kabir: The Unconventional Luminary
Origins:
' Kabir, influential in the 15th and 16th centuries, hailed from a
Muslim weaver family in Benares (Varanasi).
' His life remains partly mysterious, but his impact on religious
discourse is undisputed.
185
Legacy:
' His verses are compiled in three traditions: Kabir Bijak, Kabir Granthavali, and the Adi
Granth Sahib.
' Despite limited biographical details, Kabir’s beliefs shine through his verses or sakhis and
pads.
Teachings:
' Kabir ardently challenged established religious practices in Brahmanical
Hinduism and Islam.
' He critiqued the caste system and priestly dominance.
' His poetry blends Islamic and Hindu terminologies, illustrating diverse
beliefs and sometimes contradictory ideas.
' Kabir remains an icon for those challenging religious and societal norms.
Communication:
' Kabir chose colloquial Hindi for his verses, ensuring wide reach.
' Some of his poetic expressions, however, were cryptically layered.
Central Philosophy:
' Propounding a formless deity, Kabir emphasized devotion (bhakti) as the
singular path to salvation.
' Debates arose about Kabir’s religious background, revealing his influence
across sects.
' While Vaishnava tradition suggests he was Hindu, raised by a Muslim family,
his poems don’t specify any preceptor, complicating attempts to link him with Ramananda.
Baba Guru Nanak: A Beacon of Sikhism
Origins:
' He was born in 1469 in Talwandi (present-day Nankana Sahib, Pakistan), he founded a
spiritual base in Kartarpur, nurturing a practice of hymn-singing.
' He was born in a Hindu merchant family in Muslim-majority Punjab, mingled with sufis and
bhaktas and advocated for Nirguna bhakti.
Inclusivity:
' Guru Nanak propagated inclusivity. His followers, irrespective of prior beliefs or caste, dined
in a communal kitchen, the ‘langar’.
' He initiated the ‘dharmshala’, today’s ‘Gurdwara’.
Scriptural Legacy:
' Before his demise in 1539, he appointed Lehna (later Guru Angad) as his successor.
' Guru Angad, using the Gurmukhi script, compiled Guru Nanak’s hymns. This collection,
enriched by subsequent Gurus, evolved into the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh sacred text.
Growing Community:
' The community burgeoned under Guru Nanak’s successors. He emphasized family-centric,
productive lives, and also urged contributions to communal funds.
Political Evolution:
' By the 1600s, the Sikhs had established Ramdaspur (now Amritsar) around the central
Gurdwara, Harmandir Sahib.
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' The Mughal emperor Jahangir sensed a threat and executed Guru Arjan in 1606. This tension

escalated, leading to Guru Gobind Singh founding the Khalsa in 1699.
Teachings:
' Guru Nanak championed monotheism and believed caste or gender irrelevant to salvation.
' He rejected the rituals of prevalent religions and emphasized remembering the Divine Name,
expressing his beliefs through hymns or “shabad.”
' His teachings emphasized right worship, community welfare, and moral conduct, having
profound socio-political impacts.
Mirabai, the devotee princess

' Mirabai (c. 15th-16th centuries) was a Rajput princess deeply
devoted to Krishna. Rebelling against traditional roles, she faced
family persecution and opted for a wandering saint’s life, composing
emotive songs.
' Despite not finding any sect, her works resonate among marginalized
communities in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
POINTS TO PONDER
The idea of ‘Rashtra’ finds mention in Rig Veda. However, the Indian Figure 17.4. A fifteenth-
subcontinent throughout its major history has seen a fragmented polity. century stone sculpture
As a result, several social scientists have focussed on the idea of (Tamil Nadu) depicting
cultural nationhood. Do you think the Bhakti movement had a role to Krishna playing the
play in tying the Indian subcontinent into a cultural nation? flute, a form of the deity
worshiped by Mirabai
Sankaradeva
In the 15th century, Shankaradeva championed Vaishnavism in Assam. His teachings, the Bhagavati dharma,
emphasized devotion to Vishnu and congregational recitation of divine names. He advocated for monasteries
and prayer halls, many of which persist today.
A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices

' Post-first millennium India was
marked by a vibrant spectrum of
religious practices, with stupas,
monasteries, and temples standing
testament. While these structures
visibly represented beliefs, the
Puranas and other texts provided a Figure 17.6. Jagannatha (extreme
more nuanced insight. right) with his sister Subhadra (center)
and his brother
' Poet-saint compositions, primarily
in regional dialects and often set Figure 17.5. A twelfth-century bronze
sculpture of Manikkavachakar
to music, played a pivotal role.
Compiled after the poets’ demise, these dynamic devotional texts evolved over time, with
hagiographies offering an additional lens into the era’s spiritual ethos.
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Diverse Religious Expressions
Various deities, especially Vishnu, Shiva, and the Goddess, gained prominence
in both art and scripture, representing the multi-faceted nature of worship.
Two intertwined processes marked this era:
Cultural Synthesis:
' Brahmanical ideas found new audiences through accessible Puranic
texts. Simultaneously, Brahmanas incorporated wider societal beliefs.
' This mesh of “great” Sanskritic traditions and local “little” traditions
culminated in entities like Jagannatha in Puri, symbolizing a harmonious Figure 17.7.
blend of the two. Sculpture of a
Buddhist goddess,
Religious Dichotomy: Marichi (c.tenth
century, Bihar)
' Despite the prevalent integration, distinct religious paths and occasional
conflicts arose.
' Tantric practices, inclusive and widespread, became a significant part of
the landscape.
' Over time, myriad beliefs coalesced under ‘Hindu’, yet significant
differences, like the decline of Vedic deities in favor of Puranic ones,
persisted.
' The enduring respect for Vedas, however, stood juxtaposed against these Figure 17.8.
shifting paradigms. Fragment of a page
from the Qur’an
' Amidst this, the bhakti tradition, emphasizing profound devotion,
flourished, spanning from structured temple worship to spontaneous devotional outpourings,
especially within the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities.
Islamic Traditions in India

' Historical Ties: By the 7th century, regions like Sind integrated into the Islamic world through
connections with the Middle East and Central Asia.
' Rulers and Religions: Islam’s political influence in India began with Arab general Muhammad
Qasim’s annexation of Sind in 711 AD. The Delhi Sultanate, Deccan Sultanates, and the
Mughal Empire later rose, with Islam as a significant influence. However, these rulers often
maintained flexibility, accommodating diverse populations.
Shari’a and the Ulama: Muslim rulers, under the guidance of the ulama (scholars knowledgeable in Islamic
traditions), sought to adhere to sharia principles. The “zimmi” status, extended to non-Muslims, exemplifies the
adaptations in the diverse Indian context.
Ulama (plural of alim, Shari’a

or one who knows) The shari’a is the law governing the Muslim community. It is based on the
are scholars of Islamic Qur'an and the hadis, traditions of the Prophet including a record of his
studies. As preservers remembered words and deeds.
of this tradition they
With the expansion of Islamic rule outside Arabia, in areas where customs and
perform various
traditions were different, qiyas (reasoning by analogy) and ijma (consensus
religious, juridical and
of the community) were recognised as two other sources of legislation. Thus,
teaching functions.
the shari'a evolved from the Qur'an, hadis, qiyas and ijma.
188
* Local Islamic Practices: Beyond the ruling elite, Islam found resonance across social

strata. While the core tenets, or the five pillars of Islam, remained intact, local practices
often intermingled, like the Khojahs using the ginan. In regions like Kerala, Arab settlers
blended with local customs.
' Mosque Architecture: While mosques universally face Mecca, regional architectural nuances
are evident in their design.
' Nomenclature Evolution: Initially, terms “Hindu” and “Muslim” were less common. Over time,
these evolved as primary religious identifiers, but earlier, people were often identified by their
region or ethnicity.
Figure 17.9. A Khojaki manuscript Figure 17.11. Atiya mosque, Mymensingh

district, Bangladesh, built with brick, 1609
Figure 17.10. A Mosque in Kerala Figure 17.12. The Shah Hamadan mosque in
Srinagar, on the banks of the Jhelum, is often
regarded as the “jewel in the crown” of all the
existing mosques of Kashmir.
Matrilocal residence refers to wives staying in their birth homes post-marriage, with
husbands joining them.
Islam and Sufism

' Commonalities with Sants: Sufis and saints shared many ideas and beliefs. Many believe
they significantly influenced each other’s philosophies.
' Sufism emerged as a reaction against the increasing materialism of the Caliphate, emphasizing
salvation through intense devotion and love for God and emulating Prophet Muhammad.
189
' Who were the Sufis?
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY * Sufis were Islamic mystics.
* An emphasis was laid on inner love and devotion to God,
coupled with compassion towards fellow humans.
* While the Sufis sought a personal connection with God, they
often deviated from the stringent rituals imposed by traditional
Islamic scholars.
' Core Tenets of Islam:
* Islam primarily preached strict monotheism.
* In the eighth and ninth centuries, scholars defined various
dimensions of the Holy Law (Shariat) and Islamic theology.
' Sufism’s Role in Islam:
* As Islam became multifaceted, Sufism introduced a dimension
rooted in personal devotion.
* Renowned Central Asian Sufis included Ghazzali, Rumi, and
Sadi.
' Sufi Practices:
* Like other spiritual sects, Sufis believed in viewing the world
differently.
* They employed methods like zikr, contemplation, sama,
raqs, and breath control.
* These methods were often imparted by a pir or master, leading
to the formation of silsilas—spiritual genealogies.
Figure 17.13. A Mughal
' Sufism in Hindustan:
painting depicting
* Post the eleventh century, many Sufis from Central Asia made Emperor Jahangir with a
Hindustan their home. With the Delhi Sultanate’s establishment, Jogi
numerous Sufi centers sprouted across the region.
Kashmiri Rishi Sufism

± Origins and Timeline: Kashmir witnessed the flourishing of the Rishi order of Sufism during the 15th
and 16th centuries.
± Founding Figure: The order was instituted by Sheikh Nuruddin Wali, commonly revered as Nund Rishi.
± Influence on Kashmir: Nund Rishi’s teachings and the Rishi order profoundly impacted the cultural
and spiritual fabric of Kashmiri society.
± Monuments and Shrines: Across Kashmir, one can find numerous shrines dedicated to saints of the
Rishi order, symbolizing their enduring spiritual legacy.
' Khanqahs - The Sufi Assemblies:

* In these hospices, Sufi masters held gatherings.
* These attracted people from various walks of life, who engaged in spiritual discussions
or enjoyed musical sessions.
' Sufi Miracles and Pilgrimages:
* Many believed in the miraculous powers of Sufi saints.
* The Dargahs or Tombs of these saints transformed into pilgrimage sites, attracting
multitudes from diverse faiths.
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' Institutionalization - Khanqahs and Silsilas:

* By the 11th century, Sufism had an established body of
literature and practices.
* Sufis formed communities around khanqahs, hospices led by a
shaikh, pir or murshid, who guided disciples and established
spiritual rules.
* Silsilas, or Spiritual Chains, linked disciples and masters
in an unbroken lineage back to the Prophet. Through this,
spiritual power was channeled to devotees.
* The Chishti silsila, with notable teachers like Khwaja Figure 17.14. Mystics in
Muinuddin Chishti and Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya, was Ecstasy
particularly influential.
* Upon a shaikh’s death, his tomb or dargah became a pilgrimage
site, especially on his urs (death anniversary), symbolizing his
union with God.
' Terminologies and Etymology:
* The term “Sufism” comes from the 19th-century English
coinage, while the original Islamic term is “Tasawwuf”.
* The term may have originated from “Suf” (wool, due to the
attire of Sufis), “Safa” (purity), or “Suffa” (a platform near the Figure 17.15. Devotees of
Prophet’s mosque where followers gathered). all backgrounds visit Sufi
* Sufi lineages often derived their names from founders, like shrines
the Qadiri order from Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani, or places of
origin, like the Chishti order from Chisht in Afghanistan.
* “Wali” or A Friend of God, referred to a Sufi believed to be close to Allah and capable of
miracles.
' Variants of Sufism:
* Some Sufis, with radical beliefs, avoided institutional khanqahs, leading ascetic lives
as wanderers and ignoring standard rituals. They were known by various names like
Qalandars, Madaris and Malangs.
* They often defied shari’a, termed be-shari’a, distinguishing them from ba-shari’a Sufis
who adhered to it.
The Chishtis in the Indian Subcontinent

' The Chishtis, among the Sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, were significant
due to their successful adaptation to the local environment and inclusion of Indian devotional
traditions.
Major Teachers of the Chishti Silsila
Sufi Teachers Year of Death Location of Dargah
Shaikh Muinuddin Sijzi 1235 Ajmer (Rajasthan)

Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki 1235 Delhi
Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i Shakar 1265 Ajodhan (Pakistan)
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya 1225 Delhi
Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i Delhi 1356 Delhi
191
Life in the Chishti Khanqah:
' The khanqah was a socio-religious hub, best exemplified by
Shaikh Nizamuddin’s hospice in Ghiyaspur.
' It served multiple functions: residence for Shaikh, his family, and
disciples, a place for prayer, refuge, and spiritual intercession.
' Notable practices adopted reflected assimilation with local
customs.
' Shaikh Nizamuddin expanded the Chishti reach by appointing
spiritual successors throughout the subcontinent.
Data Ganj Bakhsh’s Legacy:

' Abu’l Hasan al Hujwiri, known as Data Ganj Bakhsh, authored
the Kashf-ul-Mahjub and became a revered spiritual figure in
Figure 17.16. seventeenth-
Lahore.
century painting of Shaikh
' His mausoleum, Data Darbar, remains a significant pilgrimage Nizamuddin Auliya and his
site. disciple Amir Khusrau
Chishti Devotional Practices:

' Ziyarat: Pilgrimage to Sufi tombs, like that of Khwaja Muinuddin tomb, is essential to seek
spiritual blessings.
' Qawwali: Music and dance, including mystical chants, form an integral part of Chishti devotion,
with sama reflecting divine love and ecstasy.
Language and Communication:

' The Chishtis conversed in local languages and incorporated
regional poetic traditions.
' Amir Khusrau introduced the qaul, enhancing the Chishti
sama and influencing qawwali performances across the
subcontinent.
The Chishtis and Political Power:

' The Chishti tradition stressed austerity and distance from
political power but accepted unsolicited grants.
' Sultans sought legitimation from sufis who derived authority
directly from God, circumventing the need for juristic
interpretation of the shari’a.
' The tombs of rulers often neighbored sufi shrines. Figure 17.17. Shaikhs greeting
the Mughal emperor Jahangir
' Tensions arose occasionally, evident in the dual use of titles
on his pilgrimage to Ajmer,
like sultan-ul-mashaikh. painting by an artist named
Manohar, c.1615
Sufis’ Varied Association with State:
' While Chishtis maintained a certain distance from state affairs,

other orders, such as the Suhrawardi and Naqshbandi, had
more direct associations, with some sufis even accepting courtly positions.
192
“Charkhanama” merges the act of spinning with the Charkhanama
Sufi practice of zikr, the remembrance of God. The
spinning process mirrors different zikr levels: A song set to the rhythm of the spinning wheel:
± Zikr-i-jali: Audible remembrance while taking As you take the cotton, you do zikr-i jali
cotton. As you separate the cotton you should do zikr-i
± Zikr-i-qalbi: Heart’s silent remembrance during qalbi
cotton separation. And as you spool the thread you should do zikr-i
± Zikr-i-aini: Visual remembrance while spooling. aini zikr should be uttered from the stomach
through the chest.
The song traces a spiritual journey from external
And threaded through the throat.
actions to deep internal connection. The emphasis on
counting breaths up to twenty-four thousand signifies The threads of breath should be counted one by
disciplined meditation. Offering this practice as a gift one, oh sister.
to the Pir, a Sufi spiritual guide, symbolizes devotion Up to twenty four thousand.
and gratitude. In essence, “Charkhanama” portrays Do this day and night.
daily tasks as potential acts of worship. And offer this to your pir as a gift.
POINTS TO PONDER
Bhakti and Sufi movements intended to develop cultural syncretism between two different religious
traditions. In the current global scenario of religious differences being overemphasized, do you think
the learnings of the Bhakti-Sufi integration can provide a solution to the gloomy state of affairs?
Reconstructing Histories of Religious Traditions

An Array of Sources:
' Archeological findings, such as sculptures and architectures,
enlighten historians about past religious traditions.
' Stories, compositions, and accounts of religious figures are
valuable too.
Interpreting Sculpture and Architecture:
' Insight into the artifacts requires understanding their context.
' It’s crucial to know the beliefs and practices of their creators and
users.
Figure 17.18. Qawwali at the
Diverse Textual Traditions: dargah of Nizamuddin Auliya
' Various texts exist in different languages and styles.

' Each genre demands a unique approach and understanding.
Diving into Sufi Traditions:
' Treatises or Manuals:
* One instance is “The Kashf-ul-Mahjoob” by Ali bin Usman Hujwiri (died c. 1071).
* These shed light on influences on Indian Sufi thought.
' Malfuzat (Conversations of Sufi Saints):
* An example is “Fawa’id-al-Fu’ad”, a record of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya’s conversations.
* Such records, created by various sufi silsilas, served educational purposes.
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' Maktubat (Collections of Letters):
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY * These are correspondences from sufi masters to their disciples.
* For instance, “Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani” by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (d.1624) offers deep
insights.
' Tazkiras (Biographical Accounts):
* “Siyar-ul-Auliya” by Mir Khwurd Kirmani is about Chishti saints.
* “Akhbar-ul-Akhyar” by Abdul Haqq Muhaddis Dehlavi (d. 1642) stands out in this category.
* Some details in these accounts may seem exaggerated but they hold historical value.
Continuity and Evolution:
' Oral and textual modes have witnessed changes over time.
' Some traditions persist today, allowing historians to juxtapose contemporary practices with
ancient ones.
' Historians tread cautiously, acknowledging that religious traditions evolve.
By recognizing the dynamism in religious traditions and approaching them with a balanced
perspective, historians can provide a richer, more nuanced understanding of the past and its
intricate relationship with the present.
Conclusion
The journey of religion in India shows how flexible and open the country has been to new ideas.
From the deep beliefs of the south to the universal ideas of the north, India has always been a place
where different religious thoughts can exist together. Places, where people like the Chishtis or
Nathpanthis gathered, became important centers of learning and devotion. Today, their teachings
live on, reminding us of the values of love, unity, and understanding.
Timeline and Events

Timeline 1
Time Period Event/Development
Early Sufism
8th-9th Centuries Origins of Sufism emerge as a reaction against the increasing materialism of the
Caliphate.
11th Century Establishment of Sufi literature and practices. Khanqahs become centers of
Sufi communities.
Chishtis in the Subcontinent
Late 12th Century Migration of Chishtis to India.
13th-14th Centuries Expansion of the Chishti order, especially under Shaikh Nizamuddin.
15th-16th Centuries Emergence of influential poet-saints like Kabir, Guru Nanak, and Mirabai in
Northern India.
Sufism and Political Power
14th-17th Centuries Varied interactions between Sufi orders and political rulers. “Charkhanama”
links spinning with zikr.
Reconstructing Histories
11th-17th Centuries Various textual traditions, like maktubat, malfuzat, and tazkiras, provide
insights into Sufism.
Present Historians combine oral and textual modes to understand and interpret Sufism’s
evolving traditions.
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Timeline 2
Some Major Religious Teachers in the Subcontinent
c. 500-800 CE Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti in Tamil Nadu
c. 800-900 Nammalvar, Manikkavachakar, Andal, Thondaradippodi in TamilNadu
c.1000-1100 Al Hujwiri, Data Ganj Bakhsh in the Punjab; Ramanujacharya in Tamil Nadu
c.1100-1200 Basavanna in Karnataka
c.1200-1300 Jnanadeva, Muktabai in Maharashtra; Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in Rajasthan;

Bahauddin Zakariyya and Fariduddin Ganj- i Shakar in the Punjab; Qutbuddin
Bakhtiyar Kaki in Delhi
c.1300-1400 Lal Ded in Kashmir; Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sindh;

Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi; Ramananda in Uttar Pradesh; Chokhamela in
Maharashtra; Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri in Bihar
c.1400-1500 Kabir, Raidas, Surdas in Uttar Pradesh; Baba Guru Nanak in the Punjab;
Vallabhacharya in Gujarat; Abdullah Shattari in Gwalior; Muhammad Shah
Alam in Gujarat; Mir Sayyid Muhammad Gesu Daraz in Gulbarga, Shankaradeva
in Assam; Tukaram in Maharashtra
c.1500-1600 Sri Chaitanya in Bengal; Mirabai in Rajasthan;Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi,

Malik Muhammad Jaisi, Tulsidas in Uttar Pradesh
c.1600-1700 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi in Haryana; Miyan Mir in the Punjab
Glossary
± Sufism/Tasawwuf: The mystical Islamic religious practice which is characterized by a focus on Islamic
purification, spirituality, ritualism, asceticism and esotericism.
± Caliphate: The rule or reign of a Caliph or chief Muslim ruler.
± Khanqah: A building designed specifically for gatherings of a Sufi brotherhood.
± Silsila: A chain, lineage of Sufi masters.
± Dargah: A shrine built over the grave of a revered religious figure.
± Urs: Death anniversary of a Sufi saint.
± Wali: A friend of God; a Sufi saint.
± Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs: Various types of wandering Sufi ascetics.
± Ziyarat: Pilgrimage to Sufi tombs.
± Qawwali: A form of Sufi devotional music.
± Shari’a: Islamic law.
± Bhakti: Hindu devotional worship directed to one supreme deity.
195
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY ± Nirguna: Attribute-less; God without any form.
± Saguna: God with attributes; God with a form.
± Shabad: Hymn, sacred song.
± Khalsa Panth: The collective body of all initiated Sikhs.
± Zikr: The Islamic practice of remembering God.
± Kabir Bijak, Kabir Granthavali: Collections of Kabir’s verses.
± Adi Granth Sahib: Sacred scripture of Sikhism.
± Malfuzat: Collections of sayings of Sufi saints.
± Maktubat: Collections of letters by Sufi masters.
± Tazkiras: Biographical accounts of Sufi saints.
± Sama: A Sufi ceremony involving chanting and dancing.
± Charkhanama: A song linking spinning with Sufi practice.
± Kirtana-ghosha: Prime work of Shankaradeva emphasizing Vaishnavism.
± Bhagavati dharma: Teachings of Shankara Deva about devotion to Vishnu.
± Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani: Letters by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
± Siyar-ul-Auliya: About Chishti saints by Mir Khwurd Kirmani.
± Akhbar-ul-Akhyar: Account by Abdul Haqq Muhaddis Dehlavi.
± Khwaja Muinuddin: Founder of the Chishti Sufi order in India.

196
18 Marathas
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter - 8 VII NCERT (Our Past-II)
Chapters -14, 18 (Medieval India by Satish Chandra).
Introduction
By the middle of the 18th century, Marathas had succeeded in displacing Mughal power in central
India. Under the dynamic leadership of Shivaji, they posed a strong challenge to Mughal power
during the 1670s. Maratha rule in India started from 1674 with the coronation of Chhatrapati
Shivaji Maharaj and ended with the defeat of Peshwa Bajirao second at hand British East India
Company.
Factors Responsible for the Rise of Marathas

' Geography: The Maratha region consisted of a narrow strip of land called Konkan which had
precipitous mountains, inaccessible valleys and impregnable hill-forts. This was favorable for
military defense.
' Military: The Marathas had a long tradition of military prowess. They had earlier served under
the Bahmani Sultans, the Sultans of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Bidar and Berar.
They were excellent in “Guerrilla warfare”.
' Impact of Bhakti Movement: The hymns of the Bhakti saints were sung in Marathi and they
created a bond among people across the society.
' Weakening of Mughals and Deccani Sultans: The Marathas got united after the degeneration
of Bijapur and Golconda. Also the Deccan wars against the Sultans of Bijapur, Golkonda and
Ahmednagar had exhausted the Mughal treasury.
' Leadership by Shivaji: Shivaji united the Marathas who were scattered in many parts of
Deccan under his leadership and built a mighty kingdom, with Raigad as the capital.
Maratha Empire under Shivaji (1630 –1680 AD)

Military Conquests
' Shivaji captured the fortress of Torna from the Sultan
of Bijapur, the fort of Raigad, the forts of Baramati,
Indapura, Purandhar and Kondana.
' He even constructed a new fort at Pratapgarh.
Confrontation against Bijapur
' Aurangzeb who captured Bidar, Kalyani and Parinder
in 1657 forced Shivaji and the Bijapur Sultan to make
peace with him. This agitated Shivaji.
Figure 18.1: Shivaji
' During this time Shah Jahan fell ill, and a war of succession for the new Mughal emperor
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY started in Delhi which took the attention of Aurangzeb. He therefore left for Delhi to take part
in it. Using this opportunity, Shivaji invaded north Konkan and captured the cities of Kalyan,
Bhivandi and fort of Mahuli.
' After the shift of Aurangazeb’s focus towards Delhi, the Bijapur Sultan decided to attack
Shivaji. Afzal Khan who was the general of Bijapur Sultanate was sent with a huge army but
found it difficult to fight in the mountainous regions. So, he planned to trick Shivaji but he
was outwitted.
' The Sultan of Bijapur himself led the army and the war dragged on for more than a year.
Finally, after negotiations, Shivaji was recognised as the ruler of the territories in his
possession.
198
Shivaji and the Mughals
Marathas
' After becoming the new Mughal emperor, in July 1658, Aurangzeb decided to crush Shivaji.
Shaista Khan was appointed the Governor of the Deccan in 1660.
' But Shivaji in turn entered Poona at night with 400 soldiers in the form of a marriage party and
attacked the home of Shaista Khan. Due to this Aurangzeb was forced to recall Shaista Khan
from the Deccan in December 1663.
' In 1664 Shivaji attacked Surat, the major Mughal port in Arabian Sea and his soldiers plundered
the city.
' Shivaji was called to visit Mughal Emperor Aurangazeb in Agra. He and his son Sambhaji
reached Agra in May 1666. But, they were not shown due respect. Feeling the humiliation,
he burst out and abused the Emperor. Due to this Shivaji was imprisoned. But he managed
to escape.
' In 1666, Shivaji resumed his belligerent policy and led Maratha soldiers in new conquests.
' Aurangzeb took back a part of the jagir in Berar which was once given to Shivaji. Due to this
Shivaji got annoyed and recalled his troops from Mughal service.
' Later Shivaji recovered almost all the forts he had ceded to the Mughals by the Treaty of
Purandar.
' In 1672, The Marathas imposed chauth or one fourth of the revenue as annual tribute on
Surat.
Shivaji’s coronation
' On 6 June 1674, Shivaji was crowned at Raigad. He assumed the title of “Chhatrapati”
(metaphor for “supreme king ”)
Shivaji’s Southern Campaign
' In 1676, Shivaji began to conquer the south. Through a secret treaty with the Sultan of
Golconda, who promised him some territories in return for his support.
' He captured Senji and Vellore and annexed the adjoining territories. Senji acted as the second
line of defence for his successors.
' The Nayaks of Madurai promised a huge amount as tribute.
' The Carnatic campaigns added glory and prestige to Shivaji.
Last Days of Shivaji
' Shivaji’s eldest son Sambhaji deserted him and joined the Mughal camp. The relentless
campaigns affected Shivaji’s health and he died in 1680 due to bad health at the age of 53.
' At the time of his death, Shivaji’s kingdom comprised the Western Ghats, the Konkan between
Kalyan and Goa, western Karnataka extending from Belgaum to the bank of Tungabhadra.
Administrative System of Marathas

' Central Government:
* Shivaji was not only a great warrior but also a good administrator. He had an advisory
council of eight ministers known as Ashta Pradhan to assist him in his day-to-day
administration.
199
' The eight ministers were:
Minister Functions
Mukhya Pradhan or Peshwa or ± Looked after the general welfare and interests of the State.
Prime minister ± Officiated for the king in his absence.
Amatya or Finance Minister ± Checked and countersigned all public accounts of the
kingdom.
Walkia-Nawis or Mantri ± Maintained the records of the king’s activities and the
proceedings in the court.
Summant or Dabir or Foreign ± Advised king on all matters of war and peace and received
Secretary ambassadors and envoys from other countries.
Sachiv or Shuru Nawis or Home ± Looked after the correspondence of the king with the power
Secretary to revise the drafts.
± Checked the accounts of the Parganas.
Pandit Rao or Danadhyaksha ± In charge of religion, ceremonies and charities.
± Judge of canon law and censor of public morals.
Nyayadhish or Chief Justice ± Responsible for civil and military justice.
Sari Naubat or Commander-in- ± In charge of recruitment, organization and discipline of the
Chief Army.
* There were eighteen departments under the charge of the various ministers.
' Provincial Government:
* Shivaji divided the kingdom into four provinces, each under a viceroy. The provinces were
divided into a number of Pranth.
* The lowest unit of the government was the village in which the traditional system of
administration prevailed.
* The fort was the nerve-center of the activities of the Pranth.
* The practice of granting jagirs was abandoned and all officers were paid in cash. The
officials had no control over the people. The Jagir was non-hereditary.
' Revenue System:
* The revenue administration of Shivaji was humane and beneficent to the cultivators.
* The lands were carefully surveyed and assessed before taxing.
* The state demand was fixed at 30% of the gross produce to be payable in cash or kind.
Later, it was raised to 40%.
* During famine, the government advanced money and grain to the cultivators which were
to be paid back in installments later.
* Liberal loans were also advanced to the peasants for purchasing cattle, seed, etc.
' Chauth and Sardeshmukhi:
* As the revenue collected from the state was insufficient to meet its requirements, Shivaji
collected two taxes, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, from the adjoining territories of his
empire, the Mughal provinces and the territories of the Sultan of Bijapur.
* Chauth was one-fourth of the revenue of the district conquered by the Marthas.
* Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% of the revenue which Shivaji collected by virtue of
his position as Sardeshmukh.
* Sardeshmukh was the superior head of many Desais or Deshmukhs.
200
' Military Organization:
Marathas
* Shivaji established a standing army which comprised four divisions: infantry, cavalry, an
elephant corps, and artillery.
* Though the soldiers were good at guerrilla methods of warfare, at a later stage they were
also trained in conventional warfare.
* The infantry was structured into regiments, brigades, and divisions.
* The cavalry included bargirs (state-provided horses) and shiledars (mercenary horsemen).
' Judiciary:
* Justice administration was basic, with no formal courts or procedures.
* Village panchayats handled matters, and ordeals were common.
* Patels oversaw criminal cases, Nyayadhish handled appeals, and Hazir Majlim served as
the highest appellate court.
Peshwas in Maratha History

Balaji Viswanath (1713–1720)
' He assisted Emperor Shahu in consolidating control over a kingdom torn by civil war.
' Convinced Kanhoji Angre, a powerful naval chief, to support Shahu against European threats.
' He also Revived the practice of granting jagirs and made the office of Peshwa hereditary.
Baji Rao I (1720–1740)
' Son of Balaji Viswanath, he enhanced
the Maratha Empire’s power by defeating ± Battle of Udgir (1760): The Marathas, led by
various opponents, including the Nizam the Peshwa, supported the Nizam's eldest son
of Hyderabad, the Rajput Governor of and defeated Salabat Jung, marking the peak of
Malwa, and the Governor of Gujarat. Maratha's military power
' He also freed Bundelkhand and
expanded Maratha territory.
Balaji Baji Rao (1740–1761)
' Known as Nana Sahib, he was an effective administrator.
' Under his leadership, the Marathas captured Thana, Salsette, and Bassein from the Portuguese
and established friendly relations with the English for trade in the Deccan.
' The Marathas also expanded into Rajputana and Bengal, demanding tribute from the Nawab of
Bengal and entering Delhi to drive out Afghans and Rohillas.
Peshwa Madhav Rao I (1761–1772) POINTS TO PONDER
Marathas produced exuberant
' Madhav Rao sought to rebuild Maratha’s power after the leaders like Shivaji, Sambhaji,
Panipat defeat. Balaji Baji Rao etc. Their military
' He had successes against Haider Ali of Mysore and tactics were second to none. Do
negotiated with the British for control over Allahabad and you think Marathas won battles
Kora. and fights in the field but lost
the war to excellent British
' He also defeated the Rohillas, Rajput states, and Jat diplomatic policies like
Chiefs, reaffirming Maratha control over northern India Subsidiary Alliance?
before his death in 1772.
201
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY The Anglo-Maratha Wars
' After the decline of Mughal the political ambition of Maratha and British strengthened.
' The Maratha established their empire on the ruins of the Mughal empire and at the same time
the British East India Company became stronger than many other European companies.
' The conquest for power supremacy led to a series of wars between Maratha and British.
The First Anglo Maratha War (1775-1782)

' The Anglo-Maratha conflict started with the Surat treaty and ended with the Salbai Treaty.
' Treaty of Surat, 1775:
* It is Signed between the British of Bombay and Raghunath Rao.
* Under this treaty the Raghunath Rao ceded the territories of Bassein and Salsette and Part
of revenue from Surat and Bharuch districts to the British.
* In return the British agreed to support Raghunath Rao by providing him 2500 soldiers.
' Treaty of Purandar, 1776:
* The Treaty of Surat was strongly condemned by the British Calcutta council. Thus a new
treaty, Treaty of Purandar was signed.
* This new treaty recognized Madhav Rao as the Peshwa, promised a pension to Raghunath
Rao, and prohibited Marathas from supporting the French.
' In 1777 a port on the west coast was granted to the French by Nana Phadnavis. Thus the
treaty was violated by Marathas and a war broke out between Maratha and British. The British
lost the war and the Treaty of Wadegaon was signed where the British had to return back all
the territories acquired since 1775.
The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1806)

' After the death of Nana Fadnavis the Maratha families tussled with each other. Peshwa Baji
Rao II who was dethroned had to accept the help of the British.
' Treaty of Bassein, 1802:
* Wellesley, the then Governor General, forced the Subsidiary Alliance on the Peshwa.
* According to the treaty, the territory to be ceded should fetch an income of Rs. 26 Lakhs.
The leading Maratha States regarded the treaty as humiliating and hence decided to defy it.
* So the second Anglo-Maratha war broke out.
' The Maratha leaders were completely routed. The Subsidiary Alliance was accepted. The British
got Doab, Ahmadnagar, Broach and all of the hilly regions.
The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819)
' Peshwa Baji Rao II tried to consolidate Maratha leaders against the British to avenge the insult
of Treaty of Bassein. The prime minister of the Gaikwar (ruler) of Baroda Gangadhar Shastri
was killed by Trimbakji, a favourite of Peshwa. Peshwa was charged with creating the Maratha
confederacy and plotting with Scindia, Bhonsle and Holkar against the British.
' Treaty of Poona, 1817:
* The British forced the Peshwa to sign a new treaty at Poona in 1817. Accordingly, The
Peshwa resigned the headship of the Maratha confederacy.
202
* Peshwa ceded Konkan to the British and recognised the independence of the Gaikwar.
Marathas
' Baji Rao was not reconciled to this humiliation. So when the British were busily engaged in
the suppression of the Pindaris, Baji Rao II burnt down the Poona Residency. General Smith
rushed to Poona and captured it, with the Peshwa fleeing
to Satara, which was also captured by General Smith. POINTS TO PONDER
Marathas emerged as the most
' General Smith defeated his forces at Ashta, Kirkee and potent force within India after the
Korgaon. Finally, Baji Rao surrendered to Elphinstone decline of Mughals. Can you think
in 1818.
of the course of History of India
' The British abolished the Peshwai (office of the Peshwa) if Marathas would have won the
and annexed all the Peshwa’s dominions. But the jagirs of third. battle of Panipat and
the fief holders were restored. third Anglo Maratha war?
' Until his death in 1851 Baji Rao II remained a prisoner
with an annual pension.
' Pratap Singh, a descendent of Shivaji, was made the king
of a small kingdom carved around Satara.
' The Maratha Confederacy organised by Baji Rao I comprising Bhonsle, Holkar and Scindia was
dissolved.
' Mountstuart Elphinstone, who had been Resident at Poona, became Governor of Bombay.
Maratha Administration under Peshwas (1714-1818)

The Peshwa was one of the Ashta Pradhan of Shivaj whose office was not a hereditary one. As the
power and prestige of the king declined, the Peshwas rose to prominence. The Peshwas virtually
controlled the whole administration, usurping the powers of the king. They were also recognized as
the religious head of the state.
Central Secretariat
' The center of the Maratha administration was the Peshwa Secretariat at Poona. It dealt with
the revenues and expenditure of all the districts, the accounts submitted by the village and
district officials.
' The pay and rights of all grades of public servants and the budgets under civil, military and
religious heads were also handled.
' The daily register recorded all revenues, all grants and the payments received from foreign
territories.
Provinces
' Under the Peshwas, the provinces varied in size, with larger ones governed by Sar Subahs and
the provinces were divided into Subahs and Pranths.
' Mamlatdar and Kamavistar: They were Peshwa’s representatives in the districts. They were
responsible for every branch of district administration.
' Deshmukhs and Deshpandes: They were district officers who were in charge of accounts and
were to observe the activities of Mamlatdars and Kamavistars. It was a system of checks and
balances.
' In order to prevent misappropriation of public money, the Maratha government collected a
heavy sum (Rasad) from the Mamlatdars and other officials. It was collected on their first
appointment to a district.
203
Village Administration
' The village was the basic unit of administration and was self-supportive.
' The Patel was the chief village officer and was responsible for remitting revenue collections to
the center. He was not paid by the government. His post was hereditary. The Patel was helped
by the Kulkarni or accountant and recordkeeper.
' There were hereditary village servants who had to perform the communal functions. The
carpenters, blacksmiths and other village artisans gave begar or compulsory labour.
Urban Administration
' In towns and cities the chief officer was the Kotwal. The maintenance of peace and order,
regulation of prices, settling civil disputes and sending of monthly accounts to the governments
were his main duties.
' He was the head of the city police and also functioned as the magistrate.
Sources of Revenue
' The Peshwas shifted from sharing agricultural produce to a tax farming system, assessing land
revenue based on fertility and crops.
' Land was divided into three classes according to the kinds of the crops, facilities for irrigation,
and productivity of the land.
' Additional revenue sources included Chauth, Sardeshmukhi, customs, excise, forest produce,
and miscellaneous taxes.
' When the Maratha government was in financial difficulty, it levied on all landholders, Kurja-
Patti or Tasti-Patti, a tax equal to one year’s income of the taxpayer.
Police System
' Watchmen, generally the Mahars, were employed in every village. But whenever crime was on
the rise, the government sent forces from the irregular infantry to control the crimes.
' Baji Rao II appointed additional police officers to detect and seize offenders. In the urban
areas, magisterial and police powers were given to the Kotwal.
Judicial System
' The judicial system in this period was imperfect with no codified laws or rules of procedure.
' In criminal cases there was a hierarchy of the judicial officers. At the top was the Raja
Chhatrapati and below him were the Peshwa, Sar-Subahdar, the Mamlatdar and the Patel.
Army
' The Peshwas gave up the notable features of the military system followed under Shivaji.
Shivaji had recruited soldiers locally from Maratha region. But the Peshwas drafted soldiers
from all parts of India and from all social groups.
' The Peshwa’s army comprised mercenaries of the feudal chieftains. As the fiefs of the rival
chiefs were in the same area, there were lots of internal disputes. It affected the solidarity of
the people of the Maratha state.
204
Cavalry
Marathas
' The cavalry was naturally the main strength of the Maratha army.
' Every jagirdar had to bring a stipulated number of horsemen for a general muster, every year.
' The horsemen were divided into three classes based on the quality of the horses they kept.
Infantry and Artillery
' The Marathas favored cavalry service, recruiting infantry from diverse regions like Arabs,
Rohillas, Sikhs, and Sindhis, who received higher pay than Maratha soldiers.
' Maratha artillery was primarily operated by Portuguese and Indian Christians, later joined by
English recruits.
Navy
' The Maratha navy was built for the purpose of guarding the Maratha ports, thereby checking
piracy, and collecting customs duties from the incoming and outgoing ships.
' Balaji Vishwanath built naval bases at Konkan, Khanderi and Vijayadurg. Dockyard facilities
were also developed.
Conclusion
It is seen that the Shivaji’s rise, his military conquests and his encounter with Aurangzeb led to
expansion and glory of Marathas. Not only a great leader, Shivaji was also an efficient administrator.
Shivaji’s successors and their achievements under the Peshwas Balaji Viswanath, Baji Rao and Balaji
Baji Rao are also notable. Third Battle of Panipat and defeat of Marathas at the hand of Afghans
led to wipe out of Maratha rule. The resistance of Marathas against the British policy of Subsidiary
System and the resultant outbreak of the three Anglo-Maratha Wars were some watershed events in
the history of the Maratha empire.
Timeline Event
1630 Birth of Shivaji
1664 Attack of Shivaji on Surat
1665 Treaty of Purandar
1674 Coronation of Shivaji
1680 Death of Shivaji
1761 Battle of Panipat III
1775-1782 First Anglo-Maratha War
1803-1806 Second Anglo-Maratha War
1817-1819 Third Anglo-Maratha War
205
± Expeditions: A long journey for a special purpose.
± Subsidiary Alliance: A tribute alliance between an Indian state and the British.
± Doab: The area of land between two rivers that meet.
± Reconciled: To find a way of dealing with two ideas, situations, statements, etc. that seem to be opposite
to each other.
± Naik: He headed the smallest unit with nine soldiers.
± Havildar: Each unit with 25 horsemen was placed under one havildar (equivalent to the rank of a
sergeant).
± Jamaldar: Over five havildars were placed under one jamaladar.
± Hazari: Over ten jamaladars under one hazari.
± Sari Naubat: He was the supreme commander of cavalry.
± Fiefs: An estate of land, especially one held on condition of feudal service.
± Kurja-Patti or Tasti-Patti: A tax equal to one year’s income of the taxpayer.

206
Vijayanagara
19 Empire
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter 3 (Theme Seven) of Themes in
Indian History-II
Introduction
Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both a city and an empire. The empire was
founded in the 14th century CE. In its heyday, it stretched from the river Krishna in the north to
the extreme south of the peninsula. In 1565 CE the city was sacked and subsequently deserted.
Although it fell into ruin in the 17-18th centuries CE, it lived on in the memories of people living in
the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab. They remembered it as Hampi, a name derived from that of the local
mother goddess, Pampadevi. These oral traditions combined with archaeological finds, monuments
and inscriptions and other records helped scholars to rediscover the Vijayanagara Empire.
Vijayanagara Kingdom
Rulers Art & Architercture Art & Architercture Contemporay kingdoms
Sangama Dynasty
Administrative Art forms Bahamani kingdom
(13336-1485 CE)
Division Reddy Kingdom
Carnatic music
Saluva Dynasty
(1485-1505 CE) Mandalas Nadus Kuchipudi Yakshaganam
SThalas Gramas
Tuluva Dynasty
(1405-1570 CE)
Araveedu Dynasty
(1570-1646 CE)
The Discovery of Hampi

' Hampi’s ancient ruins were uncovered in Finding out about the city :
1800 CE by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an
Several travellers visited Vijayanagara and
engineer and antiquarian, who created the
wrote about it. Notable among their accounts
first map of the site by gathering information
are those of an Italian trader named Nicolo de
from the priests at the Virupaksha temple
Conti, an ambassador named Abdur Razzaq
and the Pampadevi shrine.
sent by the ruler of Persia, a merchant named
' Further, historians combined information of Afanasii Nikitin from Russia, all of whom
Hampi Temple’s inscriptions with accounts visited the city in the fifteenth century, and
from foreign travellers and various literature those of Duarte Barbosa, Domingo Paes and
written in languages like Telugu, Kannada, Fernao Nuniz from Portugal, who came in the
Tamil, and Sanskrit to piece together the sixteenth century.
history of Vijayanagara Empire.
While historians use the term Vijayanagara Empire, contemporaries described it as the
Karnataka Samrajyam.
Colin Mackenzie was appointed as India’s first Surveyor General, and achieved fame as an
engineer, surveyor, and cartographer. He collected local histories and surveyed historical sites,
with the aim of gaining a deeper understanding of India’s past and facilitating better governance
of the colony.
He believed that by studying Vijayanagara and its history, the East India Company could acquire
valuable insights into the institutions, laws, and customs that still influenced the native population.
His efforts aimed to improve governance and bring positive changes to the region.
Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans

Foundation and Earlier Hostility With Empire
' Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 CE by two brothers named Harihara and Bukka.
' In the north, the empire had rivalry with Deccan Sultans and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa,
mainly over control of fertile river valleys and lucrative overseas trade routes.
' The rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire were referred to as ‘Rayas’, and they played a significant
role in promoting and advancing architectural and cultural achievements.
' These Raya’s of the empire left behind an enduring legacy of architectural wonders, showcasing
their innovative approach to building and culture.
Elephants, horses and men!

Gajapati literally means lord of elephants. This was the name of a ruling lineage that was very
powerful in Orissa in the fifteenth century. In the popular traditions of Vijayanagara the Deccan
Sultans are termed as Ashvapati or lord of horses and the Rayas are called Narapati or Lord of
Men.
Major Dynasties of Empire

Power struggle within the Vijayanagara Empire included members of the ruling lineage and military
commanders. This led to the development of subsequent dynasties within a long period of the empire.
Sangama Dynasty
' It was the first ruling dynasty of the empire and held control until 1485 CE. They were succeeded
by the Saluvas.
Saluvas Dynasty
' Saluvas were military commanders, and they remained in power until 1503 CE when they were
replaced by the Tuluvas.
Tuluvas Dynasty - Apogee of Empire
' Major dynasty of the empire during which Vijayanagara reached its zenith. Krishnadeva
Raya(1509-29 CE) was the major king of this dynasty.
' Krishnadeva Raya’s rule was marked by both expansion and consolidation.
* During his reign, the empire acquired the land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers
(the Raichur doab), subdued the Rulers of Orissa in 1514 CE, and achieved significant
victories over the Sultan of Bijapur in 1520 CE.
* He also founded Nagalapuram, a suburban township near Vijayanagara, in honour of his
mother.
208
* Detailed descriptions of Vijayanagara come primarily from Krishnadeva Raya’s time or
Vijayanagara Empire
shortly thereafter.
* He was known for his contributions to temple construction and the addition of impressive
gopurams to several important South Indian temples.
' Even though in constant state of military preparedness, the empire experienced a period of
unparalleled peace and prosperity during Krishnadeva Raya’s rule.
' Following Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529 CE, the empire faced internal strife, including
rebellions of nayakas or military chiefs.
Aravidu Dynasty POINTS TO PONDER
' In 1542, control shifted to another ruling lineage, Vijayanagara empire originated in a periphery
the Aravidu dynasty, which retained power until of enemies. Despite Portuguese, Bahamanies
the end of the seventeenth century. and Mughals being non friendly, Vijayanagara
rulers were able to carve an empire out of
Decline of Empire nothing. Can you identify the prime reasons
that led to the rise and continuation
' During this period, shifting alliances and military of such a formidable force for about
ambitions among the rulers of Vijayanagara four centuries in such unfavourable
and the Deccan Sultanates led to changing circumstances?
geopolitical dynamics.
' Ultimately, an alliance of the Deccan Sultanates
formed against Vijayanagara, culminating in the pivotal Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (or
Talikota) in 1565.
* Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the Vijayanagara army in this battle,
but they suffered a decisive defeat at
the hands of the combined armies of
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda.
POINTS TO PONDER
According to Karl Marx, every society carries
in its womb its own seeds of destruction.
Do you think in the context of Vijayanagara
empire, the quest for Tungabhadra
doab also ultimately proved to be the
seed of its destruction?
' The victorious armies sacked the city of

Vijayanagara, which was subsequently
abandoned within a few years.
' The focus of the Vijayanagara Empire
then shifted to the east, where the
Aravidu dynasty ruled from Penukonda
and later Chandragiri.
Relations of Vijayanagara with Sultan
' Despite religious differences, the
relations between the Sultans and the
Figure 19.1 : South India (Fourteenth-Eighteenth
Vijayanagara kings were not always
century)
hostile.
209
* Krishnadeva Raya, for instance, supported certain claimants to power in the Deccan
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Sultanates and held the title “Establisher of the Yavana kingdom.”
' It was the adventurous policy of Rama Raya, who attempted to manipulate and play off one
Sultan against another, that ultimately led the Sultans to unite and decisively defeat him.
Political and Economical Aspects
Nayakas and Amar-Nayakas System of governance
' Nayakas were military chiefs who typically oversaw forts and maintained armed supporters.
* They frequently relocated from one region to another and were often accompanied by
peasants seeking fertile land for settlement.
* While many nayakas acknowledged the authority of the Vijayanagara kings, they sometimes
rebelled, necessitating military actions to subdue them.
' The Amara-nayaka system was a political setup similar to the iqta system of the Delhi
Sultanate.
* They were military commanders appointed by the
POINTS TO PONDER
Raya (king) to govern specific territories and were In Indian history we find kings
responsible for collecting taxes and other dues from sharing powers with regional
peasants, craftsmen, and traders within their areas. feudal or warlords. Velir in South
India, Zamindar in Mughal system
* They retained a portion of the revenue for personal use
to Nayakas under Vijayanagara
and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses are a few examples. Do you think
and elephants, which contributed to the empire’s such a system helped in imbibing
military strength. the principles of decentralised
administration or ultimately
* Some revenue was allocated for the upkeep of temples created factional tendencies
and irrigation projects. which led to self destruction
* To demonstrate their loyalty, amara-nayakas annually of these empires in the long
term?
sent tribute to the king and personally appeared in the
royal court bearing gifts.
' However, in the seventeenth century, many nayakas established independent kingdoms,
accelerating the decline of the central imperial structure.
Trade and Economic Activities
' In this era, horse trade flourished from Arabia and Central Asia which was first controlled by
arab traders and later by local merchant groups called “kudirai chettis”.
' Vijayanagara was known for its bustling markets, specialising in spices, textiles, and precious
stones. The revenue generated from this trade played a crucial role in the state’s overall
prosperity.
Kings and traders:

Krishnadeva Raya (ruled 1509-29 CE), the most famous ruler of Vijayanagara, composed a work
on statecraft in Telugu known as the Amuktamalyada. About traders he wrote:”A king should
improve the harbours of his country and so encourage its commerce that horses, elephants, precious
gems, sandalwood, pearls and other articles are freely imported … He should arrange that the foreign
sailors who land in his country on account of storms, illness and exhaustion are looked after in a
suitable manner … Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good
horses be attached to yourself by providing them with daily audiences, presents and allowing decent
profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies”.
210
Vijayanagara the Capital and its Environs
Vijayanagara Empire
' Like most capitals, Vijayanagara, was characterised by distinctive physical features as well as
building style.
Water resources
' Vijayanagara has the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-
easterly direction.
' Also its surrounding landscape is characterised by stunning granite hills that seem to form
a girdle around the city with a number of streams flowing down to the river from these rocky
outcrops.
' Embankments were carefully built alongside these streams to establish reservoirs of various
sizes due to the arid nature of this region. Also measures were taken for rainwater storage and
its distribution to the city.
' Some of the famous reservoirs were:
* Kamalapuram tank: It was erected during the early 15th century. It facilitated irrigation
and also carried water through a conduit to the “royal centre”.
* The Hiriya canal: It was constructed by the Sangama Dynasty with noteworthy hydraulic
systems which sourced its water supply from a dam strategically placed across the
Tungabhadra River. It irrigated the cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre”
from the “urban core.”
This is how tanks were built

About a tank constructed by Krishnadeva Raya, Paes wrote: The king made a tank … at the mouth
of two hills so that all the water which comes from either one side or the other collects there; and,
besides this, water comes to it from more than three leagues (approximately 15 kilometres) by pipes
which run along the lower parts of the range outside. This water is brought from a lake which itself
overflows into a little river. The tank has three large pillars handsomely carved with figures; these
connect above with certain pipes by which they get water when they have to irrigate their gardens and
rice-fields. In order to make this tank the said king broke down a hill … In the tank I saw so many
people at work that there must have been fifteen or twenty thousand men, looking like ants …
Fortifications and Roads

Great fortress walls surrounded the entire city, enclosing
agricultural lands, gardens and houses.
* Seven lines of forts formed the fortifications, with
the first 3 lines surrounding the urban core, royal
centre and major buildings around it.
* Elaborate canal systems, agricultural belts and
large granaries within forts helped to deal with
enemy sieges which may last for years.
' The walls were massive and constructed without
mortar or cement. Wedge-shaped stone blocks held
them in place, while the inner part consisted of earth
Figure 19.2: A gateway in the
and rubble.
fortified wall
' Well-guarded gates served as entry points, linking the
city to major roads.
211
' City’s roads and pavements pass through gateways and often followed valleys and avoided
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY rocky terrain, with some extending from temple gateways and lined by bazaars.
' Gateways featured distinctive architectural elements, including arches and domes, influenced
by Indo-Islamic style from interactions with Turkish Sultans.
The Urban Core
' It had residences for common people along the roadways.
' Chinese porcelains were discovered, indicating the presence of affluent traders’ residences.
' Major water sources were wells, rainwater tanks, and temple tanks.
' Portuguese traveller Barbosa describes houses for ordinary people, which were thatched but
well-constructed, organised along lengthy streets with open spaces and arranged according to
occupation.
' Muslim residential quarters featuring tombs and mosques, characterised by temple-like
architectural elements, were also discovered.
' Presence of numerous shrines and small temples indicates the existence of diverse cults of
various communities.
Figure 19.3 : A mosque in a Vijaynagara Figure 19.4 : Shards of Chinese porcelain
The Royal Centre

' The royal centre, situated in the south-western section of the settlement, included more than
60 temples.
' This emphasised the importance of temples and religious cults in establishing and legitimising
the authority of rulers by aligning themselves with the deities housed in these shrines.
' Thirty building complexes, likely palaces, have been identified as secular buildings lacking
an apparent connection to ritual purposes. These were large and were made of perishable
materials. On the other hand, temples were entirely constructed using masonry.
The Mahanavami Dibba and Associated Ceremonies

' Many of the distinctive structures in the royal centre have been assigned names based on the
form of the buildings as well as their functions.
' For instance, the “king’s palace” is the largest of the enclosures. It has two of the most
impressive platforms, usually called the “Audience hall” and the “Mahanavami dibba”.
212
* The Audience hall is a high platform with slots for wooden pillars at close and regular
Vijayanagara Empire
intervals. It had a staircase going up to the second floor, which rested on these pillars.
* The “Mahanavami dibba” is a massive platform located on one of the highest points in
the city. It supported a wooden structure with the base of the platform covered with relief
carvings.
' Many rituals and ceremonies were performed at the time of Mahanavami, Dusehra (northern
India), Durga Puja (in Bengal) and Navaratri (in peninsular India).
' The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty on this occasion.
Is it a House of Victory?
Paes writes about the Audience hall and the Mahanavami dibba, which together he called the “House
of Victory”, that these buildings have two platforms one above the other, beautifully sculpted … On
the upper platform … in this House of Victory the king has a room made of cloth … where the idol
has a shrine ... and in the other in the middle is placed a dais on which stands a throne of state,
(the crown and the royal anklet) …
Figure 19.5: The Mahanavami dibba Figure 19.6: Carvings on the Mahanavami dibba
' The ceremonies performed on the occasion included

worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and
the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals along with
other events such as dances, wrestling matches, chariot
processions, tributes for king etc. and inspection of the
army by king on the last day of ceremony.
' It is questionable whether the “mahanavami dibba” that
stands today was the centre of this elaborate ritual as
Scholars have pointed out that the space surrounding Figure 19.7: An elevation drawing of the
the structure does not seem to have been adequate for Lotus Mahal. An elevation is a vertical
view of any object or structure. It gives
such elaborate processions.
you an idea of features that cannot be
seen in a photograph. Arches of temple
Other buildings in the royal centre were probably inspired by Indo-Islamic
techniques
' Lotus Mahal, council chamber, a place where the king
met his advisers.
' Hazara Rama temple, supposed to be used only by the king and his family. The images in the
central shrine are missing but sculpted panels on the walls depict scenes from Ramayana.
' Further, palatial structures were built by Nayakas.
213
Figure 19.8: “Elephant stables” located close to the Lotus Mahal
The Sacred Centre
Significance of Temples
' Temples inspired from sacred traditions like Vali and Sugriva’s monkey kingdom from Ramayana
and marriage of Pampadevi and Virupaksha.
' Ancient pre-Vijayanagara Jaina temples and temple construction by Pallavas, Chalukyas,
Hoysalas, and Cholas also found.
' Temples served as centers of religion, learning, and socio-cultural activities.
' Rulers took titles like “Hindu Suratrana”, identified himself with deity and claimed to rule on
behalf of God Virupaksha.
* ‘Hindu Suratrana’ was a Sanskritisation of the Arabic term Sultan, which literally meant
Hindu Sultan.
* All royal orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script.
' Further, Royal portraits in temples and Nayakas visits to temples on significant state events
highlighted temple significance.
Figure 19.9 : Sculpture from the Hazara Figure 19.10: An aerial view of the
Rama temple Virupaksha temple
214
Vijayanagara Empire
Figure 19.11: The gopuram or gateway of the Figure 19.12: A Kalyana Mandapa, meant to
Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur celebrate divine wedding
Gopurams and Mandapas
' Temple reached climax with monumental Raya Gopurams (royal gateways) that symbolised
imperial authority of the king. They signalled the temple from a great distance.
' Gopurams were also probably meant as reminders of the power of kings, able to command the
resources, techniques and skills needed to construct these towering gateways.
' Further chariot streets in temple complexes extended from the temple gopuram in a straight
line.
' Other temple features included Mandapas or pavilions and long, Pillared Corridors that ran
around the shrines within the temple complex. Some Important Temples were:
* Virupaksha Temple: Earliest constructed in the ninth-tenth centuries, was substantially
enlarged with the establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire and further under Krishnadeva
Raya.
* Vitthala Temple: Here, the principal deity was Vitthala, a form of Vishnu generally
worshipped in Maharashtra.
' The introduction of the worship of the deity in Karnataka is another indication of the ways in
which the rulers of Vijayanagara drew on different traditions to create an imperial culture.
Plotting Palaces, Temples and Bazaars

' All these information about Vijayanagara was studied by Mackenzie with sources like traveller’s
accounts and inscriptions.
' Later, the site was preserved by the Archaeological Survey of India and the Karnataka
Department of Archaeology and Museums. For instance, Hampi gained recognition as a
nationally significant site in 1976.
' Further, surveys conducted by scholars helped in documentation and preservation of all these
structures. For example, research by experts like John M. Fritz, George Michell, and M.S.
Nagaraja Rao has helped reconstruct the lively atmosphere of these structures.
215
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY The bazaar
Paes gives a vivid description of the bazaar:

Going forward, you have a broad and beautiful street … In this street live many merchants, and there you
will find all sorts of rubies, and diamonds, and emeralds, and pearls, and seed-pearls, and cloths, and every
other sort of thing there is on earth and that you may wish to buy. Then you have there every evening a fair
where they sell many common horses and nags, and also many citrons, and limes, and oranges, and grapes,
and every other kind of garden stuff, and wood; you have all in this street. More generally, he described the
city as being “the best provided city in the world” with the markets “stocked with provisions such as rice,
wheat, grains, India corn and a certain amount of barley and beans, moong, pulses and horse-gram” all of
which were cheaply and abundantly available. According to Fernao Nuniz, the Vijayanagara markets were
“overflowing with abundance of fruits, grapes and oranges, limes, pomegranates, jackfruit and mangoes and
all very cheap”. Meat too was sold in abundance in the marketplaces. Nuniz describes “mutton, pork, venison,
partridges, hares, doves, quail and all kinds of birds, sparrows, rats and cats and lizards”, as being sold in the
market of Bisnaga (Vijayanagara).
A sprawling city !
This is an excerpt from Domingo Paes’s description of Vijayanagara: “The size of this city I do not write here,
because it cannot all be seen from any one spot, but I climbed a hill whence I could see a great part of it; I could
not see it all because it lies between several ranges of hills. What I saw from thence seemed to me as large as
Rome, and very beautiful to the sight; there are many groves of trees within it, in the gardens of the houses, and
many conduits of water which flow into the midst of it, and in places there are lakes; and the king has close to
his palace a palm-grove and other rich fruit-bearing trees”.
Figure 19.13: A gopuram built Figure 19.14: The chariot of Figure 19.15: Swing pavilion
by the Nayakas of Madurai. the Vitthala temple. from Gingee.
Questions in Search of Answers

' Surviving buildings and fortifications provide insights into various aspects of a city’s history,
such as organisation, construction techniques, and cultural influences and defence needs.
216
' Interpretation often requires combining architectural details with other sources like literature,
Vijayanagara Empire
inscriptions, and traditions.
' However, the views of the common residents about these grand structures remain less
understood.
Conclusion
Vijayanagara Empire left behind a rich legacy of architectural marvels and cultural exchange. The
archaeological and historical documentation of its material remains provides valuable insights into
its history. In Spite of its eventual decline and abandonment, Vijayanagara continues to fascinate
us with its mystery and cultural significance in Indian mediaeval history.
Timeline 1: Major Political Developments
Time Events
c .1200-1300 Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (1206)
c .1300-1400 Establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336);
Establishment of the Bahmani kingdom (1347) and Sultanates in Jaunpur, Kashmir and
Madura
c .1400-1500 Establishment of the Sultanates of Gujarat and Malwa; Emergence of the Sultanates of
Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Berar (1490)
c .1500-1600 Conquest of Goa by the Portuguese (1510);
Collapse of the Bahmani kingdom,
Emergence of the Sultanate of Golconda (1518);
Establishment of the Mughal empire by Babur (1526)
Timeline 2: Landmarks in the Discovery and Conservation of Vijayanagara

Time Events
1800 Colin Mackenzie visits Vijayanagara.
1856 Alexander Greenlaw takes the first detailed photographs of archaeological remains at Hampi.
1876 J.F. Fleet begins documenting the inscriptions on the temple walls at the site.
1902 Conservation begins under John Marshall.
1986 Hampi was declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
Glossary
± Amara: It is believed to be derived from the Sanskrit word samara, meaning battle or war. It also
resembles the Persian term amir, meaning a high noble.
± Epigraphists: A person who studies inscriptions.
± Palatial structures: Large and impressive structures decorated like palaces.
± Porcelain: A white vitrified translucent ceramic pottery.
± Sanskritization: Cultural accumulation of upper castes by lower castes.
± Yavana: A Sanskrit word used for the Greeks and other peoples who entered the subcontinent from the
north west.

217
Socio-Cultural
Aspects in
Medieval India
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapters- 5, 7- VII NCERT (Our Past-II)
and Theme Eight- XII NCERT (Themes in Indian History- II).
Introduction
The start of Medieval period in India is usually regarded as running from the collapse of the Gupta
Empire in 6th century to the start of Early Modern Period i.e., start of Mughal Empire in 1526.
Over the centuries important political, social and economic developments had taken place. But these
social changes were not the same everywhere, because different kinds of societies evolved differently.
In this chapter, we will look into socio-cultural developments in Medieval India through the study of
tribal culture, various regional cultures etc.
Division in Societies
' In this period, society was divided according to the Rules of Varna prescribed by the Brahmanas
which increased differences between high and low & between the rich and poor.
' This social hierarchy further grew under the Delhi Sultans and the Mughals.
' However, some societies like tribals neither followed the social rules and rituals nor divided
into numerous unequal classes and hence few remain isolated to some extent.
Tribal Societies
' Tribal societies are unique in nature as members of each tribe are
united by kinship bonds.
' In contemporary texts, tribals or forest dwellers were termed Jangli,
who lived in dense forest (Jangal) or scrubland (kharbandi).
' In past, many tribes obtained their livelihood from agriculture while
others were hunter-gatherers or herders and nomadic.
' A tribal group controlled land and pastures jointly, and divided
these amongst households according to its own rules.
' They usually lived in hills, forests and deserts. Figure 20.1: Tribal Dance
' Tribals sometimes clashed with the more powerful caste-based societies but retained their
freedom and separate culture.
Geographical Distribution of Tribes
' Tribal people were found in almost every region of the Indian subcontinent.
' In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was influential during the 13th and
Socio-Cultural Aspects in Medieval India

14th centuries. Later, the Gakkhars tribe became more important.
Their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar, was made a noble (mansabdar)
by Emperor Akbar.
' In Multan and Sind, the Langahs & Arghuns dominated extensive
regions before they were subdued by the Mughals.
' The Balochis were another tribe in the north-west which were
divided into many smaller clans under different chiefs.
' In western Himalaya, there was the shepherd tribe of Gaddis. Figure 20.2:
Bhils Hunting Deer
Figure 20.3: Map of Location of some of the Major Indian Tribes.
219
' In Bihar and Jharkhand, Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the 12th century and were
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY subjugated under Mughals.
' In Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa and Bengal, the Mundas and Santhal are distributed.
' The Maharashtra highlands and Karnataka were home to Kolis, Berads and others. Kolis also
lived in many areas of Gujarat.
' Further south, there were large tribal populations of Koragas, Vetars, Maravars.
' In Western and Central India lived the tribe of Bhils. Many of them had become settled
agriculturists and some even zamindars, by the late 16th century. Many Bhil clans, nevertheless,
remained hunter-gatherers.
' In Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, the Gonds were distributed.
Nomads and Mobile People

' Nomadic pastoralists moved over long The Banjaras
distances with their animals and lived
± They were the most important trader nomads.
on milk and other pastoral products.
± Their caravan was called tanda.
' They also exchanged wool, ghee, etc. ± Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras to transport
with settled agriculturists for grain, grain to the city markets.
utensils, cloth, and other products. ± Emperor Jahangir wrote in his memoirs that the
' Many reared and sold animals, such Banjaras carried grain on their bullocks from
as cattle and horses, to the prosperous different areas and sold it in towns.
people. ± They transported food grain for the Mughal
army during military campaigns.
' Different castes of petty peddlers also
± Peter Mundy, an English trader who came to
travelled from village to village and sold India during the early 17th century, has described
wares such as ropes, straw matting, the Banjaras.
reeds, and coarse sacks.
' There were castes of entertainers also who performed in different towns and villages for their
livelihood.
New Castes and Hierarchies

' Jatis, rather than varna, became the basis for organizing society.
' Smaller castes or jatis, emerged within varnas. Many tribes and social groups were given the
status of jatis. A large majority joined
the lower jatis of caste society.
Other Tit-bits:
' Specialized artisans such as carpenters,
smiths, and masons were recognized as ± A 12th century inscription from Uyyakondan
Udaiyar, in Tiruchirapalli taluka (present-day
separate jatis by the Brahmanas.
Tamil Nadu), describes the deliberations in a
' Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans sabha of Brahmanas.
became powerful by the 11th and 12th ± They deliberated on the status of a group known
centuries. They belonged to different as Rathakaras (chariot makers).
lineages, such as Hunas, Chalukyas, ± They laid down their occupations, which include
Chandelas etc. who gradually replaced architecture, building coaches and chariots,
the older rulers, especially in agricultural preparing wooden equipment used to perform
areas. sacrifices, erecting gateways for temples with
images in them, building mandapas, making
' However, many dominant tribes of jewels for the king.
Punjab, Sind and the North-West
Frontier had adopted Islam quite early
and continued to reject the caste system.
220
The Emergence of Tribal States

The Gonds The Ahoms
± The Gonds lived in a vast forested region ± The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra
called Gondwana means country inhabited valley from present-day Myanmar in 13th
by Gonds. century and created a new state by suppressing
± They practiced shifting cultivation. the bhuiyans (landlords).
± The large Gond tribe was further divided into ± During the 16th century, they annexed the
many smaller clans and each clan had its kingdoms of the Chhutiyas (1523) and of
own raja or rai. Koch-Hajo (1581) and subjugated many other
± The Akbar Nama, mentions the Gond tribes.
kingdom of Garha Katanga that had 70,000 ± To build a large state, they used firearms as
villages. The administrative system was early as the 1530s.
turning centralised. The gond kingdom ± By 1660s, Ahoms could even make high quality
was divided into garhs which was controlled gunpowder and cannons.
by a particular Gond clan. This garh was ± However, they faced many invasions from the
further divided into units of 84 villages called south-west and were defeated by Mughals, but
chaurasi. The chaurasi was subdivided into the direct control of Mughal over the region
barhots which were made up of 12 villages could not last long.
each. ± The Ahom state depended upon forced labour
± The Gond chiefs wished to be recognised as and those forced to work for the state were
Rajputs. So, Aman Das, the raja of Garha known as paiks.
Katanga, assumed the title of Sangram ± By the first half of the 17th C. the administration
Shah. became centralised.
± Garha Katanga earned much wealth by ± Almost all the adult males served in the army
trapping and exporting wild elephants to during war. At other times, they were engaged
other kingdoms but was defeated by Mughals in irrigation systems, building dams, and other
± Despite the fall of Garha Katanga, the Gond public works.
kingdoms survived for some time. ± They also introduced new methods of rice
± However, they became much weaker and cultivation.
ultimately struggled unsuccessfully against ± The society was divided into clans or khels
the stronger Bundelas and Marathas where a khel often controlled several villages.
± Artisans in the Ahom society came from the
adjoining kingdoms.
± The peasants were given land by his village
community. Even the king could not take it
away without the community’s consent.
Culture
± Originally, the Ahoms worshipped their
own tribal gods. However, the influence of
Brahmanas increased during the first half of
the 17th century.
± Temples and Brahmanas were granted land
by the king in Ahom. During the reign of Sib
Singh (1714 - 1744), Hinduism became the
predominant religion.
± Poets and scholars were given land grants.
± Theatre was also encouraged.
± Important works of Sanskrit were translated
into the local language.
± Historical works, Buranjis, were also written
first in the Ahom language and then in
Assamese.
221
Thus, various developments in Medieval India forced changes in tribal societies in terms of their
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY social & cultural aspects. As a result, some tribes assimilated in mainstream society, while others
were able to maintain their unique identity.
Regional Cultural Developments

Changing political dynamics in early Medieval period
facilitated rise of regional powers. This led to development
of unique regional identities in form of language, religious
traditions, and artistic features in form of dance forms,
paintings etc.
Linguistic Identities
' People, from particular region, are generally
identified with the language they speaks. Such
linguistic identities were further strengthened in Figure 20.4: An early Kerala inscription,
Medieval period with rise of new regional kingdoms. composed in Malayalam
Malayalam
' Kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in present-day Kerala in 9th century.
' Introduction of Malayalam language and script in inscriptions by rulers is one of the earliest
examples of the use of a regional language in official records.
Sanskrit
' Sanskritic traditions were promoted by Cheras. The temple theatre of Kerala, earliest literary
works in Malayalam (12th century) etc. are directly influenced from Sanskrit.
Note: A 14th century text, the Lilatilakam, dealing with grammar and poetics, was composed in
Manipravalam – literally, “diamonds and corals” referring to the two languages, Sanskrit and the
regional language.
Bengali
' Bengali is now recognised as a language derived from Sanskrit, but early Sanskrit texts (mid-
first millennium BCE) suggest that the people of Bengal did not speak Sanskritic languages.
Let’s have a look at development of Bengali
language:
' In 4th-3rd centuries BCE, rising commercial ties
between Bengal and Magadha led to the growing
influence of Sanskrit.
' In the 7th century CE, languages related to
Sanskrit were in use all over Bengal.
' Between the 14th and 16th centuries CE, under
the Islamic rule, Persian was the language of
Figure 20.5: A palm-leaf manuscript of
administration, and Bengali developed as a
the earliest Bengali Ramayana.
regional language.
' Thus, wide range of non-Sanskrit words, derived from a variety of sources including tribal
languages, European languages, and Persian have become a part of modern Bengali.
' Further early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories one indebted to Sanskrit
and the other independent of it.
222
± It includes translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Mangalakavyas
(poems dealing with local deities) and bhakti literature - biographies of
Indebted to Sanskrit Chaitanyadeva, the leader of Vaishnava bhakti movement.
± The texts are easier to date as several manuscripts indicate that they were
composed between the late 15th and mid 18th centuries.
± It includes Nath literature, such as the songs of Maynamati and
Gopichandra, stories concerning the worship of Dharma Thakur (a regional
deity, often worshiped in the form of a stone or a piece of wood), and fairy
Independent of Sanskrit tails, folk tales and ballads.
± The texts were circulated orally and cannot be precisely dated.
± It was particularly popular in eastern Bengal, where the influence of
Brahmanas was relatively weak.
A Closer Look at Regional Traditions of Bengal

Emergence of Pirs
It is a Persian word meaning a spiritual guide. It included saints or Sufis and other religious personalities,
daring colonisers and deified soldiers, various Hindu and Buddhist deities and even animistic spirits.
The cult of pirs became very popular during this time and their shrines can be found everywhere in Bengal.
Bengali Style Temple Architecture

Bengal also witnessed a temple-building spree from the late 15th century, which culminated in the
19th century.
± Many of the modest brick & terracotta temples in Bengal were built with the support of several “low”
social groups, such as the Kolu - oil pressers and the Kansari - bell metal workers.
± Local deities images began to be housed in temples.
± The temples began to copy the double-roofed called dochala or four-roofed called chauchala structure
of the thatched huts. This led to the evolution of the typical Bengali style in temple architecture.
± In the complex four-roofed structure, four triangular roofs placed on the four walls move up to converge
on a curved line or a point, usually built on a square platform.
± The interior was relatively plain, but the outer walls were decorated with paintings, ornamental
tiles or terracotta tablets.
± Such decorations reached a high degree of excellence in some temples like Vishnupur in the Bankura
district of West Bengal.
Figure 20.6: A double-roofed Figure 20.7: A four-roofed Figure 20.8: Figure shows
thatched hut temple with a tower. Krishna with gopis, terracotta
plaque from the Shyamaraya
temple, Vishnupur
223
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY Food
± Characterized by its riverine plain, Bengal produces plenty of rice
and fish, making fishing its important occupation.
± Bengali literature contains several references to fish. Even terracotta
plaques on the walls of temples and viharas (Buddhist monasteries)
depict scenes of fish being dressed and taken to the market in
baskets.
± Brahmanas were not allowed to eat non-vegetarian food, but
the Brahmanical authorities relax this prohibition for the Bengal
Brahmanas due to the popularity of fish in the local diet.
± For instance, the Brihaddharma Purana, a 13th century Sanskrit Figure 20.9: Fish being
text from Bengal, permitted the local Brahmanas to eat certain dressed for consumption,
varieties of fish. terracotta plaque from the
Vishalakshi temple, Arambagh.
Rulers and Local Religious Traditions

The Jagannatha Cult (Lord of the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa:
' Tribal people worshiped the local god, who was later identified with Vishnu.
' In the 12th century, the ruler of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple
for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, in 1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated
his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself as the “deputy” of the God.
' All rulers such as the Mughals, the Marathas and the English East India Company (EIC), who
conquered Orissa, also attempted to gain control over the temple to make locals accept their
rule.
Tradition of Heroism of Rajputs
' Present-day Rajasthan was called as Rajputana by the British.
' There were several groups who identify themselves
as Rajputs in many areas of northern and central
India.
' From about the 8th century, most of the present-
day state of Rajasthan was ruled by various Rajput
families. Prithviraj was one such ruler.
' These rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who
fought valiantly, and often choosing death on the
battlefield rather than face defeat.
' Stories of Rajput heroes were recorded in poems
and songs which depicted dramatic situations, and
a range of strong emotions – loyalty, friendship,
valour, love, anger, etc.
' Women are also depicted as following their heroic
husbands in both life and death, seen from stories
about practice of sati or the immolation of widows
Figure 20.10: The icons of Balabhadra,
on the funeral pyre of their husbands.
Subhadra and Jagannatha, palm-leaf
' This highlights contribution of Rajputs to the manuscript, Orissa.
distinctive culture of Rajasthan.
224
Beyond Regional Frontiers: Artistic Developments in Region

Dance Forms: Kathak
' The term kathak is derived from katha, means story.
' The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers
in temples of north India, used to perform with
gestures and songs.
' Evolved as a distinct type of dance with spread of
Bhakti movement in 15-16th centuries
' Performances on Ras-Leela combined folk dance
with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.
' Under the Mughal emperors, Kathak was performed
in the court, where it acquired its present features
and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive
style.
' Subsequently, it developed in two traditions or
gharanas: one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur)
and other in Lucknow.
' Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, (last Nawab
of Awadh), it grew into a major art form. Figure 20.11: Dance Class, Lakshmana
temple, Khajuraho.
' Later firmly developed as dance form in the areas
of Punjab, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya
Pradesh and Bihar.
' Emphasis was laid on intricate and rapid footwork, elaborate costumes, as well as on the
enactment of stories.
' Kathak, was viewed with disfavour by most British administrators in the 19th & 20th centuries.
' However, it survived and was recognised as one of the “classical” forms of dance by Indian
Government.
Painting: Miniature Painting
' Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally
done in water colour on cloth or paper.
' The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves or
wood. Some of these, found in western India, were
used to illustrate Jaina texts.
' The emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan
patronised the highly skilled painters who primarily
illustrated manuscripts containing historical
accounts and poetry.
' These were generally painted in brilliant colours &
portrayed court scenes, scenes of battle or hunting,
and other aspects of social life.
' With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many
painters moved out to the courts of the emerging
regional states of the Deccan and the Rajput courts
of Rajasthan. Figure 20.12: Akbar resting during a
hunt, Mughal miniature.
225
' Portraits of rulers and court scenes came to be
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY painted. Besides, themes from mythology and poetry
were depicted at centres such as Mewar, Jodhpur,
Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh.
' The Himalayan foothills around the modern-day
state of Himachal Pradesh also attracted miniature
paintings:
* By the late 17th century, this region had
developed a bold and intense style of miniature
painting called Basohli.
* The most popular text to be painted here was
Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari.
* The invasion of Nadir Shah and the conquest of
Delhi in 1739 resulted in the migration of Mughal
artists to the hills which led to the founding of
the Kangra school of painting. Figure 20.13: Maharana Ram Singh II
playing holi. Rajput miniature,Kota.
Kangra Painting
By the mid-eighteenth century, this new
style of miniature painting developed in
the Hill regions. Main source of inspiration
was Vaishnavite traditions. Soft colours
including cool blues and greens, and a
lyrical treatment of themes distinguished
Kangra painting.
Figure 20.14: Krishna, Radha and her companion,

Pahari miniature, Kangra
Such various regional developments in different forms led to emergence of distinct regional cultures
which further contributed to diversity of region.
Mughal Empire and The Agrarian Society

' 16th and 17th centuries India was mainly characterised by Agrarian society as 85% of population
lived in villages.
' Mainly constituted peasants and landed Other Tit-Bits
elites who were involved in agricultural
± Khud-kashta: They were residents of the
production and claimed rights to a share of village in which they held their lands.
the produce. ± Pahi-kashta: They were non-resident
' This created relationships of cooperation, cultivators who belonged to some other
competition and conflict among them and village, but cultivated lands elsewhere on
these agrarian relationships made up rural a contractual basis. People became pahi-
society. kashta either out of choice – for example,
when terms of revenue in a distant village
' Insurgence of Mughals and British rule were more favourable – or out of compulsion
adversely affected these relations causing – for example, forced by economic distress
significant changes in agrarian rural society. after a famine.
226
Peasants and Agricultural Production

Village, inhabited by peasants, was the basic unit of agricultural society. Peasant performed tasks
like tilling, sowing seeds, harvesting the crop etc. and contributed their labour to the production of
agro-based goods such as sugar and oil.
' Sources: The main source for agrarian history of the 16th and early 17th centuries are
chronicles and documents from the Mughal court like Ain-i Akbari authored by Akbar’s court
historian Abu’l Fazl.
* Other sources are detailed revenue records from Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan
in the 17th and 18th centuries.
* Further, the extensive records of the East India Company provide descriptions of agrarian
relations in eastern India. All these sources record instances of conflicts between peasants,
zamindars & the state.
' Peasants and Their Lands: The Indo-Persian sources of the Mughal period used the term raiyat
(plural, riaya) or muzarian to denote a peasant. In addition, it is also called Kisan or Asami.
* Sources of the 17th century refers two kinds of peasants – khud-kashta and pahi-kashta.
* Average peasant possessed two ploughs and a pair of bullocks.
* In Gujarat peasants possessing six acres of land were considered to be affluent whereas in
Bengal, five acres was the upper limit of an average farm of peasant.
* 10 acres of land would make one a rich Asami.
* Cultivation was based on the principle of individual ownership.
* Babur, the first Mughal emperor, had also mentioned about peasants in the Babur Nama.
' Irrigation and Technology: The basic staples such as rice, wheat or millets were the most
frequently cultivated crops.
* Areas with good rainfall were generally rice-producing zones, followed by wheat and
millets.
* Monsoons remained the backbone but Artificial systems of irrigation was also present.
* Irrigation projects received the state support. In northern India, the state undertook
digging of new canals (nahr, nala) and also repaired old ones like the shahnahr in the
Punjab during the reign of Shah Jahan.
* Technologies often harnessed cattle energy such as the wooden plough Further, a drill,
pulled by a pair of oxen, was used to plant seeds, but broadcasting of seed was the most
prevalent method. Hoeing and weeding were done by using a narrow iron blade with a
small wooden handle.
Babur Nama describes the irrigation devices the emperor observed in

northern India:
' The greater part of Hindustan country has running waters.
' Autumn crops grow by the downpour of the rains themselves and
spring crops grow even when no rains fall.
' To young trees water is made to flow by means of buckets or wheels
for Ex: in Lahore, Dipalpur (both in present-day Pakistan)
' In Agra, Chandwar, Bayana (all in present-day UP) again, people Figure 20.15: A reconstructed
water with a bucket with different arrangement at the well-edge. Persian wheel
227
' Crops: Two major seasonal cycles present - the kharif (autumn) and the rabi (spring). Thus,
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY most regions produced a minimum of two crops a year (do-fasla), whereas some, where rainfall/
irrigation assured a continuous supply of water, even gave three crops.
* For instance, the Mughal provinces of Agra produced 39 varieties of crops and Delhi
produced 43 over the two seasons whereas Bengal alone produced 50 varieties of rice.
* The Mughal state also encouraged peasants to cultivate jins-i kamil (perfect crops) crops as
they brought in more revenue, which included cotton, sugarcane, oilseeds (for example,
mustard) and lentils.
* Maize (makka) was introduced into India via Spain and Africa during 17th century.
* Vegetables like potatoes, tomatoes, and chillies were introduced from the New World
at this time, as were fruits like the pineapple and the papaya.
The Village Community
Peasants also belonged to a collective village community as far as various aspects of their social
existence were concerned. There were three constituents of this village community – the cultivators,
the panchayat, and the village headman (muqaddam or mandal).
Caste and the rural milieu
' The cultivators were a highly heterogeneous group due to deep inequities on the basis of caste
and other caste like distinctions.
' Menials or agricultural labourers (majur) were in majority who tilled the land.
' Certain caste groups were assigned menial tasks, and were at bottom in the caste hierarchy,
like the Dalits of modern India.
' In Muslim communities menials such as the halalkhoran (scavengers) were housed outside
the boundaries of the village. Similarly, the mallahzadas (sons of boatmen) in Bihar were
comparable to slaves.
' In a manual from 17th century Marwar, Rajputs are mentioned as peasants, sharing the same
space with Jats, who were accorded a lower status in the caste hierarchy. The Gauravas, who
cultivated land around Vrindavan (UP), sought Rajput status. Castes like the Ahirs, Gujars
and Malis rose in the hierarchy because of the profitability of cattle rearing and horticulture. In
the eastern regions, fishing castes and intermediate pastoral like the Sadgops and Kaivartas
acquired the status of peasants.
Panchayats and headmen
' The village panchayat was an assembly of elders. In mixed-caste villages, panchayat was
usually a heterogeneous body.
' An oligarchy, the panchayat represented various castes and communities in the village.
' The decisions made by the panchayats were binding in nature by the members.
' It was headed by a headman known as muqaddam or mandal who was chosen through the
consensus of the village elders, and that this choice had to be ratified by the zamindar.
' Headmen held office as long as they enjoyed the confidence of the village elders.
' The chief function of the muqaddam was to supervise the preparation of village accounts,
assisted by the accountant or patwari of the panchayat.
' The panchayat derived its funds from contributions made by the individuals to a common
financial pool. Funds also used for community welfare activities such as tiding over natural
calamities (like floods), digging a canal or construction of a bund.
' Caste boundaries were strictly maintained among the various communities inhabiting the
village.
228
' In eastern India, all marriages were held in the presence of the mandal to oversee the conduct

of members of the village community chiefly to prevent any offence against their caste.
' The Panchayat also had the authority to
levy fines & inflict more serious forms
of punishment like expulsion from the
community.
' In addition to this, each caste in the
village had its own jati panchayat. In
Rajasthan, jati panchayats arbitrated
civil disputes between members of
different castes.
' Archival records from Rajasthan and
Maharashtra contain petitions presented
to the panchayat complaining about
extortionate taxation or the demand for
unpaid labour (begar) imposed by the
“superior” castes or officials of the state.
' They regarded the panchayat as the
court of appeal that would ensure that Figure 20.16: An early 19th c. painting depicting a
the state carried out its moral obligations meeting of village elders and tax collectors
and guaranteed justice.
' In cases of excessive revenue demands, the panchayat often suggested compromise, And
where reconciliation failed, peasants took recourse to more drastic forms of resistance, such as
deserting the village.
Village artisans
' Villages had existence of substantial
numbers of artisans, sometimes as high
as 25% of the total households in the
villages.
' Cultivators participate in the craft
production such as textile printing, dyeing,
baking and firing of pottery, making and
repairing agricultural implements.
' Village artisans such as potters,
blacksmiths, carpenters, barbers, even
goldsmiths provided specialised services
in return for share of the harvest, or an
allotment of land, perhaps cultivable
wastes, which was likely to be decided by
panchayat.
' In Maharashtra such lands became
Figure 20.17: Depicting textile production - 17th c.
the artisans’ miras or watan – their
hereditary holding.
' Another way was a system where artisans and peasants entered into a mutually negotiated
system of remuneration, most of the time goods for services. For instance, in 18th century,
zamindars in Bengal remunerated blacksmiths, carpenters, goldsmiths for their work by paying
them “a small daily allowance and diet money” which later known as jajmani system.
' In addition to this, cash remuneration was also present.
229
A “little republic”
' In the 19th century, British officials described the village as a “little republic” made up of
fraternal partners sharing resources and labour in a collective, however, not a sign of rural
egalitarianism.
' There was individual ownership of assets and deep inequities based on caste & gender
distinctions.
' A group of powerful individuals decided the affairs of the village, had the authority to dispense
justice and exploited the weaker sections.
' A cash nexus had already developed through trade between villages and towns.
' In the Mughal heartland too, revenue was assessed and collected in the form of cash.
' Artisans producing for the export market (For example, weavers) received their advances or
wages in cash, as did producers of commercial products like silk, cotton, or indigo.
Women in Agrarian Society
' In the agriculture society both men and women worked.
Men tilled and ploughed, while women sowed, weeded,
threshed and winnowed the harvest.
' Menstruating women were neither allowed to touch the
plough or the potter’s wheel in western India, nor enter
the groves where betel-leaves (paan) were grown in Bengal.
' Artisanal tasks such as spinning yarn, embroidery were
dependent on female labour.
' Artisan and peasant women worked not only in the fields,
but even went to the houses of their employers or to the
markets if necessary. Figure 20.18: Women at
' They were considered an important resource in agrarian construction site
society also because they were child bearers
in a society dependent on labour. At the same Shroff
time, high mortality rates among them owing to The French traveller Jean-Baptiste
malnutrition, frequent pregnancies, death during Tavernier in 17th century found that in
childbirth often meant a shortage of wives. “India a village must be very small indeed if
it has not a money changer called a Shroff.
' In many rural communities, marriages required They act as bankers to make remittances
the payment of bride-price rather than dowry to of money and enhance the rupee as they
the bride’s family. please for paisa and the paisa for these
' Remarriage was considered legitimate both among (cowrie) shells”.
divorced and widowed women.
' The household was headed by a male and thus
women were kept under strict control by the male
members of the family and the community. They
could even inflict draconian punishments if they
suspected infidelity on the part of women.
' Documents from Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Maharashtra – record petitions sent by women to
the village panchayat, seeking redress and justice.
' Wives protested against the infidelity of their
husbands or the neglect of the wife and the
children by the male head of the household - The Figure 20.19: A Shroff
Grihasthi. at work
230
' In most cases women petitioner was referred to as the mother, sister or wife of the male head

of the household.
' Amongst the landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property.
' Hindu and Muslim women inherited zamindaris which they were free to mortgage or sell.
' Women zamindars were known in 18th century Bengal. One of the biggest and most famous of
the zamindaris, that of Rajshahi, had a woman at the hel.
Forests and Tribes

We have studied tribals in earlier part of chapter. Here we will focus on livelihood of Tribals under
Sulatanate and Mughal rule.
Inroads into forests:
' During Medieval period, tribals used to perform peripheral
activities for State. For example, the state required A 16th century Bengali poem,
elephants for the army, so the peshkash levied from forest Chandimangala, composed by
people often included a supply of elephants. Mukundaram Chakrabarti says
Kalaketu, set up a kingdom by
' In the Mughal political ideology, the hunt symbolised the clearing forests.
overwhelming concern of the state to relate to all its subjects,
rich and poor.
' Regular hunting expeditions, enabled the emperor to travel across the extensive territories of
his empire and personally attend to the grievances of its inhabitants.
' At the same time, the forest was a subversive place for the state, a place of refuge (mawas) for
troublemakers.
' Babur says: Jungles provided a good defence “behind which the people of the pargana become
stubbornly rebellious and pay no taxes”.
' The spread of commercial agriculture impinged on the lives of those who lived in the forests.
' Forest products like beeswax, honey, and gum lac were in great demand. Some, such as gum
lac, became major items of overseas export from India in the 17th century.
The Zamindars
' They were landed proprietors who also enjoyed certain social and economic privileges by virtue
of their superior status in rural society.
' Factors such as caste and the performance of certain services (khidmat) for the state, accounted
for the elevated status of zamindars.
' They held extensive personal lands termed milkiyat, meaning property.
' Zamindars could collect revenue on behalf of the state, a service for which they were compensated
financially and had control over military resources.
' Most had fortresses (qilachas) as well as an armed contingent comprising units of cavalry,
artillery and infantry.
' The slow processes of zamindari consolidation involved colonisation of new lands, by transfer of
rights, by order of the state and by purchase which permitted people belonging to the relatively
“lower” castes to enter the rank of zamindars.
' A combination of factors also allowed the consolidation of clan or lineage-based zamindaris. For
example, the Rajputs and Jats adopted these strategies to consolidate their control over vast
swathes of territory in northern India. Similarly, peasant-pastoralists (like the Sadgops) carved
out powerful zamindaris in areas of central and southwestern Bengal.
' They spearheaded the colonisation of agricultural land, and helped in settling cultivators by
providing them with the means of cultivation, including cash loans.
231
' The buying and selling of zamindaris accelerated the process of monetisation in countryside.
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY ' Additionally, zamindars sold the produce from their milkiyat lands. They often established
markets (haats) to which peasants also came to sell their produce.
' Zamindars relationship with the peasantry had an element of reciprocity, paternalism and
patronage.
' The bhakti saints, who eloquently condemned caste-based and other forms of oppression,
did not portray the zamindars as exploiters or oppressors of the peasantry. Usually it was the
revenue official of the state who was the object of their ire.
' Zamindars often received the support of the peasantry in their struggle against the state in
large number of agrarian uprisings which erupted in 17th c. in north India.
Land Revenue System

' Land revenue was vital for the state to create an administrative apparatus to ensure control
over agricultural production.
' This included the office (daftar) of the diwan who was responsible for supervising the fiscal
system of the empire.
Figure 20.20: The expansion of the Mughal Empire
232
' The revenue officials and record keepers penetrated the agricultural domain and became a

decisive agent in shaping agrarian relations.
' The land revenue arrangements consisted of two stages – Assessment and Collection.
' The jama was the amount assessed, and hasil was the amount collected.
' Akbar decreed that the amil-guzar or revenue collector should strive to make cultivators pay
in cash, the option of payment in kind was also to be kept open.
' Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province. The Ain compiled the
aggregates of such lands during the rule of Akbar.
' Aurangzeb in 1665, expressly instructed his revenue officials to prepare annual records of the
number of cultivators in each village.
Classification of lands under Akbar:
The Emperor Akbar classified the lands and fixed a different revenue to be paid by each.
± Polaj: Land which is annually cultivated for each crop in succession and is never allowed to lie fallow.
± Parauti: Land left out of cultivation for a time that it may recover its strength.
± Chachar: Land that has lain fallow for three or four years.
± Banjar: Land uncultivated for five years and more.
The mansabdari system:

± The Mughal administrative system had at its apex a military cum-bureaucratic apparatus (mansabdari)
which was responsible for looking after the civil and military affairs of the state.
± Some mansabdars were paid in cash (naqdi), while the majority of them were paid through assignments
of revenue (jagirs) in different regions of the empire.
± They were transferred periodically.
The Ain on land revenue collection:

± Kankut: In the Hindi language kan signifies grain, and kut, estimates … If any doubts arise, the crops
should be cut and estimated in three lots, the good, the middling, and the inferior, and the hesitation
removed.
± Batai: Also called bhaoli, the crops are reaped and stacked and divided by agreement in the presence of
the parties.
± Khet-batai: Division of the fields after they are sown.
± Lang batai: After cutting the grain, they form it in heaps and divide it among themselves, and each takes
his share home and turns it to profit.
The Flow of Silver

' In 16th - 17th centuries, the Mughal Empire was among the large territorial empires in Asia that
had managed to consolidate power and resources, which facilitated stable trade activities in
region.
' The political stability achieved by the
Ming (China), Safavid (Iran) and Ottoman
(Turkey) empires helped create vibrant
networks of overland trade.
' Voyages of discovery and the opening up
of the New World resulted in a massive
expansion of Asia’s trade (particularly
India’s) with Europe which resulted in a
greater geographical diversity of India’s
overseas trade as well as an expansion in
the commodity composition of this trade. Figure 20.21: A silver rupya issued by Akbar
233
' An expanding trade brought in huge amounts of silver bullion into Asia to pay for goods
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY procured from India, and a large part of silver bullion gravitated towards India.
' This was beneficial for India as it did not
have natural resources of silver.
' The 16th & 18th centuries was also
marked by a remarkable stability in the
availability of metal currency, particularly
the silver rupya in India.
' This facilitated expansion of minting of
coins and the circulation of money in
the economy as well as the ability of the
Mughal state to extract taxes and revenue
in cash. Figure 20.22: A silver rupya issued by Aurangzeb
' The testimony of an Italian traveller, Giovanni Careri, (c. 1690), provides a graphic account
about the way silver travelled across the globe to reach India. It also gives an idea of the
phenomenal amounts of cash and commodity transactions in 17th century India
The Ain-i Akbari of Abu’l Fazl Allami

' The Ain-I Akbari was part of a larger
project of history writing commissioned
by Akbar.
' It was completed in 1598, after having
gone through five revisions.
' It was a part of Akbar Nama, which
comprised three books. The first two
provided a historical narrative.
' The the third book, Ain-i Akbari, was
organised as a compendium of imperial
regulations and a gazetteer of the empire.
' The Ain-i Akbari or Akbar Nama gives
detailed accounts of the organisation
of the court, administration and army,
the sources of revenue and the physical
layout of the provinces of Akbar’s empire Figure 20.23: Abu’l Fazl presenting the
and the literary, cultural and religious manuscript of complete Akbar Nama to his patron
traditions of the people.
' It gives description of the various departments of Akbar’s government and elaborate
descriptions of the various provinces (subas) of the empire.
' The main purpose of the Ain was to present
a vision of Akbar’s empire where social Translation of the Ain
harmony was provided by a strong ruling ± Henry Blochmann edited it and the Asiatic
class. Society of Bengal, Calcutta, published it in its
' Any revolt or assertion of autonomous power Bibliotheca Indica series.
against the Mughal state was, in the eyes of ± The book has also been translated into
the author, predestined to fail. English in three volumes.
± The standard translation of Volume 1 is that
' The Ain-I Akbari is made up of five books of Henry Blochmann (Calcutta 1873).
(daftars), of which the first three books ± The other two volumes were translated by
describe the administration. H.S. Jarrett (Calcutta 1891 and 1894).
234
* The first book: Manzil-abadi, concerns the imperial household and its maintenance.

* The second book: Sipah-abadi, covers the military and civil administration and the
establishment of servants. This includes notices and short biographical sketches of imperial
officials (mansabdars), learned men, poets and artists.
* The third book: Mulk-abadi, deals with the fiscal side of the empire and provides rich
quantitative information on revenue rates, followed by the “Account of the Twelve Provinces”.
This book has detailed statistical information, which includes the geographic, topographic
and economic profile of all subas and their administrative and fiscal divisions (sarkars,
parganas and mahals), assessed revenue ( jama ) and total measured area. The Ain gave a
detailed picture of the sarkars below the suba which have eight columns giving the following
information:
1. parganat/mahal;
2. qila (forts);
3. arazi and zamin-i paimuda (measured area);
4. naqdi, revenue assessed in cash;
5. suyurghal, grants of revenue in charity;
6. zamindars;
7 and 8 contain details of the castes of these zamindars, and their troops including
their horsemen (sawar), foot-soldiers (piyada) and elephants (fil).
* The fourth and fifth books (daftars), deal with the literary, religious, and cultural traditions
of the people of India. It also contain a collection of Akbar’s “auspicious sayings”.
' Thus, Ain was much more than a reproduction of official papers as oral testimonies were cross-
checked and verified before being incorporated as “facts” in the chronicle.
' Limitations: Historians have point out some problems in Ain such as errors in totalling, data
were not collected uniformly from all provinces. For instance, while for many subas detailed
information was compiled about the caste composition of the zamindars, such information is
not available for Bengal and Orissa. Further, while the fiscal data from the subas is remarkable
for its richness, some other vital parameters such as prices and wages from these areas are not
as well documented.
Conclusion
During the period subsequent changes took place. Interaction between Varna-based society and
tribal people caused both kinds of societies to adapt and change. Many different tribes took up
diverse livelihoods and many of them merged with caste-based society. This period also witnessed
establishment of extensive states with well-organised systems of administration and also the
regional languages. The abundance of land, available labour and the mobility of peasants led to crops
grown for sale, trade, money and thus markets entered the villages which led to expansion in trade.
Also despite periodic disruptions caused by famines and epidemics, India’s population increased.
Influence of other religions’ was also visible during this period. Lastly, a cash nexus had developed.
Timeline of Events
Timeline Event
1523 The Ahoms annexed the kingdoms of the Chhutiyas
1526 Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the Delhi Sultan, at Panipat, became the first Mughal
emperor
1530-40 First phase of Humayun’s reign
235
NCERT ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY 1540-55 Humayun defeated by Sher Shah, in exile at the Safavid court
1555-56 Humayun regained lost territories
1556-1605 Reign of Akbar
1581 The Ahoms annexed the kingdoms of Koch-Hajo
1591 Raja Man Singh attacked and defeated the Cheros
1605-27 Reign of Jahangir
1628-58 Reign of Shah Jahan
1658-1707 Reign of Aurangzeb
1739 Nadir Shah invaded India and sacks Delhi
1761 Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas in the third battle of Panipat
1765 The diwani of Bengal transferred to the East India Company
1857 Last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II, deposed by the British and exiled to Rangoon
(present day Yangon, Myanmar)
Glossary
± Amin: He was an official responsible for ensuring that imperial regulations were carried out in the
provinces.
± Animism: Attribution of living soul to plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena.
± Clan: A clan is a group of families or households claiming descent from a common ancestor. Tribal
organisation is often based on kinship or clan loyalties.
± Itinerant groups: Itinerant groups, such as crafts persons, pedlars and entertainers travel from place to
place practising their different occupations.
± Milkiyat: Milkiyat lands were cultivated for the private use of zamindars, often with the help of hired or
servile labour. Zamindars could sell, bequeath or mortgage these lands at will.
± Nomads: Nomads are wandering people. Many of them are pastoralists who roam from one pasture to
another with their flocks and herds.
± Pargana: It was an administrative subdivision of a Mughal province.
± Peshkash: It was a form of tribute collected by the Mughal state.
± Shifting Cultivation: Trees and bushes in a forest area are first cut and burnt and the crop is sown in
the ashes. When this land loses its fertility, another plot of land is cleared and planted in the same way.

236

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NCERT Ancient and Medieval History One

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EDITION : 2023-24

(This Module shall only be used for Educational Purpose)

Alakh Pandey Sumit Rewri

2. THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION 11-26

3. VEDIC AGE 27-38

4. JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 39-61

5. AGE OF MAHAJANAPADAS 62-70

6. MAURYA’S AGE 71-77

7. POST MAURYAN AGE 78-86

8. GUPTA PERIOD 87-97

9. POST GUPTA PERIOD 98-110

10. SANGAM AGE AND SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS 111-118

11. ART AND CULTURE IN ANCIENT INDIA 119-132

12. INTRODUCTION TO MEDIEVAL HISTORY 133-139

13. IMPORTANT DYNASTIES IN THE EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD 140-147

14. DELHI SULTANATE 12TH TO 16TH CENTURY 148-163

15. THE MUGHALS 164-170

16. DECLINE OF MUGHALS AND RISE OF REGIONAL POWERS 171-178

17. BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENT 179-196

18. MARATHAS 197-206

19. VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE 207-217

20. SOCIO-CULTURAL ASPECTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA 218-236

Recited and Language-Old/

Ways of Finding out about the Past

± This diagram depicts a page from a palm-leaf manuscript. This

The Kandahar Inscription

± It is an old inscription. This inscription dates to about 2250 years ago

Who are the Archaeologists and What Do They Do?

How Do Archaeologists and Historians Use Sources?

Stone tools may also

Time Periods of Stone Age People

The Beginning of Farming and Herding

' It is one of the earliest villages that we know about.

Figure 2.1: Indus Valley Civilisation – Mature Phase

The Indus Valley Civilisation

Figure 2.2: Agricultural Tools of the Harappan Civilisation

Figure 2.3: Isometric Drawing of a House in Mohenjodaro

Laying out Drains and Roads:

The Indus Valley Civilisation

* The Great Bath was a large

Tracking Social Differences

The Indus Valley Civilisation

Strategies for Procuring Materials

Contact with Distant Lands

Seals, Script, Weights

' Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was

Figure 2.4: Letters on An Ancient Sign Board

The Indus Valley Civilisation

Discovery of “A new old civilisation”

The End of Civilisation

Figure 2.6: Areas of Late Harappan Occupation

The Indus Valley Civilisation

80,000 Middle Palaeolithic

35.000 Upper Palaeolithic

10,000 Neolithic (early agriculturists and pastoralists) lished

6,000 Chalcolithic (first use of copper)

2600 BCE Harappan civilisation

600 BCE-400 CE Early Historic

Figure 3.1. A page from a manuscript of the Rigveda

Vishvamitra and the Rivers

Figure 3.2. Physical Map of the Subcontinent

Unravelling the Mysteries of Megaliths in Ancient India

Figure 3.3. A Map Showing Important Archaeological Sites

' Sometimes, a circle of stones or a single large stone indicates