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Contents
1. History
a. Ancient History 3
b. Medeival History 11
c. Modern History 23
2. Political Science 48
3. Geography 94
4. EVS 132
5. Economics 140
6. Physics 169
7. Chemistry 209
8. Biology 242
Ancient History
It was the prehistoric cultural stage, or level of human development, that was
Stone Age
characterized by the creation and use of stone tools.
It began some 3.3 million years ago with the discovery of the oldest known stone tools.
Humans created four types of tools during the Stone Age: Pebble tools, bifacial tools or
hand-axes, Flake tools and Blade tools.
Three periods of the Stone Age (each period is based on the degree
of sophistication used by humans to fashion and use stone tools)
Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) - Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) - Neolithic (New Stone Age) -
2, 00,000 B.C. – 10,000 B.C. 10,000 B.C. – 8000 B.C 8000 BC – 4000 B.C.
Covers the greater part of the Ice It was the transitional phase A remarkable progress is noticed
age. Its characteristic tools are hand between the Palaeolithic Age and in human civilization in the
axes, cleavers and choppers. Such Neolithic Age. Characterized by Neolithic Age. In the world
tools have been found in Soan and the use of stone tools made of context, the New Stone Age
Sohan river valley (now in flakes mainly scrapers, borers and began in 9000 B.C.
Pakistan) and in the Belan Valley blade like tools. The sites are The only Neolithic settlement in
in the Mirzapur district of UP. found in the valleys of Soan, the Indian subcontinent attributed
The Old Stone Age sites are widely Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers. to 7000 B.C. lies in Mehrgarh,
found in various parts of the Indian During this phase, which is situated in Baluchistan, a
subcontinent and are generally Pithecanthropus or Homo erectus province of Pakistan.
located near water sources. evolved. These include the Kashmir valley,
Food was obtained by hunting The hunting-gathering pattern of Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in
animals and gathering edible plants life continued during this period. Uttar Pradesh and in several
and tubers. People are therefore There seems to have been a shift places of the Deccan.
called as hunter-gatherers. from big animal hunting to small This stage is marked by burins
animal hunting and fishing. The and scrapers. Such tools have
use of bow and arrow also began been found in AP, Karnataka,
during this period. Maharashtra, Bhopal and Chota
The last phase of this age saw the Nagpur plateau.
beginning of plain cultivation.
Chalcolithic or Metal Age
 It is the transitional period between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age
 It is taken to begin around the mid-5th millennium BC, and ends with the beginning of the Bronze Age proper,
in the late 4th to 3rd millennium BC, depending on the region.
 Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys. In South India the river valleys of the Godavari,
Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar and Kaveri were settled by farming communities during this period.
 Important sites of this phase are spread in Rajasthan, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bihar, MP, etc.
 The Chalcolithic people used different types of pottery of which black and red pottery was most popular.
 These people were not acquainted with burnt bricks and generally lived in thatched houses.
 The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age. Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas.
Indus Valley Civilisation or Harappan Civilisation
 The one of the oldest civilisation in human history and the earliest known urban culture of the
Indian subcontinent.
 The civilization appear to be about 2500–1700 bce, though the southern sites may have lasted
later into the 2nd millennium bce.
 The area of this Civilisation extended along the Indus River from what today is northeast
Afghanistan, into Pakistan and northwest India.
 It was discovered in the early 1900s by a British archaeologist named John Marshall.
 Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa (on Ravi) in 1921.
 R. D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro or ‘Mound of the Dead’ (on Indus) in 1922.
 The capital cities are Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
 Sheep and goats, dogs, humped cattle buffalo, and elephants were domesticated in the Indus
Valley Civilization.
 Mohenjodaro (Sind) is situated on the right bank of the Indus. Great Granary, Great bath,
Assembly halls, Shell strips, Pashupati Mahadev / Proto Shiva(Seal), Bronze image of Dancing
girl, Steatite image of Bearded man, Clay figure of Mother goddess found in Mohenjodaro.
 The port cities are Sutkagan Dor, Balakot, Lothal, Allahdino, and Kuntasi.
 Elaborate town-planning. It followed the Grid System. Roads were well cut, dividing the town
into large rectangular or square blocks.
 There was no metallic money in circulation & trade was carried through Barter System.
 The script is not alphabetical but pictographic (about 600 undeciphered pictographs).
 16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64,160,320).
Vedic Culture (1500 BC – 600 BC)
The word Veda means the sacred spiritual knowledge. These Vedas were considered infallible as they
imparted the highest spiritual knowledge. Initially, the Vedas were transmitted orally. Since our
knowledge of the early Aryans is based on these Vedas, the culture of this period is referred to as the
Vedic Culture.
 The Aryans were the founder of Vedic culture. The Aryans entered India through the Khyber Pass around
1500 BC.
 The Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 600 BC. This is the next major civilization that occurred in ancient
India after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization by 1400 BC. The Vedas were composed in this period
and this gives this age the name. The Vedas are also the chief source of information about this era.
Vedic Literature
 Four major Vedas constitute the Vedic literature.
Vedas
Rig Veda Yajur Veda Sam Veda Atharva Veda

Earliest of the four Vedas and It text describes formula and It is the Veda of melodies and It is the "knowledge storehouse
one of the most important texts mantras to be uttered during chants and is an ancient Vedic of atharvāṇas, the procedures
of the Hindu tradition. . sacrificial fire rituals. Sanskrit text. for everyday life".
 Besides these Vedas, there were:
Epics
Brahmanas Upanishads Aryankas Ramayana was authored by
Prose about Vedic hymns, Philosophical texts dealing Deal with mysticism, rites and Valmiki.
rituals and philosophies. with soul, mysteries of nature. rituals. Mahabharata was written by
Ved Vyasa.
Classification of Vedic Period

The period of Vedic Civilization (1500-500 BCE) is divided into two broad parts:
Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BCE) Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 BCE)
The caste system was flexible and based on The caste system became more rigid in this
profession rather than birth period with birth being the main criteria
There was no concept of Shudra or untouchables Shudras became a mainstay in the Later Vedic
period. Their sole function was to serve those of
the upper-castes
Women were allowed a greater degree of freedom in Women were restricted from their participation in
this period. They were allowed to participate in the society by being relegated to subordinate and
political process of the time to a certain extent docile roles
Early Vedic society was pastoralist and semi-nomadic Society became more settled in nature. It became
in nature centred around agriculture in general
In the Early Vedic Period, the barter system was Although the barter system was still in practice, it
more prevalent with little to no monetary value was largely replaced by the exchange of gold and
transaction being part of the exchange silver coins known as Krishnala
Rig-Veda. This text is cited as the earliest text from Yajur Veda. Sama Veda. Atharva Veda
this period
Buddhism Era in India

 Siddhartha Gautama (the "Buddha") born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poornima Day at Lumbini (near
Kapilavastu) in Nepal.
 Buddhism, founded in the late 6th century B.C.E. by The Buddha, is an important religion in north eastern
India, a period of great social change and intense religious activity.
 Left his palace at 29 (with Channa, the charioteer & his favourite horse, Kanthak(a) in search of truth (also
called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’ or The Great Renunciation) & wandered for 6 years.
 Attained ‘Nirvana’ or ‘Enlightenment’ at 35 at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.
 Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called
‘Dharmacha krapravartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.
 Attained Mahapari nirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC at
the age of 80 in the Malla republic.
 Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitakas, i.e. ‘Threefold Basket’.
Buddhist Councils
There are four Buddhist councils, the first one being held around 483 BC under the patronage of King
Ajatshatru of the Haryanka Dynasty under Magadha Empire. The other three Buddhist councils were held
around 383 BCE, 250 BCE, and 72 AD respectively.
First Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Ajatshatru of Haryanka dynasty.
 The council was established in order to arrive at a consensus on how the teachings of the Buddha could be
spread further.
 It was held in 483 BC just after Buddha’s demise.
 It was held at Sattapani caves (Sattaparnaguha) in Rajagriha.
 The monk who presided over the first council was Mahakessappa.
 Main objective was to preserve the Buddha’s teachings.
Second Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Kalasoka of Shishunaga dynasty.
 It was held in 383 BC, i.e., a hundred years after the Buddha’s death at Vaishali.
 Sabakami presided over the council.
 The main objective was to discuss ten disputed points under the Vinay Pitaka.
Third Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka of Maurya dynasty.
 It was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra.
 The council was presided over by Mogaliputta Tissa.
 Main objective was to purify Buddhism from opportunistic factions and corruption in the Sangha.
Fourth Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan dynasty.
 It was held in the 1 st century AD (72 AD) at Kundalvan in Kashmir.
 Vasumitra and Ashwaghosh presided over this council
 All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit. Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
 This council resulted in the division of Buddhism into two sects namely, Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle)
and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle).
Jainism in India
 Jainism was born in India about the same period as Buddhism. It was established by Mahavira (599 - 527
BC) in about 500 BC. He was born near Patna in what is now Bihar state.
 There were 24 Tirthankaras (Prophets or Gurus), all Kshatriyas and the first was Rishabhanath (Emblem:
Bull).
 The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Banaras. His main
teachings were: Non-injury, Non-lying, Non-stealing, Non-possession.
 The 24th & the last Tirthankar was Vardaman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion). He was born in Kundagram (District
Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC. His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan.
 Jainism is one of the world's oldest religions, originating in India at least 2,500 years ago.
 The most important aspect of Jainism is Ahiṃsa (non-violence), Anekantavada (many-sidedness), Aparigraha
(non-attachment) and Asceticism. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, many
practitioners refer to it as “the eternal way”.
 The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism. The word in the middle is "Ahiṃsa" (non-
injury). The wheel represents the dharma chakra, which stands for the resolve to halt the samsara through the
relentless pursuit of Ahimsa.
 In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given & they are called the way to Nirvana. They are Right Faith,
Right Knowledge & Right Conduct.
History of Jain Councils
 First Council: The first Jains' council was held around 300 BC, 160 years after Mahavira's death in
Pataliputra (modern-day Bihar). It was presided over by Sthulabhadra. Jainism was split into two factions at
this council: Svetambara and Digambara.
 Second Council: The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi in 5th century A.D. under the chairmanship of
Devaradhi Kshamasramana. The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in
this council.
The Magadha Empire
 The Magadha Empire came into existence when the four Mahajanapada- Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti
engaged in the struggle for the supremacy from the 6th Century BC to 4th Century BC. Ultimately, Magadha
emerged as the most powerful and prosperous kingdom in the North India.
 Magadha is situated in modern Bihar. Jarasandha, who was a descendant of Brihadratha, founded the empire
in Magadha. Both are talked about in the Mahabharata.
Haryanka Dynasty (544 BC – 413 BC)
 Three prominent rulers: Originally founded by Bimbisara (544 BC – 492 BC). Ajatshatru (492 BC –
460 BC) son of Bimbisara killed his father and seized the throne. Buddha died during his reign;
arrange the first Buddhist council. Udayin (460 BC – 413 BC)
 At first, the capital was Rajagriha. Afterwards, it was moved to Pataliputra, close to the present-day
Patna in India during the rule of Udayin.
Shishunaga Dynasty (413 BC – 395 BC)
 According to the Hindu Puranas, this was the second ruling dynasty of Magadha, succeeding
Nagadashaka of the Haryanka dynasty.
 Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was succeeded by Kalasoka (2nd Buddhist council).
 Dynasty lasted for two generations only.
 Greatest achievement was the destruction of power of Avanti.
 Capital in Rajgir and later Pataliputra (both in what is now Bihar).
Nanda Dynasty (345 BC – 329 BC)
 The Shishunaga dynasty was defeated by Mahapadma Nanda (also known as Ekarat and Sarvakshatrantaka) and was the founder
of the Nanda dynasty.
 Alexander attacked India in their reign. Dhana Nanda was there at that time.
 Alexander (356 BC – 323 BC) was the son of Philip of Macedonia (Greece) who invaded India in 326 BC.
 At that time NW India was split up into a number of small independent states like Taxila, Punjab (kingdom of Porus), and
Gandhara etc.
 Except Porus who fought the famous battle of Hydaspes (on banks of Jhelum) with Alexander, all other kings submitted meekly.
 When Alexander reached Beas, his soldiers refused to go further, so he was forced to retreat.
 To mark the farthest point of his advance, he erected 12 huge stones altars on the northern bank of Beas.
 Remained in India for 19 months & died in 323 BC at Babylon.
The Mauryan Dynasty (325 BCE – 185 BCE)
Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 297 BC):

 The last of the Nanda rulers, Dhana Nanda was highly unpopular due to his oppressive tax regime. Post-Alexander’s
invasion of North-Western India, that region faced a lot of unrest from foreign powers.
 Some of these regions came under the rule of the Seleucid Dynasty, founded by Seleucus I Nicator. He was one of the
generals of Alexander the Great.
 Chandragupta, with the help of an intelligent and politically astute Brahmin, Kautilya usurped the throne by defeating
Dhana Nanda in 321 BC.
 His reign lasted from 321 BC to 297 BC.
 He abdicated the throne in favour of his son, Bindusara, and went to Karnataka with Jain monk Bhadrabahu. He had
embraced Jainism and is said to have starved himself to death according to the Jain tradition at Shravanabelagola.
Bindusara (297 BC – 273 BC):
 Son of Chandragupta Maurya and ruled from 297 BC to 273BC.
 He is said to have conquered ‘the land between the 2 seas’, i.e., the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal.
Ashoka (269 – 232 BC):
 Ashoka was the son of Bindusara and was the most famous Mauryan King.
 He was governor of Taxila and Ujjain during his father's reign.
 Ashoka sat on the throne around 268 B.C after successfully defeating his brothers. There was an interval of four years
between Ashoka's accession to the throne (273 B.C.) and his actual coronation (268 B.C.)
 Ashoka’s Rock Edicts - Major rock edicts (a set of 14 inscription and 2 separate ones) found in Odisha, in Prakrit and
Greek. Major Pillar Edicts: 7 Edicts, inscribed at the end of Ashoka’s reign; in Prakrit.
 Minor rock edicts found at 13 places: Bairat, Brahmagiri, Bahapur, Gujarra, Jatinga-Rameshwara, Maski, Palkigundu,
Nittur, Rupnath, Sahasram, Siddapur, Suvarnagiri and Udegolam.
The Kalinga War:
 The Kalinga War (ended 261 BCE) is the only major war Ashoka fought after his accession the throne. This war marks
the close of empire-building and military conquests of ancient India that began with the Mauryan Emperor
Chandragupta Maurya.
Ashoka’s Dhamma
 Dhamma (a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word dharma) is a set of edicts that formed a policy of the Mauryan emperor
Ashoka, who succeeded to the Mauryan throne in modern-day India around 269 B.C.E.
 The basic principles of Ashoka's Dhamma are as follows: People should be able to live in peace and harmony with one
another. Ahimsa, or non-violence and non-injury to all living beings, should be practised by everyone. People should
treat other religious faiths with respect and tolerance.
Causes of the fall of Mauryan Empire:
 The religious policy of Ashoka antagonized the Brahmins of his empire.
 Huge expenditure on army and bureaucracy.
 Oppressive rule in provinces.
 Significance of Mauryan Age.
The Gupta Dynasty
Gupta Empire Golden Age of India

 The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th Century CE to late 6th Century
CE. During the peak of its power, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the
Golden Age of India by historians.
Chandragupta I (AD 319 – 335):
 First important king of Gupta Dynasty.
 He enhanced his power & prestige by marrying to the Lichchhavi princess Kumara Devi.
 He was given the title of Maharajadhiraja meaning the great king of Kings.
 His reign is supposed to be from 319 -350 CE.
Samudragupta (AD 335 – 375):
 The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta’s son & successor Samudragupta.
 Samudragupta believed in the policy of war & conquest & because of his bravery & general ship he is called the
‘Napoleon’ of India.
Chandragupta – II (AD 380 – 413):
 Son of Samudragupta and was nominated as prince.
 He was given the title of Vikramaditya, which means the sun of valour.
 He extended his empire towards the West by defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and
Saurãshtra.
 During his reign Hindu art, culture and other religions were on the rise.
Kumaragupta – I (AD 413 – 455):
 He adopted the title of Mahendraditya.
 Founded Nalanda University (a renowned university of ancient India).
 He was the worshipper of Lord Kartikeya (son of Lord Shiva).
 In the last years of his reign, the peace & prosperity of the empire was disturbed due to the invasion of Turko-
Mongol tribe, Hunas. During the war with the Hunas, Kumaragupta died.
Skandagupta (AD 455 – 467):
 Kumaragupta-I was followed by Skandagupta.
 Restored Sudarshana Lake.
 After his death, the great days of the Guptas were over. The empire continued but central control weakened &
local governors became feudatory kings with hereditary rights.
Gupta Literature in India:
 Kalidasa, the great Sanskrit dramatist, belonged to this period. His six major books are: Abhijnanashakuntala,
Vikramorvashi, and Malavikagnimitra. The epic poems Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava and Meghaduta.
 Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchtantra & Hitopdesh.
 Ramayana & Mahabharata were almost completed by the 4th Century AD.
Other Dynasties & Rulers (7th Century – 12th Century AD)
Harshavardhana (AD 606 – 647)

 Belonged to Pushyabhuti family & also called the Vardhana dynasty.
 Originally belonged to Thaneshwar, but shifted to Kanauj (after Harsha’s death Kanauj was won
from Harsha’s successors by the Pratiharas).
 Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen Tsang (Prince of Travellers) visited during his reign.
 Harsha himself wrote 3 plays – Priyadarshika, Ratnavali & Nagananda.
 After the death of Harsha in 647, the empire once again broke up into petty States.
The Early Kingdom
The Pandyas The Cholas The Cheras

Major territory Situated to the They occupied the
was Madurai North East of portion of Kerala
Pandyan Kingdom and Tamil Nadu
Mini Exercise - I
1. Which of the following Indus Valley sites are not located in Haryana?
a. Banawali b Bargaon c Bhirrana
d. Farmana
2. What is the name of the First or Old Stone Age?
a. Neolithic b Paleolithic c Mesolithic
d. Stone Age
3. Ayurveda’ has its origin in
a. Rig Veda b Sama Veda c Yajur Veda d Atharva Veda
4. The ritualistic precepts pertaining to the hymns of the Vedas are known as the
a. Samhitas b Aranyakas c Brahmanas d Upanishads
5. The ‘Second Buddhist Council’ was held in which of the following cities?
a. Nalanda b Gaya c Raigarh d None of these
6. The first Tirthankara of the Jains was
a. Arishtanemi b Parshvanath c Ajitanath d Rishabha
7. The Mauryan administration was highly
a. Decentralized b Bureaucratic
c. Centralized d Despotic
10
Medeival History
The Chalukyas The Cholas (9th to 13th Century) The Ghaznavis

1. Pulakesin I (543-566 AD) was 1. The Chola dynasty was one of the Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030)
founded the empire with his most popular dynasties of South Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni was a
capital at Vatapi and performed India which ruled over Tamil ruler of Afghanistan from 997 to
Ashwamedha. Nadu & parts of Karnataka with 1030. He was an ambitious king
and so made all efforts to extend his
2. Kirtivarman I (566-596AD) Tanjore as its capital.
control over far-off regions. He
Son of Pulakesin I. Conquered 2. The dynasty originated in the rich
extended his control over parts of
Konkan and northern Kerala. Kaveri (Cauvery) River valley. Central Asia, Iran and the north-
3. Mangalesha (566 – 597 AD) Uraiyur (now Tiruchchirappalli) western part of the subcontinent.
Brother of Kirtivarman I. was its oldest capital. The The important invasions by
Conquered the Kadambas and legendary King Karikan was the Mahmud Ghazni are the following:
the Gangas and was killed by common ancestor through whom (i) First invasion: Capture of
his nephew and son of small Deccan and Andhra frontier forts (1000 A.D.) (ii)
Kirtivarman, Pulakesin II. families called Chola or Coda Second invasion: Victory over
4. Pulakesin II (609 – 642 AD) claimed a connection with the Jaipal of Hindu Shahi kingdom
The greatest of the Chalukya Uraiyur family. (1001). (iii) Third invasion: Attack
at Bhera (1005).
kings. 3. The Chola Empire was founded
Muhammad Ghori
Extended the Chalukya rule to by Vijayalaya. He took over the
In AD 1173, Shihab-ud-din
most parts of the Deccan. Tanjore kingdom in the 8th Muhammad (AD 1173–1206) also
Though a Hindu, he was Century and led to the rise of the called Muhammad of Ghori
tolerant of Buddhism and mighty Cholas by defeating the ascended the throne of Ghazni. The
Jainism. Pallavas. Tanjore was hence Ghoris were not strong enough to
He had defeated the Pallava made the first capital of the meet the growing power & strength
king Mahendra Varman I but eminent Chola Empire. Aditya I of the Khwarizmi Empire; they
was defeated and killed by succeeded Vijayalaya to become realized that they could gain
Mahendravarman’s son and the ruler of the empire. nothing in Central Asia.
successor Narasimha Varman I 4. The most powerful ruler of the Conquest of Punjab & Sind
Muhammad Ghori led his first
in a series of battles he had with Chola Empire is Rajaraja I. He is
expedition in AD 1175. He
the Pallavas. remembered for reinstating the
marched against Multan & freed it
His death saw a lapse in Chola power and ensuring its from its ruler. In the same
Chalukya power. supremacy in south India and campaign he captured Uchch from
5. Vikramaditya I (655-680 AD): Indian Ocean. the Bhatti Rajputs.
Son of Pulakesin II who 5. The Chola Empire fell due to the Three years later in AD 1178 he
plundered Kanchi, the capital of rise of the Pandya Dynasty. The again marched to conquer Gujarat
the Pallavas. Pandya's steadily took over Chola but the Chalukya ruler of Gujarat,
6. Kirtivarman II (746 – territories until in 1279 the last Bhima II defeated him at the battle
753AD): Great-great-grandson Chola emperor Rajendra III, was of Anhilwara. But by AD 1190
of Vikramaditya I. defeated in battle by Kulasekhara having secured Multan, Sind &
Punjab and Muhammad Ghori
Last of the Chalukya rulers. Pandiyan. The Chola Empire
paved the way for a further thrust
Was defeated by the ceased to exist as a result.
into the Gangetic Doab.
Rashtrakuta king, Dantidurga
11
Delhi Sultanate
After the assassination of Muhammad Ghori, Qutubuddin Aibek got the control over Delhi.
This period can be divided into 5 distinct periods:
1. The Slave Dynasty 2. The Khilji Dynasty 3. The Tughlaq

(1206 – 90) (1290 – 1320) Dynasty (1320 – 1414)
Delhi
4. The Sayyid Dynasty 5. The Lodhi Dynasty
Sultanate
(1414 – 51) (1451 – 1526)
The Slave Dynasty
Qutubuddin Aibak (1206-10):

 Qutubuddin Aibak, a ruler of medieval India, was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate and also the founder of
the Slave dynasty. He was a Turkish of the Aybak tribe and was the sultan for only four years, 1206-1210.
 Aibak is known for having commissioned the Qutab Minar in Delhi, and two mosques i.e. Quwat-ul-Islam at
Delhi and the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer.
 Aibak was great patron of learning & patronized writers like Hasan-un-Nizami, author of ‘Taj-ul- Massir’ &
Fakhruddin, author of ‘Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi’.
 The capital during his reign was not Delhi but Lahore.
 For his generosity, he was given the title of Lakhbakhsh (giver of lakhs).
 He died in 1210 while playing Chaugan or Polo.
Aram Shah (1210)
 He was the son of Aibak, who was defeated by Iltutmish in the battle of Jud.
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1210-36)
 He was the third of the Mamluk kings who ruled the former Ghurid territories in northern India. He was the
first Muslim sovereign to rule from Delhi, and is thus considered the effective founder of the Delhi Sultanate.
 He saved Delhi Sultanate from the attack of Chengiz Khan, the Mongol leader, by refusing shelter to
Khwarizmi Shah, whom Chengiz was chasing.
 He introduced the silver coin (Tanka) & the copper coin (jital).
 He organized the Iqta System & introduced reforms in civil administration & army, which was now centrally
paid & recruited.
 He set up an official nobility of slaves known as Chahalgani / Chalisa (group of forty).
 He completed the construction of Qutab Minar which was started by Aibak.
Rukn-ud-din Feroz (1236)
 He was son of Iltutmish & was crowned by her mother, Shah Turkan, after death of Iltutmish.
 He was deposed by Razia, daughter of Illtutmish.
Razia Sultana (1236 – 40)
 Razia Sultan was daughter of Shams-ud-din Iltutmish who succeeded her father.
 Razia Sultana was the first and only Muslim woman Sultanate of India, and ruled the court of Delhi from
the end of 1236 to 1240.
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 She defied all odds to occupy the throne, including overcoming conflicts over her gender and her slave
ancestry.
 There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda, Altunia, governor of Bhatinda refused to accept suzerainty of
Razia. Razia accompanied by Yakut marched against Altunia.
 In 1240 AD, Razia became the victim of a conspiracy & was assassinated near Kaithal (Haryana).
Bahram Shah (1240-42)
 Iltutmish’s third son Bahram Shah was put on throne by powerful Turkish council Chalisa.
 He was killed by Turkish nobles.
Alauddin Masud Shah (1242-46)
 He was son of Rukn ud din Feroz.
 He was disposed after Balban & Nasiruddin Mahmud’s Mother, Malika-e-Jahan, conspired against him &
established Nasiruddin Mahmud as the new Sultan.
Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246-66)
 He was the eldest son of Iltutmish.
 Minhaj-us-Siraj has dedicated his book Tabaqat-i-Nasiri to him.
Ghiyas ud din Balban (1266-87)
 Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, the Sultan of Delhi from 1266 to 1287 AD, was one of the most powerful Sultans of
the middle ages. He rose to power, like his master Iltutmish, and became the Sultan of Delhi.
 He appointed a spying agency called "Barid". Amir Khusrao (poet) came to India during the reign of Sultan
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban.
 The Persian court model influenced Balban’s conception of Kingship. He took up the title of Zil-i-Ilahi
(Shadow of God).
Kaiqubad (1287-90)
 He was the grandson of Balban was established on the throne by Fakruddin, the Kotwal of Delhi.
 But Kaiqubad was killed by Khalji nobles.
 He was the last ruler of the Slave Dynasty.
The Khilji Dynasty
Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-96 AD)

 Jalaluddin Khilji founded the Khilji dynasty and was the first Sultan of Khilji dynasty.
 He came to power after the overthrow of the so- called Slave Dynasty.
 He was a liberal ruler and adopted the policy of religious toleration.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)
 In 1296 A.D. Alauddin Khilji succeeded Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji and ascended the throne.
 He was the first Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed ‘Kingship
knows no Kinship’.
 He adopted the title Sikandar-e-Saini or the second Alexander
 Alauddin Khiliji’s generals namely, Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan conquered Gujarat (1298).
 He captured Ranthambhor (1301), Marwar (1303), Malwa (1305) and Jalor (1311).
 He sent his confidante and general Malik Kafur against the rulers of the south.
 Pratap Rudra-II of Warangal, Ramachandra Deva, the Yadav king of Devagiri, and Vir Ballala-III the
Hoysala king were defeated.
 He constructed a mosque in Rameswaram.
The Mongol Invasion
 Ala-ud-din successfully resisted the Mongol invasion more than 12 times.
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End of the Dynasty
 Ala-ud-din Khilji died in 1316 A.D.
 Successors of Ala-ud-din-Khilji were weak rulers.
 Eventually, in 1320 A.D. the Governor of Punjab Ghazi Malik led a group of nobles, conquered Delhi and
captured the throne.
 Ghazi Malik assumed the name ‘Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq’ at Delhi and founded the Tughlaq Dynasty, a
dynasty of rulers.
The Tughlaq Dynasty
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik (1320 – 1325 A.D)

 Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.
 Tughlaq’s policy was harsh against Mongols.
 He also started construction of Tughlaqabad Fort.
 During his reign, Tughlaq built a stable administration dominated by Multanis, which reflects his native
power base of Dipalpur and Punjab, and the means that he used to take power.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1361A.D.)
 In 1325 A.D. Junakhan, the crown prince sworn the title Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
 Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq stood for the administrative and political unity of India.
 In 1327 A.D. he captured Warangal.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq
 In 1351A.D. Firoz Tughlaq was the son of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq’s younger brother. He succeeded the
throne.
 He withdrew all Taquavi (agricultural) loans granted by Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq.
 He raised the salary of the revenue officers.
 He constructed 150 wells, 100 bridges, and 50 dams, and also dug many irrigation canals.
 He constructed towns like Firozabad, Hisar, Jaunpur, and Fatehabad.
 Firoz banned all kinds of damages and torture.
 He established hospitals (Dar-ul-Shafa), Marriage Bureau, (Diwani-i-Kherat), and an Employment Bureau.
 He also established Diwan-i-lstibqaq to give financial aid to the poor.
 Firoz Tughlaq surrounded Bengal in 1353 AD and 1359AD.
 He seized Jainagar.
 He devastated the Jagannath Temple at Puri.
The Lodi Dynasty
Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489 AD)

 Bahlul Khan Lodi (r. 1451–1489) was the nephew and son-in-law of Malik Sultan Shah Lodi, the governor
of Sirhind in (Punjab), India, and succeeded him as governor during the reign of Sayyid dynasty ruler
Muhammad Shah.
 Muhammad Shah elevated him to the position of Tarun-Bin-Sultan. With his strong personality, he held
together a loose confederacy of Afghan and Turkish chiefs.
 He brought the provinces' fractious chiefs to heel and injected new life into the government.
 Bahlul Khan Lodi ascended the throne of the Delhi sultanate on April 19, 1451, after the last Sayyid ruler
of Delhi, Alauddin Alam Shah, voluntarily abdicated in his favour.
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 The conquest of Jaunpur was the most significant event during his reign. Bahlul spent most of his time
fighting against the Sharqi dynasty, which he eventually annexed.
 In 1486, he elevated his eldest surviving son Barbak to the throne of Jaunpur.
Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517 AD)
 Sikandar Khan Lodi (1489–1517) (born Nizam Khan), Bahlul's second son, succeeded him after his death
on 17 July 1489 and assumed the title Sikandar Shah.
 His father nominated him to succeed him and he was crowned Sultan on July 15, 1489. He founded Agra in
1504 and built mosques.
 He relocated the capital from Delhi to Agra. He was a supporter of trade and commerce. He was also a
patron of learning and had Sanskrit medical works translated into Persian.
 He curbed the individualistic tendencies of his Pashtun nobles by requiring them to submit their accounts to
state audit.
 His most notable achievement was the conquest and annexation of Bihar.
Ibrahim Lodi
 The last Lodi Sultan of Delhi was Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526), Sikandar's eldest son. He possessed the
qualities of a great warrior, but his decisions and actions were rash and impolitic.
 His attempt at royal absolutism was premature, and his policy of repression without measures to strengthen
the administration and increase military resources was bound to fail.
 Ibrahim faced numerous rebellions and kept the opposition at bay for nearly a decade.
 For the majority of his reign, he was at war with the Afghans and the Mughal Empire, and he died trying to
save the Lodi Dynasty from annihilation.
 In 1526, Ibrahim was defeated at the Battle of Panipat. This marked the end of the Lodi Dynasty and the
rise of Babur's (1526–1530) Mughal Empire in India.
Mughal Period
Babur (1526 – 1530)
 Babur is the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
 He was a descendant of Timur (on his father’s side) and Genghis Khan (on his Mother’s side).
 His original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad.
 In 1494 at the age of 11, Babur became the ruler of Farghana (at present in Chinese Turkistan) succeeding
Umar Shaikh Mirza, his father.
 Daulat Khan, the most powerful noble of Punjab, who was discontented with Ibrahim Lodhi, invited Babur
to invade India.
 He undertook four expeditions to India in order to conquer it between the years 1519 and 1523.
 In November 1525, Babur attacked and occupied Punjab again.
 On 21st April 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat and quickly occupied Delhi
and despite vast and superior troop Ibrahim Lodi lost in the battle due to Babur’s superior strategy and use
of artillery.
 The First Battle of Panipat marked the foundation of Mughal dominion in India.
 Babur conquered Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
 Rana Sangha of Mewar was a great Rajput warrior.
 He gave the toughest resistance to Babur’s expansion plans.
 On March 16, 1527, Rana Sangha, along with rulers of Marwar, Amber, Gwalior, Ajmer and Chanderi and
Sultan Mahmood Lodi (whom Rana Sangha had acknowledged as ruler of Delhi) met Babur in a decisive
contest at Kanhwa, a village near Agra. The aim was to prevent the imposition of another foreign
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repression on Babur succeeded over them by using similar tactics as in the Battle of Panipat. Then, he took
on the title of “Ghazi”.
 In the year 1528, Chanderi was captured by Babur from Rajput king Medini Rai.
 On May 6, 1529, Babur met the allied Afghans of Bihar and Bengal on the banks of Gogra, near Patna and
defeated them. With this battle, Babur occupied a considerable portion of northern India.
 On December 26, 1530, Babur died at Agra aged 40. His body was first laid at Arambagh in Agra but was
later taken to Kabul, where it was buried.
Humayun (1530-40 & 1555-56)
 Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.

 Humayun means “fortune” but he remained the most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal Empire.
 Six months after his succession, Humayun besieged the fortress of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand, gained a
decisive victory over Afghans at Douhrua and drove out Sultan Mahmood Lodhi from Jaunpur, and even
defeated Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. His victories, however, were short-lived due to the weakness of his
character.
 Humayun divided the empire among his brothers but this proved to be a great blunder on his part.
 Kamran was given Kabul and Kandahar.
 Sambhal and Alwar were given to Askari and Hindal respectively.
 Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed Askari as its governor but soon Bahadur
Shah recovered Gujarat from Askari who fled from there.
 In the east, Sher Khan became powerful. Humayun marched against him and in the Battle of Chausa, held
in 1539, Sher Khan destroyed the Mughal army and Humayun escaped from there.
 In 1540, in the Battle of Bilgram or Ganges also known as Battle of Kanauj, Humayun was forced to fight
with Sher Khan alone and after losing his kingdom, Humayun became an exile for the next fifteen years.
 In 1952, during his wanderings in deserts of Sindh, Humayun married Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of
Sheikh Ali Amber Jaini, who had been a preceptor of Humayun’s brother Hindal.
 Later, he defeated his brothers Kamran and Askari.
 In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne.
 After six months, he died in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his library.
Sur Empire (Second Afghan Empire 1540-55)
Sher Shah (1486-1545)

 Sher Shah was the founder of Sur Dynasty.
 He was the son of Hasan Khan, a Jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
 He was given the title Sher Khan for his bravery under the Afghan Rule of Bihar.
 Sher Shah Sur’s conquests include Bundelkhand, Malwa, Multan, Punjab, and Sind.
 His empire occupied the whole of North India except Assam, Gujarat, Kashmir, and Nepal.
 Though his rule lasted for only 5 years, he has organized an excellent administrative system.
 Under Sher Shah, the land revenue administration was well organized.
 The land survey was sensibly done.
 All cultivable lands were classified into three classes – good, middle and bad.
 The state’s share was one-third of the average production and it was paid in cash or crop.
 Sher Shah introduced new copper coins called “Dam”. It is believed that this coin is one of the possible
sources for the English phrase “I don’t give a damn) ″, due to its small worth.
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 Police were competently restructured and crime was less during his regime.
 Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji.
 Sher Shah had also developed the communications by laying four important highways: Sonargaon to Sind,
Agra to Berhampur, and Jodhpur to Chittor and Lahore to Multan.
 In 1545, Sher Shah died and his successors ruled till 1555 later when Humayun reconquered India.
Akbar (1526 - 1605)
 Akbar was one of the greatest monarchs of the Mughal dynasty. He was the son of Humayun
 He was crowned at Kalanaur in 1556 CE at the young age of 13 years and 4 months.
 During the first few years of Akbar’s reign (c. 1556 – 1560 CE), Bairam Khan acted as his regent. Bairam
Khan was Humayun’s confidante and gained the title of Khan-i-Khanan.
 Bairam Khan represented Akbar in the Second Battle of Panipat (1556 CE) with Hemu Vikramaditya
(wazir of Adil Shah of Bengal) who led the Afghan forces.
 During the regency period of Bairam Khan, Mughal territories were extended from Kabul up to Jaunpur in
the east, and Ajmer in the west. Gwalior was also captured.
 Bairam Khan emerged as the most powerful noble and started appointing his own supporters on important
positions neglecting the old nobles. This caused resentment among other nobles who managed to influence
Akbar as well.
 Akbar conquered northern India from Agra to Gujarat and then from Agra to Bengal. He strengthened the
north-western frontier. Later, he went to the Deccan.
 The period of influence of Maham Anga on Akbar i.e. form 1560-62 is known as the period of Petticoat
government.
 Akbar organised the nobility as well as his army by means of the Mansabdari system.
 Jagirdari system was assigning revenue of a particular territory to the nobles for their services to the state.
It was a modified version of Iqta of the Delhi Sultanate and was an integral part of the Mansabdari system.
Jahangir (1605-27)
 Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim with the title Nur-ud-din Jahangir.
 His ascension was challenged by his eldest son Prince Khusrao who staged a revolt with the blessings of
Sikh Guru Arjun Dev.
 Prince Khusrao was defeated, captured and blinded, while Guru Arjun Dev was executed.
 In 1608 Ahmad Nagar in the Deccan had declared independence under Malik Ambar.
 During the reign of Jahangir there was no addition to the Mughal territory in Deccan.
 In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of World).
 Nur Jahan dominated the royal household and set new fashions based on Persian traditions. She encouraged
Persian art and culture in the court.
 Nur Jahan became the real power behind the throne.
 The political intrigues that prevailed because of Nur-Jahan, led Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) to rebel
against his father.
 Nur-Jahan, who ruled the empire for ten years, lost her power and influence after Jahangir’s death.
 Jahangir died near Lahore (on the way from Kashmir to Lahore). He was buried in Lahore.
Shah Jahan (1628-1658)
 After Jahangir’s death in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the support of the nobles and the army and
ascended the throne.
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 Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar and other
ancestral lands but was unable to control Kandahar.
 His Deccan policy was more successful. He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and annexed it. Both
Bijapur and Golconda signed a treaty with the emperor.
 Shah Jahan defeated Shivaji’s father Shahji Bhonsle.
 In 1631 Shah Jahan’s wife Mumtaz Mahal passed away at Burhanpur. In memory of her Shah Jahan started
constructing Taj Mahal at Agra.
 He was contemporary to Louis XIV of France.
 In his reign the famous Peacock Throne was made for the King.
 During the last days of Shah Jahan, there was a contest for the throne amongst his four sons.
 A war of succession broke out between the four sons of Shah Jahan in which Aurangzeb emerged
victorious.
 Aurangzeb imprisoned Shah Jahan and crowned himself as the Mughal emperor. Shah Jahan died broken
hearted as a royal prisoner in January 1666 and was buried in the Taj Mahal.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
 Aurangzeb (AD 1658-1707) was considered one of the ablest of the Mughal kings Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb’s 49 years of ruling period are considered as the “Golden age” of the Mughal Empire
 Under the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s reign, the empire reached its greatest height, and although the
Deccan policy and The Religious Policy led to its dissolution
 The Fatawa-e-Alamgiri was compiled by Aurangzeb. He was among the few monarchs to have fully
established Sharia law and Islamic economics throughout the Indian subcontinent
 Aurangzeb was called “Zinda Pir” due to his simple living and high thinking
 When Aurangzeb died after ruling for nearly 49 years, the Mughal Empire was confronted with many
challenging problems. His successors failed to cope with them which led to the collapse of the empire in
the mid-18th century.
Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb
 During the first half of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s rule, which lasted till about 1707, Aurangzeb was an
efficient Muslim emperor of a mixed Muslim-Hindu empire
 Aurangzeb was feared and esteemed by many for his robustness and skill but disliked by many for his
barbarity and orthodox policies
 During the early period of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s rule, he diverted his attention toward protecting
the northwest province from Central Asian Turks and Persians
 It was at this time, that he had a conflict with the Maratha chief Shivaji Maharaja, who twice raided the
great port of Surat in 1664 and1670
 Aurangzeb pursued his great-grandfather Akbar’s policy for conquest which was to defeat your enemies,
reconcile with them, and place them in imperial service
 Following the policy, Shivaji Maharaja was defeated and was called to Agra for reconciliation in 1666, and
was given an imperial rank
 However the plan broke down, Shivaji Maharaja fled to the Deccan and died as the ruler of an independent
Maratha kingdom in 1680
 Then, to contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangzeb decided to invade Bijapur and Golconda in 1686-
87
 Aurangzeb defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed the Bijapur kingdom. After this, he proceeded
against Golconda and eliminated the Qutab Shahi dynasty
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 Though he destroyed the Deccan provinces, it was a political blunder
 Destruction of Deccan Kingdoms brought Mughals and Marathas face to face, which ensued confrontation
between these two powers
 In addition, his Deccan campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury
Religious Policy
 Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb was an ardent Sunni Muslim and a champion of Sunni orthodoxy
 This prompted him to strictly enforce the Quranic laws according to which, to his mind, every pious
Muslim must carry on Jihad i.e. holy war against Dar-ul-Harb i.e. the land of the non-Muslims till they
were turned into Dar-ul-Islam that is the land of Islam
 At first, he banned the construction of new Hindu temples and the repair of old temples. Then started
destroying it
 The celebrated temples at Benares and Mathura lost their charm
 He re-imposed Jaziya (pilgrim tax)
 He was an orthodox Sunni Muslim and was not tolerant of other Muslim sects such as Shia
 Aurangzeb even punished the Sufi saints because of their liberal religious views
 He was against Sikhs and he also executed the ninth Sikh Prophet, Guru Teg Bahadur
 Because of his religious policy, the Rajputs, the Jats of Mathura, the Satnamis of Mewars, the Marathas,
and the Sikhs turned into the enemies of the Mughal Empire
 Aurangzeb made the grave mistake of identifying his religion with the state and that generated a feeling of
discontent among different sections of people which even during his lifetime distracted his energies and
became the major cause of the decline and fall of the Empire
Bahadur Shah I (1707-12)
 Aurangzeb died in 1707, without choosing a crown prince, when Mu'azzam was governor of Kabul and his
younger half-brothers (Muhammad Kam Bakhsh and Muhammad Azam Shah) were administrators of the
Deccan and Gujarat, respectively.
 Azam planned to march to Agra and declare himself the new ruler, but he was defeated by Mu'azzam in the
Battle of Jajau in June 1707. In the struggle, Azam and his son, Ali Tabar, were slain.
 At the age of 63, Muazzam ascended the throne and acquired the title of Bahadur Shah.
 He had a liberal approach toward the nobles, granting them their preferred domains and promoting them.
 He was accommodating of Hindus, however he never eliminated the Jizya tax.
 The independence of Marwar and Mewar was recognized during his rule.
 Bahadur Shah attempted to make peace with the Marathas, who had been the biggest danger to Mughal
power under Aurangzeb, who had held Shahu, Shivaji's grandson, as a captive at his court.
 Bahadur Shah wanted to appease the Marathas by putting Shahu as Raja of Satara in the heart of the
Maratha land.
 In his war against the Sikhs, he was assisted by Jat chief Charuman and Bundella chief Chattrasal.
 His son Jahandar Shah succeeded him, and his reign was much less successful than his father's.
 Rather, the Mughal Empire became hollow, with numerous groups utilising it for their own ends, and
Bahadur Shah's successors became mere puppets in the political game of eighteenth-century India.
Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

 After Bahadur Shah's death, a new type of politics evolved in the Mughals' political arena, in which nobles
were 'king makers,' and rulers were only 'puppets' in their hands.
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 Jahandar Shah was Mughal India's first puppet king. Zulfikar Khan (wazir), who had the executive reins in
his hands, backed him up.
 Zulfikar Khan developed cordial relationships with the Marathas, Rajputs, and various Hindu chieftains.
 Zulfikar also attempted to improve the empire's financial status by scrutinizing rash Jagir and office
allocations.
 He also required Mansabdars to maintain the official army quota.
 Jahandar Shah lived a hedonistic lifestyle, and his court was frequently enlivened by dancing and other
forms of entertainment.
 The third Nawab of the Carnatic, Muhammad Saadatullah Khan I, denied his authority and assassinated De
Singh of Orchha, largely because the Nawab believed he was the righteous commander of the Gingee Fort.
 Khan launched a smear campaign against Jahandar Shah, calling him a usurper on the Mughal throne.
 Jahandar Shah sent presents to the Ottoman Sultan Ahmad III to bolster his power.
 On 10 January 1713, Jahandar Shah was defeated in combat at Agra by Farrukhsiyar, his nephew and the
second son of Azim-ush-Shan, with the help of the Sayyid Brothers.
 He went to Delhi, where he was apprehended and given to the new Emperor, who imprisoned him and Lal
Kunwar.
 He was imprisoned for a month until professional stranglers were dispatched to murder him on February
11, 1713.
Farrukhsiyar (1713-19)
 Owed his victory to Sayyid Brothers: Hussain Ali Khan Barha & Abdullah Khan.
 Abdullah Khan: Wazir, Hussain Ali: Mir Bakshi.
 Farrukhsiyar was an incapable ruler. Sayyid brothers were the real rulers.
Sayyid Brothers
 Known the Indian History as King Makers.

 Adopted the policy of religious tolerance. Abolished Jizyah.
 Pilgrim tax was abolished from a number of places.
 Marathas: Granted Shahu ji Swarajya & the right to collect Chauth & Sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of
the Deccan.
 They failed in their effort to contain rebellion because they were faced with constant political rivalry,
quarrels & conspiracies at the court.
 In 1719, the Sayyid Brothers killed & overthrew Farrukhsiyar.
Decline of the Mughal Empire
 The Mughal Empire began to decline in the 18th century, during the reign of Muhammad Shah (1719–48).
 Much of its territory fell under the control of the Marathas and then the British.
 The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II (1837–57), was exiled by the British after his involvement with
the Indian Mutiny of 1857–58.
The Marathas
Maratha, a major people of India, famed in history as yeoman warriors and champions of Hinduism. Their
homeland is the present state of Maharashtra, the Marathi-speaking region that extends from Mumbai
(Bombay) to Goa along the west coast of India and inland about 100 miles (160 km) east of Nagpur.
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Shivaji (1627-80)
 Shivaji was born in 1627 and was the son of Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai.
 Shivaji inherited the Jagir of Poona from his father in 1637.
 After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev, in 1647, he assumed full charge of his Jagir.
 He conquered many Forts viz Singh Garh / Kondana (1643), Rohind and Chakan (1644-45), Toran (1646),
Purandhar (1648), Rajgarh / Raigarh (1656), Supa (1656), Panhala (1659).
 In 1657 Shivaji first confronted the Mughals, talking advantage of the Mughal invasion of Bijapur, he
raided Ahmadnagar and plundered Junnar.
 Shivaji lost Poona, Kalyan and Chakan also suffered several defeats till he made a bold attack on Shaista
Khan (1663) and plundered Surat (1664) and later Ahmadnagar.
 Jai Singh succeeded in besieging Shivaji in the fort of Purandhar. Consequently the treaty of Purandhar
(1665) was signed according to which Shivaji ceded some forts to the Mughals and paid a visit to the
Mughal court at Agra.
 In 1666, Shivaji visited Agra but there he was insulted and in 1670, Shivaji captured most of the forts lost
by the treaty of Purandhar.
 1674 Shivaji was coroneted at capital Raigarh and assumed the title of Haindava Dharmodharak (Protector
of Hinduism).
 His last expedition was against Gingee and Vellore.
Shivaji Administration: The administrative system was largely borrowed from the administrative practices
of the Deccan state.
 Central Administration: was divided into eight departments headed by ministers who are sometimes
called “Ashta Pradhan.” They are Peshwa (the finance and general administration), Sari Naubat (Senapati),
Majumdar (Accounts), Waqai Navis (Intelligence and households), Surnavis or Chitins (Official
correspondence), Dabir or Sumant (Foreign minister), Nyayadish (Justice) and Pandit Rao (Religious
affairs).
 Provincial and Local Administration: The provinces were known as Prants and were under the charge of
the Subedar. Over a number of Subedar, there were Sar Subedar to control and supervise the work of the
Subedar. Smaller than Prant were Tarfs which were headed by a Havaldar. There were Mauzas or villages
which were the lowest unit of administration.
Revenue System of Maratha Empire
 Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were taxes collected by Marathas.
 Chauth was paid to the Marathas so as not be subjected to Maratha raids.
 Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on those lands of Maharashtra over which the Maratha
claimed hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire.
 Marathi became the official language.
Successors of Shivaji
Sambhaji (1680-1689)
 Sambhaji Bhosale was the second Chatrapati of the Maratha Empire, ruling from 1681 to 1689.
 He was the eldest son of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire.
 Sambhaji's rule was largely shaped by the ongoing wars between the Maratha Empire and the Mughal
Empire, as well as other neighbouring powers such as the Siddis, Mysore and the Portuguese in Goa.
 After Sambhaji's death, his brother Rajaram I succeeded him as the next Chatrapati.
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Rajaram (1689-1700)
 He succeeded the throne with the help of the ministers at Rajgarh.
 He fled from Rajgarh to Jinji in 1689 due to a Mughal invasion in which Rajgarh was captured along with
Sambhaji‘s wife and son (Shahu) by the Mughals.
 Rajaram died at Satara, which had become the capital after the fall of Jinji to Mughal in 1698.
Tarabai (1700-1707)
 Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II under the guardianship of his mother Tarabai. Tarabai
continued the struggle with Mughals
Mini Exercise - II
1. Who was the founder of the Slave Dynasty?

a. Qutab-ud-din Aibak b Iltutmish
b. Razia Sultana d Balban
2. Who is regarded as the second Alexander?
a. Jalaluddin Khalji b Mubarak Khalji
c. Khusrao Khan d Alauddin Khalji
3. Which of the following dynasty did not rule the Delhi Sultanate?
a. The Slave Dynasty
b. The Khilji Dynasty
c. The Sayyed Dynasty d The Ghori Dynasty
4. Ibrahim Lodi fought with whom in the first battle of Panipat?
a. Babur b Balban c Maharana Pratap d Akbar
5. Who among the following sultan is famous for his large standing permanent army?
a. Balban b Iltutmish c Alauddin Khalji
d. Ghiyas ud din Tughlaq
6. Shivaji crowned himself at
a. Poona b Konkan c Bijapur d Raigarh
7. Bajirao I (1720 – 1740AD) was the ruler of which dynasty?
a. Nanda b Martha c Haryanka d Maurya
8. Babur was succeeded to the Mughal throne by
a. Sher Shah b Akbar c Humayun d Bhadur Shah
9. Which medieval Sultan has the credit of founding the city of Agra and making it the capital of the
Sultanate?
a. Iltutmish b Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq
c. Firoz Shah Tughlaq d Sikandar Lodi
10. Which of the following period is associated with Lodhi dynasty?
a. 1351-1426 AD b 1451-1526 AD c 1471-1536AD d 1491-1546AD
22
Modern History
The Advent of the Europeans
The Portuguese
 The Portuguese were the first to discover a direct path to India by sea, setting the foundation for the Advent
of Europeans in India.
 Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese navigator, arrived in Calicut, a major seaport in South-West India, on 20th
May 1498.
 King Zamorin, a local king, greeted him warmly and granted him various privileges. In 1501 AD, at
Cannanore, he established a trading factory.
 Calicut, Cannanore, and Cochin became important Portuguese centres in India as trade links were
established.
 Francisco de Almeida, the first Portuguese ruler to arrive in India, was appointed as a Governor in 1505
AD. He proposed the Blue Water Policy, centred on governing the Indian Ocean.
Portuguese, their Policies and Works in India
Francisco de Almeida Alfonso d’ Albuquerque Nino da Cunha Martin Alfonso de Souza

(1505 – 09) (1505 – 15) (1529 – 38) (1542 – 45)
2nd Portuguese Governor in

India, founder of Made Goa Portuguese
1st Portuguese Portuguese power in India capital by replacing
Governor in India Fransisco Xavier (a Jesuit
Policy of Imperialism and Cochin in 1530 and took
Policy of Blue Water Saint) reached India with
took Goa from Bijapur’s control of Diu and
Martin Alfonso de Souza.
(Cartaze system) ruler in1510, banned Bassein from Gujarat’s
custom of Sati in areas Bahadur Shah.
under his influence.
The British
 The arrival of the British was a significant event in the Advent of Europeans in India. The founding of the
British East India Company resulted from the profits made by Portuguese traders selling their wares in
India. In 1599 AD, a team of English merchants known as the "Merchant Adventurers" created the East
India Company.
 In 1608 AD, the East India Company dispatched Captain William Hawkins to the Mughal emperor
Jahangir's court in order to win royal patronage. He successfully obtained royal authorization for the
Company to develop factories in several locations along India's western coast.
 In 1615 AD, Thomas Roe, an English diplomat, used his skills to gain a royal charter that allowed the
Company to trade throughout the Mughal territory. Following the establishment of manufacturing plants in
the west and south of India, the firm turned its attention to East India, particularly Bengal, a major region
of the Mughal Empire.
The Dutch
 In 1602, the Dutch government awarded the Netherlands' United East India Company authorization to deal
in the East Indies, especially India. The Dutch erected their first plant in 1605 in Masulipatnam, Andhra
Pradesh. Dutch Surratt was formed in 1616 AD, and Dutch Bengal was formed in 1627 AD.
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 The principal Indian items traded by the Dutch were silk, indigo, cotton, rice, and opium. They made lots
of money by dominating the marketplace for black pepper as well as spices. Dutch involvement in the
Indian Subcontinent lasted from 1605 to 1825 AD.
The French
 The French were the last Europeans to arrive in India and thus also the last to feature on the list of the
Advent of Europeans in India. During King Louis XIV's reign, the French East India Company was
founded in 1664 to trade with India. The French founded their first factory in Surat in 1668 AD, followed
by another in Masulipatnam in 1669 AD.
 The French acquired Pondicherry from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1674 AD and built a thriving city, which
ultimately became a major French foothold in India.
 The Advent of Europeans in India was a major event. It benefited them and our country in some way,
resulting in a variety of advancements and institutions. However, Queen Elizabeth awarding special trading
rights to the East India Company set in motion a chain of events that led India to be colonized by the
United Kingdom for more than two centuries.
The Danes
 In 1616, the Danish East India Company was created, and in 1620, they opened a factory in Tranquebar,
near Tanjore, on India's eastern coast.
 Serampore, near Calcutta, was their main settlement. In 1845, the Danish industries were sold to the British
government, despite the fact that they were unimportant at the time.
 The Danes are better recognised for their missionary work than for their commercial endeavours.
First Carnatic War (1740–48)
 The Anglo-French War in Europe was triggered by the Austrian War of Succession, and the First Carnatic
War was a continuation of that conflict.
 The Treaty of Aix-La Chappelle, which brought the Austrian War of Succession to a close, concluded the
First Carnatic War in 1748.
 Madras was returned to the English under the provisions of this treaty, while the French received their
colonies in North America in exchange.
Second Carnatic War (1749–54)
 Dupleix, the French governor who had led the French armies to victory in the First Carnatic War, aspired to
expand his authority and political influence in southern India by engaging in local dynastic rivalries to beat
the English.
 The English and the French agreed not to intervene in native rulers' quarrels.
 Furthermore, each side was left in control of the territory that they had occupied at the time of the pact.
 It became clear that Indian authority was no longer required for European success; rather, Indian authority
was growing increasingly reliant on European backing.
Third Carnatic War (1758–63)
 When Austria attempted to reclaim Silesia in 1756, the Seven Years' War (1756–63) broke out in Europe.
 Once again, the United Kingdom and France were on opposing sides.
 The Treaty of Peace Paris (1763) restored the French industries in India, but after the war, French
political dominance vanished.
 The Dutch having already been beaten in the Battle of Bidar in 1759, the English became the dominant
European force on the Indian subcontinent.
24
Treaty of Seringapatam
It was signed by Tipu on the one hand & the English & their allies (Nizam & the Peshwa) on the other. The
Anglo-Mysore Wars was a series of four military confrontations in India between the British and the rulers of
Mysore.
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)
 In 1612, a Hindu kingdom under the Wodeyars emerged in the region of Mysore. Chikka Krishna raja
Wodeyar II ruled from 1734 to 1766.
 Haider Ali who was appointed as a soldier in the army of Wodeyars became the de-facto ruler of Mysore
with his great administrative skills and military tactics. During the second half of the 18th century, Mysore
emerged as a formidable power under his leadership.
 Mysore’s proximity with the French and Haider Ali’s control over the rich trade of the Malabar Coast
threatened the political and commercial interests of the English and their control over Madras.
 The British, after their success in the Battle of Buxar with the Nawab of Bengal, signed a treaty with the
Nizam of Hyderabad persuading him to give them the Northern Circars for protecting the Nizam from
Haider Ali who already had disputes with the Marathas.
 The Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the English allied together against Haider Ali.
 Haider diplomatically turned the Marathas neutral and Nizam into his ally against Nawab of Arcot.
 The war continued for a year-and-a-half without any conclusion.
 Haider changed his strategy and suddenly appeared before the gates of Madras causing complete chaos and
panic at Madras.
 This forced the English to conclude a treaty with Haider on April 4, 1769 known as the Treaty of Madras.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)
 The British failed to adhere to the treaty of Madras when Mysore was attacked by the Maratha army in
1771. Haider Ali accused them for breach of faith.
 Haider Ali found the French more resourceful in terms of fulfilling the army requirements of guns,
saltpetre and lead.
 Consequently, he started importing French war materials to Mysore through Mahe, a French possession on
the Malabar Coast.
 Haider Ali forged an alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam against the British.
 He attacked the Carnatic and captured Arcot and defeated the English army under Colonel Baillie in 1781.
 The English (under Sir Eyre Coote) detached both the Marathas and the Nizam from Haider’s side, but the
undeterred Haider faced the English boldly only to suffer a defeat at Porto Novo (present day Parangipettai,
Tamil Nadu) in November 1781.
 Haider Ali died of cancer on December 7, 1782 and his son Tipu Sultan carried on the war for one year
without any positive outcome.
 Fed up with an inconclusive war, both sides opted for peace, negotiating the Treaty of Mangalore (March,
1784) under which both the parties gave back the territories they had taken from each other.
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92)
 The Treaty of Mangalore was not enough to resolve the conflicts between Tipu Sultan and the British. Both
were aiming to establish their own political supremacy over the Deccan.
 The Third Anglo-Mysore War began when Tipu attacked Travancore, an ally of the English and the only
source of pepper for the East India Company.
 Travancore had purchased Jalkottal and Cannanore from the Dutch in the Cochin state which was a
feudatory of Tipu, he considered the act of Travancore as a violation of his sovereign rights.
25
 The British sided with Travancore and attacked Mysore.
 The Nizam and the Marathas who were jealous of Tipu’s growing power joined the British.
 In 1790, Tipu Sultan defeated the British army under General Meadows.
 In 1791, Lord Cornwallis took the leadership and at the head of a large army marched through Ambur and
Vellore to Bangalore (captured in March 1791) and from there to Seringapatam.
 Coimbatore fell to them, but they lost it again, and at last with the support of the Marathas and the Nizam,
the British attacked Seringapatam for the second time.
 Tipu offered serious opposition, but the odds were against him.
 The war was concluded with the Treaty of Seringapatam, 1792.
 Under this treaty, nearly half of the Mysore a territory was taken over by the alliance of the British, Nizam
and the Marathas.
 The Third Anglo-Mysore War destroyed Tipu’s dominant position in the south and firmly established
British supremacy there.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
 The period of 1792-99 was used by both the British and Tipu Sultan to recoup their losses.
 Tipu fulfilled all the terms of the Treaty of Seringapatam and got his sons released.
 In 1796, when the Hindu ruler of the Wodeyar dynasty died, Tipu declared himself as the Sultan and
decided to avenge his humiliating defeat in the previous war.
 In 1798, Lord Wellesley, an imperialist to the core, succeeded Sir John Shore as the new Governor
General.
 Tipu’s growing friendship with the French raised concerns for Wellesley.
 Aimed at annihilating Tipu’s independent existence, he forced him into submission through the system of
Subsidiary Alliance.
 Tipu was accused of plotting against the British by sending emissaries to Arabia, Afghanistan and to the
Isle of France (Mauritius) and Versailles, with treasonable intent. Tipu’s explanation did not satisfy
Wellesley thus the fourth Anglo-Mysore war began.
 The war began on April 17, 1799 and ended on May 4, 1799 with the fall of Seringapatam. Tipu was
defeated first by British General Stuart and then by General Harris. Arthur Wellesley, the brother of Lord
Wellesley, also participated in the war.
 The Marathas and the Nizam again helped the British as the Marathas had been promised half of the
territory of Tipu and the Nizam had already signed the Subsidiary Alliance.
 Tipu Sultan died in the war and all his treasures were confiscated by the British.
 The British chose a boy from the earlier Hindu royal family of Mysore as the maharaja and also imposed
the subsidiary alliance system on him.
 It had taken the English 32 years to subjugate Mysore. The threat of French revival in the Deccan was
permanently eliminated.
Post War Scenario
 Lord Wellesley offered Soonda and Harponelly districts of Mysore Kingdom to the Marathas, which the
latter refused.
 The Nizam was given the districts of Gooty and Gurramkonda.
 The British took possession of Kanara, Wayanad, Coimbatore, Dwaraporam and Seringapatam. The new
state of Mysore was handed over to the old Hindu dynasty (Wodeyars) under a minor ruler Krishna raja III,
who accepted the subsidiary alliance.
26
Treaty of Alinagar (1757)
 Treaty of Alinagar, (Feb. 9, 1757), pact concluded in India by the British agent Robert Clive after his
recovery of Calcutta on Jan. 2, 1757, from the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah. The treaty was the
prelude to the British seizure of Bengal.
 The main provisions of the treaty were the Nawab will allow the English all the privileges sanctioned to
them by Farrukh Siyar's Farman of 1717, all the English goods passing through Bengal with the company's
dastak will be exempted from customs duties and the Nawab will permit the English to fortify Calcutta.
Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757)

 It is a battle fought between the East India Company force headed by Robert Clive and Siraj-Ud-Daulah
(Nawab of Bengal).
 The rampant misuse by EIC officials of trade privileges infuriated Siraj. The continuing misconduct by EIC
against Siraj-Ud-Daulah led to the battle of Plassey in 1757.
 The Battle of Plassey was fought at Palashi, on the banks of Bhagirathi River near Calcutta on June 23,
1757.
 The reasons for the Battle of Plassey to take place were the rampant misuse of the trade privileges given to
the British by the Nawab of Bengal, Non-payment of tax and duty by the workers of the British East India
Company, Fortification of Calcutta by the British without the Nawab’s permission, Misleading Nawab on
various fronts by British and an asylum was provided to Nawab’s enemy Krishna Das.
Mir Jafar (1757-60)

 Mir Jafar granted the right to free trade in Bengal & Bihar & Orissa & Zamindari of the 24 Pargana to the
British besides paying them a sum of Rs 17.7 million as compensation. His period saw the beginning of the
drain of wealth from India to Britain.
 He tried to replace the English with the Dutch but the Dutch were defeated by the English at Bedara in
1759. He was replaced by Mir Qasim.
Mir Qasim (1760-63)

 Mir Qasim granted the Zamindari of Burdwan, Midnapore & Chittagong to the British officials. He
transferred his capital from Murshidabad to Monghyr.
 He stopped the misuse of the dastaks or free passes allowed to the company & abolished all duties on
internal trade against British.
Battle of Buxar
 It was a battle fought between the English Forces, and a joint army of the Nawab of Oudh, Nawab of
Bengal, and the Mughal Emperor.
 The battle was the result of misuse of trade privileges granted by the Nawab of Bengal and also the
colonialist ambitions of East India Company.
 Mir Qasim wanted to be independent and shifted his capital to Munger Fort from Calcutta.
 He also hired foreign experts to train his army, some of whom were in direct conflict with the British.
 He treated Indian merchants and English as same, without granting any special privileges for the latter.
 These factors fuelled the English to overthrow him and war broke out between Mir Qasim and the
Company in 1763.
27
The Revolt of 1857
 The revolt of 1857 was the conscious beginning of the Independence struggle against the colonial tyranny
of the British. There are various names for the revolt of 1857 – India’s First War of Independence, Sepoy
Mutiny, etc.
 The revolt began on May 10, 1857, at Meerut as a sepoy mutiny. It was initiated by sepoys in the Bengal
Presidency against the British officers.
 This war of Independence marked the end of rule by the British East India Company. Post this, India was
directly ruled by the British government through representatives known as Governor-General.
The revolt of 1857 was initiated due to various factors which are:
 Religious & Social Causes: Racism or racial discrimination was believed to be a major reason for the
revolt of 1857 wherein Indians were exploited and were kept away from mixing with Europeans. The
whites also started interfering in the religious and cultural affairs of Indians and tortured them as well.
 Political Causes: The British expansion had led to the propagation of unjust policies that led to the loss of
power of the Nawabs and Zamindars residing at various places of India. The introduction of unfair policies
like the policy of Trade and Commerce, the policy of indirect subordination (subsidiary alliance), the
policy of war and annexation, the policy of direct subordination (doctrine of lapse), the policy of
Misgovernance (through which Awadh was annexed) greatly hampered the interests of the rulers of the
native states, and they one by one became victims of British expansionism. Therefore, those rulers, who
lost their states to the British, were naturally against the British and took sides against them during the
revolt.
 Economic Factors: There were various reforms in the taxation and revenue system that affected the
peasants’ heavily. British Government had imposed and introduced various administrative policies to
expand their territory.
Vellore Mutiny
 The Vellore Mutiny took place even before the revolt of 1857 (50 years before). It erupted on 10th July
1806 in Vellore, present-day Tamil Nadu, and lasted only for a day, but it was brutal and it was the first
major mutiny by the Indian sepoys in the East India Company.
Impact of Revolt of 1857
 The revolt of 1857 shook the foundation of British East India Company and disclosed their inefficiency in
handling the Indian administration.
 The major impact was the introduction of the Government of India Act, 1858 which abolished the rule of
British East India Company and marked the beginning of British raj that bestowed powers in the hands of
the British government to rule India directly through representatives.
Causes of Failure of the revolt of 1857
The revolt was eventually not successful in ousting the British from the country because of several factors.
 The sepoys lacked one clear leader; there were several. They also did not have a coherent plan by which
the foreigners would be routed.
 Indian rulers who aided the revolt did not envision any plan for the country after the British were defeated.
 Majorly northern India was affected by this revolt. The three presidencies of Bengal, Bombay and Madras
remained mostly unaffected.
28
Leaders associated with the revolt of 1857
Place Leaders – Revolt of 1857 Place Leaders – Revolt of 1857

Delhi Bahadur Shah II, General Bakht Khan Bihar Kunwar Singh, Amar Singh
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal, Birjis Qadir, Ahmadullah Rajasthan Jai Dayal Singh and Hardayal Singh
Kanpur Nana Sahib, Tatya Tope, Azimullah Khan Farrukhabad Tufzal Hasan Khan
Jhansi Rani Laxmi Bai Assam Kandapareshwar Singh, Mani ram Dutta
Orissa Surendra Shahi, Ujjwal Shahi Baruah
Governor Generals of India
Year Governor – General of India Events during Regime

 Regulating Act of 1773
 Pitt’s India Act of 1784
1773 – 1785 Warren Hastings  The Rohilla War of 1774
 The First Maratha War in 1775-82 and the Treaty of Salbai in 1782
 Second Mysore War in 1780-84
 Third Mysore War (1790-92) and Treaty of Seringapatam (1792)
1786 – 1793 Lord Cornwallis  Cornwallis Code (1793)
 Permanent Settlement of Bengal, 1793
 Introduction of the Subsidiary Alliance System (1798)
1798 – 1805 Lord Wellesley  Fourth Mysore War (1799)
 Second Maratha War (1803-05)
1807 – 1813 Lord Minto I  Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809)
 Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) and the Treaty of Sagauli, 1816
1813 – 1823 Lord Hastings  Third Maratha War (1817-19) and dissolution of Maratha Confederacy
 Establishment of Ryotwari System (1820)
1823 – 1828 Lord Amherst  First Burmese War (1824-1826)
 Abolition of Sati System (1829)
1828 - 1835 Lord William Bentinck
 Charter Act of 1833
 Liberator of the Indian press
1835 – 1836 Lord Charles Metcalfe
 Detached all restraints on an open press
1836 - 1842 Lord Auckland  The first Anglo-Afghan war
1842 – 1844 Lord Ellen borough  Sindh was annexed
1844 – 1848 Lord Hardinge I  First Anglo Sikh War (1845-46)
 Introduction of Doctrine of Lapse
 Charles Wood Dispatch
 Post Office Act, 1854
 1st Railway line connecting Bombay and Thane
1848 - 1856 Lord Dalhousie
 Second Anglo-Sikh War
 First telegraph line
 Establishment of the Public Works Department
 Abolition of titles and pensions.
 Three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857 were
established
1856 – 1857 Lord Canning  Revolt of 1857 took place
Note: Post-1857 Revolt, Governor-General of India was made Viceroy of
British India and Canning became the first Viceroy of India / British India.
29
Modern History after 1885
1885 – Formation of Indian National Congress

 The Indian National Congress was founded on the 28th of December 1885, with 72 delegates present
at Gokul Das Tejpal Sanskrit College in Mumbai (then Bombay)
 It was founded by Allan Octavian Hume, a retired Indian Civil Services Officer
 The Congress was formed with a view to create a situation where discussions between Indians and the
British can take place in a civil manner
 The Congress included only those Indians who were educated
 Through the Congress, the British could gain support for their governance in India
 Allan Octavian Hume was the Congress’s General Secretary, followed by Womesh Chunder Banerjee
as the President
 From 1885 onwards many policies like Civil rights, administrative, constitutional, economic, foreign
policy, etc. that worked for the welfare of Indians especially were made
 Finally, by the end of the British Rule, the Congress saw the Quit India Movement, the formation of
the Indian National Army Defence Committee, and the unfortunate Partition of India and Pakistan
1905 – Swadeshi Movement
 Lal, Bal, Pal, & Aurobindo Ghosh played the important role.
 INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K. Gokhale. Bonfires
of foreign goods were conducted at various places.
1906 – Formation of Muslim League
 The Muslim League was established in 1906 to protect the rights of Indian Muslims.
 Initially encouraged by the British and generally supportive of their rule, the league adopted self-
government for India as its goal in 1913.
 For decades, the league and its leaders, most notably Mohammed Ali Jinnah, advocated Hindu-Muslim
unity in a united and independent India.
 All India Muslim League, was a political organization that led the movement for the establishment of a
separate Muslim nation during the partition of British India (1947).
1919 – Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

 The Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on April 13, 1919.
 379 people including men, women, and children were killed while 1,200 were injured in the
indiscriminate firing ordered by Colonel Reginald Dyer.
1919-20 – Khilafat Movement
 It was a pan-Islamic, political protest campaign launched by Muslims in British India to influence the
British Government and to protect the Ottoman Empire during the aftermath of First World War.
 To defend the Khalifa, the Ali brothers Shaukat Ali and Mohammad Ali started the Khilafat movement
to unify the Muslims.
1920 – Non Cooperation Movement
 Mahatma Gandhi was the main force behind the non-cooperation movement.
30
 In March 1920, he issued a manifesto declaring a doctrine of the non-violent non-cooperation
movement.
 Gandhi, through this manifesto, wanted people to Adopt Swadeshi principles, adopt Swadeshi habits
including hand spinning & weaving and work for the eradication of untouchability from society.
 Indians were asked to relinquish their titles and resign from nominated seats in the local bodies as a
mark of protest.
 The non-cooperation movement was a decisive step in the independence movement because, for the
first time, the INC was ready to forego constitutional means to achieve self-rule.
 Gandhiji had assured that Swaraj would be achieved in a year if this movement was continued to
completion.
1922 – Chaura Chauri Incidence
 The Chauri Chaura incident occurred at Chauri Chaura in the Gorakhpur district of the United
Province, (modern Uttar Pradesh) in British India on 4th February 1922, when a large group of
protesters, participating in the Non-cooperation movement, clashed with police, who opened fire.
1930 – Civil Disobedience Movement
 To carry out the mandate given by the Lahore Congress, Gandhi presented the government with 11
demands and gave a deadline of January 31, 1930 to accept or reject these demands.
 With no positive response from the government to these demands, Gandhi was given full authority to
launch the Civil Disobedience Movement at a time and place of his choosing by the Congress Working
Committee.
 By the end of February, Gandhi had decided to make salt the movement's central formula.
 The celebration of Independence Day in 1930 was followed by the launch of the Civil Disobedience
Movement, led by Gandhi.
 It all started with Gandhi's famous Dandi March. On March 12, 1930, Gandhi set out on foot from the
Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad with 78 other Ashram members for Dandi, a village on India's
western seacoast about 385 kilometres from Ahmedabad.
 They arrived in Dandi on April 6, 1930. Gandhi broke the salt law there. Because salt was a
government monopoly, it was illegal for anyone to produce it.
 Gandhi defied the government by picking up a handful of salt that had formed as a result of sea
evaporation.
1930 – First Round Table Conference
 It was the first conference arranged between the British & Indians as equals. It was held on November
12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon commission.
 Boycotted by INC, Muslim League, Hindu Maha Sabha, Liberals & some others were there.
1931 – Second Round Table Conference
 Gandhiji represented the INC & went to London to meet British P.M. Ramsay MacDonald.
 However, the session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue & this time separate electorates was
demanded not only by Muslims but also by Depressed Classes, Indian Christians & Anglo – Indians.
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1932 –Third Round Table Conference
 The third session was shorter and less important, with neither the Congress nor the British Labour
Party attending.
 The result of these deliberations was the Government of India Act, 1935, establishing provincial
autonomy and also a federal system that was never implemented.
1942 – Quit India Movement

 It was officially launched by the Indian National Congress (INC) led by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August
1942.
 It was also known as the India August Movement or August Kranti.
 The movement gave the slogans ‘Quit India’ or ‘Bharat Chodo’. Gandhi gave the slogan to the people
– ‘Do or die’.
 In line with the Congress ideology, it was supposed to be a peaceful non-violent movement aimed at
urging the British to grant India independence.
 The Quit India Resolution was passed by the Congress Working Committee on 8 August 1942 in
Bombay. Gandhi was named the movement’s leader.
 The resolution stated the provisions of the movement as an immediate end to British rule over India,
declaration of the commitment of free India to defend itself against all kinds of imperialism and
fascism, formation of a provisional government of India after British withdrawal and sanctioning a
civil disobedience movement against British rule.
 The British government responded to the call of Gandhi by arresting all major Congress leaders the
very next day. Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, etc. were all arrested. This left the movement in the hands of the
younger leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan and Ram Manohar Lohia. New leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali
emerged out of the vacuum of leadership.
 The people responded to Gandhi’s call in a major way. However, in the absence of leadership, there
were stray incidences of violence and damage to government property. Many buildings were set on
fire, electricity lines were cut and communication and transport lines were broken.
 Some parties did not support the movement. There was opposition from the Muslim League, the
Communist Party of India (the government revoked the ban on the party then) and the Hindu Maha
Sabha.
 The League was not in favour of the British leaving India without partitioning the country first. In fact,
Jinnah asked more Muslims to enlist in the army to fight the war.
 Subhas Chandra Bose, was by this time, organizing the Indian National Army and the Azad Hind
government from outside the country.
 C Rajagopalachari, resigned from the INC since he was not in favour of complete independence.
 In general, the Indian bureaucracy did not support the Quit India Movement.
 There were strikes and demonstrations all over the country. Despite the communist group’s lack of
support to the movement, workers provided support by not working in the factories.
 The chief areas of the movement were UP Bihar, Maharashtra, Midnapore, and Karnataka. The
movement lasted till 1944.
Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference (June 14 – July 14, 1945)
 The Wavell Plan was first presented at the Shimla Conference in 1945. It was named after Viceroy of
India, Lord Wavell.
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 The Shimla Conference was convened in order to agree on the Wavell Plan for Indian self-
government, which provided for separate representations on communal lines.
The Indian National Army
 It was initially formed by Rash Behari Bose who headed it till April 1942 before handing the lead of
INA over to Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943.
 INA was involved in various military operations fighting alongside the Japanese forces and against the
British and Allied forces.
1947 – Partition of India
 The Partition of India in 1947 was the division of British India into two independent dominion states,
the Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. Today the Dominion of India is the Republic of
India, while the Dominion of Pakistan is today the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
 It can be said that the seeds of the Partition of India were sowed in the Partition of Bengal when the
province was divided on a religious basis. Popular outrage and protests against this move forced the
Viceroy, Lord Curzon, to reverse the decision.
 The 1916 Lucknow session of the Congress was a scene of unprecedented mutual cooperation between
the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League.
 The Muslim League joined the Congress towards the goal of greater self-government; in return, the
Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims both in the provincial legislatures and the Imperial
Legislative Council. This came to be known as the Lucknow Pact.
 The division of British India between the two new dominions was carried out according to what has
come to be known as the “Mountbatten Plan”.
 It was announced at a press conference by Mountbatten on 3 rd June 1947, when the date of
independence 15th August 1947 was also announced. The main details of the plan were Sikhs, Hindus
and Muslims in Punjab and Bengal legislative assemblies would meet and vote for Partition. If a
simple majority of either group wanted partition, then these provinces would be divided. The
provinces of Sind and Baluchistan were to make their own choice in deciding which dominion they
wanted to be a part of. The future of the Northwest Frontier Province and Sylhet district of Assam was
to be decided by a referendum. India would be independent by 15 th August 1947. The separate
independence of Bengal was ruled out. A boundary commission to be set up to draw up the borders.
1946 – 1950 Constitutional Development of India
The origin and growth of the Indian Constitution have its roots in Indian history during the British period.
From 1773 onwards, various Acts were passed by the British Government for the governance of India.
Constitutional Development – East India Company Rule (1773 – 1857)
From 1757 to 1857, 5 major laws were created to regulate the functioning of British East India Company and
to help them rule over India. The details of these five Acts are
Regulating Act of 1773
The process of Centralization in India was initiated through the Regulating Act of 1773.
1. This is the first Act passed by the British Parliament to control and regulate the affairs of the East India
Company in India.
2. As per this Act, the Governor of Bengal was made the Governor-General.
3. Warren Hastings was the first Governor-General of India.
4. This Act made Governors of Bombay and Madras subordinate to the Governor of Bengal.
5. The Governor-General was given the power to make rules and regulations.
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6. A Supreme Court was established at Calcutta in 1774, as per the provisions of Regulating Act 1773.
7. The Supreme Court had a Chief Justice and 3 Assistant Judges.
Pitts India Act of 1784
In the Constitutional history of India, this Act brought in many significant changes.
1. As per this Act of 1784, the territories of East India Company was called as the “British Possessions in
India”
2. As per this Act, a joint Government of British India run by the Crown and Company was established.
The government had the ultimate power and authority.
3. A Court of Directors was formed for Commercial Operations and 6 member Board of Control were
appointed for Political affairs as per provisions of Pitts India Act 1784.
Charter Act of 1813
1. It brought an end to the monopoly of East India Company, over trade with India.
2. Trade with India was opened for all British Citizens with the exception of Tea Trade.
Constitutional Development – Rule under the British Crown (1857-1947)
This begins the 2nd phase of the Constitutional development under the British Crown.
Government of India Act of 1858
1. Government of India Act of 1858 passed by British Parliament, brought an end to the rule of East
India Company. The powers were transferred to the British Crown.
2. The Secretary of State for India was given the powers and duties of the former Court of Directors. He
Controlled the Indian Administration through the Viceroy of India.
3. The Secretary of State for India was assisted by the Council of India. This Council had 15 members.
The Council was an advisory body.
4. Governor-General of India was made the Viceroy of India. Lord Canning was the 1 st Viceroy of India.
Indian Councils Act, 1909 – Morley Minto Reforms
1. For the 1st time, direct elections were introduced for the Legislative Councils.
2. The Central Legislative Council was renamed as the Imperial Legislative Council.
3. The Communal representation system was introduced by giving separate electorate. It was a system
where seats were reserved only for Muslims and only Muslims would be polled.
4. For the first time, Indians were appointed to the Executive Council of Viceroy. Satyendra Sinha was
the law member.
Government of India Act 1935
This was the longest and last constitutional measure introduced by British India. It was the result of multiple
round table conferences and a report by the Simon Commission.
1. Bicameralism was introduced in 6 Provinces (Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Assam, Bihar, and United
Provinces) out of 11 provinces.
2. The Legislature in the provinces were enlarged.
3. As per the Act, the powers were divided into Federal List, Provincial List and Concurrent List.
4. Provincial autonomy was introduced in the Provinces by abolishing the Diarchy.
5. There was provision for the adoption of Diarchy at the Centre.
6. Provided provisions for establishing Federal Court, Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
7. There was provision for the establishment of All India Federation consisting of Provinces and the
Princely States as units.
8. Due to the length of Government of India Act 1935, it was divided into 2 separate Acts.
Cripps Mission – 1942
In 1942 Cripps Mission was sent to India under the leadership of Sir Stafford Cripps. Some of the proposals
given by the Cripps Mission are given below.
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1. Dominion status would be given to India, after the 2nd World War.
2. Once the Second World War ends, an elected body would be set up in India for framing of Indian
Constitution.
3. The even the Indian States would participate in the Constitution-making body.
4. Almost all the Parties and sections in India rejected the proposals given by the Cripps Mission.
Cabinet Mission – 1946
Some of the main proposals of the Cabinet Mission plan was
1. The Indian States and British Provinces would combine to form Union of India
2. A Constituent Assembly would be established consisting of 389 members.
3. 14 members from Major political parties would form an interim government
4. A representative body would be formed named as the Constituent Assembly.
5. Until the Constitution was framed, the Constituent Assembly would act as the Dominion Legislature.
6. Until the Constitution was framed, India would be administered as per the Government of India Act,
1935.
Indian Independence Act, 1947
1. This Act did not lay down any provision for the administration of India.
2. Partition of India & the establishment of two dominions of India & Pakistan.
3. Constituent Assembly of each Dominion would have unlimited powers to frame & adopt any
constitution.
4. The rule of the crown over Indian states was terminated.
Important Battles in Indian History
Name of Battle Year Importance
1st battle of Tarain 1191 Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Mohammed Ghori
2nd battle of Tarain 1192 Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan
1st battle of Panipat 1526 Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi

Battle of Khanwa 1527 Babur defeated Rana Sunga further strengthening his foothold in India.
Babur defeated Mahmud Lodi and Sultan Nusrat Shah thus establishing
Battle of Ghaghra 1529
Mughal rule in India.
Battle of Chausa 1539 Sher Shah defeated Humayun thus breaking the Mughal rule in India.
Battle of Kanauj or
1540 Sher Shah defeated Humayun for the second time.
Billgram
2nd battle of Panipat 1556 Akbar defeated Hemu
Battle of Talikota 1565 Deccan Sultanates defeated the glorious Vijayanagara empire
Undecisive battle between Raja Man Singh of Mughal Army and Rana
Battle of Haldighati 1576
Pratap of Mewar.
Battle of Karnal 1739 Nadir Shah defeated Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.
British defeated Siraj-ud-Duala with the help of Mir Zafar. This battle laid
Battle of Plassey 1757
the foundation of British empire in India.
3rd battle of Panipat 1761 Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas
British defeated the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Duala
Battle of Buxar 1764 (Nawab of Oudh) and Shah Alam II (Mughal emperor). This completed the
work began by the battle of Plassey.
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Viceroys in India - 1858 to 1947
Viceroy Tenure Achievements

Lord Canning 1858 - 1862  Abolished doctrine of lapse
Lord Elgin 1862 – 1863  Wahhabi Movement
Lord Lawrence 1864 - 1869  Establishment of High court in Calcutta, Madras during his reign.
 Anglo-Bhutanese war
Lord Mayo 1869 - 1872  Financial Distribution between centre and state introduced for the first
time
 First Census in 1872
 Mayo College for the royal elite was set up
 Lord Mayo was the only Governor-General who was killed in India.
He was killed by Sher Ali Afridi in Port Blair
 Establishment of Statistical Survey of India
Lord 1872 - 1876  Civil Marriage and Arya Samaj marriage introduced
Northbrook  Universal Marriage Act introduced in 1872
 Intercaste Marriage allowed
 Kuka Movement in Punjab
Lord Lytton 1876 - 1880  Vernacular Press Act, 1878
 Arms Act, 1878
 Nationalist view – Due to High rate of taxation purchasing power had
reduced.
 Government view – Drought is natural phenomena due to which
people became poor
 Ignored severe famine and organized durbar. Proclaimed Queen
Victoria “The Empress of India”
 Abolished tax on cotton for British traders
 Maximum age to take up civil services exam lowered from 21 to 19
Lord Ripon 1880 – 1884  Was the most loved Governor-General
 Repealed the controversial Arms and Vernacular press act
 Set up Local self-governments – Panchayats and Municipal Boards
due to which he was known as Father of Self Government
 2 new universities opened – Punjab University 1884, Allahabad
University 1887
 Illbert Bill – Indian judge cannot try English Judge
 Appointment of Hunter Commission
Lord Dufferin 1884 – 1888  III Anglo--‐Burmese war (1885--‐1886)
 Indian National Congress was founded in 1885
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Viceroy Tenure Achievements
Lord 1888 - 1894  Indian Councils Act, 1892 (Indirect election was introduced for the
Lansdowne first time)
 Factory Act, 1891
Lord Elgin II 1894 - 1899  First British Officer called Rands was killed.
 He was killed by Chapekar (Ramkrishna & Damodar) Brothers. This
was the first political murder.
Lord Curzon 1899 -1905  Indian Universities act – to control Indian Universities
 Raleigh Commission
 Partition of Bengal
 Curzon-Kitchener controversy
Lord Minto II 1905 – 1910  Morley – Minto reforms
Lord Hardinge 1910 - 1916  Mesopotamian Campaign
II  Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi
 Hindu Maha Sabha was established by Madan Mohan Malaviya
Lord 1916 - 1921  Home Rule League Movements
Chelmsford  Rowlatt Act was passed
 Montague – Chelmsford reform was passed
Lord Irwin 1921 - 1931  Swaraj Party was formed
 Chauri – Chaura incident took place
Lord 1931 – 1936  Second & Third Round Table Conference
Willingdon  Poona pact was signed
 Communal award was started
Lord 1936 - 1944  Cripps Mission
Linlithgow  Quit India movement
Lord Wavell 1944 - 1947  CR Formula 1944
 Launch of Direct Action day
 Wavell Plan & Shimla conference
Lord 1947 - 1948  June 3rd Plan
Mountbatten  Last Viceroy and First Governor-General of free India
19th Century Social and Religious Reform Movements
The social reform movements tried in the main to achieve two objectives
 Emancipation of women and extension of equal rights to them and
 Removal of caste rigidities and in particular the abolition of untouchability.
 India in the 19th century witnessed a series of reform movements undertaken in various parts of the
country.
 The Indian society in the first half of the 19th century was caste-ridden, decadent and rigid.
 The conquest of India by the British during the 18th and 19th centuries, exposed some serious weaknesses
and drawbacks of Indian social institutions.
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 When the British came to India, they introduced the English language as well as certain modern ideas.
These ideas were those of liberty, social and economic equality, fraternity, democracy and justice which
had a tremendous impact on Indian society.
 As a consequence, several individuals and movements sought to bring about changes in social and religious
practices with a view to reforming and revitalizing society.
 These efforts, collectively known as the Renaissance, were complex social phenomena. This phenomenon
occurred when India was under the colonial domination of the British.
 There were some enlightened Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar, Dayanand
Saraswati and many others who were willing to fight and bring reforms to society so that it could face the
challenges of the West.
Types of Reform Movements
There were two kinds of reform movements in the 19 th century

Reformist
Types of Reform Movements

Revivalist
 Reformist: These movements responded with the time and scientific temper of the modern era.
 Revivalist: These movements started reviving ancient Indian traditions and thoughts and believed that
western thinking ruined Indian culture and ethos.
Reformist Movements
Brahmo Samaj: Founded in 1828 in Calcutta by pioneer social reformer Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772 –
1833), the movement fought against idol worship, polytheism, caste oppression, unnecessary rituals and other
social evils like Sati, polygamy, purdah system, child marriage, etc. Society also strove for women’s rights
like widow remarriage and education of women. It also fought, attacked prevailing superstitions among
Hindus.
Aligarh Movement: Sayyid Ahmed Khan founded Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh in 1875.
Later, it became Aligarh Muslim University. It offered modern education to Muslims.
Prarthana Samaj: Prarthana Samaj or "Prayer Society" in Sanskrit, was a movement for religious and social
reform in Bombay, India, based on earlier reform movements. It was established on 31st March 1867 in
Bombay by Atmaram Panduranga. The Prarthana Samaj preached monotheism and denounced priestly
domination and caste distinctions.
Revivalist Movements
Arya Samaj: The social and religious reform in North India was spearheaded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati
(1824-1883) who founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. The society strove against idolatry, polytheism, rituals,
priesthood, animal sacrifice, child marriage and the caste system. It also encourages the dissemination of
western scientific knowledge. They worked for the improvement in the condition of women, advocated social
equality and denounced untouchability and caste rigidities.
Deoband Movement: Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi (1832–80) and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi (1828–1905)
founded the Deoband Movement in 1866 at the Darul Uloom (or Islamic academic centre) in Saharanpur
district, Uttar Pradesh to train religious leaders for the Muslim community.
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Other Movements
Ramakrishna Mission: It was founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1897 in Belur near Calcutta to promote the
teachings of Vivekananda’s Guru Ramakrishna Paramhansa. It opposed the caste system and untouchability. It
focused on the universality of all religions and propagated Vedanta.
Satyashodhak Samaj: The society was founded by Jyotirao Govindrao Phule on 24th September 1873 in
present-day Maharashtra. It campaigned against idolatry and the caste system. It advocated rational thinking
and rejected the priesthood. Jyotirao Phule is said to have used the term ‘Dalit’ for the oppressed castes.
Young Bengal Movement: It was started by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio in Calcutta in the 1820s. Derozio
was an Anglo-Indian college teacher in Calcutta and encouraged radical thinking among his students. He
criticised the prevailing religious practices of orthodox Hinduism. He also inspired free-thinking and
propagated the spirit of liberty, equality and freedom.
The Theosophical Movement: Though Annie Besant’s name is most associated with this society, it was
actually founded by Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott in New York (later shifted to Madras) in 1875. It
promoted the study of ancient Hindu, Buddhist and Zoroastrian philosophies and also promoted the concept of
universal brotherhood, as expounded in the Upanishads and Vedas. It laid stress on occultism.
Aravipuram Movement: It was launched by Sri Narayana Guru on Shivaratri day of 1888. He led a reform
movement against the injustice in the caste-ridden society of Kerala in order to promote spiritual
enlightenment and social equality.
Farazis Movement: It arose among the peasants of early 19th century Bengal, it advocated return to pure
Islam. They followed the teachings of Shah Walliullah of Delhi (1703-63) who had, a century earlier, talked
about regaining purity of Islam and objected to infiltration of non-Islamic customs among Muslims. Founding
leader of the Farazis, Shariat Ullah (1781-1839) preached religious purification and advocated return to the
Faraiz, i.e. obligatory duties of Islam.
The revolt of 1857 and consequent crackdown by the British forces ended this intellectual excitement.
However, the urge for modernization could easily be felt among a section of Muslims.
Wahhabi Movement: It was introduced in India by Syed Ahmed of Rae Bareilly in Uttar Pradesh. The
Wahhabi movement aimed at the purification of Islam and to return to the simplicity of religion. In India the
Wahhabis did not restrict to religious reforms only. Rather, they aimed at the replacement of the British rule
by the rule of the true believers & it took the nature of the political revolt.
Sayyid Ahmad Khan: He propagated modern education as the most important path for improvement in the
condition of Indian Muslims & called for the study of European science and technology. He pointed out that
there was no fundamental contradiction between Quran and Natural Science and the new circumstances
demanded dissemination of English language within an Islamic context. He founded the Mohammedan Anglo
Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875 which went on to become the most important seminary for modern higher
education among Muslims. At the elementary level, students followed the standard government curriculum in
a carefully constructed Islamic environment. In 1878, the college classes were also started and non-Muslims
were also enrolled. In 1886, Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental Educational
Conference. The Muslim graduates of Aligarh who numbered 220 during 1882-1902, provided lot of
excitement to the Muslim intellectual world and in due course of time provided an able and modern leadership
to the community.
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Mini Exercise - III
1. Muslim communalism was lent an impetus by the activities of?

a. Ashfaqullah b Liaqat Hussain
c. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad d Sayyid Ahmad Khan
2. Which British officer suppressed the Revolt of 1857 in Delhi?
a. Colin Champbell b Nicholson and Hudson
c. Major William Taylor d Col. Neill
3. The Government of India Act of 1935 borrowed its preamble from
a. The Constitution of the USA
b. The Constitution of Australia
c. From the Government of India Act of 1919 d From Pitt's India Act
4. Pitt’s India Act brought the company in direct subordination to a body representing
a. The Parliament of Britain
b. The English Merchants in India c The Indian Merchants
d. Princely States
5. What was the main cause for the defeat of Siraj ud Daulah in the battle of Plassey?
a. He had no such quality like Clive to command the army
b. He was not well-equipped with artillery
c. His commander in chief Mir Jafar joined with the forces of Robert Clive
d. His army was weak
6. The Governor General who established circuit courts?
a. William Bentinck b Lord Cornwallis
c. Lord Hastings d Lord Reading
7. Which one of the following conceptions is true about the Revolt of 1857?
a. Indian historians have described it as an Indian mutiny
b. British historians have described it as a war of independence
c. It gave a death blow to the system of East India Company’s rule in India
d. It was for the improvement of the administrative machinery in India
8. What was the main cause of 1857 Revolt?
a. Public outrage b Military discontent
c. Management of Christian missionaries d Policy of British Empire
9. The Treaty of Seringapatam was signed in 1792 between Tipu Sultan and
a. Dalhousie b Cornwallis c Warren Hastings d Lord Clive
10. Who is the father of Indian Renaissance?
a. Raja Ram Mohan Roy b David Hare
c. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar d Rabindra Nath Tagore
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Practice Test - History
1. Who is regarded as the ‘father of modern India’?

a. Raja Ram Mohan Roy b Swami Dayanand Saraswati
c. Sri Aurobindo d Bhagat Singh
2. Which of the following national leaders did not defend soldiers of the Indian National Army in the
1945 case dealing with trial?
a. Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru b Bhula Bhai Desai
c. Rajagopalachari d Jawaharlal Nehru
3. Which of the following treaties brought an end to the independent existence of Peshwa Baji Rao-II?
a. The Treaty of Purandhar b Convention of Wadgaon
c. Treaty of Bassein d Treaty of Salbai
4. During the first Carnatic War, the French Governor-General of Pondicherry was?
a. La Bourdonnais b Captain Paradise
c. Dupleix d Count-de-Lally
5. Which British officer suppressed the Revolt of 1857 in Lucknow and Bareilly?
a. Colin Campbell b Colonel Neill
c. Major William Taylor d Nicholson
6. When was the battle of Buxar fought?
a. 1763 AD b 1764 AD c 1765 AD d 1766 AD
7. The British East India Company became masters of Bengal after
a. The Battle of Plassey b The Third Battle of Panipat
c. The Battle of Buxar d The Battle of Wandiwash
8. The immediate cause of India’s first war of Independence was
a. Doctrine of Lapse
b. Dalhousie suspicion about British interference in religion
c. Military discontent
d. Economic exploitation of India
9. Who was the British Governor-General during the first Anglo-Mysore war?
a. Lord Ripon b Lord Verelst c Lord Lytton d Lord Wellesley
10. Which amongst the following is/are correct?
A Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was associated with women’s education.
B Arya Samaj crusaded for disintegration of Hindu society in to myriad sub castes aimed at four-
fold division and upholding the rights of even the lowest castes.
C Initiatives to open temples for lower castes was done by rulers of Indore, Devas and
Travancore.
D Ambedkar founded All India Harijan Sangh in 1932.
a. Only A and C are correct b A, B, C are correct
c. All are correct d Only D is incorrect
11. Which amongst the following is/are correct?
A The social reform movements had two point agenda mainly, removal of untouchability and
betterment of status of women.
B Polygamy was prevalent among Muslims as well as Hindus.
C Sati was applicable in the first instance in the Bengal Presidency in 1830.
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D Bengal regulation of 1795 and1804, declared infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder.
a. Only A and C are correct b A, B, C are correct
c. All are correct d A,B and D are correct
12. The Prime causes of the 1857 mutiny did not include?
a. The new system of education
b. The Widow Remarriage Act
c. The despatch of Indian Sepoys to Afghanistan
d. Laws forbidding intermarriages between Indians and the British
13. Which Sultan of Delhi is said to have adopted the policy of “blood and iron”?
a. Iltutmish b Balban
c. Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji d Ferozeshah Tughlaq
14. Which of the following sultans is known to abolish taxes on food?
a. Alauddin Khilji b Firoz Tughlaq
c. Sikandar Lodi d None of these
15. The Khalji Sultans of Delhi were
a. Mongols b Afghans c Turks d Jat tribe
16. Who was the founder of the Tughlaq Dynasty?
a. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq b Muhammad- bin - Tughlaq
c. Firoz Shah Tughlaq d Nasiruddin Tughlaq
17. When was the first battle of Panipat fought?
a. 1501 AD b 1513 AD c 1523 AD d 1526 AD
18. Who among the following sultan shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi?
a. Qutubuddin Aibak b Iltutmish
c. Alauddin Khalji d Ghiyasuddin Balban
19. Which one of the following method of revenue assessment is related to the Vijayanagara Empire?
a. Chauth b Ryotwari b Rae Rekho d Sardeshmukhi
20. Babur (1526-1530 AD) was the ruler of which dynasty?
a. Mughal b Nanda c Maurya d Haryanka
21. When did the reign of Delhi Sultanate come to an end?
a. 1498 b 1526 c 1451 d 1562
22. Which one of the following battles led to the foundation of the Mughal rule at Delhi?
a. Third Battle of Panipat b Second Battle of Panipat
c. Battle of Haldighati d First Battle of Panipat
23. What do you mean by Mughal Zagir?
a. Providing rent free land b Zamindars property
c. Giving officer a right to revenue d Giving cash salary to Mansabdar
24. During whose reign did William Hawkins visit the Mughal court to secure a right to trade in Mughal
ports?
a. Aurangzeb b Shah Jahan c Akbar d Jahangir
25. The most decisive battle between the forces of Dara and Aurangzeb (in the war of Succession) was
fought at
a. Dharmat b Samugarh c Deorai d Khajwa
26. The Market Regulation system was introduced by
a. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq b Iltutmish
c. Alauddin Khalji d Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
27. What were the provinces called during the sultanate period?
42
a. Hizr b Iqtas c Muqaddam d Inam
28. Baji Rao-II (1796-1818AD) was the ruler of which dynasty?
a. Nanda b Haryanka c Maurya d Peshwas
29. In Mesolithic context, evidence of animal domestication has been found at
a. Langhnaj b Birbhanpur c Adamgarh d Chopani Mando
30. What is the name of the Middle Stone Age (during the ice age)?
a. Paleolithic Era b Neolithic Era
c. Mesolithic Era d Cave man
31. What does the word Veda means?
a. Knowledge b Wisdom c Skill d Power
32. The origin of Indian music can be traced to which of the following Vedic Samhitas?
a. Rig-Veda b Sam Veda c Yajurveda d Atharvaveda
33. The original Buddhist religious texts had been written in
a. Brahmi b Sanskrit c Pali d Magadhi
34. Which of the following systems of Indian Philosophy uphold the ideology of Charvakism, Ajivika,
Jainism and Buddhism?
a. Orthodox System of Indian Philosophy
b. Unorthodox System of Indian Philosophy
c. Both a & b
d. None of these
35. Which dynasty ruled over ‘Magadha’ after Mauryan Dynasty?
a. Satavahana b Shunga c Nanda d Kanva
43
Answers – History
Mini Exercise – I
1. a Lothal and Dholavira is located in Gujarat while Banawali is located in Haryana.

2. b Paleolithic Period, also spelled Palaeolithic Period, also called Old Stone Age, ancient cultural stage,
or level, of human development, characterized by the use of rudimentary chipped stone tools.
3. d The fundamentals on which the Ayurvedic system is based are essentially true for all times and do not
change from are to age. These are based on human actors, on intrinsic causes. The origin of Ayurveda is
attributed to Atharva Veda where mention is made several diseases with their treatments.
4. c The Brahmanas are chiefly religious documents, including ritualistic precepts and sacrificial duties.
5. d The second council was held at Vaishali (Bihar state) a little more than a century after the Buddha's
death. Virtually all scholars agree that this council was a historical event.
6. d The first Tirthankara in this present time cycle was Rishabhanath, who is credited for formulating and
organising humans to live in a society harmoniously.
7. c It can be appropriately claimed that the Mauryan administration system, though monarchical, was
sufficient because it had the privilege of possessing successful administrators such as Chandragupta Maurya,
Bindusara Maurya and Ashoka.
Mini Exercise – II
1. a The Slave dynasty was founded by Quṭb al-Dīn Aibak, a favourite slave of the Muslim general and
later sultan Muhammad of Ghūr. Quṭb al-Dīn had been among Muhammad’s most trusted Turkish officers
and had overseen his master's Indian conquests. When Muhammad was assassinated in 1206, Quṭb took
power in Lahore.
2. d Alauddin Khilji wanted to be a world conqueror. In his coins he depicted himself as Sikaiidar-i Sam,
meaning Second Alexander. So he is known as Second Alexander of India.
3. d Ghori dynasty did not rule Delhi Sultanate directly. Mohammad Ghori’s slaves ruled over India after
his death.
4. a The ruler of Punjab, Daulat Khan Lodi, was enraged by Ibrahim’s arrogance and asked Babur to
invade India. In the first battle of Panipat, Babur marched against Delhi and defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi
(1526).
5. c Alauddin Khalji had a huge permanent standing army, which he paid in cash. Salary payments in cash
resulted in price controls. He introduced dagh (horse branding) and prepared huliya (descriptive list of
soldiers).
6. d Shivaji was crowned king of Martha Swaraj in a lavish ceremony on 6 th June 1674 at Raigarh Fort.
7. b Bajirao I (1720 – 1740AD) was the ruler of Maratha dynasty.
8. c Babur married several times. Notable among his sons are Humayun, Kamran Mirza and Hindal Mirza.
Babur died in 1530 in Agra and was succeeded by Humayun.
9. d Sikandar Lodi has the credit of founding the city of Agra and making it the capital of the Sultanate.
10. b 1451-1526 AD
Mini Exercise – III
1. d Muslim communalism was lent an impetus by the activities of Sayyid Ahmad Khan.
2. b The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar led the Revolt of 1857 in Delhi, though the real control
was exercised by General Bakht Khan. On the side of the British the combined effort of Nicholson, Wilson,
44
Baird Smith and Neville Chamberlain enabled the recapture Delhi by September 1857. In Later, Bahadur Shah
II was arrested and deported to Rangoon, where he remained in exile till he died in 1862.
3. c The Government of India Act of 1935 borrowed its preamble from the Government of India Act of
1919.
4. a The East India Company Act 1784, also known as Pitt's India Act, was an Act of the Parliament of
Great Britain intended to address the shortcomings of the Regulating Act of 1773 by bringing the East India
Company's rule in India under the control of the British Government.
5. c The Battle of Plassey was a decisive victory of the British East India Company over the Nawab of
Bengal and his French allies in 1757. Siraj-ud-Daulah had asked Britishers to stop fortification which became
one of the reasons for the war. Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar, commander-in-chief of Siraj-ud-Daulah of
making him the next Nawab which resulted in betrayal from Mir Qasim and victory of the British.
6. b Cornwallis was appointed as Governor General of Bengal in 1786. He introduced permanent Land
Revenue System in 1793. He separated the Judicial and police powers from the collector and also brought the
district collector under the purview of judiciary. He divided the Bengal province into four parts. i.e. Patna,
Murshidabad, Calcutta and Decca and established circuit courts in each parts.
7. c It gave a death blow to the system of East India Company’s rule in India.
8. d The main cause of 1857 Revolt was Policy of British Empire.
9. b The treaty of Seringapatam signed in 1792, it ended the Third Anglo-Mysore War. It signatories
included Lord Cornwallis on behalf of East India Company and Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore.
10. a Raja Ram Mohan Roy is the father of Indian Renaissance.
Practice Test
1. a Raja Ram Mohan Ray is known as the `Father of Modern India’ in acknowledgment of his age making
social, instructive and political changes.
2. c National leader Rajagopalachari did not defend soldiers of the Indian National Army in the 1945 case
dealing with trial.
3. c Baji Rao-II was the last Peshwa of the Maratha Empire who governed from 1795 to 1818. He was
installed as a puppet ruler by the Maratha Nobles, whose growing power prompted him to flee his capital and
sign the treaty of Bassein 1802 with the British.
4. c General Joseph François Dupleix was the French Governor-General of Pondicherry during the first
Carnatic War.
5. a In Lucknow and Bareilly, the revolt of 1857 was led by Begum Hazrat Mahal (the wife of Nawab
Wazid Ali Shah of Awadh) and Khan Bahadur Khan (grandson of the last ruler of Rohikhand). But, the revolt
was ruthlessly suppressed by Sir Colin Campbell.
6. b The battle of Buxar was fought between the forces of the British East India Company and the
combined army of an alliance of Indian states including Bengal, Awadh, and the Mughal Empire in the year
1764. The British victory at Buxar resulted in the end of the attempt to rule Bengal through a puppet Nawab.
The war came to an end by the "Treaty of Allahabad" in 1765.
7. a The British victory under Robert Clive at Plassey in Bengal was a crucial event in the history of India.
It was a decisive victory of the British East India Company over the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies on
23 June 1757. The British after the victory acquired significant concessions for previous losses and revenue
from trade which was later used for the expansion of the British Empire.
8. b The immediate cause of India’s first war of Independence was Dalhousie suspicion about British
interference in religion.
9. b Lord Verelst was the British Governor-General during the first Anglo-Mysore war.
45
10. d Gandhi founded All India Harijan Sangh in 1932. Ambedkar founded All India Schedule Caste
Federation.
11. d Sati was applicable in the first instance in the Bengal Presidency in 1829. It was extended to other
parts in 1830.
12. d The Prime causes of the 1857 mutiny did not include Laws forbidding intermarriages between Indians
and the British.
13. b Balban is said to have adopted the policy of “blood and iron”. Balban’s principle of kingship had two
main features: first, the sultan’s office is given by God and second, the sultan must be autocratic. According to
him, ‘Sultan is the representative of God on the earth (Niyamat-e-Khudai) and his place after the Prophet. The
Sultan gets the inspiration and power to work from God. For this reason, the public or chieftains do not have
the right to criticize his actions.”
14. c Sikandar Lodi introduced a uniform yard for measuring land which became famous as ‘Gaja-e
Sikandari’. This yard was later used by Sher Shah and Akbar (from the beginning to 31 years) during his
reign. Sultan Alexander abolished zakat (property tax) from grain. All historians describe the prosperity of the
Sultanate during his reign.
15. c Qutab-Din-Aibak, a former Turkic Mamluk slave of Muhammad Ghori, was the first sultan of Delhi,
and his Mamluk dynasty conquered large areas of northern India.
16. a Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. Tughlaq’s policy was
harsh against Mongols. He had killed envoys of the Ilkhan Oljeitu and punished Mongol prisoners harshly. He
also started construction of Tughlaqabad Fort.
17. d The First Battle of Panipat was fought between the invading forces of Babur and the Lodi Empire,
which took place on 21 April 1526 in North India. It marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire. This was
one of the earliest battles involving gun powder firearms and field artillery.
18. b Iltutmish was a member of the Ilbari tribe, and the Ilbari dynasty was named after him. Iltutmish
fought Aram Baksh and became Sultan in 1211. From Lahore to Delhi, he relocated his capital.
19. d 'Sardeshmukhi' is an additional 10% tax levied upon the collected 'Chauth'. The reasons for the
additional tax was due to the King claiming hereditary rights upon the tax collection. This revenue assessment
is related to the Vijayanagara Empire.
20. a The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was
descended from the Turko-Mongol conqueror Timur (the founder of the Timurid Empire) on his father’s side
and from Chagatai, the second son of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan, on his mother’s side.
21. b Under the Lodi (Afghan dynasty) 1451-1526, however, with large-scale migration from Afghanistan,
the Delhi Sultanate partly recovered its hegemony, until the Mughal leader Babur destroyed it at the First
Battle of Panipat on 21st April 1526.
22. d The First Battle of Panipat on 21st April 1526, was fought between the invading forces of Babur and
the Lodhi Kingdom. It took place in North India and marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire and the end
of Delhi Sultanate.
23. c Zagirdari system was the system of giving an official right to collect revenue from a particular area
called ‘Zagir’.
24. d During Jahangir’s reign did William Hawkins visit the Mughal court to secure a right. to trade in
Mughal ports.
25. b The battle of Samugarh was fought between his sons Dara Shikoh (the eldest son and heir apparent)
and his two younger brothers Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh (third and fourth sons of Shah Jahan) to decide
who will be the heir of the throne after their father.
26. c In the early 14th century, the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) instituted price
controls and related reforms in his empire. Alauddin’s courtier Amir Khusrao states that Alauddin’s objective
46
the welfare of the general public. The reforms were implemented in the capital Delhi, and possibly, other
areas of the Sultanate. They were revoked shortly after Alauddin’s death, by his son Qutubuddin Mubarak
Shah.
27. b Iqtas, or noble-controlled provinces, existed throughout the Delhi Sultanate. Muqtis or walis were the
governors of provinces who were in charge of peace and order as well as collecting land income.
28. d Baji Rao II (10 January, 1775 – 28 January, 1851) was the last Peshwa of the Maratha Empire, and
governed from 1795 to 1818. He was installed as a puppet ruler by the Maratha nobles, whose growing power
prompted him to flee his capital Pune and sign the Treaty of Bassein (1802) with the British.
29. c The first attempts at domestication of animals and plants were made during the Mesolithic Period. The
first animal to be domesticated was the dog. The earliest evidence of domestication of animals comes from
Adamgarh (M.P.) and Bagor in Rajasthan dated 5500 B.C. and 4500 B.C. respectively.
30. c Mesolithic, also called Middle Stone Age, ancient cultural stage that existed between the Paleolithic
(Old Stone Age), with its chipped stone tools, and the Neolithic (New Stone Age), with its polished stone
tools.
31. a The Vedas have been derived from the root word Vid which means to know. Vedas are called
Apaurasheya, which means not created by man but gifted by God and Nitya, which means existing in all
eternity.
32. b The origin of Indian music can be traced back to the Vedic period. It originates from Sam Veda.
33. c The original Buddhist religious texts had been written in Pali.
34. b Unorthodox systems of Indian Philosophy uphold the ideology of Charvakism, Ajivika, Jainism and
Buddhism.
35. b The Shunga dynasty was a Brahmin dynasty, established in 185 BCE, about 50 years after Ashoka’s
death, when the emperor Brihadratha Maurya, the last ruler of the Maurya Empire, was assassinated by his
Senani or commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga, while he was reviewing the Guard of Honour of his
forces.
47
Political Science
The Constitution of India came into force on 26th January 1950. At the time adoption, the
Constitution contained 395 Articles and 8 Schedules and was about 145,000 words long,
making it the longest national Constitution to be ever be adopted.
Evolution and Framing of Constitutions

 The idea of a Constituent Assembly for India was put forward for the first time by M. N. Roy in 1934.
 The Indian National Congress (INC), for the first time, officially demanded a Constituent Assembly to
frame the Constitution of India in 1935.
 In 1938, Jawaharlal Nehru, on behalf of the INC declared that ‘the Constitution of free India must be
framed, without outside interference, by a Constituent Assembly elected on the basis of the adult
franchise’.
 The demand was finally accepted in principle by the British Government in what is known as ‘the
August Offer’ of 1940.
 In 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the cabinet, came to India with a draft proposal of the
British Government on the framing of an independent Constitution to be adopted after World War II.
 The Constitution of India was framed by a constituent Assembly set up under the Cabinet Mission Plan
of 1946.
 The Assembly held its first meeting on 9th December, 1946, and elected Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha, the
oldest member of the Assembly, as the Provisional President. Later, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected
president of the Constituent Assembly on 11th December 1946 while B.R. Ambedkar was appointed
the Chairman of the Drafting Committee.
 The original constitution was written by Prem Behari Narain Raizada in a flowing italic style. The
Calligraphy of the Hindi version of the Original Constitution was done by Vasant Krishan Vaidya.
 The Constituent Assembly took 2 years, 11 months, & 18 days to complete its historic task of drafting
the Constitution for an Independent India.
 It held 11 sessions covering a total of 165 days during the period. Out of 165 days, 114 days were
spent on the consideration & discussion on the Draft Constitution.
 It was elected by indirect election by the members of the Provincial Legislative Assembly (Lower
House only), according to the scheme recommended by the Cabinet Delegation. The Provinces elected
292 members, the Princely States and the Chief Commissioner’s Provinces contributed 93 and 4
members of the Constituent Assembly taking the total membership to 389.
 The seats in each province were distributed among the three main committees Muslim, Sikh, and
General, in proportion to their respective population.
 When the Constituent Assembly reassembled on 31st October, 1947) the membership of the House was
reduced to 299. Of these 284 were actually present on 26th November, 1949, and appended their
signatures to the Constitution as finally passed.
The Cabinet Mission
 Cabinet Mission was a high-powered mission sent in February 1946 to India by the Atlee Government
(British Prime Minister.)
 The mission had three British cabinet members – Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, & and A.V.
Alexander.
48
 The objective of Cabinet Mission was to obtain an agreement with the Indian leaders as to the
framing of a constitution for India, to formulate a constitution-making body (the Constituent Assembly
of India) and to establish an Executive Council with the support of the major Indian parties.
First Interim National Government

 The Interim Government of India, also known as the Provisional Government of India was formed on
2nd September 1946 from the newly elected Constituent Assembly of India, had the task of assisting
the transition of British India to independence. It was headed by Jawahar Lal Nehru.
 It lasted till 15th August 1947 when India became independent and was partitioned into India and
Pakistan.
Parts Described in the Constitution
Part Subject Articles Part Subject Articles

I The Union and its territory Art. 1 to 4 XI Relations between the Art. 245 to 263
Union and the States
II Citizenship Art. 5 to 11 XII Finance, Property, Art. 264 to 300A
Contracts and Suits
III Fundamental Rights Art. 12 to 35 XIII Trade, Commerce and Art. 301 to 307
Intercourse within the
Territory of India
IV Directive Principles Art. 36 to 51 XIV Services under the Union Art. 308 to 323
and the States
IVA Fundamental Duties Art. 51A XIVA Tribunals Art. 323A to 323B
V The Union Art. 52 to 151 XV Elections Art. 324 to 329A
VI The States Art.152 to 237 XVI Special provisions Art. 330 to 342
relating to certain classes
VII Repealed by Const. (7th Amendment) Act, 1956 XVII Official Language Art. 343 to 351
VIII The Union Territories Art.239 to 242 XVIII Emergency Provisions Art. 352 to 360
IX The Panchayats Art.243 to 243O XIX Miscellaneous Art. 361 to 367
IXA The Municipalities Art.243P to 243ZG XX Amendment of the Art. 368
Constitution
IXB The Co-operative Societies Art.243ZH to XXI Temporary, Transitional Art. 369 to 392
243ZG and Special Provisions
X The Scheduled and Tribal Art.244 to 244A XXII Short title, Art. 393 to 395
Areas commencement,
authoritative text in
Hindi and repeals
Sources of Our Constitution
 Indian Constitution came into existence on 26th November 1949. The Constituent Assembly of India
drafted the constitution considering features of constitutions of the other countries as well as from the
Government of India Act 1935.
 Those features are Federal Scheme, Office of governor, Judiciary, Public Service Commissions,
Emergency provisions and Administrative details.
 The other borrowed provisions from different countries and details of those are:
49
S.No. Countries Borrowed Features of Indian Constitution
 Concurrent list
1 Australia  Freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse
 Joint-sitting of the two Houses of Parliament
 Federation with a strong Centre
 Vesting of residuary powers in the Centre
2 Canada
 Appointment of state governors by the Centre
 Advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
 Directive Principles of State Policy
3 Ireland  Nomination of members to Rajya Sabha
 Method of election of the president
4 Japan  Procedure Established by law
 Fundamental duties
5 Soviet Union (now Russia)  Ideals of justice (social, economic and political) in
the Preamble
 Parliamentary government
 Rule of Law
 Legislative procedure
 Single Citizenship
6 UK
 Cabinet system
 Prerogative writs
 Parliamentary privileges
 Bicameralism
 Fundamental rights
 Independence of judiciary
 Judicial review
7 US
 Impeachment of the president
 Removal of Supreme Court and High Court judges
 Post of vice-president
8 Germany  Suspension of Fundamental Rights during emergency
 Procedure for amendment in the Indian Constitution
9 South Africa
 Election of members of Rajya Sabha
 Republic
10 France
 Ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity in the Preamble
Important Schedules in the Constitution

 One of the first mentions of Schedules was made in the Government of India Act, 1935 where it
included 10 Schedules.
 Later, when the Indian Constitution was adopted in 1949, it consisted of 8 Schedules. However, at
present, with the amendments in the Indian Constitution, there are a total of 12 Schedules.
First Schedule of Indian Constitution:
 It contains the name of States and Union territories
 Territorial Jurisdiction of states is also included
 Articles concerned: 1 and 2
Second Schedule:
50
 The provisions in relation to allowances, privileges and emoluments of President of India, Governor of
Indian States, Speaker of Lok Sabha & Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha, Chairman of Rajya Sabha &
Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha, Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Legislative Assemblies of Indian
States, Chairman and Deputy Chairman of Legislative Councils of the Indian States, Judges of
Supreme Court and High Court and Comptroller & Auditor General of India (CAG).
 Articles concerned: 59(3), 65(3), 75(6), 97, 125, 148(3), 158(3), 164 (5), 186 and 221
Third Schedule:
 It contains the forms of oath and affirmation for Union Ministers of India, Parliament Election
Candidates, Members of Parliament (MPs), Supreme Court Judges, Comptroller and Auditor General,
State Ministers, State Legislature Elections’ Candidates, State Legislature Members, High Court
Judges.
 Articles concerned: 75(4), 99, 124(6), 148(2), 164(3), 188 and 219
Fourth Schedule:
 It contains the provisions in relation to the allocation of seats for States and Union Territories in the
Rajya Sabha.
 Articles concerned: 4(1) and 80(2)
Fifth Schedule:
 It contains provisions in relation to the administration and control of scheduled areas and scheduled
tribes.
 Article concerned: 244(1)
Sixth Schedule:
 It contains provisions in relation to the administration of tribal areas in the states of Assam,
Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
 Article concerned: 244(2) and 275(1)
Seventh Schedule:
 This schedule deals with the three legislative lists namely Union, State and concurrent.
 Article concerned: 246
Eighth Schedule:
 It deals with the 22 official languages recognized by the Constitution of India
 Article concerned: 344(1) and 35
Ninth Schedule:
 It deals with the state acts and regulations of that deal with land reforms and abolition of the Zamindari
system.
 It also deals with the acts and regulations of the Parliament dealing with other matters.
 Note: 1st Amendment Act 1951 added the Ninth Schedule to protect the laws included in it from
judicial scrutiny on the ground of violation of fundamental rights. However, in 2007, the Supreme
Court ruled that the laws included in this schedule after 24 th April, 1973, are now open to judicial
review.
 Article concerned: 31B
Tenth Schedule:
 It contains provisions relating to disqualification of the members of Parliament and State Legislatures
on the ground of defection.
 Note: This schedule was added by the 52nd Amendment Act of 1985, also known as Anti-defection
Law.
 Article concerned: 102(2) and 191(2)
51
Eleventh Schedule:
 It contains the provisions that specify the powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats. It has
29 matters.
 Note: This schedule was added by the 73rd Amendment Act of 1992.
 Article concerned: 243G
Twelfth Schedule:
 It deals with the provisions that specify the powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities. It
has 18 matters.
 Note: This schedule was added by the 74th Amendment Act of 1992.
 Article concerned: 243W
Mini Exercise - I
1. The Constitution of India came into effect on

a. 26th January 1947 b 26th January 1949
c. 26th January 1950 d 26th January 1951
2. The nationalist who prepared the Draft Constitution of India was
a. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru b Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
c. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel d Dr. Rajendra Prasad
3. Which of the given schedules of the Indian Constitution includes the Provision regarding Anti-
Defection Law?
a. Sixth schedule
b. Seventh schedule
c. Tenth schedule d Eleventh schedule
4. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the Chairman of the Constituent Assembly in
a. October 1946 b November 1946
c. December 1946 d September 1946
5. How much time did it take for the creation of the Indian Constitution?
a. 2 years 3 months 26 days b 2 years 11 months 18 days
c. 2 years 6 months 23 days d 2 years 5 months 11 days
Preamble
 The ‘Preamble’ of the Constitution of India is an introductory statement in a document that explains
the document’s philosophy and objectives.
 The four main ingredients of the Indian Preamble are
Preamble to the Indian Constitution
The People of India are revealed to be the source of the authority
Source of the Indian Constitution of the Indian Constitution. The words, ‘We, the People of India’
reflect the same.
The Preamble of India tags India as the sovereign, secular,
Nature of the Indian State
republic, secular and democratic nation.
Justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity are denoted as the
Objective of the Indian Constitution
objectives of the Preamble of India.
26th November, 1949 as the date when then the Indian
Adoption Date of the
Constitution.
52
THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a [SOVEREIGN
SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure to all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all;
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do
HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
It was amended by 44th Amendment Act, 1976.
PART-I: The Union and its Territories

 Part I of Indian Constitution is titled The Union and its Territory.
 Article 1: Name and territory of the Union.
 Article 2: It deals with admission or establishment of new States.
 Article 3: It deals with formation of new States, alteration of areas and boundaries or names of existing
States.
 Article 4: It says that any law referred to in Article-2 or Article-3 will contain such provisions for the
amendment of the Ist Schedule and the IVth Schedule necessary to provide effects to the provisions of
law and may also contain such supplemental, incidental, and consequential provisions, as the
Parliament may deem necessary.
PART-II: Citizenship
 Citizenship is the status of a person recognized under law as being a legal member of a sovereign state
or belonging to a nation. In India, Articles 5 – 11 of the Constitution deals with the concept of
citizenship.
 The Citizenship Act, 1955 is the legislation dealing with citizenship. This has been amended by the
Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1986, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1992, the Citizenship
(Amendment) Act 2003, and the Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2005.
 Nationality in India mostly follows the jus sanguinis (citizenship by right of blood) and not just soli
(citizenship by right of birth within the territory).
 Citizenship of India can be acquired in the following ways:
 Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution
 Citizenship by birth
 Citizenship by descent
 Citizenship by registration
 Citizenship by naturalization
 By incorporation of territory (by the Government of India)
PART-III: Fundamental Rights
 Articles 12-35 of Indian Constitution deal with Fundamental Rights. These human rights are conferred
upon the citizens of India for the Constitution tells that these rights are inviolable.
 Originally the Constitution provided for seven fundamental rights:
1. Right to equality [Art. 14-18]
2. Right to freedom [Art. 19-22]
3. Right against exploitation [Art. 23-24]
4. Right to freedom [Art. 25-28]
53
5. Cultural & educational rights [Art. 29-30]
6. Right to property [Art. 31]
7. Right to constitutional remedies [Art. 32]
The ‘right to property’ was deleted from the list of fundamental rights by the 44 th Constitutional Amendment
Act, 1978. It has been made a legal right under Article 300A in the Constitution. Currently, there are only six
fundamental rights.
To enforce the Fundamental Rights, the Supreme Court and High Court is empowered, under Article 32 and
226 respectively, to issue writs of various forms.
Habeas Corpus Mandamus

The Latin meaning of 'Habeas Corpus' is “to have a The literal meaning of this writ is 'we command'. This writ is used by the
body of”. This writ is used to enforce the fundamental court to order the public official who has failed to perform his duty or
right of individual liberty against unlawful detention. refused to do his duty, to resume his work. Besides public officials,
The Supreme Court or High Court can issue this writ Mandamus can be issued against any public body, a corporation, an
against both private and public authorities. inferior court, a tribunal, or government for the same purpose.
Quo Warranto
The literal meaning of the writ of ‘Quo-Warranto’ is
‘By what authority or warrant.’ Supreme Court or High Forms of Writs
Court issue this writ to prevent illegal usurpation of a
public office by a person. Through this writ, the court
enquires into the legality of a claim of a person to a
public office.
Certiorari
Prohibition The literal meaning of the writ of ‘Certiorari’ is ‘To be certified’ or ‘To be
The literal meaning of ‘Prohibition’ is ‘To forbid.’ A informed.’ This writ is issued by a court higher in authority to a lower court or
court that is higher in position issues a Prohibition writ tribunal ordering them either to transfer a case pending with them to itself or
against a court that is lower in position to prevent the quash their order in a case. It is issued on the grounds of an excess of
latter from exceeding its jurisdiction or usurping a jurisdiction or lack of jurisdiction or error of law. It not only prevents but also
jurisdiction that it does not possess. It directs inactivity. cures for the mistakes in the judiciary.
Part-IV: Directive Principles of State Policy (Article 36 to 51)

 They are the principles that aim at providing social and economic justice and set the path towards the
welfare state.
 Directive principles act as ideals which must be followed while formulating certain policies by the
Central Government and various State Governments. These goals help in maximizing the Social
welfare of the people.
 The concept of India as a welfare State is strengthened by the Directive Principles of State Policy.
 These non-justiciable principles guide the government to create policies which will help in providing
quality education, healthcare and employment to the people.
Part-IVA: Fundamental Duties
 A list of 11 fundamental duties under article-51A were added in the Indian Constitution by the 42nd
Amendment Act in 1976, in addition to creating and promoting culture, also strengthen the hands of
the legislature in enforcing these duties vis-a-vis the fundamental rights.
 Fundamental Duties are categorized into two – Moral Duty & Civic Duty
1. Moral Duty: cherishing noble ideals of freedom struggle
2. Civic Duty: respecting the Constitution, National Flag and National Anthem
 They essentially contain just a codification of tasks integral to the Indian way of life.
 The Fundamental Duties are confined to Indian citizens only and do not extend to foreigners unlike a
few Fundamental Rights
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 They are also non justiciable similar to Directive Principle of State Policies
 There is no legal sanction against their violation
Mini Exercise - II
1. Habeas Corpus is associated with which of the given part of the Indian Constitution?
a. Preamble b Fundamental Rights
c. Directive Principles of State Policy d Fundamental Duties
2. Which of the following is described as the ‘Soul of the Constitution’?
a. Fundamental Rights b Fundamental Duties
c. Directive Principles of State Policy
d. Preamble
3. The Preamble to the Indian Constitution is based on
a. Philosophy of India
b. ‘Objectives Resolution’ drafted & moved by Pandit Nehru
c. Indian Culture d Religious Concept
4. In which part of the constitution we find the provisions relating to citizenship?
a. Part I b Part II c Part IV d Part IX
5. The Fundamental Duties of Citizen are included in the Indian Constitution by which Amendment act?
a. 56th Amendment Act b 73rd Amendment Act
c. 44th Amendment Act d 42nd Amendment Act
The Union Executive (Article 52-78)
Prime Minister and Council

President Vice President Attorney-General of India
of Ministers
(Article 52 – 78) (Article 63) (Article 76)
(Article 74-75 & Article 78)
The President
 The first and foremost part of the Executive is the President.

 The President is considered the Executive head of the country.
 All the Executive business of the country is carried out in the name of the President.
 Qualification: Article 58 talks about the eligibility of a person to become President of India. A person
is eligible for election as President if he
 is a citizen of India;
 has completed the age of thirty-five years;
 is qualified for election as a member of the House of the People
 Election of President: Article 54
 Article 54 deals with provisions relating to the election of the President which says that the
President must be elected by the members of an electoral college.
 The Electoral College consists of the elected members of both Houses of Parliament and the
state Legislative Assemblies.
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 Mode of Voting: As per Article 55(3) of the Constitution of India, the election of the President should
be held according to the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote.
The voting at the presidential election shall be by secret ballot.
 Disputes regarding the election: Article 71 states that any dispute arising with respect to the election
of the President will be adjudicated by the Supreme Court and its decision will be considered final.
 Oath by the President (Article 60): Any person holding the office of the President or delivering the
functions of the President must, before entering into the office of the President, be made to subscribe
in the presence of the Chief Justice of the country or any other senior-most judge of the Supreme
Court, to an oath or affirmation in the name of God to faithfully execute the office of President of
India and to preserve, protect and defend the Constitution and the law to the best of his abilities and
that he would devote himself to serve the people of India and ensure their well-being.
 Term of office of the President: Article 56 defines the term of the office of the President to be of five
years unless:
 A new President enters the office, the incumbent President shall hold it;
 President resigns before the expiry of the term by writing it to the Vice President;
 The President is removed from his office, for violation of the Constitution, by the process of
impeachment provided under article 61.
 Time of holding the election on expiry of the term and filling casual vacancies:
 Article 62 provides for the filling up of the vacancy to the office of the President. It defines the
terms of office of the person filling the casual vacancy as well as the time of holding elections
to fill the vacancy.
 It states that an election to fill the vacancies must be fulfilled before the expiration of the term
of the office of the President.
 Eligibility for re-election:
 A person, who holds or who has held office as President shall be eligible for re-election to that
office.
 Impeachment of the President: Article 61
 The President of India can be impeached under Article 61, for the violation of the Constitution, on
the basis of charges preferred by either House of Parliament.
 A resolution with the proposal to prefer such charges must be signed by at least one-fourth of the
total members of the house. The resolution also needs to be passed by at least two-thirds majority of
the house.
 When the resolution is passed by one of the Houses, the other House must investigate the charges.
The President has been granted the right to be present or to be represented in such investigations.
 When the House investigating the charges passes the resolution by a two-thirds majority and
declares the charges as sustaining, it results in removing the President from his office from the date
of passing of the resolution.
 Privileges of the President: Under Article 361, the President is protected from being answerable to
any court for:
 For exercise and performance of his powers and duties of his office;
 For doing any act or claimed of doing any act in the exercise of those powers and duties;
 Powers of the President
 Executive Powers:
 The President appoints the PM, the President then appoints the other members of the Council of
Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the PM.
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 The President appoints the Attorney General of India, Comptroller and Auditor General of India
(CAG), Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners, Chairman and members
of the Union Public Service Commission, State Governors and Finance Commission of India
chairman and members
 He also appoints National Commissions of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other
Backward Classes
 The President is the Commander in Chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
 Financial Powers:
 To introduce the money bill, his prior recommendation is a must
 He causes Union Budget to be laid before the Parliament
 To make a demand for grants, his recommendation is a pre-requisite
 Contingency Fund of India is under his control
 He constitutes the Finance Commission every five years.
 Judicial Powers:
 The president appoints the Chief Justice of the Union Judiciary & other judges on the advice of
the Chief Justice.
 The President dismisses the judges if & only if the two Houses of the Parliament pass resolutions
to that effect by two-thirds majority of the members present.
 He/she has the right to grant pardon. The President can suspend, remit or commute the death
sentence of any person.
Pardon - completely absolves the offender
Reprieve - temporary suspension of the sentence
Commutation - substitution of one form a punishment for another form which is of a lighter
character
Respite - awarding a lesser sentence on special ground
Remission - reducing the amount of sentence without changing its character
 Diplomatic Powers:
 International Treaties and agreements that are approved by the Parliament are negotiated and
concluded in his name
 He is the representative of India in international forums and affairs).
 Military Powers:
 The President is the commander of the defence forces of India and appoints Chief of the Army,
Chief of the Navy and Chief of the Air Force.
 Emergency Powers:
 The President deals with three types of emergencies in Indian Constitution: National
Emergency (Article 352), President’s Rule (Article 356 & 365) and Financial Emergency
under Article 360.
 Legislative Powers:
 The President summons or prorogues Parliament and dissolve the Lok Sabha
 The President summons a joint sitting of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha in case of deadlock.
 President addresses the Indian Parliament at the commencement of the first session after every
general election.
 He nominates 12 members of the Rajya Sabha
 He can nominate two members to the Lok Sabha from the Anglo-Indian Community
 All bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the
President. The President can return a bill to the Parliament, if it is not a money bill or a
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constitutional amendment bill, for reconsideration. When after reconsideration, the bill is passed
& presented to the President, with or without amendments; President is obliged to assent to it.
 The President can also withhold his assent to the bill thereby exercising pocket veto.
Vice President
 Article 63 talks about the vice president of India. In India, Vice-President has the second-highest office
in the country.
 There is no direct election for the Vice-President of India however, he/she is indirectly elected by an
Electoral College.
 In Electoral College for Vice President, both elected and nominated members of both the Houses of
Parliament take part.
 For Vice President’s elections, states have no role to play.
 The principle of election used in Vice President’s elections is ‘Proportional Representation’ by means
of a single transferable vote.
 Vice President holds the position for five years from the date he enters in the office. However, he can
resign before five years by handing over his resignation to the President.
 Unlike President of India who can be impeached formally; there is no formal impeachment for Vice
President.
 A person cannot be elected as Vice-President unless she / he-
 is a citizen of India and has completed the age of 35 years
 is qualified for election as a member of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha)
 Holds any office of profit under the Government of India or a State Government or any
subordinate local authority
 Removal of Vice President
 The Constitution states that the Vice President can be removed by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha
passed by an absolute majority (more than 50% of total membership) & agreed to by a simple
majority (50% of voting members) of the Lok Sabha [Article 67(a)].
 Powers & Functions of the Vice-President:
 There functions of Vice-President are two-fold.
 He acts as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha. In this capacity, his powers and functions are
similar to those of the Speaker of Lok Sabha. In this respect, he resembles the American vice-
president, who also acts as the Chairman of the Senate – the Upper House of the American
legislature.
 He acts as President when a vacancy occurs in the office of the President due to his resignation,
removal, and death or otherwise. He can act as President only for a maximum period of six months,
within which a new President has to be elected. Further, when the sitting President is unable to
discharge his functions due to absence, illness or any other cause, the Vice-President discharges his
functions until the President resumes his office.
 The election of a person as Vice-President cannot be challenged on the ground that the Electoral
College was incomplete (i.e., existence of any vacancy among the members of the Electoral
College).
 If the election of a person as Vice-President is declared void by the Supreme Court, acts done by
him before the date of such declaration of the Supreme Court are not invalidated (i.e., they continue
to remain in force).
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Prime Minister
 Article 75 of the Indian Constitution mentions that a Prime Minister is appointed by the President.
 There is no specific procedure for his election or appointment. Article 74(1) states that there shall be a
Council of Ministers with a Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President. Thus, the
Indian Constitution itself recognizes a Council of Ministers.
Power and Function of Prime Minister
 Prime Minister of India performs his functions taking responsibilities as:
 The leader of Country: The Prime Minister of India is the Head of the Government of India.
 Portfolio allocation: The Prime Minister has the authority to assign portfolios to the Ministers.
 Chairman of the Cabinet: The Prime Minister is the chairman of the cabinet and presides the
meetings of the Cabinet. He can impose his decision if there is a crucial opinion difference among
the members.
 Official Representative of the country: Prime minister represents the country for high-level
international meetings.
 The link between the President and the Cabinet: The Prime Minister acts as the link between
President and cabinet. He communicates all decisions of the Cabinet to the President which is
related to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation.
 Head: The Prime Minister is the head of Nuclear Command Authority, NITI Aayog,
Appointments Committee of the Cabinet, Department of Atomic Energy, Department of Space and
Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions.
 Chief Advisor: He acts as the chief advisor to the President
 Eligibility of Prime Minister
To become an Indian prime minister one has to be
 A citizen of India.
 A member of either Rajya Sabha or Lok Sabha.
 He should have completed his 30 years if he is a member of the Rajya Sabha or can be 25 years of
age if he is a member of the Lok Sabha.
 Term
 The term of the PM is not fixed & he holds office during the pleasure of the President. So long as
the PM enjoys the majority support in the Lok Sabha, he cannot be dismissed by the President.
However, if he loses the confidence of the Lok Sabha, he must resign or the President can dismiss
him.
The Union Council of Ministers
 Article 74 and Article 75 of the Indian Constitution deal with the Council of Ministers.
 Article 74 mentions that the council will be headed by the Prime Minister of India and will aid and
advise the President and Article 75 mentions the following things:
 They are appointed by the President on the advice of Prime Minister.
 They along with the Prime Minister of India form 15% of the total strength of the lower house i.e.
Lok Sabha. (The number cannot exceed 15%).
 91st Amendment Act provided for the disqualification of the minister when he stands disqualified
as a Member of Parliament.
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 A Minister ceased to exist as one if he is not a member of either house of Parliament for six
consecutive months.
 Parliament decides the salary and allowances of the council of ministers.
Types of Ministers
The Indian Constitution does not categorize ministers into ranks. However, ministers are of four types:
 Cabinet Ministers: He / she is present and participates in every meeting of the Cabinet.
 Minister of State with independent charge: He / she is a Minister of State who does not work
under a Cabinet Minister. When any matter concerning his / her Department is on the agenda of the
Cabinet, he / she is invited to attend the meeting.
 Minister of State: He / she is a Minister who does not have independent charge of any Department
and works under a Cabinet Minister. The work to such Minister is allotted by his / her Cabinet
Minister.
 Deputy Minister: is a Minister who works under a Cabinet Minister or a Minister of State with
independent charge. The work is allotted by the Minister under whom he is working.
 Minister may be taken from members of either House & minister who is member of one House has the
right to speak & take part in the proceedings of the other House but cannot vote in the House of which
he is not member. [Art. 88]
The Attorney General of India
 Article 76 of the Indian Constitution under its Part-V deals with the position of Attorney General of
India and is the highest law officer in the country.
 Term and Appointment
 There is no fixed term for the Attorney General of India. The Constitution mentions no
specified tenure of Attorney General.
 Attorney General is appointed by the President on the advice of the government. He / she
should be an Indian Citizen, must have either completed 5 years in High Court of any Indian
state as a judge or 10 years in High Court as an advocate and may be an eminent jurist too, in
the eye of the President.
 Qualification
 The person to be appointed as the Attorney General of India must be qualified to become a
judge of the Supreme Court of India.
 Functions and Duties of Attorney-General
 Article 76(2) and (3) defines the functions and duties of the Attorney General of India. Article 76(2)
states that:
 Whichever legal matters are referred to him by the President, he advises the Union government
upon the same.
 He must also perform other duties of any legal character that are assigned to him by the
President;
 He also has to discharge the functions given to him by the Constitution or any other legislation.
 Whereas Article 76(3) states that in the performance of his official duties:
 The Attorney General can appear on behalf of the Government of India in the Supreme Court,
in cases where the Government of India is a party concerned;
 He also has to appear on behalf of the government, in regards to references made by the
President before the Supreme Court under Article 143 of the Constitution;
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 He has to appear on behalf of the government in any case in the High Court, where the
Government of India is a party in concern.
Mini Exercise - III
1. Under which Article of the Constitution 2. The Indian President may address either
of India can the President of India be house of Parliament under
impeached? a. Article 73
a. Article 356 b. Article 80
b. Article 76 c. Article 86
c. Article 75 d. Article 90
d. Article 61
3. What is the minimum age for qualifying 4. What is the maximum allowed size of the
to the post of Vice President? Council of ministers?
a. 25 a. Maximum 48
b. 35 b. No such upper limit
c. 21 c. Cannot exceed 15% of the total
d. 28 members of the Lok Sabha
d. None of these
e. Article 90
5. What is the term of the office of Prime

minister? 6. Who appoints the Attorney General?
a. 5 years a. President
b. 4 years b. Prime Minister
c. 6 years c. Chief Justice of India
d. Not fixed d. None of these
Parliament of India
Lok Sabha: The House of People

 The Lok Sabha is a non-permanent body. It is directly elected by the people using the universal
adult franchise.
 The Lok Sabha (House of People) was duly established for the first time on 17 th April 1952,
following the first General Elections.
 In the Constitution, the maximum strength of the House is provisioned under Article 81 to be not
more than 552 (which is made up by election of up to 530 from the States, 20 from the Union
Territories & 2 may be nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community).
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 The Government has extended this freeze in the Lok Sabha seats till the year 2026 by Constitution
(84th Amendment Act, 2001). According to 104th constitutional amendment reserved seats for the
Anglo-Indian community in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies is now removed.
 Special Powers of the Lok Sabha
 Money & Financial Bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha.
 Motions of No-Confidence against the government can only be introduced and passed in the Lok
Sabha.
 In case of a deadlock between the two Houses over an ordinary bill, the will of the Lok Sabha
normally prevails.
 Under Article 352, the Lok Sabha in a special sitting can disapprove the continuance of a national
emergency proclaimed by the President, even if the Rajya Sabha rejects such a resolution.
 Tenure of the Lok Sabha
 The normal term of Lok Sabha is five years, beginning with the date of its first meeting following
the general elections, and ending with an automatic dissolution.
 However, the President has the authority to dissolve the Lok Sabha at any time, including before the
end of the five-year term, and this cannot be challenged in court.
 Furthermore, during a period of national emergency, the Lok Sabha's term can be extended by a law
of Parliament for one year at a time for any length of time.
 This extension, however, cannot last longer than six months after the emergency has ended.
 Qualifications for the membership of Lok Sabha
 He / she must be a citizen of India.
 Must not less than 25 years of age.
 Must not be convicted by the court with imprisonment of two or more years.
 Must be a voter for any parliamentary constituency in India.
 The person should not be declared as an insolvent by banks or courts of the country.
 Speaker & Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha
 The presiding officer of the lower house of the Parliament is the Lok Sabha Speaker.
 Provisions of his/her and deputy speaker’s offices are dealt with Articles 93, 94, 95 and 96 of the
Indian Constitution.
 In the Indian parliamentary democracy, the Office of the Speaker of Lok Sabha holds a significant
position.
 The Speaker represents the full authority of the House, whereas the members of Parliament
represent the individual constituencies.
 The Office of the Speaker symbolises the dignity, honour and power of the House over which
he/she is presiding.
 The Speaker doesn’t vacate his/her office immediately whenever the Lok Sabha is dissolved, but
continues till the first meeting of the newly elected Lok Sabha.
 When the Lok Sabha is dissolved, the Speaker ceases to be a member of the house, but he/she
doesn’t vacate his/her office.
 The Deputy Speaker is not subordinate to the Speaker.
 He/she is directly responsible to the House.
 When the Speaker is presiding over the House, the Deputy Speaker is like any other ordinary
member of the House.
 He/she can speak, take part in the proceedings and vote on any question before the House.
 Powers and Functions of the Speaker
 The Speaker is the head of the Lok Sabha.
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 He/she is the principal spokesperson of the House, and his decision in all Parliamentary matters is
final.
 The Speaker of the Lok Sabha derives his/her power from three sources namely the Constitution of
India, the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business of Lok Sabha and Parliamentary
Conventions.
 The primary responsibility of the Speaker is to maintain order and decorum in the House for
conducting its business and regulating its proceedings. He/she has final power in this matter.
 He/she doesn’t vote in the first instance.
 But he/she can exercise a casting vote in the case of a tie.
 The Speaker presides over a joint sitting of the two houses of Parliament. The President summons a
joint sitting to resolve a deadlock between the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha on the matters of a bill.
 He/she can allow for a ‘secret’ sitting of the House at the request of the Leader of the House.
 He/she decides whether the bill is a money bill or not, and his/her decision on this matter is final.
 The Speaker is the ex-officio chairman of the Indian Parliamentary Group (IPG) setup in 1949. To
read more about Indian Parliamentary Group, check the linked article.
 The Speaker is also the ex-officio chairman of the conference of presiding officers of legislative
bodies in the country.
 Pro tem Speaker
 The office of Speaker Pro Tem is a temporary office, existing for a few days.
 Usually, the senior most member is selected as the Speaker Pro Tem.
 He/she is appointed by the President.
 He/she has all the powers of the Speaker.
 Administer oath to the new members of the House.
 He/she enables the House to elect a new Speaker.
 He/she presides over the first sitting of the newly elected House.
Rajya Sabha
 Rajya Sabha (RS) constitutionally the Council of States is the upper house of the parliament and is
termed as House of Elders in Indian Parliament.
 The maximum membership is 250 members, 12 of whom are nominated by the President of India
for their contributions to art, literature, science, & social services.
 Indian Parliament is bicameral in nature i.e. that it has two houses. Rajya Sabha is one of those two
houses, i.e. the upper house of the Parliament.
 Rajya Sabha Members are elected by the elected members of state legislative assemblies using a
method of proportional representation.
 Members sit for six-year terms, with one third of the members retiring every two years.
 The Vice President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, who presides over its
sessions. The Deputy Chairman who is elected from amongst the RS members, takes care of the
day-to-day matters of the house in the absence of the Chairman.
 The Rajya Sabha held its first sitting on 13th May 1952.
 Leader of the House
 Besides the Chairman (Vice-President of India) & the Deputy Chairman, there is also a function
called Leader of the House. This is a cabinet minister - the PM if he is a member of the House, or
another nominated minister. The Leader has a seat next to the Chairman, in the front row.
 Qualifications for the membership of Rajya Sabha
 Must be a citizen of India.
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 Must be 30 years of age or more.
 Not be holding any office of profit under the central or state Government or local body &
 Possess all other qualification prescribed by the act of parliament from time to time.
 Powers of Rajya Sabha
 It enjoys co-equal power with the Lok Sabha in respect of all bills other than money bill. Rajya
Sabha has no powers in case of Money Bills.
 Exclusive Functions of Rajya Sabha
 The Rajya Sabha, under Article 249, may by a special majority of two-thirds votes adopt a
resolution asking the Parliament to make laws on subjects of the State list, in the national interest.
This resolution gets due attention from the Parliament. The resolution remains valid for one year
only which however can be extended further in terms of another one year.
 Secondly, Rajya Sabha can take steps to create All India Services by adopting resolutions supported
by special majority in the national interest.
 Thirdly, Rajya Sabha has the exclusive right to initiate a resolution for the removal of the Vice-
President. This becomes the exclusive right of the Rajya Sabha because the Vice-President happens
to be its Chairman & draws his salary as such.
Different Terms Related to Parliament
1: Summoning
2: Joint Sitting
Different terms
3: Prorogation
Related to Parliament
4: Adjournment
5: Adjournment
Sine Die
1. Summoning: Summoning is the process of calling all members of the Parliament to meet. The
President summons each House of the Parliament from time to time. The gap between two sessions of
the Parliament cannot exceed 6 months, which means the Parliament meets at least two times in one
year. There are usually three sessions in a year:
a. the Budget Session (February to May);
b. the Monsoon Session (July to September); and the Winter Session (November to December)
The period between the prorogation of a House & its reassembly in a new session is called ‘recess’.
2. Joint Sitting: Under Article 108, there is a Provision of Joint sitting of both the Houses of the
Parliament. The Lok Sabha speaker presides over the joint sitting [Art. 118(4)].
Note: Joint sitting cannot be called for resolving deadlock regarding “Money Bill” & “Constitution
Amendment Bill”.
3. Prorogation: Prorogation implies the end of the sitting as well as the session and not the dissolution
of the House. The Rajya Sabha is not dissolved as it is a permanent House, only the Lok Sabha is
dissolved. The President can prorogue the House while in session also. Generally, the President issues
a notice for the session’s prorogation a few days after the House is adjourned sine die by the presiding
officer of the House.
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4. Adjournment: An adjournment terminates a sitting of the House. The House then meets again at the
appointed time for the next sitting. The adjournment can be for a few hours, days or weeks, depending
on the specified time. If the adjournment is done (sitting terminated) without any time scale, it is
known as adjournment sine die. The power of adjournment sine die is only with the presiding officer
of the House.
5. Adjournment Sine Die: When the House is adjourned without naming a day for reassembly, it is
called adjournment sine die.
Grounds for disqualification of members of Parliament: There are five grounds for disqualification of
Member of Parliament.
1. Article 102(1) (a): A Member of Parliament shall be disqualified from being a member of House, if he
holds any office of profit under state other than an office declared by Parliament by law not to
disqualify its holder.
2. Article 102(1) (b): If the Member of Parliament is of unsound mind & stands so declared by the court
of law.
3. Article 102(1) (c): If he is a discharged insolvent declared by court of law.
4. Article 102(1) (d): If he is not a citizen of India or has acquired the citizenship of a foreign state or is
under any acknowledgement of allegiance to a foreign state.
5. Article 102(2): If a person is disqualified being a Member of Parliament under anti-Defection Law
(Tenth Schedule).
Legislative Procedures in Parliament
 The legislative procedure is identical in both the Houses of Parliament. Every bill has to pass through
the same stages in each House.
 A bill is a proposal for legislation & it becomes an act or law when duly enacted.
 Bills introduced in the Parliament are of two kinds: public bills & private bills (also known as
government bills & private members bills respectively). Though both are governed by the same
general procedure & pass through the same stages in the House, they differ in various respects.
Types of Bills
Public Bill Private Bill
It can be introduced by any member of the
It is introduced in the parliament by a minister.
parliament other than a minister.
It reflects the policies of the government (ruling It reflects the mood of the political party on public
party). matters.
It has a greater chance to be passed by parliament. It is less likely to be passed by the parliament.
Its introduction in the house requires 7 days’ Its introduction in the house requires a prior notice
notice. of one month.
It is drafted by the concerned department in Its drafting is the responsibility of the members
consultation with the Law department. concerned.
Bills in Parliament
Ordinary Bill Money Bill Financial Bill Constitutional Amendment Bill
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Ordinary Bill
 Ordinary Bills can be introduced in either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha.
 Ordinary Bill can be introduced without the recommendation of the President.
 Either a Minister or private member can introduce the ordinary bill.
 If the Ordinary Bill originated in the Lok Sabha, then it does not require the approval of the speaker
when transmitted to Rajya Sabha.
 Ordinary Bill is sent for the assent of the President only after being approved by both the houses, i.e.
Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
 Ordinary Bills can be returned for reconsideration, accepted or rejected by the President.
 In case of deadlock on Ordinary Bill, there is a provision for a joint sitting.
 Rajya Sabha has the power to reject or amend the Ordinary Bill.
 The Rajya Sabha has the power to detain the Ordinary Bill for a period of 6 months.
Money Bill
 Money Bills can be introduced only in Lok Sabha.
 Money Bills can be introduced only on the recommendation of the President.
 Only a Minister is allowed to introduce Money Bill in the Parliament.
 Money Bill requires the certification of the Lok Sabha Speaker when transmitted to Rajya Sabha.
 Rajya Sabha cannot amend or reject the Money Bill. The Money Bill has to be returned to the Lok
Sabha with or without the recommendations of the Rajya Sabha. Lok Sabha has the power to reject or
accept the recommendations of Rajya Sabha regarding the Money Bill.
 The Money Bill can be detained for a maximum period of 14 days only by the Rajya Sabha.
 The Money Bill is sent for the President’s assent only after approval from the Lok Sabha. Money Bill
does not require the approval of the Rajya Sabha before it is sent to the President for his assent.
 Money Bills cannot be returned for reconsideration by the President. The President can only accept or
reject it.
 In the case of Money Bill, if there is a deadlock, there is no provision of a joint sitting.
Financial Bill
 A Bill apart from dealing with one or more money matters if also deals with one or more non-money
matters then it is called a financial Bill.
 It is introduced in the same manner as that of money Bill. Since it contains non-money matters after its
introduction, it is passed in same manner an ordinary bill is passed.
Constitutional Amendment Bill
The procedure for the amendment of the Constitution as laid down in Article 368 is as follows:
 An amendment of the Constitution can be initiated only by the introduction of a bill for the purpose in
either House of Parliament (Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha) and not in the state legislatures.
 The bill can be introduced either by a minister or by a private member and does not require prior
permission of the president.
 The bill must be passed in each House by a special majority, that is, a majority (that is, more than
50%) of the total membership of the House and a majority of two-thirds of the members of the House
present and voting.
 Each House must pass the bill separately.
 In case of a disagreement between the two Houses, there is no provision for holding a joint sitting of
the two Houses for the purpose of deliberation and passage of the bill.
 After duly passed by both the Houses of Parliament and ratified by the state legislatures, where
necessary, the bill is presented to the president for assent.
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 The president must give his assent to the bill. He can neither withhold his assent to the bill nor return
the bill for reconsideration of the Parliament
 After the president’s assent, the bill becomes an Act (i.e., a constitutional amendment act) and the
Constitution stands amended in accordance with the terms of the Act.
Veto power of the President:
 When a bill is introduced in the Parliament, Parliament can pass the bill and before the bill becomes an
act, it has to be presented to the Indian President for his approval. The choice of the President to either
reject the bill, return the bill or withhold his/her assent over the bill is called the veto power.
 Veto Power of the President of India is guided by Article 111 of the Indian Constitution.
 The three types of Vetoes are:
Types of Veto
Absolute veto Suspensive Veto Pocket Veto
The power of the President The power of the President to
The power of the President to
to withhold the assent to the return the bill to the Parliament
not act upon the bill is termed
bill is termed as his with or without consideration is
as a Pocket Veto.
Absolute Veto. called Suspensive Veto.
Emergency Provisions in India
 Emergency in the Indian Constitution can be differentiated as National Emergencies, State

Emergencies, and Financial Emergencies. Part XVIII of the Constitution contains the emergency
provisions in India.
 Article 352 – National Emergency
 Article 356 – President’s Rule
 Article 360 – Financial Emergency
 Article 352 demarcates the National Emergency: According to Article 352, the President may
declare an emergency when the region is under a state of attack, external intrusion, or internal
rebellion. Though such a declaration could only be made in the presence of the legislative house and
further supported by each chamber, the emergency was withdrawn after a month of announcement.
 State Emergency has been included in Article 356: Article 356 marks out that the President can
declare a state emergency on receipt of briefs by the Governor of a particular state or by the
President’s observation on degrading mechanisms of the state. Thirty-five instances of President rule
have been recorded under the rule of Smt. Indira Gandhi.
 Financial Emergencies are in Article 360: The President can declare financial emergencies if
convincing evidence of an unstable economy and credibility is encountered. Executive and legislative
factors play a central role in declaring a financial emergency. According to Article 360, a
corresponding proclamation will be withheld during the entire emergency period. Financial emergency
has never been declared in India.
Mini Exercise - IV
1. A motion of no confidence against the Government can be introduced in:
a. Rajya Sabha b Lok Sabha
c. Both a & b d Neither a nor b
2. Who decides whether a bill is a Money Bill or not?
a. President b Prime Minister
c. Speaker of the Lok Sabha d Finance Minister
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3. How many branches of government did India have?
a. 5 b 3 c 7 d 6
4. According to which Article ‘National Emergency may be declared by the President of India’?
a. Article 352 b Article 370 c Article 371 d Article 395
5. Who among the following presides over the joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament?
a. Chairman of the Rajya Sabha
b. Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha
c. Union Minister of Parliamentary Affairs
d. Speaker of the Lok Sabha
6. The maximum permissible strength of the Rajya Sabha is
a. 250 b 260 c 300 d 225
State Executive (Article 153 – 167)
Governor Chief Minister and Council Advocate General of

Article 153 - 161 of Ministers State
Article 164 – 167 Article 165 and 177
Governor
 Article 153 of the Indian Constitution says that each state of the nation should have a governor.
 The governor is appointed by the President. Under the 7 th Constitutional Amendment, it was stated that
there can be the same governor for two different states.
 The Qualification for eligibility of a governor of a State/States must be a citizen of the country and
should be 35 years and above.
The Powers of Governors
 Executive Powers of Governor
 He / she is responsible for the appointment of the Advocate General of states and also
determines their remuneration.
 Chief Ministers and other ministers of the states are appointed by the Governor
 He acts as the President’s agent during the President’s rule in the state.
 Every executive action taken by the state government is to be taken in his name.
 Legislative Powers of Governor
 Governor may/may not send a bill to the state legislature concerning any bill that is pending in
the state legislature.
 The state legislature is addressed by him in the first session of every year.
 Then the Governor appoints a person to preside over the session the speaker and the deputy
speaker of the legislative assembly are absent.
 He has the authority to consult the Election Commission for the disqualification of members.
 Financial Powers of Governor
 The Governor looks over the state budget being laid in the state legislature.
 He makes advances to meet unforeseen expenditures as the contingency fund of the state is
under him.
 Every five years, the state finance commission is constituted by him.
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 Judicial Powers of Governor
 His recommendation is sought by the President before the appointment of the high court
judges.
 In consultation with the state High Court, the Governor makes appointments, postings, and
promotions of the district judges.
 He also appoints persons to the judicial services with the consultation of the state high court
and the state public service commission.
Chief Minister and Council of Ministers

He is the head of the state government. While the governor is the nominal executive of the state
government, the person who becomes the chief minister is the real executive of the government.
 The real executive is called ‘de facto’ executive that means, ‘in fact, whether by right or not.’
 According to Article 164 in the Indian Constitution, Governor appoints Chief Minister. However, the
Governor cannot appoint any random person as the Chief Minister but has to follow a provision.
 The term of Chief Minister is not fixed and he holds his office during the pleasure of the governor.
 Main function of the Chief Minister
In relation to the different categories of people:
 In relation to the Council of Minister
 relation to the Governor
 In relation to the State Legislature
Other than that, he also performs the following functions:
 He chairs the State Planning Board
 He is a vice-chairperson of the concerned zonal council by rotation, holding that office for a
period of one year at a time
 He is a member of Inter-State Council and National Development Council which are headed by
the Prime Minister.
In Relation to the Council of Ministers
 The Chief Minister is the head of state council of ministers. He performs the following
functions:
 He recommends to the governor on who to appoint as ministers
 He designates or reshuffles the portfolios of the ministers
 He can ask a minister to resign
 Meeting of the council of ministers is headed by him
 All activities of the ministers are guided and controlled by the Chief Minister
 If he resigns, the entire council of ministers collapses.
Composition of Council of Ministers
 The size of the council is not mentioned in the Indian Constitution. Chief Minister decides the size and
the rank of the ministers as per the requirement in the State Legislature.
 There are three categories of Council of Ministers:
 Cabinet Ministers
 Ministers of State
 Deputy Ministers
Advocate General of State
 The highest law officer of the states in India is called the Advocate General of State.
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 The governor appoints the Advocate General of State on the advice of the council of ministers of the
State. The person who is eligible to hold the office of Advocate General in India must meet the
following criteria:
 He must be an Indian Citizen.
 He should be eligible to be appointed as the judge of the High Court; i.e. he must meet one of the
following eligibility criteria:
 A barrister having experience of more than 5 years.
 A civil servant with an experience of more than 10 years along with an experience as a servant in
Zila Court for at least 3 years.
 A pleader over 10 years in any high court
 He shouldn’t be more than 62 years of age, as is the age qualification for a High Court Judge.
 Term and Removal of Advocate General of State
 The Constitution does not fix the term of Advocate General in India. He remains in the office
during the pleasure of the Governor.
 The Constitution does not contain the procedure and grounds to remove the Advocate General of
State. Governor can remove him/her at any point in time.
 Resignation of Advocate General – He can resign from the public office by submitting the
resignation letter to the state governor.
 Functions of Advocate General of State
 He is responsible to advise the state government on the legal matters that the governor refers to him.
 He also has to perform all the duties legal characteristics as are assigned to him by the state
governor.
 He is bound by the Constitution for such duties and functions as is mentioned therein or any other
constitutional law.
State Legislature – Legislative Assembly
(Vidhan Sabha)
The State Legislature Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha): The Legislative Assembly is the popularly
elected chamber and is the real Centre of power in a State. The maximum strength of an assembly must not
exceed 500 or its minimum strength fall below 60. But some of the States have been allowed to have smaller
Legislative Assemblies, e.g. Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, etc. The territorial constituencies’ demarcation
should be done as far as possible, such that the ratio between the population of each constituency and the
number of seats allotted to it is the same all over the State. Apart from these general provisions, there are also
special provisions with respect to the representation of SC and ST. In case the Governor feels that the Anglo-
Indian community is not adequately represented, he can nominate one member of that community to the
assembly.
The duration of the Legislative Assembly is five years. The Governor has the power to dissolve the Assembly
even before the expiry of its term.
Qualification to be a member of Vidhan Sabha
A person shall not be qualified to be selected to occupy a seat in the Legislature of a State unless he/she is an
Indian citizen; is 25 years or above, should be mentally sound & should not be bankrupt and possess such
other qualifications as may be prescribed by the Parliament.
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State Legislature – Legislative Council
(Vidhan Parishad)
The Legislative Council of a State Comprises not more than one-third of the total number of members in the
Legislative Assembly of the State and in no case less than 40 members. However, in Jammu and Kashmir, the
strength is only 36. The system of the composition of the Council as provided for in the Constitution is not
final. The final power is given to the Parliament of the Union.
Qualification to be a member of Vidhan Parishad
A person shall not be qualified to be selected to occupy a seat in the Legislative Council unless he/she is an
Indian citizen; is 30 years or above, should be mentally sound & should not be bankrupt and possess such
other qualifications as may be prescribed by the Parliament.
Powers & Functions of State Legislature
The functions of the states’ Legislative Council are only advisory in nature. If any Bill is passed by the
Legislative Assembly and sent to the Council, and the Council refuses to give its approval, then the Assembly
has the right to reconsider it. The assembly may pass it with or without the amendments proposed by the
Council, and again send it to the Council. When a bill approved by the Assembly is sent to the Council for the
first time, it may retain it for three months, but in the case when it is sent for the second time and is kept in the
Council for one month only, the bill is deemed as having been passed.
Legislative Procedure
The Parliamentary procedure followed in the Assembly and the Council is the same as in Parliament.
 The State Legislature must meet at least twice a year and the interval between any two sessions should
not be more than six months.
 The Governor delivers the opening address at the beginning of a new session in which he outlines the
policy of the State Government.
 Any Bill may be introduced in either House of the Legislature except a Money Bill, which can be
introduced only in the Assembly. It has to go through three readings, after which it goes to the
Governor for his assent. The Governor may send it back for reconsideration but once it is passed again
by the Legislature, he cannot withhold his assent.
 He may reserve certain Bills for the consideration of the President, who may ask him to place it before
the Legislature for reconsideration. When it is passed again with or without amendment it goes to the
President for his consideration.
 The President is not bound to give his assent even though the Bill has been considered and passed for a
second time by the State Legislature. In case the Assembly is dissolved before a Bill is passed, or it is
passed by the Assembly but is pending before the Council, it will lapse.
 But in case of Bills which have been duly passed by the Assembly, if there is only one House in the
State, and by the Assembly and the Council where there are two House, and is awaiting the assent of
the Governor or the President it does not lapse.
 A bill which has been returned either by the Governor or the President for reconsideration can be
considered and passed by the newly constituted Assembly, even though the Bill was originally passed
by the dissolved House.
Comparing Vidhan Sabha & Lok Sabha:
The Vidhan Sabha is also known as the State Legislative Assembly. It is the lower house in states with a
bicameral legislature or the sole house in states with a unicameral legislature.
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The Lok Sabha is the lower house of the Parliament of India. It is also known as the House of the People
as its members are directly elected through general elections.
Difference between Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha
Lok Sabha Vidhan Sabha
The Lok Sabha is the lower house of India’s The Vidhan Sabha is the legislative body in the states
parliament which is bicameral in nature and Union Territory of India
The Indian Constitution states that the Vidhan Sabha
As per the Constitution of India, the Lok Sabha
must have no less than 60 members and no less than
has been allotted 552 seats. Currently, the 17th
500 members. Exceptions are made via an Act of
Lok Sabha elected in May 2019 has 543 seats
Parliament for states and union territories with fewer
filled
than 60 members
Money Bills can only be introduced in the Lok
A money bill can only be introduced by the Vidhan
Sabha, where after being passed, it is sent to
Sabha. In a bicameral setup, they can be passed on to
Rajya Sabha for 14 days of deliberation. In the
the Vidhan Parishad (State Legislative Council) for
event of non-rejection after the 14-day lapse,
14days of deliberation.
the bill is considered passed.
If the Lok Sabha is dissolved before or after a The Vidhan Sabha has the power to form or dissolve
declaration of national emergency then the the Vidhan Parishad by passing a resolution to that
Rajya Sabha will become the sole effect by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the
parliamentary authority of the country. members voting
Local Self - Governance
Panchayati Raj
 A three-tier structure of the Indian administration for rural development is called Panchayati Raj.
 Panchayati Raj institutes village local government that plays a significant role in the development of
villages especially in areas like primary education, health, agricultural developments, women and
child development and women participation in local government, etc.
 It was finalized through the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992.
 Balwant Rai Mehta was a parliamentarian who is credited for pioneering the concept of the
Panchayati Raj in India and was also known as the ‘Father of Panchayati Raj’.
 All states of India have Panchayati Raj systems except Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram, in all
Union Territories except Delhi; and certain other areas.
Evolution of Panchayati Raj
 The evolution of the Panchayati Raj System, however, got a fillip after the attainment of
independence after the drafting of the Constitution.
 The Constitution of India in Article 40 enjoined: “The state shall take steps to organise village
Panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to
function as units of self-government”.
 There were a number of committees appointed by the Government of India to study the
implementation of self-government at the rural level and also recommend steps in achieving this
goal. The committees appointed are
 Balwant Rai Mehta Committee: The committee was appointed in 1957, to examine and suggest
measures for better working of the Community Development Programme and the National
Extension Service. The committee suggested the establishment of a democratic decentralised local
government which came to be known as the Panchayati Raj.
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 Ashok Mehta Committee: The committee was appointed in 1977 to suggest measures to revive and
strengthen the declining Panchayati Raj system in India.
 G V K Rao Committee: The committee was appointed by the planning commission in 1985. It
recognised that development was not seen at the grass root level due to bureaucratisation resulting in
Panchayat Raj institutions being addressed as ‘grass without roots’.
 L M Singhvi Committee: The committee was appointed by the Government of India in 1986 with
the main objective to recommend steps to revitalise the Panchayati Raj systems for democracy and
development.
rd
73 Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992
 The Act added Part IX to the Constitution, “The Panchayats” and also added the Eleventh Schedule
which consists of the 29 functional items of the Panchayats.
 Part IX of the Constitution contains Article 243 to Article 243 O.
 The Amendment Act provides shape to Article 40 of the Constitution, (directive principles of state
policy), which directs the state to organise the village Panchayats and provide them powers and
authority so that they can function as self-government.
 With the Act, Panchayati Raj systems come under the purview of the justiciable part of the
Constitution and mandates states to adopt the system. Further, the election process in the Panchayati
Raj institutions will be held independent of the state government’s will.
 The Act has two parts: compulsory and voluntary. Compulsory provisions must be added to state
laws, which includes the creation of the new Panchayati Raj systems. Voluntary provisions, on the
other hand, is the discretion of the state government.
 The Act is a very significant step in creating democratic institutions at the grassroots level in the
country. The Act has transformed the representative democracy into participatory democracy.
Salient Features of the Act
1. Gram Sabha: Gram Sabha is the primary body of the Panchayati Raj system. It is a village assembly
consisting of all the registered voters within the area of the Panchayat. It will exercise powers and
perform such functions as determined by the state legislature.
2. Three-tier system: The Act provides for the establishment of the three-tier system of Panchayati Raj
in the states (village, intermediate and district level).
3. Election of members and chairperson: The members to all the levels of the Panchayati Raj are
elected directly and the chairpersons to the intermediate and the district level are elected indirectly
from the elected members and at the village level the Chairperson is elected as determined by the state
government.
4. Duration of Panchayat: The Act provides for a five-year term of office to all the levels of the
Panchayat. However, the Panchayat can be dissolved before the completion of its term. But fresh
elections to constitute the new Panchayat shall be completed before the expiry of its five-year duration
or in case of dissolution, before the expiry of a period of six months from the date of its dissolution.
5. Powers and Functions: The state legislature may endow the Panchayats with such powers and
authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as institutions of self-government. Such a
scheme may contain provisions related to Gram Panchayat work with respect to the preparation of
plans for economic development and social justice and the implementation of schemes for economic
development and social justice as may be entrusted to them, including those in relation to the 29
matters listed in the Eleventh Schedule.
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Organizational Structure
 Gram Panchayat at the Village level: The members of the Gram Panchayat are elected by the Gram
Sabha. The Pradhans (Presidents) of the Gram Sabha are the ex-officio members of the Gram
Panchayat.
Note: Gram Sabha means a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rules relating to a
village comprised within the area of Panchayat at the village level.
 Panchayat Samiti at the Block level: The Panchayat Samiti has many Gram Panchayats under it. All
the Presidents of the Panchayats within the Block are the ex officio members of the ‘Panchayat
Samitis’.
 Zila Parishad at the District level
 Zila Parishad is an apex body under the Panchayati Raj. It co-ordinates the activities of the various
Panchayat Samitis.
 Zila Parishad actually makes developmental plans at the district level.
 With the help of Panchayat Samitis, it also regulates the money distribution among all the Gram
Panchayats.
Mini Exercise - V
1. Who among the following administers the oath of office to the Governor?
a. Chief Minister b President
c. Chief Justice of India
d. Chief Justice of concerned State High Court
2. The powers and functions of the Chief Minister of the state are analogous to:
a. President b Prime Minister
c. Governor d Vice President
3. Which of the following Articles of Indian Constitution is related with Executive power of Governor?
4. Who is the executive head of the State Government?
a. The Chief Minister b The Governor c The Chief Secretary d None of these
5. Panchayati Raj institutions came into existence under the
a. 42nd and 43rd Amendment Acts b 86th and 87th Amendment Acts
c. 63rd and 64th Amendment Acts d 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts
Judiciary
Supreme Court of India

 The Supreme Court of India is the supreme judicial authority of India and is the highest court of the
Republic of India under the constitution.
 It is the most senior constitutional court, has the final decision in all legal matters except for personal
laws, and also has the power of judicial review.
 The Federal Court of India was created as per the Government of India Act 1935.
 After independence, the Federal Court and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council were replaced
by the Supreme Court of India, which came into being in January 1950.
 The Constitution of 1950 envisaged a Supreme Court with one Chief Justice and 7 puisne Judges.
Supreme Court of India Functions
 It takes up appeals against the verdicts of the High Courts, other courts and tribunals.
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 It settles disputes between various government authorities, between state governments, and between
the centre and any state government.
 It also hears matters which the President refers to it, in its advisory role.
 The SC can also take up cases Suo Moto (on its own).
 The law that SC declares is binding on all the courts in India and on the Union as well as the state
governments.
Supreme Court Jurisdiction
 The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is of three types namely Original (Read in detail about Original
Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the linked article), Advisory (Notes on Advisory Jurisdiction of
the Supreme Court are given in the linked article) and Appellate.
Composition of Supreme Court
 The composition of the Supreme Court is laid down in Clause 1 of Article 124. Article 124 (1) of the
Indian Constitution states that the Supreme Court shall consist of the Chief Justice of India and 33
other judges.
 The judges sit in benches of 2 or 3 (called a Division Bench) or in benches of 5 or more (called a
Constitutional Bench) when there are matters of fundamental questions of the law is to be decided.
Eligibility of Supreme Court Judge
 As per Article 124, an Indian citizen who is below 65 years of age is eligible to be recommended for
appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court if he / she has been a judge of one or more High Courts,
for at least 5 years, or he / she has been an advocate in one or more High Courts for at least 10 years,
or he / she is in the opinion of the President, a distinguished jurist.
Removal of judges of Supreme Court
 Article 124(4) provides for the removal of a judge of the Supreme Court. He is removed by the
President upon an address by both the Houses of the Parliament supported by a majority of not less
than 2/3rd of members present & voting & a majority of total strength of the House on the ground of
misbehaviour or incapacity.
The Procedure of the Supreme Court of India
 The Supreme Court of India has powers to consult the President to regulate the practice and procedure
of the Court.
 The Constitutional Cases are usually decided by a bench consisting of five judges whereas other cases
are decided by a bench of at least three judges.
The seat of Supreme Court
 As per the Constitution of India, Delhi is declared as the seat of the Supreme Court of India. However,
the Chief Justice of India has the power to assign another place (s) as the seat of the Supreme Court.
This is only an optional provision and not mandatory.
High Court
 The highest judicial court in a state is the High Court.

 It is termed as the second-highest in the country after the Supreme Court of India.
 Currently, India has 25 High Courts established in different states of the country.
 It was in 1858 on the recommendation of the Law Commission, the Parliament passed the Indian High
Courts Act 1861 which suggested the establishment of High Courts in place of Supreme Court in three
Presidencies: Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay.
 The Charter of High Court of Calcutta was ordered in May 1862 and that of Madras and Bombay were
order in June 1862, thereby making the Calcutta High Court the first High Court of the country.
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 The reason for the implementation of this act was the need for a separate judiciary body for different
states. The British Government, therefore, decided to abolish the then-existing Supreme Court and
Sadar Adalat and replaced it with High Court.
 Certain rules and eligibility criteria were set for the appointment of a Judge in any High Court and
later after independence as per Article 214 of the Indian Constitution, it was declared that every Indian
state must have their own High Court.
 The British-created laws were different from the ones that were stated in the Indian Penal code and the
entire legal system of the country changed after the independence of the country.
Constitution of High Court
 Under British rule, each High Court has a Chief Justice and maximum 15 other puisne judges.
 But later certain changes were brought about in the composition of the High Court in India that Every
High Court shall have a Chief Justice appointed by the President, unlike before, there was no fixed
number of Judges who could be appointed for each High Court and additional Judges can also be
appointed for the clearance of cases pending in the court. But their tenure cannot exceed more than
two years.
 There is no uniformity among the High Courts regarding the number of Judges they will have. A
smaller state shall have less number of judges in comparison to a larger state.
High Court Jurisdiction
 The High Court is the highest court of appeal in the state vested with the power to interpret the
Constitution.
 It is the protector of the Fundamental Rights of the citizens. Besides, it has supervisory and
consultative roles. However, the Constitution does not contain detailed provisions with regard to the
jurisdiction and powers of a high court.
 The Jurisdiction of High Court are as:
 Original Jurisdiction: In such kind of cases the applicant can directly go to the High Court and does
not require to raise an appeal. It is mostly applicable for cases related to the State Legislative
Assembly, marriages, enforcement of fundamental rights and transfer cases from other courts.
 Power of Superintendence: It a special power enjoyed only by High Court and no other subordinate
court has this power of superintendence. Under this, the High Court holds the right to order its
subordinate offices and courts the way of maintaining records, prescribe rules for holding proceedings
in the court and also settle the fees paid to sheriff clerks, officers and legal practitioners.
 Court of Record: It involves recording the judgments, proceedings and acts of high courts for
perpetual memory. These records cannot be further questioned in any court. It has the power to punish
for contempt of itself.
 Control over Subordinate Courts: This is an extension of the supervisory and appellate jurisdiction.
It states that the High Court can withdraw a case pending before any subordinate court if it involves
the substantial question of law. The case can be disposed of itself or solve the question of law and
return back to the same court.
 Appellate Jurisdiction: This is for cases where people have risen a complaint about a review of the
judgement given by the district level or subordinate court of that territory. This power is further
divided into two categories:
 Civil Jurisdiction: this includes orders and judgements of the district court, civil district court
and subordinate court.
 Criminal Jurisdiction: this includes judgements and orders of the sessions court and
additional sessions court.
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 Power of Judicial Review: This power of High Court includes the power to examine the
constitutionality of legislative and executive orders of both central and state government. It is to be
noted that the word judicial review is nowhere mentioned in our constitution but the Article 13 and
226 explicitly provide High Court with this power.
 Writ Jurisdiction of High Court: Article 226 of the Constitution empowers a high court to issue
writs including habeas corpus, mandamus, certiorari, prohibition, and Quo Warranto for the
enforcement of the fundamental rights of the citizens and for any other purpose.
Eligibility Criteria for High Court Judge
 The eligibility criteria to be fulfilled to be appointed as a judge in any High court in India: the person
should have been a Barrister for more than five years or has been a civil servant for over 10 years
along with serving the Zila court for at least 3 years or has been a pleader for over 10 years in any
High Court.
 No judge should be of more than 62 years of age
Removal of judges:
 A judge of the High Court shall hold office until he attains the age of 62 years.
 A judge may resign from his office by writing under his hand to the President of India.
 He / she can also be removed by the President of India on the ground of proved misbehaviour or
inefficiency if a resolution to that effect is passed by both the Houses of Parliament by a two-thirds
majority of the total members present & voting, supported by a majority of the total membership of
each house.
Union Territories
 Union Territories (UTs) are federal territories and are administered by the Union Government of India.
They are also known as centrally administered territories.
 In the Union Territories, Lieutenant Governors (LGs) are appointed by the President of India. The LGs
serve as the UT administrators.
 The UTs were introduced in the States Reorganisation Act, 1956. The concept of the UT was added by
the Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956.
 In 1956, we had 14 states and six UTs. Over the years, the number of states increased to 28 and UTs to
eight.
 Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Sikkim, Goa, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram are some UTs
that became full states since the 1960s.
Constitutional Provisions related to UTs
Articles 239 to 241 in Part VIII of the Constitution deal with the union territories and there is no
uniformity in their administrative system.
 The original Constitution under Article 239 provided for the administration of UTs directly by the
President through the administrators. Article 239A was brought in 1962, to enable Parliament to create
legislatures for the UTs. In this direction, some UTs were provided with a legislature and a Council of
Ministers to fulfil the democratic aspirations of the people of these territories. Article 239AA on the
Indian Constitution was added by Constitution (69th Amendment) act, 1991 according special
provisions for the National Capital Territory of Delhi.
 Under Article 240, President has the power to make regulations for the peace, progress and good
governance of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu
and Pondicherry. In the case of Pondicherry, the President can make a regulation to legislate only
when the assembly is suspended or dissolved.
 A regulation made by the President has the same force and effect as an act of Parliament.
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 Article 241 states that the Parliament may by law constitute a High Court for a Union Territory or
declare any court in any territory to be a High Court for all or any of the purposes of the Constitution.
Only NCT of Delhi has a separate High Court.
Mini Exercise - VI
1. Which of the following is not included in the qualification for being a judge in the Supreme Court?
a. He/she should be a citizen of India.
b. He should be a respected jurist in the eyes of Parliament
c. He / She must be a judge in the High Court for at least 5 years
d. He/ She should be a lawyer in the High Court for at least 10 years
2. Which of the following articles states about the establishment of the Supreme Court?
a. Article 176 b Article 153
c. Article 124 d Article 324
3. Who is appointed as the Chief Justice of India?
a. The President appoints the Chief Justice of India on his sole discretion
b. The senior-most judge of the Supreme Court is appointed as the Chief Justice of India
c. The panel of judges of Supreme Court elect a Chief Justice of India from amongst themselves
d. The Chief Justice of India is elected by the voting of Lok Sabha members
4. On which ground a High Court Judge can be impeached?
a. Proven misconduct b Incompetence
c. Both a and b d None of the above
5. Who can extend the jurisdiction of a High Court?
a. Parliament of India b President of India
c. Supreme Court of India d The governor of the state
Government Bodies
Election Commission
 The Constitution of India has established a permanent and independent body to ensure free and fair
elections in the country known as the Election Commission.
 Article 324 of the Constitution provides the Election Commission of India with the power of direction,
superintendence, and control of elections to parliament, state legislatures, the office of President of
India and the office of Vice-President of India.
 The Election Commission is an all-India body that is common to both the Central government and the
State governments. The commission does not deal with the elections to the Municipalities and
Panchayats in the states.
 The elections to the Panchayats & the municipalities in the states are conducted by ‘State Election
Commissions’.
Constitutional Appointment of ECI
 Since its inception in 1950 and till 15 th October 1989, the election commission was a one-member
body with only the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) as its sole member.
 On 16th October 1989, the voting age was changed from 21 to 18 years. Two more election
commissioners were appointed by the president in order to cope with the increased work of the
election commission. Since then, the Election Commission was a multi-member body that consisted of
3 election commissioners.
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 The chief and the two other election commissioners have the same powers and emoluments including
salaries, which are the same as a Supreme Court judge.
 In case of a difference of opinion amongst the Chief Election Commissioner and/or two other election
commissioners, the matter is decided by the Commission by a majority.
 The office is held by them for a term of 6 years or until they attain 65 years, whichever happens first.
They can also be removed or can resign at any time before the expiry of their term.
Independence of CEC
Article 324 of the Constitution of India mentions the provisions to safeguard & ensure the independent &
impartial functioning of the Election Commission:
1. The Chief Election Commissioner is provided with the security of tenure. He cannot be removed from
his office except in same manner & on the same grounds as a judge of the Supreme Court.
2. The Election Commissioner cannot be removed from office except on the recommendation of the
Chief Election Commissioner.
3. He does not hold his office until the pleasure of the president, though he is appointed by him.
4. The service conditions of the chief election commissioner cannot be varied to his disadvantage after
his appointment.
5. Any other election commissioner or a regional commissioner cannot be removed from office except on
the recommendation of the chief election commissioner.
Powers of Election Commission of India
1. Determining the Electoral Constituencies’ territorial areas throughout the country on the basis of the
Delimitation Commission Act of Parliament.
2. Preparing and periodically revising electoral rolls and registering all eligible voters.
3. Notifying the schedules and dates of elections and scrutinising nomination papers.
4. Granting recognition to the various political parties and allocating them election symbols.
5. Acting as a court to settle disputes concerning the granting of recognition to political parties and
allocating election symbols to the parties.
6. Appointing officers for inquiring into disputes concerning electoral arrangements.
7. Determining the code of conduct to be followed by the political parties and candidates during
elections.
8. Cancelling polls in case of booth capturing, rigging, violence and other irregularities.
9. Supervising the machinery of elections throughout the country for ensuring the conduct of free and fair
elections.
10. Registering political parties and granting them the status of national or state parties (depending on their
poll performance).
Functions of Election Commission
11. To direct and control the entire process of conducting elections to Parliament and Legislature of every
State and to the offices of President and Vice-President of India.
12. To decide the election schedules for the conduct of periodic and timely elections, whether general or
bye-elections
13. To decide on the location of polling stations, assignment of voters to the polling stations, location of
counting centres, arrangements to be made in and around polling stations and counting centres and all
allied matters
14. To prepare electoral roll and issues Electronic Photo Identity Card (EPIC)
15. To grant recognition to political parties & allot election symbols to them along with settling disputes
related to it
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16. To sets limits of campaign expenditure per candidate to all the political parties, and also monitors the
same
17. To issue the Model Code of Conduct in the election for political parties and candidates so that no one
indulges in unfair practice or there is no arbitrary abuse of powers by those in power.
Composition of Election Commission
Article 324 of the Constitution has made the following provisions with regard to the composition of the
election commission:
 The President appoints the Chief Election Commissioner and other election commissioners.
 When any other EC is so appointed, the CEC acts as the Election Commission’s Chairman.
 The President can also appoint regional commissioners to assist the Commission, if necessary after
consulting with the Election Commission.
 The tenure of office and the conditions of service of all the commissioners shall be determined by the
country’s President.
Union Public Service Commission

 The Union Public Service Commission of India was constituted by the British Government during the
British rule.
 The Lee Commission, in 1924 had suggested in its report for the creation of an unprejudiced and
independent Public Service Commission.
 On the basis of such suggestions, the Union Public Service Commission was constituted in 1926.
 According to Article 315 of the Indian constitution, there shall be a permanent UPSC (Union Public
Service Commission). This body will conduct exam to appoint candidates to different posts of Indian
Civil Services under the government of India.
 Article 315 to 323 of the Indian Constitution deals with the appointment of UPSC members, functions
and powers of UPSC.
Functions of UPSC
 The UPSC conducts examination for All-India Services Central Services and Public Services for
different Indian states and Union territory
 It helps the states in composing and implementing schemes of combined recruitment for any services
requiring special qualifications.
 The UPSC serves the interests of the State on the demand of the Governor and with the consent of the
President of India.
Composition of UPSC
 The UPSC comprises of a chairman and ten members.
 The President of India appoints the UPSC Chairman and other members.
 Each member holds office for a tenure of 6 years or till he becomes the age of 65 years.
State Public Service Commission

 A state public service commission consists of a chairman & other member appointed by the governor
of the state. But they can be removed only by the President.
 It is an independent constitutional body.
 The chairman & members of the commission hold office for a term of six years or until they attain the
age of 62 years, whichever is earlier.
 The main function of SPSC is to conduct examinations for appointments to the services of the state.
Joint State Public Service Commission
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 The Constitution makes a provision for the establishment of a Joint State Public Service Commission
(JSPS(C) for two or more states.
 A JSPSC can be created by an act of Parliament on the request of the state legislatures concerned.
Thus, a JSPSC is a statutory & not a constitutional body.
 The chairman of JSPSC is appointed by the President.
Comptroller & Auditor General
 Comptroller and Auditor General of India is the apex authority responsible for external and internal
audits of the expenses of the National and state governments.
 It is popularly known as the CAG of India.
 Articles 148, 149, 150 and 151 of the Constitution of India describe the functions and powers of this
office.
 Article 149: Duties and Powers of the Comptroller and Auditor General: To perform such duties and
exercise such powers in relation to accounts of the Union of India and the states and of any other
bodies or authority, as may be prescribed by any law made by the Parliament.
 Article 150: Form of Accounts of the Union of India and the States: To prescribe, with the approval of
the President, the form in which the account of the Union and of the States are to be kept.
 Article 151: CAG Reports: To report to the President or to the Governors of the States on the accounts
of the Union or State. The constitution has also provided in Article 279(i) that the CAG has to
ascertain and certify the net proceeds of any tax or duty mentioned in Chapter I of Part XII of the
Constitution. Besides these constitutional provisions and the Duties Powers and Conditions of Service
Act of 1971, is necessary to mention that, before 1976, the CAG had a two-dimensional role, that
accounting and auditing. Due to the separation of accounts and audit in 1976, the CAG’s duty is the
auditing of accounts.
Role of CAG in India
 The role of this office is to uphold the provisions of the Indian Constitution and laws enacted by the
Parliament in the field of financial administration. The accountability of the executive (i.e., the council
of ministers) to the Parliament in the sphere of financial administration is secured through CAG
reports. The office is responsible to and is an agent of the Parliament and conducts audits of
expenditure on its behalf.
Functions of the CAG of India
 The Constitution in Article 149 provides the legal basis for the Parliament to prescribe the duties and
powers of the CAG in relation to the accounts of the Union and of the States and of any other authority
or body. The CAG Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service (DPC) Act, was passed in the parliament
in 1971. The DPC Act was amended in 1976 to separate accounts from audit in the Government of
India.
 He audits the accounts related to all expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India & consolidated
fund of each state.
 He audits all expenditure from the Contingency Fund of India & the Public Account of India as well as
the contingency fund of each state & the public account of each state.
 He audits the accounts of any other authority when requested by the President or Governor.
Note: He submits his audit reports relating to the accounts of the Centre to President & relating to the
accounts of a state to governor.
Appointment & term
 The CAG is appointed by the President of India. He holds office for a period of six years or up to the
age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
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 He can resign any time from his office by addressing the resignation letter to the president. He can also
be removed by the President on same grounds & in the same manner as a judge of the Supreme Court.
Parliamentary Funds
Consolidated Fund of India
 This is the most important of all accounts of the government.
 This fund is filled by:
 Direct and indirect taxes Loans taken by the Indian government
 Returning of loans/interests of loans to the government by anyone/agency that has taken it
 The government meets all its expenditure from this fund.
 The government needs parliamentary approval to withdraw money from this fund.
 The provision for this fund is given in Article 266(1) of the Constitution of India.
 Each state can have its own Consolidated Fund of the state with similar provisions.
 The Comptroller and Auditor General of India audits these funds and reports to the relevant
legislatures on their management.
Public Account of India
 This is constituted under Article 266(2) of the Constitution.
 All other public money (other than those covered under the Consolidated Fund of India) received by or
on behalf of the Indian Government are credited to this account/fund.
 The government does not need permission to take advances from this account.
 Each state can have its own similar accounts.
 The audit of all the expenditure from the Public Account of India is taken up by the CAG
Contingency Fund of India
 Provision for this fund is made in Article 267(1) of the Constitution of India.
 Its corpus is Rs. 500 crores. It is in the nature of an imprest (money maintained for a specific purpose).
 The Secretary of, Finance Ministry holds this fund on behalf of the President of India.
 This fund is used to meet unexpected or unforeseen expenditure.
 Each state can have its own contingency fund established under Article 267(2).
Political Parties
A registered party can be recognized as a National Party only if it satisfies the following criteria according to
the Election Commission of India:
 The party secures 2% seats in the Lok Sabha from at least 3 different states.
 A party secures 6% of the votes in the General Election to Lok Sabha or Legislative Assembly in four
states and wins 4 Lok Sabha seats from any state or states.
 A party is recognized as a state party in four or more states
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Motions in Parliament
2. Question Hour: 4. Starred & Unstarred Questions:

1. Private Member’s Business: It is the first hour of a sitting session of A Starred Question is one to which a
A private member's bill is a bill India's Lok Sabha devoted to questions member desires an oral answer from the
(proposed law) introduced into a that Members of Parliament raise about Minister in the House and is required to be
legislature by a legislator who is not any aspect of administrative activity. distinguished by him/her with an asterisk.
acting on behalf of the executive (11:00 AM to 12:00 Noon). Answer to such a question may be followed
3. Privilege Motion:
branch. by supplementary questions by members.
This motion is moved by a member if in
Every member who is not a Minister is An Unstarred Question is one to which
his opinion any minister or any of the
called a Private Member. . written answer is desired by the member
members commits a breach of privilege
and is deemed to be laid on the Table of
of the House by withholding any fact.
the House by Minister. Thus it is not called
for oral answer in the House and no
supplementary question can be asked
thereon.
Motion in Parliament
5. Short Notice Questions: 6. Adjournment Motions: 7. Calling Attention

A member may give a notice of question A member may, with the prior permission of the
In parliamentary procedure, an Speaker, call the attention of a Minister to any
on a matter of public importance and of adjournment ends a meeting. It could
urgent character for oral answer at a matter of urgent public importance and the
be done using a motion to adjourn. A Minister may make a brief statement or ask for
notice less than 10 days prescribed as time for another meeting could be set time to make a statement at a later hour or date.
the minimum period of notice for asking
using the motion to fix the time to Calling Attention Motion gives the members an
a question in ordinary course. Such a which to adjourn. This motion opportunity to let the people know about the
question is known as ‘Short Notice inadequacies of any kind of governmental action
establishes an adjourned meeting.
Question’. on an important matter of public importance.
Goods and Services Tax (GST)
 It is a tax on goods and services sold domestically for consumption. The tax is included in the final
price and paid by consumers at point of sale and passed to the government by the seller. The GST is a
common tax used by the majority of countries globally.
 There are Four GST types namely Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST), State Goods and
Services Tax (SGST), Central Goods and Services Tax (CGST), and Union Territory Goods and
Services Tax (UTGST). The taxation rate under each of them is different.
 France was the first country to implement the GST in 1954.
Key Points on Union Budget
 In a parliamentary democracy like India, where the Constitution is the supreme document with defined
roles for the government to function effectively, it is imperative for the government to work for the
welfare of the state and its citizens. To discharge these functions effectively and upgrade the country’s
economic and social structure, the government requires adequate resources.
 Article 112: A statement of estimated receipts and expenditure of Govt. of India has to be laid before
the parliament.
 Article 77 (3): The union Finance Minister of India has been made responsible by the President of
India to prepare the annual financial statement and present it in Parliament.
 The Annual Financial Statement or The Budget contains:
 Estimates of expenditure.
 Ways and means to raise the revenue.
 Actual figures for preceding year.
 Budget and revised figures for the current year.
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 Budget estimates for the following year.
 In parliament, the budget goes through 5 stages:
1. Presentation of budget with Finance Minister’s speech.
2. General discussion of the budget.
3. Voting on demand for grants in Lok Sabha
4. Passing of appropriation bills.
5. Passing of Finance bills.
The Parts of Budget
Capital Budget:
Revenue Budget:
It is a statement of the government's estimated
It is a statement of the government's estimated
capital receipts and capital expenditure. Capital
revenue receipts and revenue expenditure for a
budget covers capital items which are of non-
period of one financial year.
recurring nature.
 The first Union Budget of Independent India was presented by the first Finance Minister of Independent
India, Sir R.K. Shanmugham Chetty, on November 26, 1947.
 Indira Gandhi, the then prime minister who also held the finance portfolio became the first woman
finance minister of India to present a Budget in Parliament.
 In 2001, Yashwant Sinha, broke the colonial practice of announcing the Union Budget at 5 pm. Instead,
he delivered his Budget speech at 11 am on the last working day of February.
 Morarji Desai, who presented 10 Union Budgets in his role as finance minister, is crediting with
presenting the highest number of Union Budgets in the history of Independent India.
 The Budget presented by Finance Minister Arun Jaitley for the financial year 2017-18 was
unprecedented in that, for the first time ever, a Railway Budget was not presented separately. This
practice was discontinued and both Union Budget and Railway Budget were merged and presented
together.
Article Related to Bills
 Article 107: Provisions as to introduction & passing of Bills

 Article 108: Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases
 Article 109: Special procedure in respect of Money Bills
 Article 110: Definition of “Money Bills”
 Article 111: Assent to Bills
 Article 112: Annual financial statement
 Article 113: Procedure in Parliament with respect to estimates
 Article 114: Appropriation Bills
 Article 115: Supplementary, additional or excess grants
 Article 116: Votes on account, votes of credit & exceptional grants
 Article 117: Special provisions as to financial Bills
 Article 118: Rules of procedure
 Article 119: Regulation by law of procedure in Parliament in relation to financial business
 Article 120: Language to be used in Parliament
 Article 121: Restriction on discussion in Parliament
 Article 122: Courts not inquire into proceedings of Parliament

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Mini Exercise - VII
1. In which Article Indian Constitution Provides for the Election Commission?

a. Article 187 b Article 256
c. Article 278 d Article 324
2. Chief Election Commissioner of India is appointed for a period of how many years?
a. 5 years b 7 years c 4 years d 6 years
3. When was India's first Budget introduced?
a. 7th April 1860
b. 1st February 1948
c. 26th November 1947 d 12th October 1947
4. The first hour of every parliamentary sitting is slotted for
a. Zero hour b Question hour c Motions d Resolutions
5. How many structures does Indian GST System have?
a. 1 b 5 c 6 d 4
6. What is the maximum CGST Rate in India?
a. 28 b 15 c 12 d 20
7. IGST is applicable in which goods?
a. Inter-Country b Inter-State c Inter UT d None of these
8. Which one of the following is considered the best form of government?
a. Democracy b Dictatorship c Monarchy d Military Rule
9. Who selects the Chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission?
a. The Home Minister b The President
c. The Parliament d The Supreme Court
10. In which part of the Indian Constitution there is a provision for the establishment of the State Public
Service Commission and the Union Public Service Commission?
a. 14th b 11th c 12th d 17th
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Practice Test - Political Science
1. Which part of the Indian Constitution deals with Official Language?

a. XVII b XVI c X d XV
2. How many Fundamental Rights have been provided by the Constitution of India?
a. Eight b Nine c Five d Six
3. The first session of the Constituent Assembly was held on
a. 25th December 1949
b. 26th January 1949
c. 9th December 1946 d 11th November 1946
4. What is the meaning of the term 'Liberty'?
a. Right to express anything b Right to go anywhere
c. Absence of restrictions d Presence of restrictions
5. Which schedule of the Indian Constitution is about scheduled languages?
a. X b VIII c IX d VI
6. Which Article of the Constitution empowers the President to appoint a Commission to investigate the
condition of backward classes in general and suggest ameliorative measures?
a. Art342 b Art 344 c Art 340 d Art 339
7. Which of the following statements are true regarding the composition of the Constituent Assembly?
a. The representatives were to be elected from the four constituents – Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and
Christian.
b. The total strength of the Constituent Assembly was 389.
c. The chairman of the Union Constituent Committee was Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
d. The Drafting Committee under the chairmanship of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar consisted of eight
members.
8. The term ‘We’ in Preamble means
a. Indian Government b Supreme Courts
c. Indian Parliament d The People of India
9. Which of the following statements are true regarding the citizenship of India?
I A citizen of India is anyone born on or after 26th January 1950.
II Anyone born before July 1, 1987, is Indian Citizen by birth irrespective of his / her parents
nationality.
a. Only I b Only II c Both I and II d None of these
10. Fundamental Duties under Article 51-A is confined to
a. Prime Minister and his council of ministers
b. Citizens of India
c. Public servants
d. All those who run public sector enterprise
11. The President of India is elected by the
a. By an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both Houses of the Parliament and
State Assemblies.
b. Members of the State Legislatures
c. Members of both Houses of the Parliament
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d. Members of the Lok Sabha
12. The power to grant pardons, reprieve or remissions of punishment under Article 72 is exercised by the
President of India
a. on the advice of the Prime Minister
b. on his own as Head of the Union
c. on the advice of Council of Ministers
d. in consultation with the Prime Minister who tenders his opinion on the advice of his cabinet
13. A person wanting to contest the elections to the post of Vice-President must be
a. Qualified for election as a member of Rajya Sabha
b. Qualified for election as a member of Lok Sabha
c. Qualified for election as a member of State Legislative Assemblies
d. None of the above
14. What is true about the removal of the Vice-President of India from the office?
a. Members of the State Legislative Assemblies also participate in the removal
b. The Constitution DOES NOT provide rules for the grounds on which the Vice-President can be
removed
c. There must be an absolute majority in Lok Sabha
d. The Constitution provides rules for the grounds on which the Vice-President can be removed
15. Consider the following statements. Which among them are true?
1. Article 75 provides information on the appointment and selection of Prime Minister
2. A person must always prove his majority in Lok Sabha BEFORE his appointment as Prime
Minister by the President
3. A person may be appointed as Prime Minister by the President who must prove his majority
later
4. A person who is not a member of Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha can be appointed as Prime
Minister
a. Only 1 and 2 b Only 1, 3 and 4
c. Only 1, 2 and 4 d Only 1
16. Which Amendment made it necessary for the President to act according to the advice rendered to him
by the Council of Ministers?
a. 42nd Amendment of 1976 b 76th Amendment of 1986
c. 34th Amendment 1966 d 65th Amendment of 1970
17. Which of the following article of Indian Constitution dealt with the appointment of attorney general of
India?
18. Which of the following are not sessions of the Lok Sabha?
a. Budget Session b Monsoon Session
c. Summer Session d Winter Session
19. Which article of the Constitution says that Counsel of States (Rajya Sabha) shall not be dissolute?
20. Which bill can only be introduced in Lok Sabha?
a. Tax Bill b Budget
c. Money Bill d All of these
21. According to Article 352 of the Constitution, the National Emergency can be declared in which among
the following circumstances?
a. The failure of the Constitutional machinery
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b. Invasion
c. Internal disturbance
d. War, external aggression or armed rebellion
22. How many times have the financial emergency imposed in India?
a. 1 b 2 c 3 d Never
23. Which among the following statements concerning the Chief Minister is / are NOT true?
1. His role is analogous to that of the Prime Minister
2. He can recommend the dissolution of the state legislative assembly to the governor
3. He allocates and reshuffles the portfolios among the state ministers
4. His salary and allowances are determined by the state legislature
a. Only 1 b Only 2 c Only 3 d All are true
24. Which article states that the council of ministers is collectively responsible to the legislative assembly
of the state?
25. To whom the grant in aid for Panchayati Raj Institutions received from Finance Commission has to be
released?
a. Zila Parishad b Panchayati Samiti
c. Gram Panchayat d Collector
26. Who can remove the Judge of the Supreme Court?
a. Chief Justice of the Supreme Court b Only the President
c. Only the Parliament d Both Parliament and President
27. Who among the following has the right to establish the bench of the Supreme Court elsewhere in the
country?
a. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court b The President of India
c. The Parliament d The Prime Minister
28. Which is the highest judicial authority in India whose decisions are binding on all courts?
a. Supreme Court b Parliament
c. Law Minister d Lok Sabha
29. How can the High Court Judge be removed?
a. A resolution passed by the general majority of the Parliament
b. By the Supreme Court on the advice of the President
c. A resolution passed by the special majority of the respective state
d. A resolution passed by the Parliament With a special majority
30. Who does not participate in the appointment of the High Court Judge?
a. Governor of the State
b. Chief Minister of the state
c. Chief Justice of the High Court of the respective state
d. President of India
31. Which is not one of the main duties of the Election Commission of India?
a. Control and Conduct Elections b Conduct Local Elections
c. Direct Elections d Supervise Election
32. What is the name of the process under which the government starts to sell its securities to the private
sector?
a. Disinvestment b Monetary expansion
c. Open market operations d All of these
33. Which of the following is/are true regarding various funds in India?
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1. Article 266 deals with Contingency fund of India.
2. Public account of India and Contingency fund of India do not need parliamentary approval for
using their money.
a. Only 1 b Only 2 c Both 1 and 2 d Neither 1 nor 2
34. Which of the following are true regarding ordinary and money bills?
1. Money bills cannot be sent back for reconsideration by the President.
2. Money bills have no provision for joint sittings.
3. Rajya Sabha can detain an ordinary bill for a maximum period of 3 months.
4. Defeat of ordinary bill when introduced by a minister may lead to the resignation of the
government.
a. 1, 2 b 2, 3 c 1, 2, 4 d All of these
35. Which of the following is true regarding lapse of bills on dissolution of Lok Sabha?
a. Pending assurances that are to be examined by the Committee on Government Assurances do
not lapse
b. A bill passed by the Lok Sabha but pending in the Rajya Sabha does not lapse
c. A bill pending in the Rajya Sabha but not passed by the Lok Sabha lapse
d. All pending assurances lapse on dissolution of Lok Sabha in the Lok Sabha does not lapse
36. When did GST come into action in India?
a. 1st January 2015 b 1st April 2014
c. 1st July 2017 d 30th September 2017
37. CGST and SGST are levied as a part of which purchase?
a. Inter Continent b Intra State
c. Inter-State d None of these
38. Capital Budgeting decisions are evaluated using the _________ and _______ is used for this purpose.
a. Weighted average, cost of capital
b. Weighted average, component cost
c. Unweighted average, cost of capital
39. Which of the following principles is not considered within capital budgeting for a company?
a. Post-tax principle b Accrual principle
c. Cash flows principle d None of these
40. Political parties are allotted symbols by
a. The government of India b The constitution of India
c. The party leaders d The Election Commission
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Answers – Political Science
Mini Exercise – I
1. c The Constitution of India came into effect on 26th January 1950.

2. b The nationalist who prepared the Draft Constitution of India was Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
3. c The tenth schedule of the Indian Constitution contains Provisions regarding Anti-Defection
Law." It was put by the 52nd Amendment of the Constitution in 1985.
4. c The Constituent Assembly was formed on 9th December to frame the Constitution of India. Dr.
Rajendra Prasad was elected as the Chairman of the Constituent Assembly on 11th December 1946.
5. b It took 2 years, 11 months 18 days to create the Indian Constitution. The process was initiated
on 9 December 1946 and came to an end on 26th November 1949. Some provisions of the Indian
th
Constitution came into force on 26th November 1949, while a major part came into force on 26 th
January 1950. 11 sessions covering 165 days were held in this duration.
1. b Habeas Corpus is associated with the Fundamental Rights of the Indian Constitution.
Fundamental Rights are mentioned in Part III of the Indian Constitution from Articles 12 to 35. This
concept is taken from the USA.
2. d Preamble is described as the ‘Soul of the Constitution’.
3. b The Preamble to the Indian Constitution is based on ‘Objectives Resolution’ drafted & moved
by Pandit Nehru.
4. b In Part - II of the constitution we find the provisions relating to citizenship.
5. d The Fundamental Duties of Citizen are included in the 42 nd Amendment act of the Indian
Constitution.
1. d Under Article 61 of the Constitution of India the President of India can be impeached.
2. c The Indian President may address either house of Parliament under Article 86.
3. b The necessary qualifications for being the Vice-President of India are he should be a citizen of
India, should have completed 35 years of age, should be qualified for election as a member of the
Rajya Sabha (since his primary function is to be an ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha) and should
not hold any office of profit under the Union or state government or under any local authority of any
public authority. However, a sitting President of Vice-President, governor, or a minister for the Union
or state, are not deemed to hold an office of profit and are thus qualified contesting the Vice-
Presidential election
4. c Article 75 (1A) states that the total number of Ministers, including the Prime Minister, in the
Council of Ministers shall not exceed 15% of the total number of members of the House of the People.
5. d Prime Minister's term is not fixed in the Constitution, unlike that of the President which is 5
years. The Prime Minister remains in office as long as he has the majority in Lok Sabha, and until he
enjoys this majority he cannot be removed by the President either. The Prime Minister's term ends
when he loses the confidence of the Lok Sabha.
6. a President appoints the Attorney General.
Mini Exercise – IV
1. b No Confidence motion is to be introduced in the Lok Sabha or the lower house of Parliament.
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2. c The speaker of the Lok Sabha has the power to decide whether the bill introduced is money bill
or not.
3. b The three branches of the union government are charged with different responsibilities, but the
constitution also provides a fair degree of interdependence. The executive branch consists of the
president, vice president, and a Council of Ministers, led by the prime minister.
4. a According to Article 352 National Emergency may be declared by the President of India.
5. d The speaker of the Lok Sabha presides over the joint sitting of the two Houses of parliament.
Article 108 of the Indian Constitution of India provides for a joint sitting of both houses.
6. a As per Article 80 of the Indian Constitution, the maximum permissible strength of the Rajya
Sabha is 250. Out the total 250, 238 are representatives from the States and union territories and 12 are
nominated by the President.
Mini Exercise – V
1. d The Chief Justice of concerned State High Court who administers the oath of office to the
Governor. In his absence, it is the senior-most judge of the High Court who administers the oath.
2. b There is a very high co-relation in the way Prime Minister’s role is defined for the country and
in the way in which a Chief Minister’s role is defined for his state. The Governor of the state can be
said to be analogous to the President of the country.
3. c The executive power of the State shall be vested in the Governor and shall be exercised by him
either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with the Constitution of India
(Article 154).
4. b The Governor
5. d Panchayati Raj Institution was constitutionalised through the 73rd Constitutional Amendment
Act, 1992 to build democracy at the grassroots level and was entrusted with the task of rural
development in the country.
Mini Exercise – VI
1. b As per the statement in the Constitution, the volunteer of the Judge must be a respected jurist in
the eyes of the President and not the Parliament.
2. c There shall be a Supreme Court of India constituting of a Chief Justice of India and, until
Parliament by law prescribes a larger number, of not more than seven other Judges.
3. b In the Second Judges case (1993), it was declared by the Supreme Court that only the senior-
most judge of the Supreme Court shall be appointed as a Chief Justice of India. This practice has been
violated twice: in 1973 A.N. Ray was appointed as a CJI and in 1977 M.U. Beg was appointed as a
CJI, despite the fact that they were not the senior-most judges of the Supreme Court at that time.
4. c High Court Judge can be impeached due to proven misconduct and incompetence.
5. a Parliament of India can extend the jurisdiction of a High Court
Mini Exercise – VII

1. d Article 324 of the Indian Constitution Provides for the Election Commission.
2. d Chief Election Commissioner of India is appointed for a period of 6 years.
3. a India's first Budget was introduced on 7th April 1860 by Scottish economist and politician
James Wilson to the British Crown.
4. b The first hour of every parliamentary sitting is slotted for question hour.
5. d The GST charge structure includes Central Goods and Services Tax (CGST), State Goods and
Services Tax (SGST), Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST) and Union Territory Goods and
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Services Tax (UTGST). Four section levels are going from 5% to 28% wherein the most minimal is
for fundamental things and the most noteworthy for extravagance products.
6. d The maximum CGST Rate in India is 20%.
7. a Under GST, IGST is a duty collected on all Inter-State supplies of products and additional
benefits and will be administered by the IGST Act. IGST will be material on any inventory of products
or potentially benefits in the two instances of import into India and commodity from India.
8. a Democracy is considered the best form of government.
9. b The UPSC consists of the Chairman and the members appointed by the President of India.
10. a In Part 14 of the Indian Constitution, Article 315 to 323 has mentioned the powers of the State
Public Service Commission, appointment of members and dismissal etc.
Practice Test
1. a Part XVII of the Indian Constitution incorporates Articles 343 to Article 351 has provisions to
deal with the official language of India.
2. d The Constitution of India has provided six Fundamental Rights. These are: Right to equity,
Right to Liberty, Right against exploitation, Right to freedom of religion, Cultural and educational
rights and Right to Constitutional remedy.
3. c The first session of the Constituent Assembly was held on 9th December 1946. Under the
Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946, elections were held for the constituent assembly, and the members were
elected by the provincial assembly's process by a procedure of a single transferable vote of
proportional representation.
4. c The meaning of the term 'Liberty’ is the absence of restrictions on the activities of individuals.
At the same time, it also means providing an opportunity for the growth of individuals.
5. b VIII schedule of the Indian Constitution is about scheduled languages. The scheduled
languages according to Indian Constitution: Hindi, Assamese, Bodo, Bengali, Gujarati, Urdu, Nepali,
Punjabi, etc. There are 22 official languages in India, and they are covered under the 8 th schedule of
the Indian Constitution.
6. c Article 340 of the Constitution empowers the President to appoint a Commission to investigate
the condition of backward classes in general and suggest ameliorative measures.
7. b The total strength of the Constituent Assembly was 389.
8. d The term ‘We’ in Preamble means the people of India.
9. c A person born in India on or after 26th January 1950 but before July 1, 1987 is the citizen of
India by birth irrespective of the nationality of his parents.
10. b Fundamental Duties under Article 51-A is confined to Citizens of India.
11. a By an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both Houses of the Parliament and
State Assemblies.
12. c The power to grant pardons, reprieve or remissions of punishment under Article 72 is exercised
by the President of India on the advice of Council of Ministers.
13. a A person wanting to contest the elections to the post of Vice-President must be Qualified for
election as a member of Rajya Sabha.
14. b The Constitution does not provide rules for the grounds on which the Vice-President can be
removed.
15. b Article 75 of the Constitution specifies that the appointment of the Prime Minister will always
be done by the President. And according to Delhi High Court's decision in 1980, a person may be
appointed as Prime Minister by the President who must prove his majority later within a reasonable
period. Also, in 1997 the Supreme Court declared that a person who is not a member of Lok Sabha or
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Rajya Sabha can be appointed as Prime Minister who must get appointed (either elected or nominated)
to either of the Houses within 6 months.
16. a It was the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1976 that made it necessary for the President
to act according to the advice rendered to him by the council of ministers. However, by the 44 th
Constitutional Amendment Act of 1978 an extra provision was added which allowed the President to
tender an advice for reconsideration to the Council of Ministers, but the President is then obligated to
act in accordance with the advice tendered after such reconsideration.
17. c Article 76 of Indian Constitution dealt with the appointment of attorney general of India.
18. c Summer Session
19. a Article 83 of the Constitution says that Counsel of States (Rajya Sabha) shall not be dissolute.
20. c Money bill can only be introduced in Lok Sabha.
21. d According to Article 352 of the Constitution, the National Emergency can be declared due to
war, external aggression or armed rebellion.
22. d Financial Emergency (Article 360) in India is not implemented yet.
23. d All of true
24. a The same article also emphasizes the importance of personal responsibility of the minister. The
governor can remove the minister on the advice of the chief minister as well.
25. c The Gram Panchayat
26. d The proposal for the removal of the judge should be passed with a special majority in both the
Houses of Parliament, while the decision to remove from the post is taken by the President.
27. a The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court has the right to establish the bench of the Supreme
Court elsewhere in the country with prior approval of the President.
28. a The decisions of the Supreme Court are binding on all courts, because it is at the apex of our
judicial system.
29. d A resolution passed by the Parliament with a special majority.
30. b Chief Minister of the state does not participate in the appointment of the High Court Judge.
31. b Conduct Local Elections.
32. a Disinvestment is the name of the process under which the government starts to sell its
securities to the private sector.
33. b The Constitution of India provides for the 3 kinds of funds for the Central Government:
Consolidated Fund of India (Article 266), Public Account of India (Article 266) and Contingency
Fund of India (Article 267).
34. c
35. a Pending assurances that are to be examined by the Committee on Government Assurances do
not lapse.
36. c The duty happened from 1st July 2017 through the execution of the One Hundred and First
Amendment of the Constitution of India by the Indian government.
37. b At the point when the stock of labour and products occurs inside a state called intra-state
exchanges, then, at that point, both the CGST and SGST will be gathered.
38. a Weighted average, cost of capital
39. b Accrual principles is not considered within capital budgeting for a company.
40. d Political parties are allotted symbols by the Election Commission.
93
Geography
Earth Solar System

Solar System consists of star, the Sun, and its orbiting planets (including Earth), along with numerous moons,
asteroids, comet material, rocks, and dust.
Sun is just one star among the hundreds of billions of stars in Milky Way Galaxy.
Milky Way Facts:
Galaxy Age: Size: Number of Rotation

Type: 13.6 billion 100,000 Stars: Time:
Barred years old light-years About 200 250 million
Special across billions years
Some of the superlative galaxies are:
Oldest Largest Nearest Galaxy: Our Smallest

Galaxy: Galaxy: Canis Major Galaxy: Galaxy:
GN-Z11 IC 1101 Dwarf Milky Way Segue 1
Some Facts about Solar System:

Biggest Planet Smallest Planet Nearest Planet to Sun Farthest Planet from Sun
Jupiter Mercury Mercury Neptune
Nearest Planet to Earth Brightest Planet Brightest star after Sun Planet with maximum
Venus Venus Sirius satellites: Saturn
Coldest Planet Hottest Planet Heaviest Planet Red Planet
Neptune Venus Jupiter Mars
Biggest Satellite Smallest Satellite Blue Planet Morning / Evening Star
Ganymede Deimos Venus Venus
Earth’s Twin Green Planet Planet with a big red Greatest Diurnal
Venus Neptune spot: Jupiter Temperature: Mercury
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Earth Latitude & Longitude
Earth Latitude:
 Latitude measures the distance north or south of the equator.
 The Equator is the line of 0° latitude. Each parallel measures one degree north or south of the Equator,
with 90° north of the Equator and 90° south of the Equator. The latitude of the North Pole is 90°N, and
the latitude of the South Pole is 90°S.
Earth Longitude:
 Longitude is the measurement east or west of the prime meridian.
 Longitude is measured by imaginary lines that run around Earth vertically (up and down) and meet at
the North and South Poles.
 These lines are known as meridians. Each meridian measures one arc degree of longitude. The distance
around Earth measures 360°.
 The meridian that runs through Greenwich, England, is internationally accepted as the line of 0°
longitude, or prime meridian. The antimeridian is halfway around the world, at 180°. It is the basis for
the International Date Line.
 India, whose longitudinal extent is approx. 30°, has adopted only one time zone, selecting the 82.5°E
for the standard time which is 5 hours & 30 minutes ahead of GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).
International Date Line
 The International Date Line, established in 1884, passes through the mid-Pacific Ocean and roughly
follows a 180° longitude north-south line on the Earth.
 It is located halfway around the world from the prime meridian — the 0° longitude line in Greenwich,
England.
 The International Date Line functions as a “line of demarcation” separating two consecutive calendar
dates.
 It is a Zig-Zag line.
Important Parallels of Latitude
The Tropic of The Arctic The Antarctic

Capricorn Circle Circle
The Tropic of The Arctic Circle The Antarctic Circle
It lies at
Cancer 23°26’22” is one of the two is the most southerly
It is also referred (23.4394°) south polar circles and of the five major
as the Northern of the equator is a circle of circles of latitude
Tropic, is the and marks the latitude that mark maps of
most northerly most southerly encompassing the Earth. The parallel
circle of latitude latitude at which northernmost pole of latitude that is
on Earth at the sun can of the Earth and approximately 66¹/₂°
which the Sun appear directly is located at south of the equator
can be directly overhead at noon. approximately and that
overhead. 66°33′45.6″ north circumscribes the
of the Equator. southern frigid
zone.**
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** There are two solstices each year, called the Summer Solstice & the
Winter Solstice.
Summer Solstice: The earth goes around the sun in an elliptical orbit.
The nights are longer than the days of the winter season. This position of the
earth is called the summer solstice.
Winter Solstice: On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn gets direct rays
of the sun as the South Pole tilts towards it. It is summer in Southern hemisphere and
winter in the Northern hemisphere. This is called winter solstice.
Equinox: On 21st March and 23rd September, direct rays of the sun fall directly on the
equator. During this period, the whole earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is called an equinox.
 Local Time: Local time of any place is 12 noon when the sun is exactly overhead. It will vary from the
Greenwich Time at the rate of four minutes for each degree of longitude.
 Greenwich Mean Time: It is the time measured on the Earth's zero degree line of longitude, or meridian.
This runs from the North Pole to the South Pole, passing through the Old Royal Observatory in the London
suburb of Greenwich.
 Indian Standard Time: It is fixed on the mean of 82 1/2°E Meridian, a place near Allahabad. It is 5
1/2hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time.
Mini Exercise - I
1. What is the name of the oldest Galaxy in the world?

a. GN-Z11 b IC-1101 c G-SAT-9 d None of these
2. How many planets are there in the Solar System?
a. 8 b 9 c 7 d 6
3. Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time by
1
a. 4 hours b 7 hours c 52 hours d 5 hours
4. What name is given to 180° longitude due to the spherical shape of the Earth?
a. Greenwich Line b International date ling
c. Capricorn Line d Equator
5. The total number of longitudes are
a. 360 b 180 c 90 d 120
6. The Longitudes divides earth into how many time zones?
a. 3 time zones b 15 time zones
c. 24 time zones d 360 time zones
7. Which is the shortest day in Northern Hemisphere?
a. 22nd June b 21st March c 23rd September d 22nd December
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The Earth
 The Earth is the third planet from the sun in solar system and is around 4.5 billion years old.
 The Earth is the only planet which has existence in mankind.
 The Earth is also called Blue Planet. It is the densest of all planets.
 Earth Circumference: 40,232 Kms, Earth mass: 5.972 × 10 24 Kg, Earth Area: 510 million Km2 and
Average distance from sun: 149 Million Km.
 Earth Perihelion: Nearest position of earth to sun. The earth reaches its perihelion on January 3 every
year at a distance of about 147 million-Kms.
 Aphelion: Farthest position of earth from sun. The earth reaches its aphelion on July 4, when the earth
is at a distance of 152 million Kms.
 The shape of the earth is oblate spheroid or oblate ellipsoid (i.e. almost spherical, flattened a little at
the poles with a slight bulge at the centre)
Types of Earth Movements
Revolution or Annual Movement

Rotation or Daily movement
 When earth spins or revolves around
 Earth spins or rotates around its axis
the sun, the movement is Revolution
from West to East in 23 hrs. 56 min
of Earth.
& 40.91 sec.
 It takes 365 days, 5 hrs. 48 min. and
 Rotational velocity at equator is 1667 45.51 seconds which results in one
Km/hr. & it decreases towards the
extra day every fourth year (leap
poles, where it is zero. year).
Earth’s rotation results in

i) Change of day and night. Revolution of the earth results in
ii) Due to earth’s rotation cyclones i) The revolution of the earth causes
move in clockwise direction in the seasons.
southern hemisphere and in anti- ii) It gives the impression that the sun is
clockwise direction in the northern moving north and south of the
hemisphere. equator.
iii) Change in the direction of wind & iii) The equator faces the Sun directly on
ocean currents; Rise & fall of tides March 21 and September 23.
every day. iv) Shifting of wind belts
Days & nights are almost equal at the v) Determination of latitudes.
equator.
Interior Structure of the Earth
The uppermost layer of the earth’s crust which is capable of supporting life is called Lithosphere.
The earth's interior has three different layers; they are Crust, Mantle and Core.
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1. Earth’s Crust 2. Earth’s Mantle 3. Earth’s Core
The crust is the thinnest layer of the The mantle is Earth's second layer and The innermost part of Earth is the core
Earth. It has an average thickness of is the mostly-solid bulk of Earth's and is about 1500 miles (2414 km)
about 18 miles (30km) below land, and interior. The mantle lies between thick. Both the inner and outer cores
around 6 miles (10km) below the Earth's dense, super-heated core and consist primarily of iron and nickel.
oceans. The crust is the layer that its thin outer layer, the crust. The They're extremely hot, with
makes up the Earth's surface and it lies mantle is about 2,900 km (1,802 miles) temperatures ranging from 7200–
on top of a harder layer called the thick, and makes up a whopping 84% 9000℉ (4000–5000℃).
mantle. of Earth's total volume. It is primarily a solid ball with a radius
Earth's crust is divided into two types: The mantle has two main parts, the of about 1,220 km, which is about 20%
oceanic crust and continental crust. upper mantle and the lower mantle. of Earth's radius or 70% of the Moon's
The transition zone between these two The upper mantle is attached to the radius.
types of crust is sometimes called the layer above it called the crust.
Conrad discontinuity.
Earth Eclipses
Lunar Eclipse
 A total lunar eclipse takes place when the Earth comes Solar Eclipse
between the Sun and the Moon and its shadow covers  A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between
the Moon. the Sun & Earth, & the Moon fully or partially obscures
 It happen only on a full moon day. At the same time, the the Sun.
Moon is at (or very near) a lunar node, so the Sun, the  During an annular solar eclipse, the Moon will not fully
cover the Sun but will leave an edge visible. During a
Moon, and the Earth are aligned in a straight (or nearly
partial solar eclipse, the Sun partly covered by the
straight) line. Moon as it passes in front of it
 This light is red because the atmosphere scatters the  It is extremely dangerous to look directly at the sun
other colours present in sunlight in greater amounts during a Solar Eclipse.
than it does red.
Lunar Eclipse Solar Eclipse
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Mini Exercise - II
1. Leap year consists of ____ days.

a. 366 b 370 c 364 d 365
2. Movement of the Earth on its axis is called as
a. Rotation b Revolution c Resolution d Cycle
3. When Lunar Eclipse occur?
a. When Sun is between Earth and Moon
b. When Earth is between Sun and Moon
c. When Moon is between Earth and Sun
d. When Earth is between Sun and other celestial bodies
4. Diamond ring occurs in which type of solar eclipse?
a. Total Solar eclipse b Partial Solar eclipse
c. Annular Solar eclipse d None of these
5. The average density of Earth is
a. 2.3 gm / cm3 b 5.5 gm / cm3 c 17.2 gm / cm3 d 6.5 gm / cm3
6. The source of Earth’s magnetic field is
a. Outer Mantle b Liquid outer Core
c. Lower Crust d Outer Crust
7. The core of earth is made of the mixture of
a. Silica and Nickel b Nickel and magnesium
c. Silica and Magnesium d Nickel and Iron
8. What region of the Earth takes up the greatest volume?
a. The Crust b The Outer Core c The inner Core d The Mantle
Earthquakes
1. Earthquakes are usually caused when underground rock suddenly breaks and there is rapid motion
along a fault. This sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground shake.
2. The point at the surface directly above the focus is called the earthquake epicentre.
3. The causes of Earthquakes are Induced Earthquakes (which are caused by human activity, like tunnel
construction, filling reservoirs and implementing geothermal or fracking projects), Volcanic
Earthquakes (associated with active volcanism) and Collapse Earthquakes.
4. Earthquakes can have immediate and long-term impacts on health which include trauma-related deaths
and injuries from building collapse; trauma-related deaths and injuries from the secondary effects of
the earthquake, like drowning from tsunamis or burns from fires.
5. The passage of earthquake waves is recorded by Seismograph. The magnitude of waves is measured
on Richter’s scale. For measurement of the intensity of the earthquake (damage caused), the Modified
Mercalli Intensity Scale is used.
Distribution of Earthquakes
a. Around the Pacific Ocean along a belt of volcanoes
known as the Ring of Fire. Roughly 90% of all earthquakes
occur along the Ring of Fire.
b. From the middle of Asia (Himalayas, Caspian Sea)
through the Mediterranean Sea to West Indies.
c. Mid-Atlantic ridge belt.
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Volcanoes
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash,
and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
Types of Volcanoes
Composite Shield Lava Cinder
Composite Volcanoes
Composite volcanoes are also referred to as Strato Volcanoes. These types of volcanoes are tall and conical in
shape. Steep sided composite cones are formed from layers of ashes and cones. When this volcano erupts, a
superheated mixture of hot steam, ash, rock and dust are erupted out. The lava flowing from composite
volcanoes cools and hardens before spreading far due to highly viscous lava. Since it is thicker, the lava
cannot travel down the slope. Strato Volcanoes can rise over 8000 feet.
Shield Volcanoes
Shield volcanoes are formed from the layers of lava. These volcanoes, when erupted, flow down the slope as it
contains less viscous lava which is fast-flowing fluid. When eruption takes place, loss of property, death, and
other damages occurs.
Lava Volcanoes
Lava volcanoes are also known as Lava Domes; these volcanoes are smaller in size and consist of thick lava.
Lava in this volcano does not flow easily since it is sticky and thick. When the lava cannot flow easily due to
high viscosity, the lava piles up near the volcanic vent and forms lava volcanoes.
Cinder Cones
Cinder cones are also known as ash cones. Cinder cones are the type of volcano that is formed by pyroclastic
fragments like volcanic ashes, solidified lava pieces, volcanic clinkers, pumice and hot gases. These volcanoes
are formed around the volcanic vent and are known to be the simplest form of a volcano. Cinder cones are
formed when the gas-charged lava is blown with a great force into the air; it breaks into small fragments and
solidifies. The main reason for the formation of cinder cone volcanoes are the massive eruptions of mafic rock
fragments and lava. Most of the cinder cones erupt only once and may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes
or occur on their own.
Classification on the basis of Periodicity of Eruptions
Active volcanoes: Volcanoes, from whose vents there is constant emission of volcanic materials such as, lava,
ashes, lapilli, pumice and gases etc. are called Active volcanoes. Some of the active volcanoes are continually
in eruption, while in other cases the eruptions are intermittent.
Dormant volcanoes: There are certain volcanoes which do not show any sign of volcanic activity for a long
time. They are in a state of slumber. They appear to be extinct. But all of a sudden there is explosive eruption
with the result that there is unimaginable loss of life and property. Such volcanoes are said to be of the
dormant type. The Vesuvius volcano is a typical example of a dormant volcano.
Extinct volcanoes: This is an extreme case when a volcano permanently stops its volcanic activity. Even
though the cone and its crater may still be present, it no longer emits steam.
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Earth Mountains
There are three types of mountains: Fold Mountains, Block Mountains and Volcanic Mountains.
1. Fold Mountains: Fold Mountains are formed due to the collision of two textonic plates. The
Himalayan Mountains and the Alps are examples of young fold mountains.
2. Block Mountains: They are created when large areas are broken and displaced vertically. Rhine
valley and the Vosges Mountains are examples of Block Mountains.
3. Volcanic Mountains: They are formed due to volcanic activity. Mt Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt
Fujiyama in Japan are examples of such mountains.
Plateau: A plateau is a flat, elevated landform that rises sharply above the surrounding area on at least one
side. Plateaus occur on every continent and take up a third of the Earths land. They are one of the four major
landforms, along with mountains, plains, and hills.
Tectonic
Types of Plateau
Volcanic
Mini Exercise - III
1. The point where movement occurred 2. Which of the following measures an

which triggered the earthquake is the earthquake's intensity based on the observed
a. Dip effects on people and structures?
b. Epicentre a. Richter scale
c. Focus b. Modified Mercalli scale
d. Strike c. the Centigrade scale
d. the moment magnitude scale
 Article 80
 Article 86
 Article 90
3. This type of volcano has a gentle eruption 4. Volcanoes that erupt frequently are known as
with oozing lava flows? a. Active Volcanoes
a. Shield b. Dormant Volcanoes
b. Composite c. Extinct Volcanoes
c. Cinder Cone d. Instinct Volcanoes
d. All of these
5. The Himalayas are considered as type of 6. Types of plateau are

mountains. a. Tectonic
a. Relief b. Volcanic
b. Submarine c. Both a and b
c. Voleanic d. None of these
d. Tectonic and Fold
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Rocks & Minerals
A Rock is an inorganic, solid and natural substance without any specific atomic structure or chemical
composition. It is simple to remember that rocks are made up of two or more minerals. Examples of rocks
involve limestone, granite, marble, slate and sandstone.
Types of Rocks: There are three types of rocks: Igneous Rocks, Sedimentary Rocks and Metamorphic Rocks.
Igneous Rock
It is one of the three main rock types. Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma
or lava. Igneous rock may form with or without crystallisation, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic)
rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks.
Igneous rocks are of two types:
a. Intrusive igneous rock: These rocks crystallise below the earth’s surface resulting in large crystals
as the cooling takes place slowly. Diorite, granite, and pegmatite are examples of intrusive igneous
rocks.
b. Extrusive igneous rock: These rocks erupt onto the surface resulting in small crystals as the
cooling takes place quickly. The cooling rate for a few rocks is so quick that they form an
amorphous glass. Basalt, tuff, and pumice are examples of extrusive igneous rock.
Sedimentary Rocks
These rocks are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material within bodies of water
and at the surface of the earth. The process that causes various organic materials and minerals to settle in a
place is termed sedimentation.
Three types of sedimentary rock are:
a. Clastic sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed from the mechanical weathering debris.
Sandstone, and siltstone are examples of Clastic sedimentary rocks.
b. Chemical sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed from the dissolved materials that precipitate
from the solution. Iron ore and limestones are examples of chemical sedimentary rocks.
c. Organic sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed from the accumulation of plant and animal
debris. Coal, and some dolomites are examples of organic sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic Rocks
The metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth’s crust and are classified by texture and by chemical
and mineral assemblage. They may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth’s surface, subjected to
high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it. The original rock is subjected to heat with
temperatures greater than 150 to 200°C and pressure around 1500 bars, causing profound physical and/or
chemical change.
The two types of metamorphic rock are:
a. Foliated metamorphic rocks: These rocks are produced by exposure to heat and pressure which
makes them appear layered. Phyllite and gneiss are examples of foliated metamorphic rocks.
b. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks: These rocks don’t have layers. Marble and quartzite are
examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks.
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Atmosphere
An atmosphere is the layers of gases surrounding a planet or other celestial body. Earth's atmosphere is
composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and one percent other gases.
Structure of the atmosphere
The atmosphere can be divided into five layers according to the diversity of temperature and density. They
are:
Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere
Troposphere
 It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
 The height of this layer is about 18 Km on the equator and 8 Km on the poles.
 The thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat us transported to great heights
by strong convectional currents.
 Troposphere contains dust particles and water vapour.
 This is the most important layer of the atmosphere because all kinds of weather changes take place
only in this layer.
 The air never remains static in this layer. Therefore this layer is called ‘changing sphere’ or
troposphere.
 The environmental temperature decreases with increasing height of the atmosphere. It decreases at the
rate of 1°C for every 165 m of height. This is called Normal Lapse Rate.
 The zone separating troposphere from the stratosphere is known as Tropopause.
 The air temperature at the Tropopause is about – 80°C over the equator and about – 45°C over the
poles. The temperature here is nearly constant, and hence, it is called Tropopause.
Stratosphere
 Stratosphere is found just above the troposphere.
 It extends up to a height of 50 km.
 The temperature remains almost the same in the lower part of this layer up to the height of 20 Km.
After this, the temperature increases slowly with the increase in the height. The temperature increases
due to the presence of ozone gas in the upper part of this layer.
 Weather related incidents do not take place in this layer. The air blows horizontally here. Therefore
this layer is considered ideal for flying of aircraft.
 The upper limit of the stratosphere is known as Stratopause.
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 One important feature of stratosphere is that it contains a layer of ozone gas.
 The relative thickness of the ozone layer is measured in Dobson Units.
 It is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 20 to 30 Km above the
earth’s surface.
 It contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere.
 It is the region of the stratosphere that absorbs most of the sun’s ultra-violet radiations.
Mesosphere
 It is the third layer of the atmosphere spreading over the stratosphere.
 It extends up to a height of 80 Km.
 In this layer, the temperature starts decreasing with increasing altitude and reaches up to – 100°C at the
height of 80 Km.
 Meteors or falling stars occur in this layer.
 The upper limit of the mesosphere is known as Mesopause.
Thermosphere
 This layer is located between 80 and 400 Km above the Mesopause.

 It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as the ionosphere.
 Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer and due to this,
radio broadcasting has become possible.
 The temperature here starts increasing with heights.
Exosphere
 The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere.
 Gases are very sparse in this sphere due to the lack of gravitational force. Therefore, the density of air
is very less here.
Pressure and Wind Belts
The distribution of atmospheric pressure across the latitudes is termed global horizontal distribution of
pressure. Its main feature is its zonal character known as pressure belts.
Aneroid Barometer: It is the most common type barometer used in homes.
a. Equatorial Low Pressure Belt: This low-pressure belt extends from 0 to 5° North and South of
Equator. Due to the vertical rays of the sun here, there is intense heating. The air, therefore, expands
and rises as convection current causing low pressure to develop here. This low-pressure belt is also
called as doldrums because it is a zone of total calm without any breeze.
b. Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt: At about 30°North and South of Equator lies the area where the
ascending equatorial air currents descend. This area is thus an area of high pressure. It is also called as
the Horse latitude. Winds always blow from high pressure to low pressure. So the winds from
subtropical region blow towards the Equator as Trade winds and another wind blow towards Sub-Polar
Low-Pressure as Westerlies.
c. Circum-Polar Low-Pressure Belts: These belts located between 60° and 70° in each hemisphere are
known as Circum-Polar Low-Pressure Belts. In the Subtropical region, the descending air gets divided
into two parts. One part blows towards the Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt. The other part blows
towards the Circum- Polar Low-Pressure Belt. This zone is marked by the ascent of warm Subtropical
air over cold polar air blowing from poles. Due to the earth’s rotation, the winds surrounding the Polar
region blow towards the Equator. Centrifugal forces operating in this region create the low-pressure
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belt appropriately called the Circumpolar Low-Pressure Belt. This region is marked by violent storms
in winter.
d. Polar High Pressure Belt: At the North and South Poles, between 70° to 90° North and South, the
temperatures are always extremely low. The cold descending air gives rise to high pressures over the
Poles. These areas of Polar high pressure are known as the Polar Highs. These regions are
characterized by permanent Ice Caps.
Coriolis force
The invisible force that appears to deflect the wind is the Coriolis force. The Coriolis force applies to
movement on rotating objects. It is determined by the mass of the object and the object's rate of rotation. The
Coriolis force is perpendicular to the object's axis. The Earth spins on its axis from West to East.
Winds
It is an air movement having both direction and speed. It is made up of gusts and eddies that can only be felt
and not seen, unlike rain and snow. Wind makes the leaves fall, sand move, trees wave, hair fly, etc. Since it
cannot be seen, a conventional instrument is used to measure wind direction called weathercock or weather
vane.
Types of Wind
S.No. Type
1 Permanent Winds
2 Seasonal Winds
3 Local Winds
Permanent Winds
The winds that blow constantly throughout the year are called Permanent Winds. They also blow constantly in
a particular direction. There are types of permanent winds:
a. Trade Winds – These are permanent winds flowing from east-to-west. It flows in the Earth’s equatorial
region (between 30°N and 30°S latitudes).
b. Easterlies – It is a prevailing wind blowing from the east. The trade winds in tropical regions and the
prevailing winds in the Polar Regions are easterlies.
c. Westerlies – These are prevailing winds that flow from the west towards the east. It flows in the Earth’s
middle latitudes between 30 and 60° latitude. Also called as anti-trades, these winds originate from the
high-pressure areas in the horse latitudes and trend towards the poles and steer extra tropical cyclones in
this general manner.
Seasonal Winds
The winds that change their direction with onsets of different seasons. These are hence called as Seasonal
Winds. A monsoon is a type of seasonal wind in low-latitude climates that seasonally changes direction
between winter and summer. Monsoon is prevalent in India.
Local Winds
These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area. For example, land and sea
breeze. The types of local wind are:
a. Land Breeze – It is a wind that flows from the land towards the sea. It flows often at night.
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b. Sea Breeze – It is a wind that blows towards land from the direction of a large water body. Sea breeze
develops due to differences in air pressure created by the differing heat capacities of water and dry
land.
c. Anabatic Winds – These Winds are upslope winds driven by warmer surface temperatures on a
mountain slope than the surrounding air column.
d. Katabatic Winds – Katabatic winds are downslope winds created when the mountain surface is colder
than the surrounding air and creates a downslope wind.
The local wind is known with different names in different regions across the world. The table below mentions
the list of names of local winds:
Name Region Name Region
Hot Winds Cold Winds
Sirocco Sahara Desert Mistral Spain & France
Leveche Spain Bora Adriatic Coast
Khamsin Egypt Pampero Argentina
Santa Ana USA Buran Siberia
Zonda Argentina
Brick fielder Australia
Loo India
Mini Exercise - IV
1. The mineral most abundantly present in the igneous rock is

a. Micas b Titanium c Iron d Felspars
2. A Clastic rock is
a. a rock formed from the cementation of transported grains
b. a rock formed from evaporation of sea water
c. transformed by heat into limestone
d. transformed by pressure into limestone
3. What is the most prominent textural feature of regional metamorphic rocks?
a. Foliation b Bedding c Cataclastic d Ripples
4. Troposphere is bounded by the boundary which is known as
a. Thermo pause b Stratopause c Tropo-pause d Mesopause
5. Which of the following winds are predominantly seasonal winds?
a. Depression (cyclonic) winds b Prevailing winds
c. Monsoon winds d Local winds
6. The Coriolis effect is an "apparent" force caused by
a. Friction b Rotation of the earth.
c. Pressure gradient force d Gravity
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Cyclones
The term cyclone is defined as a system of winds that are rotating inwards to an area of low barometric
pressure, such that in the Northern Hemisphere it is anticlockwise and in the Southern Hemisphere it is
clockwise circulation.
Types of Cyclones
1. Tropical cyclones: also known as typhoons or 2. Polar cyclone: Polar cyclones are low-
hurricanes, are among the most destructive pressure zones embedded within the polar air
weather phenomena. They are intense circular masses, and exist year-round. The stratospheric
storms that originate over warm tropical polar vortex develops at latitudes above the
oceans, and have maximum sustained wind subtropical jet stream. Horizontally, most polar
speeds exceeding 119 kilometres per hour and vortices have a radius of less than 1,000
heavy rains. kilometres (620 miles).
Types of
Cyclones
4. Extra tropical Cyclone

3. The Mesocyclone A mesocyclone is a meso- Extra tropical cyclone, also called wave cyclone
gamma mesoscale (or storm scale) region of or mid latitude cyclone, a type of storm system
rotation (vortex), typically around 2 to 6 mi formed in middle or high latitudes, in regions of
(3.2 to 9.7 km) in diameter, most often noticed large horizontal temperature variations called
on radar within thunderstorms. It is considered frontal zones. This type of cyclone generally
to be one of the strong thunderstorms. occurs outside the tropics with a latitude range
between 30° and 60°.
Oceanography
Oceanography is the study of all aspects of ocean. Oceanography covers a wide range
of topics, from marine life and ecosystems to currents and waves, the movement of
sediments, and seafloor Geology.
Physical It involves the study of the physical properties (temperature, density, etc.) and
Oceanography movement (waves, currents, and tides) of seawater and the interaction between the
ocean and the atmosphere.
Chemical It involves the study of the composition of seawater and the biogeochemical
Oceanography cycles that affect it.
Biological It involves the study of the biological organisms in the ocean (including life cycles
Oceanography and food production) such as bacteria, phytoplankton, zooplankton and extending
to the more traditional marine biology focus of fish and marine mammals.
Geological
Geological oceanography focuses on the structure, features, and evolution of
Oceanography
the ocean basins.
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Continental Shelf
 A continental shelf is the edge of a continent that lies under the ocean. Continents are the seven main
divisions of land on Earth.
 A continental shelf extends from the coastline of a continent to a drop-off point called the shelf break.
 The continental rise, continental slope, and continental shelf are the three basic components that
actually make the entire structure of continental margins.
 Continental shelves are usually covered with a layer of sand, silts, and silty muds.
 The continental shelf is shallow & its depth is not more than 200 metres.
Continental Slope
 A continental slope is defined as the slope seaward from the shelf to the upper edge of a continental
rise or the point where there is a general reduction of slope.
 In some areas the continental slope is narrow and very steep, whilst in others it is wide and has a gentle
gradient.
 The continental slopes are temporary depositional sites for sediments.
 The continental slope usually begins 1 to 5 Kms above the deep-ocean floor.
Continental Rise
 A continental rise is a wide, gentle incline from a deep ocean plain (abyssal plain) to a continental
slope.
 A continental rise consists mainly of silts, mud, and sand, deposited by turbidity flows, and can extend
for several hundreds of miles away from continental margins.
 Continental rises form as a result of three sedimentary processes: mass wasting, the deposition from
contour currents, and the vertical settling of Clastic and biogenic particles.
Deep Ocean Basins
 This includes parts of the oceans where deep water prevails.
 Deep ocean basins cover the greatest portion of the Earth's surface. Oceanic (mid-ocean) ridges -
nearly 12,000 miles of mountain belts run through ocean basins and are associated with divergent plate
boundaries (spreading centres).
 Geographic features associated with deep-ocean basins include trenches, abyssal plains, ocean ridges
and rises, and submarine mountainous regions.
 Deep Ocean Trenches: These are long, narrow, steep-sided depression in the ocean bottom in
which occur the maximum oceanic depths, approximately 7,300 to more than 11,000 metres
(24,000 to 36,000 feet). They typically form in locations where one tectonic plate sub ducts under
another.
 Abyssal Plains: The term Abyssal Plain refers to a flat region of the ocean floor, usually at the base
of a continental rise, where slope is less than 1:1000. It represents the deepest and flat part of the
ocean floor lying between 4000 and 6500 m deep in the U.S. Atlantic Margin.
 Sea mounts: Large submarine volcanic mountain rising at least 1,000 m (3,300 feet) above the
surrounding deep-sea floor; smaller submarine volcanoes are called sea knolls, and flat-topped
seamounts are called guyots.
 Submarine Canyons: A submarine canyon is a steep-sided valley cut into the seabed of the
continental slope, sometimes extending well onto the continental shelf, having nearly vertical walls,
and occasionally having canyon wall heights of up to 5 km, from canyon floor to canyon rim, as
with the Great Bahama Canyon They are found to have a length of 16 Km at the maximum.
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Ocean Currents
 Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater driven by gravity,
wind (Coriolis Effect), and water density.
 Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally and vertically. Horizontal movements are referred
to as currents, while vertical changes are called upwellings or downwellings.
 Ocean currents can be caused by wind, density differences in water masses caused by temperature and
salinity variations, gravity, and events such as earthquakes or storms.
 Factors affecting Ocean Current: The planetary winds, temperatures, salinity, the earth’s rotation and
land.
The Circulation of Ocean Currents
 The Atlantic Ocean Circulation: It flows across Atlantic as North Atlantic Drift. It is the south
equatorial current that gets branched into 2 segments near Brazil. A portion of the north low current
enters Mexican Gulf, and south equatorial current enters the Caribbean Sea.
The Coriolis Effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction, whereas South Atlantic
water circulates counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two
high tides occur every 24 lunar hours.
Stretching from the Arctic Circle to Antarctica, the Atlantic Ocean is bordered by the Americas to the
west and Europe and Africa to the east. It's more than 41 million square miles, the second-largest
ocean on Earth after the Pacific Ocean.
It carries warm surface waters from the tropics towards the Northern Hemisphere, where it cools and
sinks. It then returns to the tropics and then to the South Atlantic as a bottom current. From there it is
distributed to all ocean basins via the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.
 The Pacific Ocean Circulation: The large-scale circulation of the Pacific Ocean consists of two great
anticyclonic gyres that contract pole ward at increasing depth, two high-latitude cyclonic gyres, and
two westward flows along 10° to 15° north and south that are found from the surface to abyssal depths,
and an eastward flow that takes place just north.
The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre is formed by four currents rotating clockwise around an area of 20
million square kilometres (7.7 million square miles): the California current, the North Equatorial
current, the Kuroshio Current, and the North Pacific current.
 The Indian Ocean Circulation: The Indian Ocean is a vast theater, stretching from the Strait of
Malacca and western coast of Australia in the East to the Mozambique Channel in the West. It
encompasses the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea in the North, all the way down to the southern
Indian Ocean.
Seasonal winds and surface currents over North Indian Ocean: The circulation in the north Indian
Ocean is unique because it experiences strong seasonal winds called the monsoons. Hence, unlike in
much of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, the currents in the north Indian Ocean change with season.
Oceans
An ocean is a continuous body of salt water that is contained in an enormous basin on Earth’s surface. The
major oceans and their marginal seas cover nearly 71% of Earth’s surface, with an average depth of 3,688
metres (12,100 feet).
 Arctic Ocean: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans. It spans
an area of approximately 14,060,000 km² and is known as the coldest of all the oceans. The International
Hydrographic Organization recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic
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Mediterranean Sea. The Arctic Ocean is centred approximately on the North Pole. The ocean is almost
completely encircled by the landmasses of North America, Eurasia, and Greenland. Lowest point: Fram
Basin (Now known as Nansen Basin).
 Atlantic Ocean: The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of
about 106,460,000 Km². It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water
surface area. It lies between North and South America on the west and Europe and Africa on the east.
Lowest point: Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench.
 Indian Ocean: The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering
70,560,000 Km² or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to
the west and Australia to the east. The southern and south-western part of the Indian Ocean Coast is
wholly situated in South Africa. The eastern part is shared between Swaziland, South Africa and
Mozambique. Lowest point: Java Trench
 Pacific Ocean: The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends
from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south, and is bounded by the continents
of Asia and Australia in the west and the Americas in the east. Lowest point: Challenger Deep in the
Mariana Trench.
 Southern Ocean: The Southern Ocean is also called Antarctic Ocean. It is the fifth-largest drainage basin
in the world by basin area (14,000,000 Km2).
Tides
 Tides are very long waves that move across the oceans. They are caused by the gravitational forces
exerted on the earth by the moon, and to a lesser extent, the sun. When the highest point in the wave, or
the crest, reaches a coast, the coast experiences a high tide.
 Tides originate in the ocean and progress toward the coastlines where they appear as the regular rise and
fall of the sea surface.
Types of Tides
1. Diurnal Tide: It has one episode of high water 2. Semi-diurnal Tide: A semi-diurnal tide has
and one episode of low water each day. This is a two episodes of equal high water and two
phenomenon caused by the tilt of the Earth in episodes of low equal water each day.
relation to the tilt of the moons orbital plane
Types of
Tides
3. Mixed Tide: Mixed semidiurnal tides (or

4. Meteorological Tide: Meteorological tides
mixed tides), have two high tides and two low
represent all atmospherically influenced tides,
tides per day, but the heights of each tide
such as those affected by wind, barometric
differs; the two high tides are of different
pressures, rainfall, ice melting and land drying.
heights, as are the two low tides.
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Soils
Soil is the loose surface material that covers most land. It consists of inorganic particles and organic matter.
Soil provides the structural support to plants used in agriculture and is also their source of water and nutrients.
Soils vary greatly in their chemical and physical properties.
Types of Soil
Alluvial Soil
 Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern plains and river valleys.
 It covers about 40% of the total land area of the country.
 These soils are mainly derived from the debris brought down from the Himalayas.
 In the Peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys.
 The colour of the alluvial soil varies from light grey to ash grey.
 They are rich in potash but poor in phosphorus.
 Two different types of alluvial soils have developed in the Upper and Middle Ganga plains – Khadar
and Bhangar.
 Alluvial soils are intensely cultivated – wheat, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed, etc. are mainly
cultivated.
Black Soil
 Black soil is also known as “Regur Soil” or the “Black Cotton Soil”.
 It covers about 15% of the total land area of the country.
 It covers most of the Deccan Plateau – parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper reaches of the Godavari and Krishna, and the
north-western part of Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep.
 The colour of these soils varies from deep black to grey.
 The black soils are generally clayey, deep and impermeable. They swell greatly and become sticky
when wet in the rainy season. In the dry season, the moisture evaporates, the soil shrinks and develops
wide cracks.
 Black soils are rich in iron, lime, aluminium, magnesium and also contain potassium. However, these
soils are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter.
 Cotton, pulses, millets, castor, tobacco, sugarcane, citrus fruits, linseed, etc. are mainly cultivated in
black soil.
Red Soil
 Also known as the “omnibus group”.

 It covers about 18.5 % of the total land area of the country.
 It is found in regions of low rainfall (eastern and southern parts of the Deccan Plateau). Along the
piedmont zone of the Western Ghats, a long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil. This soil is
also present in parts of Odisha and Chattisgarh and in the southern parts of the Middle Ganga Plain.
 The red colour is due to the presence of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. The soil appears
yellow when it is in hydrated form.
 The fine-grained red and yellow soil is usually fertile while the coarse-grained soil is less fertile.
 This type of soil is generally deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.
 Wheat, cotton, oilseeds, millets, tobacco, pulses are mainly cultivated in red and yellow soil.
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Laterite Soil
 The name has been derived from the Latin word “later” which means brick.
 It accounts for about 3.7% of the total area of the country.
 These are typical soils of the monsoon climate which is characterised by seasonal rainfall. With rain,
lime and silica are leached away, and soil rich in iron oxide and aluminium are left leading to the
formation of laterite soil.
 Laterite soil is deficient in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, however iron oxide and
potash are in abundance.
 Although low in fertility, they respond well to manures and fertilisers.
 Laterite soils are found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and hilly regions of Assam
and Odisha.
Mountain Soil
 This type of soil is found in the forest regions where rainfall is sufficient.
 The texture of the soil depends on the mountain environment where they are found.
 These soils are coarse-grained in the upper slopes and loamy and silty on valley sides.
 In the snowbound areas of the Himalayas, these soils undergo denudation and are acidic with low
humus content. The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile.
 Also called forest soil.
Desert Soil
 Also known as arid soil, it accounts for over 4.42 % of the total land area of the country.
 The colour ranges from red to brown.
 Desert soils are sandy to gravelly in texture, have low moisture content and low water-retaining
capacity.
 These soils are saline in nature and in certain regions the salt content is so high that common salt is
obtained by evaporating water.
 Desert soils are profoundly found in western Rajasthan and contain little humus and organic matter.
Natural Vegetation in India
 Tropical Evergreen Forests: Tropical Evergreen forests are a dominant part of the Natural vegetation
in India. They flourish in the areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall and having a temperature of
15-30°C. They occupy about 7% of the earth’s surface.
 Tropical Deciduous Forests: They are also called Monsoon Forests. Rainfall is in the range of 70-200
cms in Deciduous Forests. A long dry season followed by heavy rainfall season is a feature of the
regions where these forests are found. The humidity in these forests lie in the range of 80-90%. 30°C is
the average temperature of tropical deciduous forests. There are two types of Deciduous Forests: Moist
Deciduous Forests – Mixture of Trees and Grasses and Dry Deciduous Forests.
 Tropical Thorny Forests: Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs are the forests that found in North –
Western part of the country including semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh and in this areas annual rainfall is less than 70 cm.
 Alpine and Sub-alpine Forests: The subalpine forest is a transition zone from dense forest below to
alpine tundra above treeline. Treeline is not really a line, but rather a zone where trees gradually get
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smaller and more stunted until conditions are too challenging for tree growth. Alpine forests give way
to Alpine grasslands & scrubs as we move up further.
 Tidal or Mangrove Forests- The tidal or mangrove forests grow by the side of the coast and on the
edges of the deltas. The fertile deltas of the Cauvery, Krishna, Mahanadi, Godavari, and Ganga
comprises of mangrove forest. In the state of West Bengal, these forests are known as 'Sundarbans the
name after the largest delta.
Minerals in India
A mineral is defined as a natural, inorganic solid substance which has a crystalline structure with a
particular chemical composition. A mineral is said to possess different chemical composition which
defines it crystalline shape and form. Whereas, the rock which is said to be comprised of several minerals,
is generally classified based upon the process of its formation.
1. Iron: Iron is a mineral that is naturally present in many foods, added to some food products, and
available as a dietary supplement. Iron is an essential component of haemoglobin, an erythrocyte (red
blood cell) protein that transfers oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. India has huge deposits of iron-
ore in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Iron-ore is found in the mines at
Singhbhum in Bihar & Mayurbhanj in Orissa.
2. Coal: Coal is a black sedimentary rock that can be burned for fuel and used to generate electricity. It is
known as ‘black diamond’. Jharia in Bihar & Raniganj in West Bengal are the largest coal mines in
India. Other coal mines are located at Suhagpur (Madhya Pradesh) Dhanbad (Bihar) Neyveli (Tamil
Nadu) & Singareni (Andhra Pradesh).
3. Petroleum: Petroleum, also called crude oil, is a naturally occurring liquid found beneath the earth's
surface that can be refined into fuel. A fossil fuel, petroleum is created by the decomposition of
organic matter over time and used as fuel to power vehicles, heating units, and machines, and can be
converted into plastics. Petroleum is found at Digboi in Assam, Ankleshwar & Kalol in Gujarat &
Bombay High off the shore of Bombay.
4. Manganese: It is used in the manufacture of steel. India is one of the largest producers of manganese
in the world. It is found in Orissa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
5. Aluminium: It is a light but hard metal. The ore from which aluminium is known as bauxite. Huge
deposits of bauxite are found in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu and Maharashtra.
6. Copper: It is a good conductor of electricity. It alloys with zinc to form brass & with tin to form
bronze. It occurs in small quantities in India. It is found at Khetri in Rajasthan. Some copper has been
found in Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh & Tamil Nadu.
7. Gold: Gold is produced from the mines at Kolar & Hutti in Karnataka & Anantapur in Andhra
Pradesh.
8. Diamond: Diamonds are found in the mines at Panna in Madhya Pradesh. Biosphere Reserves in
India.
Climate of India
India has tropical monsoon type of climate.
Climate Seasons in India
 Seasons change is the law of nature and a sign of progress. In India, there are mainly six seasons as per
the ancient Hindu calendar.
 The spring season is a season of two-month duration which are March and April. In the Hindu
calendar, this season occurs in the months of Chaitra and Baisakh respectively. It is a pleasant and
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beautiful season with an average temperature of 32°C. It starts after the winter and lasts till summer
starts. The day becomes longer and nights become shorter in this season. The tree shed their leaves,
new leaves start appearing.
 Summer season is also a two-month duration season that includes the months of May and June. As
per the Hindu calendar, this season mainly occurs in Jyeshta and Aashaadha. In this season, the
weather is very hot in most of the parts of India. This season starts with the end of April and lasts till
the end of June, e.g. duration after spring and before autumn. The average temperature remains around
38°C. The days are longest in this season while the nights have the shortest duration.
 Monsoon Season includes the months of July and August. As per the Hindu calendar, this season
comes in the months of Shravana and Bhadrapada. As the name indicates, rainfall occurs in most of
India in this season. The days are short and nights are long in this season and the average temperature
remains around 34°C. It is sometimes called 'green season' by the officials of the tourism sector.
 Autumn Season: The season of autumn comes in the months of September and October. As per the
Hindu calendar, this season comes in Ashwin and Kartik months. The hot and humid weather starts
disappearing and leaves start falling off the trees in this season, so it is also known as the fall season. It
starts after the monsoon or rainy season and lasts till the start of the pre-winter season. The average
temperature in this season remains around 33°C.
 Pre-winter Season comes in the months of November and December. As per the Hindu calendar,
these season occurs in the Agrahayana and Pausha months. It starts with the end of October and lasts
till the start of winter season or January. So, it precedes the winter season. This season is moderately
cold with an average temperature of around 27°C. The days become shorter than nights and the nights
are foggy, colder.
 Winter Season comes in the months of January and February. As per the Hindu calendar, this season
occurs in the months of Magha and Phalguna. This season lies between pre winter and spring season.
This season is characterized by dryness, cold winds, occasional rainfall and snowfall. It is the coldest
season of the year with an average temperature of around 20°C and the weather is affected by air
pressure.
Climate Regions in India
The climates of India are mainly divided into four different groups. The classification of these groups is
based on the Koppen climate classification system.
 Tropical Wet (Humid): The tropical wet (humid) climate group in India is divided into two subparts -
tropical monsoon climate or the tropical wet climate, and tropical wet and dry climate or savannah
climate. The Western Ghats, the Malabar Coast, southern Assam, Lakshadweep and Andaman and the
Nicobar Islands have the tropical monsoon climate. It experiences moderate to high temperature with
seasonal but heavy rainfall. The months from May to November experience the most rainfall and the
rain received during this period is sufficient for vegetation throughout the year.
 Tropical Dry: The tropical dry climate group is divided into three subdivisions (a) tropical semi-arid
(steppe) climate, (b) sub-tropical arid (desert) climate and (c) sub-tropical semi-arid (steppe) climate.
Karnataka, central Maharashtra, some parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh experience the tropical
semi-arid (steppe) climate. Rainfall is very unreliable in this type of climate, and the hot and dry
summers are experienced from March to May. The areas of the tropical desert that runs from the
regions of Punjab and Haryana to Kathiawar witness the sub-tropical semi-arid (steppe) climate. The
maximum temperature in summers goes up to 40°C, and the rains are unreliable and generally take
place during summer monsoon season in this climate.
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 Sub-tropical Humid Climate: This climate is witnessed by most of the North and Northeast India.
Summers are scorching, while in winters, the temperature can plunge to as low as 0°C. Rainfall mainly
occurs in summers, but snowfall or occasional rain in winters is also witnessed in some areas. The
hottest months are May, and June and frost also occur for few months in winters.
 Mountain Climate: The temperature falls by 0.6°C for every 100 m rise in altitude in the Himalayas
and results in several different climates from tropical to tundra. The trans-Himalayan belt, which is the
northern side of the western Himalayas, is cold, arid and windswept. There is less rain on the leeward
side of the mountains whereas the well-exposed slopes receive heavy rainfall. The heaviest snowfall
occurs between December to February. India can be divided into a number of climatic regions.
Factors Affecting India’s Climate
There are certain factors which affect the climate of India:

 Latitude: The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of India and extends from Mizoram in the
east and Rann of Kutch in the west; and considerably affects the climate of the country. To the south
of the Tropic of Cancer lies the southern part of the country which belongs to the tropical area and its
north lies the northern half of India which belongs to the sub-tropical zone. Therefore, India
experiences both sub-tropical and tropical climates.
 Altitude: In the north, India is bounded by mountains with an average height of 6,000 metres and in
the south, has a vast coastline with a maximum elevation of about 30 metres. The Himalayas act as a
barrier against the cold winds from Central Asia. Therefore, due to the altitude of these mountains, the
Indian subcontinent experiences milder winters than Central Asia.
 Monsoon Winds: The 'monsoon winds' is the most dominating factor influencing the climate of India.
It is often called the monsoon climate. A reversal in the monsoon winds can bring a change in the
season of the country, for instance, the extreme summer season suddenly changing to the rainy or
monsoon season. The entire country receives rainfall due to the south-west summer monsoons from
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
 Western Disturbances and Tropical Cyclones: Large parts of peninsular India get influenced by the
tropical cyclones which originate in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Most of the cyclones
originate in the Bay of Bengal and influence the climatic conditions at the time of the south-west
monsoon season. The western disturbances originate over the Mediterranean Sea and influence the
weather conditions in the Western Himalayan region.
Climate Related Calamities
Climate-related calamities are a significant cause of loss to life and property. Some of the natural disasters that
have been experienced in the country are as follows:
 Floods: Floods are the most common natural disaster in India and are caused due to the inadequate
capacity of the river banks to carry high flows which are brought down from the upper catchment
because of the heavy rains and almost the entire country is flood-prone. Erratic, excess or untimely
monsoon rains kill thousands of people and also harm the agriculture of the country.
 Droughts: Drought is a situation which arises due to the scarcity of water. In India, agriculture
depends on the rains or the monsoon season as a source of water. But, the shortage or failure of water
supply results in the below-average crop yields. Climatic factors such as high wind, high temperature
and low humidity also add to the severity of drought in India. Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Odisha, some parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka are some of the drought-prone areas in the country.
 Tropical Cyclones: These are the most devastating natural disasters which result in a massive loss of
life and property. In India, the lives of the coastal habitats are profoundly affected by the cyclones. The
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areas near the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean are the most cyclone-prone regions of the country.
During the time of cyclone, heavy rains, winds with high speed and storm surge are also experienced
which also affect the lives of the people as it becomes difficult for them to get relief and supplies
during this phenomenon.
Biosphere Reserves in India

In India, the first biosphere reserve – Nilgiri biosphere reserve – came into being in 1986. So far, 18 biosphere
reserves have been set up in the country.
National Parks & Wild Life Sanctuaries in India

 There are 103 National Parks & 544 Wildlife Sanctuaries in India.
 Madhya Pradesh & Andaman & Nicobar Islands have the maximum number of National Parks (9
each) while Andaman & Nicobar Islands has 96 & Maharashtra has 42 Wildlife Sanctuaries
(maximum in India).
Green Revolution
 The Green Revolution is referred to as the process of increasing agricultural production by

incorporating modern tools and techniques.
 Green Revolution is associated with agricultural production. It is the period when agriculture of the
country was converted into an industrial system due to the adoption of modern methods and
techniques like the use of high yielding variety seeds, tractors, irrigation facilities, pesticides, and
fertilizers.
 The Green Revolution (first) was launched in 1967-68.
 Father of Green Revolution - Dr. Norman Borlaug.
 Father of Green Revolution in India - Dr. M.S. Swaminathan.
 The method of green revolution focused on three basic elements, which are: Using seeds with
improved genetics (High Yielding Variety seeds), double cropping in the existing farmland and the
continuing expansion of farming areas.
White Revolution
 The revolution associated with a sharp increase in milk production in the country is called the White
Revolution in India also known as Operation Flood.
 White revolution period intended to make India a self-dependent nation in milk production. Today,
India is the world’s largest producer of milk
 Dr Verghese Kurien is known as the father of the White Revolution in India. He is also known as
Milkman of India.
Mini Exercise - V
1. The cyclone represents a state of atmosphere in which

a. Low pressure is in the centre and high pressure is around.
b. High pressure is in the centre and low pressure is around.
c. There is low pressure all around
d. None of these
2. What is the largest and deepest ocean of the world?
a. Indian Ocean b Pacific Ocean
c. Atlantic Ocean d Arctic Ocean
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3. Tides in the sea are caused by
a. Gravitational centrifugal or centripetal forces.
b. Effect of the moon
c. Effects of the sun
d. Sun and moon
4. Under which climatic conditions do the laterite soils develop?
a. Wet tropical Climate b Hot and dry Climate
c. Cold temperature Climate d Mediterranean type of Climate
5. Most of India’s rainfall is
a. Cyclonic b Convectional c Elusive d Orographic
6. Green Revolution in India was introduced in 20th century during decades of _______for adopting new
agricultural strategy.
a. 1960s b 1970s c 1950s d 1990s
7. Who is the father of Green Revolution in the India?
a. Norman Borlaug b M.S Swaminathan
c. Raj Krishna d R.K.V Rao
Transport in India
Indian Railway
 Railways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India and also make it
possible to conduct many activities like business, sightseeing, and pilgrimage along with transportation
of goods over longer distances
 Indian railway system is the largest in Asia and manages the fourth largest national railway system in
the world by size, with a total route length of 68,103 Km.
 It is the biggest departmental public undertaking in the country.
 The first train ran in India between Bombay & Thane, a stretch of 34 km. on April 16 th, 1853.
 The first electric train was ‘Deccan Queen’ and was introduced in 1929 between Bombay & Poona.
 Indian Railways has the second biggest electrified system in the world after Russia.
 The total number of railway stations in India is 7,100.
 The longest railway platforms are: Gorakhpur railway station, Uttar Pradesh, India: 1,366.33 m (4,483
feet) (longest in the world).
 Mumbai is the destination where maximum number of trains in India head for.
 The first Metro Rail was introduced in Kolkata (West Bengal) on October 24, 1984. The two stations
connected were Dumdum & Belgachhia.
Water Transport in India
Revolution
 It is one of the most important means of transport for carrying goods from one part to another in a
country.
 It is a cheaper and quicker mode of transport and is most suitable for carrying heavy, bulky and cheap
traffic like coal, iron ore, etc. to distant places.
 The total length of navigable waterways in Indian comprising rivers, canals, backwaters, etc, is 14,500
Km out of which 3700 Km is navigable by mechanised boats.
 The government has recognised the following National Waterways of India:
 NW 1: Allahabad to Haldia – 1,629 Kms
 NW 2: Sadia to Dhubari (on Brahmaputra river) – 891 Kms
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 NW 3: Kollam to Kottapuram – 186 Kms
 NW 4: Kakinada to Marakkanam (Along Godavari & Krishna river) – 1,100 Km
Ports in India
 Ports in India are situated in the 9 coastal states of India namely Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa,
Gujarat, West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
 Ports of India are divided into three categories, major, minor & intermediate.
 India has about 190 ports in all, with 12 major & the rest intermediate & minor.
 12 major ports are:
Port State Port State
Kolkata (including Haldia) West Bengal Cochin Kerala
Paradip Orissa New Mangalore Karnataka
Vishakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh Mormugao Goa
Chennai Tamil Nadu Jawaharlal Nehru Maharashtra
Ennore Tamil Nadu Mumbai Maharashtra
Tuticorin Kerala Kandla Gujarat
Mountains of India
Home to some of the world's highest mountains, a rich cultural heritage, its stunning natural landscapes, and
its amazing cuisine, India is a large country located in southern Asia. The country contains 13,857 named
mountains, the highest and most prominent of which is Kanchenjunga (8,586m / 28,169 feet).
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Ten highest peaks in India
Mountain Peak Height in metres Description

K2 8611  The highest peak in Indian subcontinent lies between Baltistan
and Xinjiang.
 It is the highest peak in the Karakoram.
Kanchenjunga 8586  The third highest summit in the World.
 Also known as the ‘five treasures of snow’.
 Lies in Himalayan Mountain Range.
Nanda Devi 7816  Ranked the 23rd highest peak across the world.
 The Nanda Devi National Park, located in vicinity to the peak,
consists of the best high altitude flora and fauna.
 This is the highest peak located entirely within India
 It is a part of Himalayan mountain ranges (Garhwal).
Kamet 7756  It is located near the Tibetan Plateau.
 It is located in the Garhwal region.
Saltoro Kangri 7742  It is located near the Siachen Region.
 The Saltoro Kangri is ranked the 31st highest independent peak
in the world.
 It lies in Saltoro range (a part of Karakoram Mountain range).
Saser Kangri 7672  Located in Ladakh.
 This mountain peak is the 35th highest mountain peak in the
world.
 It lies in Saser Muztagh range (an easternmost sub range of
Karakoram Range.)
Mamostong Kangri 7516  It is located near Siachen Glacier.
 It is the 48th independent peak in India.
 It is the highest peak of Rimo Muztagh range (a sub range of
Karakoram range)
Rimo I 7385  The Rimo I is a part of Rimo Muztagh, a sub range of Great
Karakoram range.
 It is the 71st highest peak in the world.
Hardeol 7151  This peak is also known as the ‘Temple of God’
 It is one of the oldest summits in the Kumaon Himalaya
Chaukhamba I 7138  It is located in the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.
 It is a part of the Gangotri Group of Garhwal Himalaya ranges
Trishul I 7120  The name of this mountain peak is taken from the weapon of
Lord Shiva.
 It is one of three mountain peaks located in the Kumaon
Himalaya in Uttarakhand.
The Plains of India
 The Great Plains of India (also known as the Indo-Gangetic plains) is a large geographical area
encompassing the fertile plains that lie between the Indus River and the Ganga River.
 These are alluvial fertile plains formed by the deposition process of the Himalayan Rivers.
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 The plains consist of four divisions:
Divisions of Plains
Bhabar: Tarai: Bhangar: Khadar: Delta:

These plains lie The Tarai tract These are older These are new The delta plain
to the South of lies south of the alluvial plains alluvial deposits is considered as
Shivalik from Bhabar tract. It which represent along the the extension of
Jammu to upland alluvial course of the Khadar land.
is a marshy
tracts. These
Assam. The tract with a river. It is This area is
areas are well
width is more malarial drained and
enriched by depositional in
in the western climate. The suitable for fresh deposits of the lower
region than in width of the cultivation. silt every year. reaches of
the eastern Tarai tract is Ganga River.
region. more in the
eastern region.
Peninsular Plateau of India
 Spreads south of the Indo-Gangetic plains flanked by sea on three sides. This plateau is shaped like a
triangle with its base in the north. The Eastern Ghats & the Western Ghats constitute its eastern &
western boundaries, respectively.
 Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the region into two parts: The Malwa Plateau in
the north & the Deccan Plateau in the south.
 Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa plateau.
 Chhota Nagpur Plateau lies to the west of Bengal basin, the largest & most typical part of which is the
Ranchi plateau.
 The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. It is made up of lava flows in the Cretaceous-
Eocene era through the fissure eruptions.
Islands of India
 Total Islands of India: 1382 including uninhabited ones.

 The Andrott Island is the largest Island of India with an area of 4.90 Km2, length of 4.66 Km and a
maximum width of 1.43 Km.
 Barren Island, a possession of India in the Andaman Sea about 135 Km NE of Port Blair in the
Andaman Islands, is the only historically active volcano along the N-S-trending volcanic arc extending
between Sumatra and Burma (Myanmar).
The Andaman & Nicobar Islands is a union territory of India consisting of 572 islands, of which 37 are
inhabited, at the junction of the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The Andaman are believed to be
extensions of mountains system in the N.E. part of the country. Saddle Peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the
highest peak.
The Arabian Sea Group: All the islands in the Arabian Sea are coral islands & are surrounded by Fringing
Reefs (North: Lakshadweep, South: Minicoy).
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Rivers of India
River System Total Length in Km Length in India in Km

Indus 3180 1114
Brahmaputra 2900 916
Ganga 2510 2510
Yamuna 1376 1376
Narmada 1312 1312
Tapi 724 724
Godavari 1465 1465
Krishna 1400 1400
Cauvery 805 805
Mahanadi 851 851
The Indus River System

 The Indus arises from the northern slopes of the Kailash range in Tibet near Lake Mansarovar.
 It has a large number of tributaries in both India and Pakistan and has a total length of about 2897 Km
from the source to the point near Karachi where it falls into the Arabian Sea out of which approx.700
Km lies in India.
 It enters the Indian Territory in Jammu and Kashmir by forming a picturesque gorge.
 In the Kashmir region, it joins with many tributaries – the Zaskar, the Shyok, the Nubra and the
Hunza. It flows between the Ladakh Range and the Zaskar Range at Leh.
 It crosses the Himalayas through a 5181 m deep gorge near Attock, which is lying north of Nanga
Parbat.
 The major tributaries of the Indus River in India are Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas, and Sutlej.
The Brahmaputra River System
 The Brahmaputra originates from Mansarovar Lake, which is also a source of the Indus and Sutlej.
 It is 3848 Kms long, a little longer than the Indus River.
 Most of its course lies outside India.
 It flows parallel to the Himalayas in the eastward direction. When it reaches Namcha Barwa, it takes a
U-turn around it and enters India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. In India, it flows through the states
of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam and is connected by several tributaries.
 The Brahmaputra has a braided channel throughout most of its length in Assam.
 The river is known as the Tsangpo in Tibet. It receives less volume of water and has less silt in the
Tibet region. But in India, the river passes through a region of heavy precipitation, and as such, the
river carries large amounts of water during rainfall and a significant amount of silt. It is considered one
of the largest rivers in India in terms of volume. It is known for creating calamities in Assam and
Bangladesh.
The Ganga River System

 The Ganga originates as the Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier.
 Before it reaches Dev Prayag in the Garhwal Division, the Mandakini, Pindar, the Dhauliganga and the
Bishenganga rivers merge into the Alaknanda and the Bheling drain into the Bhagirathi.
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 The Pindar River rises from East Trishul and Nanda Devi unite with the Alaknanda at Karan Prayag.
The Mandakini meets at Rudra Prayag.
 The water from both Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda flows in the name of the Ganga at Dev Prayag.
 The concept of Panch Prayag
 Vishnu Prayag: where the river Alaknanda meets river Dhauli Ganga
 Nand Prayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Mandakini
 Karna Prayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Pinder
 Rudra Prayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Mandakini
 Dev Prayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Bhagirathi –GANGA
 The principal tributaries of the Ganga are Yamuna, Damodar, Sapta Kosi, Ram Ganga, Gomati,
Ghaghara, and Son. The river after travelling a distance of 2525 km from its source meets the Bay of
Bengal.
The Yamuna River System

 The Yamuna River is the largest tributary of the Ganga River.
 It originates from the Yamunotri glacier, at the Bandar Poonch peak in Uttarakhand.
 The main tributaries joining the river include the Sin, Hindon, Betwa Ken, and Chambal.
 The catchment of the river extends to the states of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.
The Narmada River System

 The Narmada is a river located in central India.
 It rises to the summit of the Amarkantak Hill in Madhya Pradesh state.
 It outlines the traditional frontier between North India and South India.
 It is one of the major rivers of peninsular India. Only the Narmada, the Tapti, and the Mahi rivers run
from east to west.
 The river flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
 It drains into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of Gujarat.
The Tapi River System

 It is a central Indian river. It is one of the most important rivers of peninsular India with the run from
east to west.
 It originates in the Eastern Satpura Range of southern Madhya Pradesh state.
 It flows in a westward direction, draining some important historic places like Madhya Pradesh’s Nimar
region, East Vidarbha region and Maharashtra’s Khandesh in the northwest corner of the Deccan
Plateau and South Gujarat before draining into the Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea.
 The River Basin of Tapi River lies mostly in eastern and northern districts Maharashtra state.
 The river also covers some districts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat as well.
 The principal tributaries of Tapi River are Waghur River, Aner River, Girna River, Purna River,
Panzara River and Bori River.
The Godavari River System

 The Godavari River is the second-longest course in India with brownish water.
 The river is often referred to as the Dakshin (South) Ganga or Vriddh (Old) Ganga.
 It is a seasonal river, dried during the summers, and widens during the monsoons.
 This river originates from Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik in Maharashtra.
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 It flows southeast across south-central India through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh, and Orissa, and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
 Asia’s largest rail-cum-road bridge which links Kovvur and Rajahmundry is located on the river
Godavari.
The Krishna River System
 Krishna is one of the longest rivers of India, which originates from Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra.
 It flows through Sangli and drains the sea in the Bay of Bengal.
 The river flows through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
 Tungabhadra River is the main tributary which itself is formed by the Tunga and Bhadra rivers that
originate in the Western Ghats.
 Dudhganga Rivers, Koyna, Bhima, Malla Prabha, Dindi, Ghata Prabha, Warna, Yerla, and Musi are
some of the other tributaries.
The Cauvery River System
 It originates from Talakaveri located in the Western Ghats.

 It is a famous pilgrimage and tourist place in the Kodagu district of Karnataka.
 The headwaters of the river are in the Western Ghats range of Karnataka state, and from Karnataka
through Tamil Nadu.
 The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The river supports irrigation for agriculture and is considered
as a means of support of the ancient kingdoms and modern cities of South India.
 The river has many tributaries called Arkavathy, Shimsha, Hemavati, Kapila, Shimsha, Honnuhole,
Amravati, Lakshman Kabini, Lokapavani, Bhavani, Noyyal, and Tirtha.
The Mahanadi River System
 The Mahanadi originates from the Satpura Range of central India and it is a river in eastern India.
 It flows east to the Bay of Bengal. The river drains of the state of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, and Orissa.
 The largest dam, the Hirakud Dam is built on the river.
Cropping Seasons in India
 India has three main cropping seasons Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid in a year.
 Kharif (Paddy, Maize, Jute, Sugarcane, Cotton, and Millet) are sown during the onset of the monsoon
season (June-Early days of November).
 Rabi (Wheat and Tobacco) season begins with the onset of winter (November – March).
 Zaid (Fruits, Vegetables) – This is a short cropping season between Rabi and Kharif.
Cash Crops of India (Commercial Crops)

 Cash crops or Commercial crops are the ones that are cultivated to be sold in the market to earn profits
from their sale.
 Coffee, cotton, raw jute, sugarcane, tea, tobacco, groundnut, rapeseed, mustard, and soybean are some
of the major commercial crops of India.
 The most important commercial crop of India is Sugarcane. India has the largest area under sugarcane
cultivation in the world.
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Area Geography & Boundaries of India
1. India is situated North of the equator between 8°4' North to 37°6' North latitude and 68°7' East to
97°25' East longitude.
2. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of 3,287,263 Km2.
3. India measures 3,214 Km from North to South and 2,933 Km from East to West.
4. India's total area makes up about 2.4% of the total geographical area of the world.
5. India holds 17.5% of the world’s population and has one of the highest population densities in the
world
6. It has a land frontier of 15,200 Km (9,445 miles) and a coastline of 7,516.5 Km (4,670.5 miles).
7. In India, of the total land mass: Plains: 43.3%, Plateaus: 27.7%, Hills: 18.6%, Mountains: 10.7%
8. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea are parts
of India.
9. India is bounded by the mighty Himalayas in North.
10. India shares its border with seven countries - Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh
& Myanmar.
Mini Exercise - VI
1. When was the first underground railway (Metro Railway) started?

a. 1982 b 1989 c 1984 d 1992
2. First train started in India?
a. 1851 b 1852 c 1853 d 1854
3. Which is the highest peak in the world?
a. Mount Everest b K2
c. Kanchenjunga d Pir Panjal
4. River Indus originates from
a. Hindu Kush range b Himalayan range
b. Karakoram range d Kailash range
5. The main river flowing in the state of Jammu and Kashmir is
a. Jhelum b Indus c Chenab d Nubra
6. Andaman and Nicobar are
a. Two Islands in Indian ocean b Group of Islands in Arabian Sea
c. Group of Islands in Bay of Bengal d Two Islands in Bay of Bengal
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Practice Test - Geography
1. Which planet has maximum moons to it?

a. Mars b Saturn c Neptune d Uranus
2. Asteroids are found between the orbits of which planets?
a. Mars and Jupiter b Jupiter and Saturn
c. Mars and Saturn d Venus and Jupiter
3. The Standard Meridian of India passes through which of the following city?
a. Bhopal b Visakhapatnam c Mirzapur d Raipur
4. Which of the following latitudes passes through India?
a. Equator b Arctic Circle
c. Tropic of Cancer d Tropic of Capricorn
5. Which of the following imaginary latitude divides Earth into two equal parts?
a. Tropic of centre b Equator
c. Tropic of Capricorn d Arctic Circle
6. When is vernal equinox?
a. 22nd June b 21st march c 23rd September d 22nd December
7. What are the equidistant lines drawn east and west of the Greenwich Meridian known as?
a. Great Circles b Latitudes c Longitudes d Tropics
8. The solar eclipse achieves totality only in limited geographical regions because
a. the earth is not a smooth flat surface, but has elevations and depressions
b. the size of the shadow of the moon on the earth is small compared to the cross section of the
earth
c. the trajectories of the earth around the sun and the moon around the earth are not perfect circles
d. sun rays can reach most of the peripheral regions of the shadow of the moon due to an
atmospheric refraction
9. One extra day is added to the month of
a. April b May c February d December
10. The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is called
a. Revolution b Resolution c Rotation d Circular
11. What do you understand by an eclipse?
a. Partial or total blocking of light of one celestial object by another.
b. Partial or total blocking of light by Moon.
c. Partial or total blocking of light by Earth.
d. Partial or total blocking of light by Sun.
12. Select the correct option matching together about Earth shadows:
1. Umbra – darker, central part
2. Penumbra – the outer part
3. Antumbra – partly shaded area beyond the umbra
a. Only 1 and 2 b Only 2 and 3 c Only 1 d All 1, 2 and 3
13. When the same pattern of solar eclipse repeats every 18 years 11 days 8 hours are known as:
a. Nodes cycle b Saros cycle c Saras cycle d Payan cycle
14. The innermost layer of Earth is mainly made up of
a. Silica and Iron b Nickel and Alumina
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c. Silica and Alumina d Nickel and iron
15. Which of the following part of Earth’s interior is composed mainly of Silica and Aluminium as its
major constituents?
a. Crust b Mantle c Core d All of these
16. Who has recognised two major layers in the earth?
a. Daly b Suess c Harold Jaffrey d Arthur Holmes
17. Who discovered the core?
a. Harold Jeffrey b R.D Oldham
c. Inge Lehman d None of these
18. The inner core is solid first proved by
a. Inge Lehman b Suess
c. Cavendish d R D Oldham
19. The amount of ground displacement in an earthquake is called the
a. Epicentre b Dip c Slip d Focus
20. Which of the following can be triggered by an earthquake?
a. Tsunami b intense ground shaking
c. Landslide d All of these
21. This type of volcano has violent eruptions with alternating layers of lava flow and volcanic particles
a. Cinder Cone b Shield
c. Composite d All of these
22. What forms at the top of a volcano after an eruption?
a. Pyroclastic flow b Vent
c. Magma Chamber d Crater
23. Fold mountains are formed by
a. Volcanic eruptions b Divergent plate movement
c. Convergent plate movement d None of these
24. Which of the following mountain are formed due to the force generated by the endogenetic force, for
example- when two plates collide head on, and their edges crumbled?
a. Fold Mountains b Block Mountains
b. Volcanic Mountains d Dissected mountains
25. Which is the most dominant constituent of igneous rock?
a. Al2O3 b SiO2 c CaCO3 d CaO
26. Which one of the following features is NOT associated with sedimentary rocks?
a. Bedding b Foliation c Fossils
d. All may be associated with sedimentary rocks
27. The tendency for variations in current velocity to segregate sediments on the basis of particle size is
called
a. Lilthification b Compaction c Metamorphism
b. Sorting
28. A rock that has undergone cataclastic metamorphism would most likely display which of the
following?
a. preserved sedimentary layering b pulverized rock fragments
c. new minerals d large olivine crystals
29. The study of atmospheric processes is known as
a. Astrology b Meteorology c Seismology d Astronomy
30. What the wind is deflected due to the rotation of the earth, it is called as
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a. Geostrophic wind b Polar wind
c. Westerlies d Trade winds
31. The tropical cyclone do not occurs close to the equator because of
a. Weak Coriolis force b Light and variable winds
c. Excessive humidity d Convective activity
32. What is the smallest ocean of the world?
a. Indian Ocean b Pacific Ocean
c. Atlantic Ocean d Arctic Ocean
33. Which of the following soils is very hard to cultivate?
a. Alluvial b Black c Red d Sandy
34. How do the western disturbances affect the crops in north India?
a. They cause heavy damage to the standing crops
b. They bring in locusts which destroy the crops
c. They are beneficial to the crops by causing winter rain
d. They help in keeping the plants warm to some extent in winter
35. Who is the father of Green Revolution in the World?
a. Norman Borlaug b M.S Swaminathan
c. Raj Krishna d R.K.V Rao
36. Which is the longest National Highway in India?
a. NH4 b NH44 c NH10 d NH5
37. The First port developed after independence was
a. New Mangalore b Mumbai
c. Nhava Sheva d Kandla
38. Which train in India has the longest route length?
a. Vivek Express b Indrani Express
c. Kanyakumari Express d Bangalore Guwahati Express
39. Which of the following mountains has the largest peaks in the world?
a. Karakoram Range b Himalaya
c. Pir Panjal Range d None of these
40. The river Cauvery flows from
a. Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu
b. Karnataka to Maharashtra
c. Karnataka to Tamil Nadu
d. Kerala to Tamil Nadu
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Answers – Geography
Mini Exercise – I
1. a The name of the oldest Galaxy in the world is GN-Z11

2. a There are 8 planets in the Solar System.
1
3. c Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time by 5 2 hours.
4. b The International date line name is given to 180° longitude due to the spherical shape of the
Earth.
5. a The total number of longitudes are 360.
6. c The Longitudes divides earth into 24 time zones.
7. d 22nd December is called Winter Solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, where it is the shortest
day of the year.
1. a Leap year consists of 366 days.

2. a Movement of the Earth on its axis is called as Rotation.
3. b A lunar eclipse occurs when Earth crosses between the moon and the sun, which casts a
shadow of Earth onto the moon.
4. a During a total Solar eclipse diamond ring occurs.
5. b The average density of Earth is 5.5 gm / cm3.
6. b The source of Earth’s magnetic field is liquid outer core.
7. d The core of earth is made of the mixture of Nickel and Iron.
8. d Earth mainly consists of four layers namely crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. Widest of
all the layers of earth is Mantle which is 1800 thick. It is composed mostly of silicate rocks rich in
magnesium and iron.
1. c The point where movement occurred which triggered the earthquake is the focus.
2. b Modified Mercalli scale measures an earthquake's intensity based on the observed effects on
people and structures.
3. a Shield type of volcano has a gentle eruption with oozing lava flows.
4. a Volcanoes that erupt frequently are known as Active Volcanoes. An opening or vent through
which the magma, molten rocks, ashes, gases, and other volatiles erupt on the surface of Earth is called
a Volcano.
5. d Fold mountains are created where two or more of Earth’s tectonic plates are pushed together.
6. c
Mini Exercise – IV
1. d In terms of the mineralogical composition, Felspars are the most common minerals of igneous
rocks.
2. a Clastic rock is a rock formed from the cementation of transported grains.
3. a The most prominent textural feature of regional metamorphic rocks is Foliation.
4. c Troposphere is bounded by the boundary which is known as Tropo-pause.
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5. c Monsoon winds
6. b The Coriolis force results from the fact that the Earth rotates on its axis. It is referred to as an
"apparent force" since it cannot increase or decrease an object's speed and does not effect an object
unless it is already moving as a result of some other force. Thus, the answer is option (b).
Mini Exercise – V
1. a The cyclone represents a state of atmosphere in which low pressure is in the centre and high
pressure is around.
2. b Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest ocean of the world.
3. d Tides in the sea are caused by sun and moon.
4. a Under Wet tropical Climate the laterite soils develop. The laterite soil is formed under
conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods, which leads to
leaching of soil, leaving only oxides of iron and aluminium.
5. b Most of India’s rainfall is convectional. The convectional rainfall is prevalent in equatorial
regions. In these, the warm air rises up and expands then, reaches at a cooler layer and saturates, then
condenses mainly in the form of cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds. In the equatorial regions, the
precipitation due to convectional rainfall occurs in the afternoon.
6. b Green Revolution in India was introduced in the 20th century during the decades of 1970s for
adopting a new agricultural strategy. It changed India’s status from a food-deficient country into one
of the world's leading agricultural nations.
7. b M.S Swaminathan is an Indian geneticist and international administrator, renowned for his
leading role in India's Green Revolution a program under which high-yield varieties of wheat and rice
seedlings were planted in the fields of poor farmers. He is known as "Indian Father of Green
Revolution".
Mini Exercise – VI
1. c The first Metro Rail was introduced in Kolkata (West Bengal) on October 24, 1984. The two
stations connected were Dumdum & Belgachhia.
2. c The first passenger train in India ran between Bombay (Bori Bunder) and Thane on 16 April
1853. The 14-carriage train was hauled by three steam locomotives: Sahib, Sindh and Sultan.
3. a The highest peak in the world is Mount Everest.
4. d Indus is a 3,200km long trans Himalayan river. It rises from Sengge Zangbo glacier in the
southwest Tibet near Lake Mansarovar in the Kailash range.
5. a The main river flowing in the state of Jammu and Kashmir is Jhelum. The Jhelum River is the
only major Himalayan River which flows through the Kashmir valley. The Indus, Tapi, Ravi and
Chenab are the other major rivers flowing through the state.
6. c Andaman and Nicobar are group of Islands in Bay of Bengal.
Practice Test
1. b Saturn has the most number of moons. It has 82 moons. (Jupiter has 53, Mars has 2 moons and
Venus has no moons). Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest planet in the solar
system.
2. a An Asteroid is a minor planet of the inner Solar System. Most of the ancient space rubble can
be found orbiting Sun between Mars and Jupiter within the main asteroid belt.
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3. c The Standard Meridian of India passes through Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh. The Standard
Meridian of India has a longitude of 82°30’E.
4. c The Tropic of cancer is an imaginary line that passes through the centre of India, at an angle of
23.50° north of Equator.
5. b The equator is an imaginary line running on the globe divides it two equal parts.
6. b The March equinox marks when the northern hemisphere starts to tilt toward the sun which
means sunnier days. In the northern hemisphere, the March equinox is called the vernal equinox,
because it signals the beginning of the spring.
7. c Longitudes denote angular distances of a place due east or west of the Greenwich Meridian.
They converge at the two poles.
8. b The solar eclipse achieves totality only in limited geographical regions because the size of the
shadow of the moon on the earth is small compared to the cross section of the earth.
9. c One extra day is added to the month of February.
10. a The movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is called Revolution.
11. a An eclipse takes place when one heavenly body such as a moon or planet moves into the
shadow of another heavenly body.
12. d Shadow of the earth is divided into three parts: Umbra is the innermost and darkest part of the
shadow and an observer experiences a total eclipse. Penumbra is the region in which only a portion of
the light source is blocked by the body. Therefore, an observer experiences a partial eclipse. Antumbra
is the lighter area of a shadow that appears beyond the umbra. An observer experiences an annular
eclipse.
13. b After one Saros cycle of 18 years 11days 8 hours, the pattern of eclipses repeats.
14. d The innermost layer of Earth is mainly made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by
Nickel and Iron.
15. a The Crust is the outermost solid part of the Earth, normally about 8 – 40 Km thick and is brittle
in nature. The crust is nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of the earth’s mass is made up of
crust.
16. d Arthur Holmes has recognised two major layers in the earth.
17. b R.D Oldham discovered the core.
18. a The inner core is solid and was first proved by Inge Lehman.
19. c The amount of ground displacement in an earthquake is called the slip.
20. d All of the options given can be triggered by an earthquake.
21. c Strato Volcanoes, also called composite volcanoes, are typically steep-sided, symmetrical
cones built of alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, and other eruptive products (see animation
courtesy of Exploring the Environment).
22. d The crater is the bowl shaped opening located at the top of the volcano. The crater is also the
steep sided walls made of hardened lava that surround the main vent. Lava can flow from the main
vent, but not all volcanoes eject large amounts of lava.
23. c Fold mountains are formed by convergent or compressional, plate movement. They are not
formed by divergent plate movement.
24. a Fold Mountains are formed due to the force generated by the endogenetic force, for example-
when two plates collide head on, and their edges crumbled.
25. b In terms of chemical composition, Silica is the dominant constituent of igneous rock.
26. d All of the given options may be associated with sedimentary rocks.
27. d The tendency for variations in current velocity to segregate sediments on the basis of particle
size is called sorting.
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28. b A rock that has undergone cataclastic metamorphism would most likely display pulverised rock
fragments.
29. b It is the branch of science concerned with atmospheric dynamics, such as weather forecasting.
Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere, with emphasis on weather processes and
forecasting.
30. a The wind which is deflected due to the rotation of the earth is called as Geostrophic wind.
31. a The tropical cyclone do not occurs close to the equator because of weak Coriolis force.
32. d Arctic ocean is the smallest ocean of the world.
33. d Sandy soils is very hard to cultivate. The soil feels gritty between your fingers, your soil is
sandy. When rolled in the hand to make a sausage shape, it crumbles and falls apart and won’t hold its
shape. Water drains away quickly, though sandy soils can develop a hard pan that impedes drainage.
34. c Western disturbances are beneficial to the crops by causing winter rain. The Western
Disturbances lead to winter rainfall, which is beneficial for Rabi crop.
35. a Norman Borlaug is the father of Green Revolution in the World.
36. b NH44 with a length of about 3,745 km is the longest national highway in India. Although NH7
running over 12,369 km is longest “Single” national highway in India. NH44 is a merger of different
national highways and runs from Srinagar to Kanyakumari.
37. d Kandla was developed as an off spring port. As due to partition India lost important Karachi
port to Pakistan so Mumbai port was over burdened with excess work. This effect was neutralised by
diverting trade to Kandla port which situate in Kutch district Gujarat.
38. a Vivek express in India has the longest route length.
39. a Karakoram Range has the largest peaks in the world.
40. c The river Cauvery flows from Karnataka to Tamil Nadu. Originally, the Cauvery River had its
source at Talakaveri in the Western Ghats Mountain Range. Talakaveri is situated in the Kodagu
District in Karnataka and the river usually runs in a south-eastern itinerary across the states of
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The river flows over the southern Deccan terrains across the plains in the
southeast and pours into the Bay of Bengal through two major outlets.
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EVS
 Resource refers to all the materials available in our environment which are
technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally sustainable and
Resources
help us to satisfy our needs and wants.
Man – Made Resources
Types of Resources
Natural Resources
Man – Made Resources:

Man-made resources are objects Natural Resources:
or things that are converted into Resources that are derived directly
accessible forms after changing from nature and utilized without
their original form. any manipulation in their natural
E.g. electricity, plastic, paper, form are called natural resources.
soda, sheet metal, rubber, and This includes air, sunlight, forests,
brass. etc.
 Natural resources are characterized as Renewable or Non-Renewable.
Renewable Resources
 Renewable resources are those that cannot be depleted.

 They are always available and thus could be reused.
Non - Renewable Resources
 Natural resources that are limited in quantity are referred to as non-renewable resources.
 These resources cannot be supplied or regenerated in a short duration of time.
 These resources cannot be reused.
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Difference between Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources
Renewable Resources Non – Renewable Resources

Can be replaced by natural processes in a short These are natural resources that either cannot be
duration of time or can be recycled. replaced or may take millions of years to be replaced
by natural processes like coal and oil.
It can be reused or recycled and used multiple times It cannot be reused or recycled.
Examples are sun, wind, water, soil etc. Examples are coal, natural gas, petroleum etc.
There is no harm to the environment by using Huge harm done to the environment because of
renewable resources. harmful emissions.
Energy
 Energy is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in
the performance of work and in the form of heat and light.
 Energy is a conserved quantity—the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted
in form, but cannot be created or destroyed.
Renewable Sources of Energy
 Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources that are naturally replenished
on a human timescale.
 It includes sources such as sunlight, wind, the movement of water, and geothermal heat.
 Although most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some are not.
Types of Renewable Sources of Energy
Solar Wind Hydro Tidal Geothermal Biomass

 Solar Energy: Sunlight is one of our planet’s most abundant and freely available energy resources.
The amount of solar energy that reaches the earth’s surface in one hour is more than the planet’s total
energy requirements for a whole year. Although it sounds like a perfect renewable energy source, the
amount of solar energy we can use varies according to the time of day and the season of the year as
well as geographical location.
 Wind Energy: Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. Wind farms are an increasingly familiar
sight in the UK with wind power making an ever-increasing contribution to the National Grid. To
harness electricity from wind energy, turbines are used to drive generators which then feed electricity
into the National Grid.
 Hydro Energy: As a renewable energy resource, hydro power is one of the most commercially
developed. By building a dam or barrier, a large reservoir can be used to create a controlled flow of
water that will drive a turbine, generating electricity. This energy source can often be more reliable
than solar or wind power (especially if it's tidal rather than river) and also allows electricity to be
stored for use when demand reaches a peak.
 Tidal Energy: This is another form of hydro energy that uses twice-daily tidal currents to drive
turbine generators. Although tidal flow unlike some other hydro energy sources isn’t constant, it is
highly predictable and can therefore compensate for the periods when the tide current is low.
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 Geothermal Energy: By harnessing the natural heat below the earth’s surface, geothermal energy can
be used to heat homes directly or to generate electricity. Although it harnesses a power directly below
our feet, geothermal energy is of negligible importance in the UK compared to countries such as
Iceland, where geothermal heat is much more freely available.
 Biomass Energy: This is the conversion of solid fuel made from plant materials into electricity.
Although fundamentally, biomass involves burning organic materials to produce electricity, and
nowadays this is a much cleaner, more energy-efficient process. By converting agricultural, industrial
and domestic waste into solid, liquid and gas fuel, biomass generates power at a much lower economic
and environmental cost.
Water Cycle
 The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological cycle, describes the
continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth.
 During this process, water changes its state from one phase to another, but the total number of water
particles remains the same.
Stages of Water Cycle

 Evaporation: The sun is the ultimate source of energy, and it powers most of the evaporation that
occurs on earth. Evaporation generally happens when water molecules at the surface of water bodies
become excited and rise into the air. These molecules with the highest kinetic energy accumulate into
water vapour clouds. Evaporation usually takes place below the boiling point of water. This process
contributes to a large percentage of water in the atmosphere.
 Sublimation: Sublimation occurs when snow or ice changes directly into water vapour without
becoming water. It usually occurs as a result of dry winds and low humidity. Sublimation can be
observed on mountain peaks, where the air pressure is quite low. The low air pressure helps to
sublimate the snow into water vapour as less energy is utilised in the process.
 Condensation: The water vapour that accumulated in the atmosphere eventually cools down due to
the low temperatures found at high altitudes. These vapours become tiny droplets of water and ice,
eventually coming together to form clouds.
 Precipitation: Above 0°C, the vapours will condense into water droplets. However, it cannot
condense without dust or other impurities. Hence, water vapours attach itself on to the particle’s
surface. When enough droplets merge, it falls out of the clouds and on to the ground below. This
process is called precipitation (or rainfall).
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 Infiltration: Rainwater gets absorbed into the ground through the process of infiltration. The level of
absorption varies based on the material the water has seeped into.
 Runoff: If the water from rainfall does not form aquifers, it follows gravity, often flowing down the
sides of mountains and hills; eventually forming rivers. This process is called runoff.
Food Chain
 A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism eats another
organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism.
 The flow of nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food
chain.
 The food chain consists of four major parts, namely:

 The Sun: The sun is the initial source of energy, which provides energy for everything on the
planet.
 Producers: The producers in a food chain include all autotrophs such as phytoplankton,
cyanobacteria, algae, and green plants. This is the first stage in a food chain. The producers make
up the first level of a food chain. The producers utilise the energy from the sun to make food.
Producers are also known as autotrophs as they make their own food. Producers are any plant or
other organisms that produce their own nutrients through photosynthesis.
 Consumers: Consumers are all organisms that are dependent on plants or other organisms for
food. This is the largest part of a food web, as it contains almost all living organisms. It includes
herbivores which are animals that eat plants, carnivores which are animals that eat other animals,
parasites that live on other organisms by harming them and lastly the scavengers, which are
animals that eat dead animals’ carcasses.
Herbivores are known as primary consumers and carnivores are secondary consumers. The second
trophic level includes organisms that eat producers. Therefore, primary consumers or herbivores
are organisms in the second trophic level.
 Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms that get energy from dead or waste organic material.
This is the last stage in a food chain. Decomposers are an integral part of a food chain, as they
convert organic waste materials into inorganic materials, which enriches the soil or land with
nutrients.
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Decomposers complete a life cycle. They help in recycling the nutrients as they provide nutrients
to soil or oceans that can be utilised by autotrophs or producers. Thus, starting a whole new food
chain.
Types of Food Chain
The two types of food chains are
 Detritus food chain: The detritus food chain includes different species of organisms and plants
like algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mites, insects, worms and so on. The detritus food chain
begins with dead organic material. The food energy passes into decomposers and detritivores,
which are further eaten by smaller organisms like carnivores. Carnivores, like maggots, become a
meal for bigger carnivores like frogs, snakes and so on. Primary consumers like fungi, bacteria,
protozoans, and so on are detritivores which feed on detritus.
 Grazing food chain: The grazing food chain is a type of food chain that starts with green plants,
passes through herbivores and then to carnivores. In a grazing food chain, energy in the lowest
trophic level is acquired from photosynthesis.
Pollution
 “Pollution is the introduction of substances (or energy) that cause adverse changes in the environment
and living entities.”
 Pollution need not always be caused by chemical substances such as particulates (like smoke and
dust). Forms of energy such as sound, heat or light can also cause pollution. These substances that
cause pollution are called pollutants.
Types of Pollution
 Air Pollution: Air pollution refers to the release of harmful contaminants (chemicals, toxic gases,
particulates, biological molecules, etc.) into the earth’s atmosphere. These contaminants are quite
detrimental and in some cases, pose serious health issues. Some causes that contribute to air
pollution are burning fossil fuels, mining operations and exhaust gases from industries and
factories.
 Water Pollution: Water pollution is said to occur when toxic pollutants and particulate matter are
introduced into water bodies such as lakes, rivers and seas. These contaminants are generally
introduced by human activities like improper sewage treatment and oil spills.
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 Soil pollution: also called soil contamination, refers to the degradation of land due to the presence
of chemicals or other man-made substances in the soil. The xenobiotic substances alter the natural
composition of soil and affect it negatively. These can drastically impact life directly or indirectly.
 Noise pollution: refers to the excessive amount of noise in the surrounding that disrupts the natural
balance. Usually, it is man-made, though certain natural calamities like volcanoes can contribute to
noise pollution. Noise pollution has several contributors like industry-oriented noises such as
heavy machines and mills, transportation noises from vehicles, aeroplanes, construction noises,
noise from social events (loudspeakers, firecrackers, etc.) and household noises (such as mixers,
TV, washing machines, etc.).
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Practice Test - EVS
1. Which of the following is a type of renewable source of energy?

a. Natural Gas b Fossil Fuels
c. Minerals d Wind
2. Water Cycle is also known as?
a. Hydrologic Cycle b Transpiration
c. Precipitation d Evaporation
3. Air pollution causes
a. Global warming b. Respiratory problems c. Soil erosion d. None of these
4. Solar energy is produced by which device
a. Solar cell b Solar energy c Solar Panel d Both a and b
5. The water cycle always starts in the
a. Oceans b Clouds c Plants and animals d No starting place
6. Resources drawn from nature and used without much modification are called
a. Human made resources b Natural resources
c. Cultural resources d None of these
7. The basis of classification of resources are
a. Level of development and use b Origin
c. Stock and distribution d All of these
8. Hirakud dam and Bhakra dam are the examples of which energy?
a. Hydroelectric energy b Geothermal Energy
c. Kinetic Energy d Tidal Energy
9. A linkage of production to consumption of food which are dependent on various organisms is known
as
a. Ecosystem b Food Chain c Both a and b d None of these
10. The moving air or flow of air possesses which energy
a. Kinetic Energy b Thermal energy
c. Geothermal Energy d Solar energy
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Answers – EVS
Practice Test
36. a Natural gas is the type of renewable source of energy.

37. a Hydrologic Cycle is also known as Water Cycle.
38. b Air pollution causes respiratory problems.
39. c Solar Panels. Solar energy is any type of energy generated by the sun. Solar energy can be
harnessed directly or indirectly for human use. These solar panels, mounted on a rooftop in Germany,
harvest solar energy and convert it to electricity.
40. d It has no starting and ending place.
41. b Resources drawn from nature and used without much modification are called Natural
resources.
42. d All of the given options are the basis of classification of resources.
43. a Hirakud dam and Bhakra dam are the examples hydroelectric energy.
44. b A linkage of production to consumption of food which are dependent on various organisms is
known as Food Chain.
45. a The moving air or flow of air possesses Kinetic Energy.
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Economics
Economics is defined as a social science directed at the satisfaction of

needs and wants through the allocation of scarce resources which have
alternative uses. Economics is about the study of scarcity and choice.
Micro Economics:
Microeconomics is the study of Macroeconomics:
individuals, households and firms' It is the study of whole economies-
behaviour in decision making and the part of economics concerned
allocation of resources. It with large-scale or general
generally applies to markets of economic factors and how they
goods and services and deals with interact in economies.
individual and economic issues.
Economy: An economy is a system whereby goods are produced and exchanged. Without a viable economy,
a state will collapse.
Free Market
Types of Economies Command Economies
Mixed Economies
 Free market or Market-based Economies: allow people and businesses to freely exchange goods and
services according to supply and demand.
 Command-Based Economies: Command-based economies depend on a central government that controls
the production levels, pricing, and distribution of goods.
 Mixed Economies: Pure market economies rarely exist in the modern world since there's usually some
degree of government intervention or central planning. It may not mandate production but it has ways to
influence it.
Sectors of an Indian Economy
Primary Sector: Secondary Sector: Tertiary Sector:

It includes all those activities The secondary sector covers The tertiary sector covers a wide
the end purpose of which all those activities consisting range of activities from commerce
consists in exploiting natural in varying degrees of to administration, transport,
resources: agriculture, fishing, processing of raw materials financial and real estate activities,
forestry, mining, deposits. (manufacturing, construction business and personal services,
education, health and social work.
industries).
Production Possibility Curve (PPC): The production possibilities curve (PPC) is a graph that shows all of
the different combinations of output that can be produced given current resources and technology.
Marginal Opportunity Cost (MOC): of a given commodity along a PPC is defined as the amount of
sacrifice of a commodity so as to gain one additional unit of the other commodity.
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Demand – Supply Concept
Law of Supply
Law of Demand
It states that other factors being
It is a fundamental concept in
constant (cetris peribus), price microeconomics that governs
and quantity demand of any good supply at a given price and states
and service are inversely related that when the market price of a
to each other. good increases, suppliers will
increase the supply of that good.
Equilibrium Point: an equilibrium point in the state space is a point at which the rates-of-change for all of
the state variables are zero (the state-space is the space for which each state variable is an axis).
Type of Goods
Substitute Goods: Complementary Normal Goods: Inferior Goods: Veblen good:

Substitute goods Goods: Normal good is a An inferior good is Veblen goods are
are similar Complementary good that an economic term typically high-quality
products that a good is a experiences an that describes a goods that are made
customer may use product or increase in its good whose well, are exclusive,
demand due to a
for the same service that demand drops and are a status
rise in consumers'
purpose. E.g. Coke provides value to income. E.g. when people's symbol. E.g. designer
and Pepsi. another product Clothing, and incomes rise. E.g. jewellery, and luxury
or service. E.g. household Fast Food cars.
Cereal and Milk appliances.
Demand
Demand simply means a consumer’s desire to buy goods and services without any hesitation and pay the price
for it. In simple words, demand is the number of goods that the customers are ready and willing to buy at
several prices during a given time frame.
Determinants of Demand
There are many determinants of demand, but the top five determinants of demand are as follows:
 Product cost: Demand of the product changes as per the change in the price of the commodity. People
deciding to buy a product remain constant only if all the factors related to it remain unchanged.
 The income of the consumers: When the income increases, the number of goods demanded also
increases. Likewise, if the income decreases, the demand also decreases.
 Costs of related goods and services: For a complimentary product, an increase in the cost of one
commodity will decrease the demand for a complimentary product. Example: An increase in the rate
of bread will decrease the demand for butter. Similarly, an increase in the rate of one commodity will
generate the demand for a substitute product to increase. Example: Increase in the cost of tea will raise
the demand for coffee and therefore, decrease the demand for tea.
 Consumer expectation: High expectation of income or expectation in the increase in price of a good
also leads to an increase in demand. Similarly, low expectation of income or low pricing of goods will
decrease the demand.
 Buyers in the market: If the number of buyers for a commodity are more or less, then there will be a
shift in demand.
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Types of Demand
 Price demand: It refers to various types of quantities of goods or services that a customer will buy at a
quoted price and given time, considering the other things remain constant.
 Income demand: It refers to various types of quantities of goods or services that a customer will buy
at different stages of income, considering the other things remain constant.
 Cross demand: This means that the product’s demand does not depend on its own cost but depends
on the cost of the other related commodities.
 Direct demand: When goods or services satisfy an individual’s wants directly, it is known as direct
demand.
 Derived demand or Indirect demand: The goods or services demanded or needed for manufacturing
the goods and satisfying the consumer indirectly is known as derived demand.
 Joint demand: To produce a product there are many things that are related to each other, for example,
to produce bread, we need services like an oven, fuel, flour mill, and more. So, the demand for other
additional things to produce a product is known as joint demand.
 Composite demand: A composite demand can be described when goods and services are utilised for
more than one cause.
Price Elasticity of Demand (Ed)
 It is the ratio of the percentage change in quantity demanded of a product to the percentage change in
price.
Ed = Percentage change in quantity demanded / Percentage change in price
Ed = P/q × Δ q / Δ p
Where P = Original price, Q = Original quantity and Δ = Change
Perfectly inelastic demand (Ed = 0)
 Perfectly inelastic means that there is no change in quantity at all when price changes. In other words,
whatever be the price the quantity demanded remains the same.
Inelastic (less elastic) demand (e < 1)
 An inelastic demand is one in which the change in quantity demanded due to a change in price is
small. In other words, quantity changes faster than price. If the value is less than 1, demand is inelastic.
Unitary elasticity demand (e = 1)
 Unitary elastic demand is a type of demand which changes in the same proportion to its price. It means
that the percentage change in demand is exactly equal to the percentage change in price.
Elastic (more elastic) demand (e > 1)
 An elastic demand is one in which the change in quantity demanded due to a change in price is large.
If the formula creates an absolute value greater than 1, the demand is elastic.
Perfectly elastic demand (e = ∞)
 Perfectly elastic demand is when the demand for the product is entirely dependent on the price of the
product. This means that if any producer increases his price by even a minimal amount, his
demand will disappear. The demand curve showing perfectly elastic demand is a horizontal straight
line.
Engel’s Law: % of income spent on food decreases as income increases.
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Law of Supply
 The law of supply states that the quantity of a good supplied

(i.e. the amount owners or producers offer for sale) rises as the
Market price rises, and falls as the price falls.
 Conversely, the law of demand says that the quantity of a good
demanded falls as the price rises and vice-versa.
 The chart below depicts the law of supply using a supply curve,
which is upward sloping. A, B, and C are points on the supply curve. Each point on the curve reflects a
direct correlation between quantity supplied (Q) and price (P). So, at point A, the quantity supplied
will be Q1 and the price will be P1, and so on.
Elasticity of Supply
 The law of supply states that there is a direct relationship between the quantity supplied and the price
of a commodity.
 The elasticity of supply establishes a quantitative relationship between the supply of a commodity and
its price.
 It is measured by the formula:
Elasticity of supply = Proportionate change in quantity supplied / Proportionate change in price
Types of Elasticity of Supply
 Perfectly Inelastic Supply: A service or commodity has a perfectly inelastic supply if a given
quantity of it can be supplied whatever might be the price. The elasticity of supply for such a service
or commodity is zero. A perfectly inelastic supply curve is a straight line parallel to the Y-axis.
 Perfectly Elastic supply: A commodity with a perfectly elastic supply
has an infinite elasticity. In such a case the supply becomes zero with
even a slight fall in the price and becomes infinite with a slight rise in
price. This is indicative of the fact that the suppliers of such a commodity
are willing to supply any quantity of the commodity at a higher price.
A perfectly elastic supply curve is a straight line parallel to the X-axis.
 Unitary Elastic: For a commodity with a unit elasticity of supply, the
change in quantity supplied of a commodity is exactly equal to the
change in its price. In other words, the change in both price and supply of the commodity are
proportionately equal to each other. To point out, the elasticity of supply in such a case is equal to one.
Further, a unitary elastic supply curve passes through the origin.
Forms of Market and

Price Determination
 Market: A market is a place where buyers and sellers can meet to facilitate the exchange or
transaction of goods and services.
 Markets can be physical like a retail outlet, or virtual like an e-retailer. Other include illegal markets,
auction markets, and financial markets.
 Market structure: It refers to number of firms operating in an industry, nature of competition
between them and the nature of product.
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Types of Market
Monopoly
A monopolistic market is a market formation with the qualities of a pure market. A pure monopoly can only
exist when one provider gives a specific service or a product to numerous customers. In a monopolistic
market, the imposing business organisation, or the controlling organisation, has the overall control of the
entire market, so it sets the supply and price of its goods and services. For example, the Indian Railway,
Google, Microsoft, and Facebook.
Oligopoly
An oligopoly is a market form with a few firms, none of which can hold the others back from having a critical
impact. The fixation or concentration proportion estimates the piece of the market share of the biggest firms.
For example, commercial air travel, auto industries, cable television, etc.
Perfect Competition
Perfect competition is an absolute sort of market form wherein all end consumers and producers have
complete and balanced data and no exchange costs. There is an enormous number of makers and customers
rivalling each other in this sort of environment. For example, agricultural products like carrots, potatoes, and
various grain products, the securities market, foreign exchange markets, and even online shopping websites,
etc.
Monopolistic Competition
Monopolistic competition portrays an industry where many firms offer their services and products that are
comparative (however somewhat flawed) substitutes. Obstructions or barriers to exit and entry in
monopolistic competitive industries are low, and the choices made of any firm don’t explicitly influence those
of its rivals. The monopolistic competition is firmly identified with the business technique of brand separation
and differentiation. For example, hairdressers, restaurant businesses, hotels, and pubs.
Monopsony
A monopsony is a market situation wherein there is just a single purchaser, the monopsonist. Just like a
monopoly, a monopsony additionally has an imperfect market condition. The contrast between a monopsony
and a monopoly is basically in the distinction between the controlling business elements. A solitary purchaser
overwhelms a monopsonist market while a singular dealer controls a monopolised market. Monopsonists are
normal to regions where they supply most of the locale’s positions in the regional jobs. For example, a
company that collects the entire labour of a town. Like a sugar factory that recruits labourers from the entire
town to extract sugar from sugarcane.
Natural Monopoly
A natural monopoly is a kind of a monopoly that can exist normally because of the great start-up costs or
incredible economies of scale of directing a business in a particular industry which can bring about huge
barriers to exit and entry for possible contenders. An organisation with a natural monopoly may be the main
supplier of a service or a product in an industry or geographic area. Normally, natural monopolies can emerge
in businesses that require the latest technology, raw materials, or similar factors to work. For example, the
utility service industry is a natural monopoly. It consists of supplying water, electricity, sewer services, and
distribution of energy to towns and cities across the country.
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Selling cost (Advertisement cost): Selling costs refer to the expenditure incurred by the producer in order to
promote the sale of the commodity. Example: Expenditure on advertisement.
Product differentiation: It is a process used by businesses to distinguish a product or service from other
similar ones available in the market. This tactic aims to help businesses develop a competitive advantage and
define compelling, unique selling propositions (USPs) that set their product apart from competitors.
Patent rights: A patent owner has the right to decide who may – or may not – use the patented invention for
the period in which the invention is protected. In other words, patent protection means that the invention
cannot be commercially made, used, distributed, imported, or sold by others without the patent owner's
consent.
Price discrimination: Price discrimination is a microeconomic pricing strategy where identical or largely
similar goods or services are sold at different prices by the same provider in different markets.
Production: Production is the process of combining various material inputs and immaterial inputs in order to
make something for consumption. It is the act of creating an output, a good or service which has value and
contributes to the utility of individuals.
Production Function
The production function is differently defined in the short run and in the long
run. This distinction is extremely relevant in microeconomics. The distinction is
based on the nature of factor inputs. Those inputs that vary directly with the
output are called variable factors.
Concepts of Product
Total Product (TP): It refers to the total amount of output that a firm / industry produces within a given
period, utilising given inputs and its formula is AP × L, where AP = product / labour unit; L = Labour.
Average product also known as Average Physical product (APL): It is explained as the output per unit of
the variable input. It can be calculated as APL = TPL / L
Marginal product (MP): refers to addition to the total product, when one more unit of variable factor is
employed.
Cost: The amount or equivalent paid or charged for something.
Types of Cost
1. Money Cost: 3. Fixed Costs:

It is that total money expenses incurred by a firm in 2. Opportunity Cost: Fixed costs are costs that do not change
producing a commodity. The opportunity cost is also known as when sales or production volumes
The money cost includes both: ‘transfer cost’ or ‘alternate cost’. increase or decrease. This is because
a. Implicit Costs: Cost incurred on the self. It It is the cost of next best alternative they are not directly associated with
owned factors of production. foregone / sacrificed. manufacturing a product or delivering a
b. Explicit Costs: Actual payment made on hired service. As a result, fixed costs are
factors of production considered to be indirect costs.
4. Total Variable Costs: Variable costs are the 5. Production Costs: 6. Total Cost: Total cost refers to the
sum of all labor and materials required to Production costs refer to all of the direct overall cost of production, which
produce a unit of your product. Total variable and indirect costs businesses face from includes both fixed and variable
cost is equal to the variable cost per unit, manufacturing a product or providing a components of the cost.
multiplied by the number of units produced. service. Production costs can include a Mathematically, the total cost
Average variable cost is equal to your total variety of expenses, such as labor, raw formula can be represented as
variable cost, divided by the number of units materials, consumable manufacturing Total Cost = Total Fixed Cost +
produced. supplies, and general overhead. Total Variable Cost
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Relation between Total Cost (TC), Total Fixed Cost (TFC) and Total Variable Cost (TVC)
Revenue
 Revenue is the total amount of money received from carrying out the business operations such as sales.
 On the income statement, it is also known as sales and is the top line figure as it is shown first on the
income statement of any company.
 Revenue can be divided into Operating Revenue (sales from a company's core business) and Non-
Operating Revenue (derived from secondary sources).
 The formula to calculate Net Revenue = (Quantity Sold × Unit Price) - Discounts - Allowances –
Returns.
Total Revenue (TR): Total revenue is the total amount of money a company brings in from selling its goods
and services and is expressed as TR = Quantity × Price
Average Revenue (AR): It is referred as the revenue that is earned per unit of output. Average revenue of a
business is obtained by dividing the total revenue with the total output. It is expressed as AR = TR / Q where
AR is Average revenue, TR is Total revenue and Q is Output.
Marginal Revenue (MR): It is the increase in revenue that results from the sale of one additional unit of
output.
It is calculated by the formula Marginal Revenue = Change in Total Revenue ÷ Change in Quantity Sold
Relationship between AR and MR (when price remains constant or perfect competition)
Perfect competition is a form of the market in which there is a large number
of buyers and sellers and where homogeneous product is sold at a uniform
price. A price taker firm means that it has to accept the price as determined by
the forces of market demand and market supply. Firm's demand curve under
perfect competition is a horizontal straight line parallel to X-axis. Under
perfect competition, AR is constant for a firm. Hence, AR = MR.
Relation between TR and MR (When price remains constant or in perfect competition)
When price remains constant, firms can sell any quantity of output at the
price fixed by the market. As a result, MR curve (and AR curve) is a
horizontal straight line parallel to the X-axis. Since MR remains constant,
TR also increases at a constant rate.
Relationships between AR and MR under monopoly and monopolistic
competition (Price changes or under imperfect competition)
Both, Monopoly and Monopolistic Competition fall under the category of
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Imperfect Competition. Therefore, AR and MR curves slope downwards as more units can be sold only by
reducing the price.AR and MR curves will be downward sloping in both the market forms.
Relationship between TR and MR. (When price falls with the increase in sale of output)
When price falls with a rise in output, then both MR and AR fall. However, fall in MR is double than that in
AR, i.e., MR falls at a rate which is twice the rate of fall in AR. As a result, MR curve is steeper than the AR
curve because MR is limited to one unit, whereas, AR is derived by all the units.
Break-even point: It is that point where TR = TC or AR=AC. Firm will be earning normal profit.
Shut down point: A situation when a firm is able to cover only variable costs or TR = TVC
Mini Exercise - I
1. The elasticity for the demand of durable goods is
a. Zero b Equal to unity
c. Greater than unity d Less than unit
2. Law of demand shows a relation between the
a. Quantity demand and quantity supply of a commodity
b. Income and quantity demand of a commodity
c. Price and quantity of a commodity
d. Income and price of a commodity
3. Which of the following best represents the concept of Net Domestic Product (NDP)?
a. GDP- Income from abroad
b. GDP + Income from abroad
c. GNP – Depreciation d GDP – Depreciation
4. Marginal cost is defined as
a. the change in total cost due to one unit change in output
b. the change in total cost due to one unit change in input
c. the ratio of total cost to total output
d. the ratio of total cost to total input
5. ________ means absence of competition.
a. Monopoly b Perfect c Imperfect d Oligopoly
6. ________ refers to the amount received by a firm from the sales of a given quantity of a particular
good.
a. Cost b Revenue c Production d Functional cost
7. Under which of the following forms of market structure does a firm has no control over the price of its
product
a. Monopoly b Oligopoly c Monopolistic competition
d. Perfect competition
8. What’s the primary basis of the concept of cost?
a. Financial audit b Tax compliance
c. Cost estimation d Analysis of profit
9. Salary paid to permanent employees is an example of what cost?
a. Implicit cost b Variable cost
c. Fixed cost d Explicit cost
10. Which of the following comes under the Tertiary sector?
a. Transport b Communication c Both (a) & (b)
d. None of these
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Macro Economics
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the standard measure of the value added created through the
production of goods and services in a country during a certain period.
 As such, it also measures the income earned from that production, or the total amount spent on final
goods and services (less imports).
 GDP = private consumption + gross private investment + government investment + government
spending + (exports – imports) or expressed in a formula: GDP = C + I + G + (X – M)
 GDP is usually calculated by the national statistical agency of the country following the international
standard.
 When GDP is measured at current price it is called Nominal GDP, when it is measured at constant
price or base year it is called Real GDP and real-time measurement of all outputs at any interval or any
given time is called Actual GDP.
Gross National Product of Market Price (GNP at MP)
 GNP at market price is defined as the market value of all the final goods and services produced in the
domestic territory of a country by normal residents during an accounting year including net factor
income from abroad.
 GNPMP = GDPMP + Net factor income from abroad
Net National Product of Market Price (NNP at MP)
 The value of a country's people' contribution to economic output, minus depreciation but including net
indirect taxes, is known as NNP at market price.
 The value obtained by removing depreciation from the gross national product (GNP) is known as net
national product at market price.
 NNP (MP) = GNP (MP) – Depreciation.
National Income
 National income is the total income that is generated by all the economic activities taking place in an
economy during a financial year.
 It includes income that is generated from both public and private sectors.
 National Income = Rent + Compensation + Interest + Profit + Mixed income.
Methods of Calculating National Income
Production generate incomes which are again spent on goods and services produced. Therefore, national
income can be measured by three methods:
Output or Production Method
 Under the product method, the national income is calculated by adding up the money value of goods
and services produced by the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors.
 It is useful for assessing the contribution of each of these sectors towards the national income.
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 It is also used to analyse which sector contributes the most to national income.
Income Method
 The income approach is an evaluation methodology used for real estate estimation, which is computed
by dividing the capitalisation tariff or price by the net operating income of the rental payments.
Investors use this computation to value properties based on their profitability.
Expenditure Method
a. The expenditure method is a system for calculating gross domestic product (GDP) that combines
consumption, investment, government spending, and net exports. It is the most common way to estimate
GDP.
b. The formula for calculating national expenditure is National income = C + I + G + (X – M), where C is
Consumption by residents of the nation, I is Investment, G is Government spending, X is Exports and M
is Imports.
Private Income
 Private income is the income generated by any private individual or a household from engaging in any
occupational activities or any type of income that is not received as salary or commission.
 It includes income that is generated from the private sector only.
 Private Income = Income from domestic product accruing to private sector + Net factor income from
abroad + All types of transfer incomes.
Personal Income
 Income that people get from wages and salaries, Social Security and other government benefits,
dividends and interest, business ownership, and other sources.
 Personal Income = National Income + Income Received but Not Earned + Income Earned but Not
Received.
Disposable Income
 Disposable income or disposable personal income is an economic term for the money that is available
for household consumption, savings, and spending after accounting for income tax.
 It is an important indicator that is used by economists in determining the demand in an economy. Also,
it is used to estimate the overall state of the country’s economy.
 The mathematical representation of disposable income formula is Disposable income = Personal
income – Personal income taxes or DPI = PI – PIT
 Factor Payment: Factor payment is a payment made in lieu of providing goods and services. A
worker gets the wages is the factor payment because he worked for it.
 Transfer payment: If there is no obligation involved to deliver service or goods in return of the
payments is called transfer payment. Examples are: donation, old age pension, unemployment benefit,
scholarship etc.
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Inflation
 Inflation or price inflation is a general rise in the price level of an economy over a period of time.
 Inflation is measures by consumer price index.
Types of Inflation
Cost push inflation Built-in inflation

It is an inflation caused by This type of inflation
Demand-Pull Inflation an increase in the price of involves a high demand for
This type of inflation is inputs, increase in direct wages by the workers which
caused due to an increase taxes, depreciation of the firms address by
in aggregate demand in currency, food inflation, increasing the cost of goods
the economy. interest rates increased by and services for the
RBI, defective supply chain
customers.
etc.
Remedies of Inflation
Monetary or Contractionary policy
 The monetary policy is aimed at managing the quantity of money in order to meet the requirements of
different sectors of the economy and to boost economic growth.
 This Contractionary policy is manifested by decreasing bond prices and increasing interest rates. This
helps in reducing expenses during inflation which ultimately helps halt economic growth and, in turn,
the rate of inflation.
Fiscal Policy
 Monetary policy is often seen separate from fiscal policy which deals with taxation, spending by
government and borrowing. Monetary policy is either Contractionary or expansionary.
 When the total money supply is increased rapidly than normal, it is called an expansionary policy
while a slower increase or even a decrease of the same refers to a Contractionary policy.
 It deals with the Revenue and Expenditure policy of the government.
Measurement of Inflation
 Wholesale Price Index (WPI): It is estimated by the Ministry of Commerce & Industry and measured
on a monthly basis.
 Consumer Price Index (CPI): It is calculated by taking price changes for each item in the
predetermined lot of goods and averaging them.
 Producer Price Index: It is a measure of the average change in the selling prices over time received
by domestic producers for their output.
 Commodity Price Indices: It is a fixed-weight index or (weighted) average of selected commodity
prices, which may be based on spot or futures price
 Core Price Index: It measures the prices paid by consumers for goods and services without the
volatility caused by movements in food and energy prices. It is a way to measure the underlying
inflation trends.
 GDP deflator: It is a measure of general price inflation.
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Some Important Curves
Lorenz Curve
A Lorenz Curve is a graphical representation of the distribution of income or wealth within a population.
Lorenz curves graph percentiles of the population against cumulative income or wealth of people at or below
that percentile.
Philip Curve
The Phillips curve is an economic concept developed by A.W. Philips stating that inflation and unemployment
have a stable and inverse relationship. The theory claims that with economic growth comes inflation, which in
turn should lead to more jobs and less unemployment.
Gini Coefficient
The Gini coefficient measures the inequality among values of a frequency distribution, such as the levels of
income. A Gini coefficient of 0 expresses perfect equality, where all values are the same, while a Gini
coefficient of 1 (or 100%) expresses maximal inequality among values.
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Mini Exercise - II
1. Macroeconomics is also called the

a. Theory of money b Theory of national income
c. Theory of income d Theory of inflation
2. Which of the following is not a method to calculate Gross Domestic Product?
a. Diminishing cost method b Expenditure method
c. Product method d None of these
3. Which sector in the economy is the largest contributor to the Gross National Product?
a. Tertiary sector
b. Public sector
c. Primary sector d Secondary sector
4. If too much money is chasing too few goods, the resulting inflation is known as
a. Stagflation b Cost-push inflation
c. Demand-pull inflation d None of these
5. Inflation is measured by
a. Consumer price index b Wholesale price index
c. Marshall’s index d None of these
6. Which of the following is measured by the Lorenz Curve?
a. Illiteracy b Unemployment c Population growth rate
d. Inequality of income
7. The original Phillips curve illustrates
a. The trade-off between inflation and unemployment
b. The trade-off between output and unemployment
c. The positive relationship between output and unemployment
d. The positive relationship between inflation and unemployment
8. The Gini Coefficient is used to measure
a. Inequality of income or health
b. Unemployment Rate
c. Environmental Pollution
d. Biodiversity distribution
9. Transfer payments refer to payments that are made
a. As compensation to employees
b. Without any exchange of goods and services
c. To workers on transfer from one job to another
d. None of these
10. Which of the following is not a part of Gross Domestic Product?
a. Life expectancy b Public education
c. National defence d None of these
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Tax Structure in India
Tax structures are measured by the share of major taxes in total tax revenue. While, on average, tax levels
have generally been rising, the share of main taxes in total revenues – the tax structure or tax “mix” – has been
remarkably stable over time.
The taxation system in India is such that the taxes are levied by the Central Government and the State
Governments. Some minor taxes are also levied by the local authorities such as the Municipality and the Local
Governments.
Classification of Taxes
Broadly taxes are divided into two categories namely Direct Taxes and Indirect Taxes
Direct Taxes
 A direct tax can be defined as a tax that is paid directly by an individual or organization to the
imposing entity (generally government).
 A direct tax cannot be shifted to another individual or entity. The individual or organization upon
which the tax is levied is responsible for the fulfilment of the tax payment.
 The Central Board of Direct Taxes deals with matters related to levying and collecting Direct Taxes
and formulation of various policies related to direct taxes.
 A taxpayer pays a direct tax to a government for different purposes, including real property tax,
personal property tax, income tax or taxes on assets, FBT, Gift Tax, Capital Gains Tax, etc.
 The types of Direct taxes in India are
 Income Tax: The tax that gets levied on the annual income or the profits of an individual or an entity
is Income Tax. Therefore, the Indian tax system recognises both salaried and self-employed
individuals who are earning an income, to be liable to pay income tax. Also, there is also a tax
exemption limit of up to Rs.2.5 lakh per annum under the Indian tax system, given to individuals
below 60 years of age.
Similarly, the Indian tax system provides a tax exemption limit of up to Rs.3 lakh for individuals of the
age of 60 or above but less than 80. The limit is Rs.5 lakh for individuals of the age of 80 or above.
The tax slabs differ with income.
 Corporate Income Tax: The income-tax paid by domestic companies, and foreign companies on their
income in India is corporate income-tax (CIT). The CIT is at a specific rate as prescribed by the
income tax act subject to the changes in the rates in the union budget every year.
 Securities Transaction Tax: The securities transaction tax, as defined under the Indian tax system,
gets levied on the stock market and securities trading. This tax is imposed on the price of the share and
the traded securities traded on the ISE (Indian Stock Exchange).
 Banking Cash Transaction Tax (BCTT): It is a type of direct tax levied on withdrawal of cash more
than a specified limit from bank.
 Capital Gains Tax: It is defined as any profit that is received through the sale of a capital asset. The
profit that is received falls under the income category. Therefore, a tax needs to be paid on the income
that is received. The tax that is paid is called capital gains tax and it can either be long term or short
term.
 Property Tax: Property tax is charged on properties such as land and buildings and is used for
maintaining public services such as the police and fire departments, schools and libraries, as well as
roads.
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Indirect Taxes
 The term indirect tax has more than one meaning. In the colloquial sense, an indirect tax such as sales
tax, a specific tax, value-added tax (VAT), or goods and services tax (GST) is a tax collected by an
intermediary (such as a retail store) from the person who bears the ultimate economic burden of the tax
(such as the consumer).
 The intermediary later files a tax return and forwards the tax proceeds to the government with the
return. In this sense, the term indirect tax is contrasted with a direct tax which is collected directly by
the government from the persons (legal or natural) on which it is imposed.
 Goods and Services Tax: It is a consumption tax imposed on services and goods supply and has
completely replaced the indirect taxes in India. The Indian tax system stipulates that every stage of the
goods production process and value-added services is under the obligation to pay GST.
The introduction of GST under the Indian tax system has resulted in the abolition of other kinds of
indirect taxes in India and charges like Value Added Tax (VAT), OCTROI, Central Value Added Tax
(CENVAT), and also custom and excise taxes.
As per the Indian tax system, an exemption is given to the products or services such as electricity,
alcoholic drinks, and petroleum products that do not get taxed under GST. This tax is imposed
according to the previous tax regime decided by the different state governments.
 Excise Duty: An excise duty is a type of tax charged on goods produced within the country (as
opposed to customs duties, charged on goods from outside the country). It is a tax on the production or
sale of a good. This tax is now known as the Central Value Added Tax (CENVAT). The rates of excise
duty levied vary depending inter alia on the nature of the item manufactured, the nature of the
manufacturing concern, and the place of ultimate sale.
 Value Added Tax: Value-Added Tax (VAT) is a tax, which is payable on sales of goods or services
within the territory of the Member States of the EU. The tax, in all cases, is ultimately payable by the
final consumer of the good or service.
 Entertainment Tax: This tax is charged by the state government and is applicable on any products or
transactions related to entertainment. Purchasing of any video games, movie shows, sports activities,
arcades, amusement parks, etc. are some of the products on which Entertainment Tax is charged.
 Securities Transaction Tax: This tax is levied during the trading of securities through Indian Stock
Exchange.
Economic Reforms
 Economic reforms refer to the changes made in the economy with a view to deregulate it and to solve
the prevalent economic problems of the country.
 In India, economic reforms were introduced in 1991, with the implementation of new economic policy.
 These reforms can be categorised as:
 Stabilisation Reforms: These reforms were short term measures which intended to correct
disequilibrium in BoP and to check inflation.
 Structural Reforms: These are long term measures which intend to bring efficiency into the
economic system. These reforms can be categorised as liberalisation, privatisation and
globalisation.
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Indian Economy Policy 1991
Liberalisation L. P. G Privatisation
Globalisation
 Liberalisation: Liberalisation means minimising the government's restrictions and regulations in an economy, in
return for higher involvement of private organisations.
 Privatisation: The transfer of publicly owned or publicly operated means of production to private ownership or
operation.
 Globalisation: The word used to describe the growing interdependence of the world's economies, cultures, and
populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment,
people, and information.
Disinvestment
Disinvestment in India is a policy of the Government of India, wherein the Government liquidates its assets in
the Public sector Enterprises partially or fully. The decision to disinvest is mainly to reduce the fiscal burden
and bridge the revenue shortfall of the government.
Public Sector
 The public sector is a part of the economy that comprises all organizations that are owned and operated
by the government.
 This includes everything from schools and hospitals to roads and bridges. The main purpose of the
public sector is to provide services that are considered essential for the well-being of society.
Objectives of Public Sector: The objectives of the public sector in India can be divided into three categories:
 Social Objectives: The public sector aims at providing basic goods and services to the citizens. It also
provides employment opportunities and promotes economic development.
 Economic Objectives: The public sector plays a key role in the development of infrastructure and
encourages private investment.
 Political Objectives: The public sector protects the interests of weaker sections of society and
promotes exports.
Private Sector
 The private sector is the part of a country's economic system that is run by individuals and companies,
rather than a government entity. Most private sector organizations are run with the intention of making
profit.
 The main objective of the private sector is to earn profits and become a leading organization in their
line of business.
Poverty
Poverty, the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or material possessions.
Poverty is said to exist when people lack the means to satisfy their basic needs. In this context, the
identification of poor people first requires a determination of what constitutes basic needs.
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Types of Poverty
Absolute Poverty Relative Poverty

It is based on the assessments of minimum subsistence It is based on the different parameters
requirement or basic needs such as food, cloth, set for living of standard set up by
shelter, health etc. different society.
Unemployment
 Unemployment is a term referring to individuals who are employable and actively seeking a job but
are unable to find a job.
 The main reasons for unemployment in India are slow economic development, population explosion,
outdated technique, improper education system and limited effect of government planning.
Types of Unemployment
2. Frictional Unemployment: It is a type of

1. Cyclical Unemployment: It is a type of
unemployment that arises when workers are
unemployment which is related to the cyclical
searching for new jobs or are transitioning from one
trends in the industry or the business cycle.
job to another. It is part of natural unemployment.
3. Open Unemployment: It refers to the 4. Seasonal Unemployment: is when people who work
unavailability of employment/job opportunities in seasonal jobs become unemployed when demand
for people who are willing to work. Open for labor decreases. This typically occurs when a
unemployment is the basic and most significant specific time of year ends or a new season begins,
measure of unemployment rate in an economy. such as for a holiday or due to weather changes.
5. Educated unemployment: It is one of the most 6. Underemployment: Underemployment is the term

common unemployment seen in the urban used to designate the situation of those who are able
population. In this type of unemployment, a to find employment only for shorter than normal
youth after matriculation, graduation, or periods—part-time workers, seasonal workers, or day
sometimes post-graduation could not be able to or casual workers.
find any job for them.
Reserve Bank of India
 The Reserve Bank of India, chiefly known as RBI, is India's central bank and regulatory body
responsible for regulation of the Indian banking system.
 It is under the ownership of Ministry of Finance, Government of India.
 It is responsible for the control, issue and maintaining supply of the Indian rupee.
 It was established on 1st April, 1935 in accordance with the provisions of the Reserve Bank of India
Act, 1934. The Central Office of the Reserve Bank was initially established in Kolkata but was
permanently moved to Mumbai in 1937.
 The overall direction of the RBI lies with the 21-member central board of directors, composed of: the
governor; four deputy governors; two finance ministry representatives (usually the Economic Affairs
Secretary and the Financial Services Secretary); ten government-nominated directors; and four
directors who represent local boards for Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, and Delhi. Each of these local
boards consists of five members who represent regional interests and the interests of co-operative and
indigenous banks.
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Functions of Reserve bank of India
The Reserve Bank has a monopoly for printing the currency notes in the country. It has the
1. Issue of
sole right to issue currency notes of various denominations except one rupee note (which is
Currency Notes
issued by the Ministry of Finance).
The second important function of the Reserve Bank is to act as the Banker, Agent and
Adviser to the Government of India and states. It performs all the banking functions of the
2. Banker to the
State and Central Government and it also tenders useful advice to the government on matters
Government
related to economic and monetary policy. It also manages the public debt of the government.
The Reserve Bank performs the same functions for the other commercial banks as the other
3. Banker’s Bank banks ordinarily perform for their customers. RBI lends money to all the commercial banks of
the country.
The Reserve Bank performs a number of other developmental works. These works include
the function of clearinghouse arranging credit for agriculture (which has been transferred to
NABARD) collecting and publishing the economic data, buying and selling of Government
4. Other securities (gilt edge, treasury bills etc)and trade bills, giving loans to the Government buying
Functions and selling of valuable commodities etc. It also acts as the representative of the Government
in the International Monetary Fund (I.M.F.) and represents the membership of India.
The RBI undertakes the responsibility of controlling credit created by commercial banks. RBI
5. Controller of
uses two methods to control the extra flow of money in the economy. These methods are
the Credit
quantitative and qualitative techniques to control and regulate the credit flow in the country.
For the purpose of keeping the foreign exchange rates stable, the Reserve Bank buys and sells
6. Custodian of foreign currencies and also protects the country's foreign exchange funds. RBI sells the foreign
Foreign currency in the foreign exchange market when its supply decreases in the economy and vice-
Reserves versa.
RBI supervise the banking system in India. RBI has power to issue licence for setting up new
banks, to open new branches, to decide minimum reserves. RBI inspects functioning of
7. Supervisory
commercial banks in India and abroad. RBI also guide and direct the commercial banks in
Function
India. RBI can conduct audit any of the bank.
Monetary Policy
Monetary Policy: Monetary policy is a set of tools used by a nation's central

bank to control the overall money supply and promote economic growth and
employ strategies such as revising interest rates and changing bank reserve
requirements.
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Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR): Repo Rate:
The percentage of cash required to be kept The Repo rate is the rate at which
in reserves as against the bank's total commercial banks borrow money from
deposits, is called the Cash Reserve Ratio. the country's Central bank by selling
Under cash reserve ratio (CRR), the their assets.
commercial banks have to hold a certain It is an instrument of monetary policy.
minimum amount of deposit as reserves with Whenever banks have any shortage of
the central bank. funds they can borrow from the RBI.
It is the rate at which banks earn interest when they park surplus funds with the RBI. The repo rate helps
Reverse Repo
control inflation, and the reverse repo rate increases liquidity. The repo rate set by the RBI is always
Rate
higher than the reverse repo rate.
Bank rate is also called as the discount rate. It is the rate of interest which a central bank charges on its
Bank Rate loans and advances to a commercial bank. It is used for long term.
Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR): Marginal Standing Facility Rate:

Statutory Liquidity Ratio or SLR is the The Marginal Standing Facility (MSF) refers
minimum percentage of deposits that a to the facility under which scheduled
commercial bank has to maintain in the form commercial banks can borrow an additional
of liquid cash, gold or other securities. It is amount of overnight money from the central
basically the reserve requirement that banks bank over and above what is available to
are expected to keep before offering credit to them through the LAF (liquidity adjustment
customers. The SLR is fixed by the RBI and facility) window by dipping into their
is a form of control over the credit growth in Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) portfolio up
India. to a limit.
The government uses the SLR to regulate The scheme has been introduced by RBI with
inflation and fuel growth. The SLR was the aim of reducing volatility in the
prescribed by Section 24 (2A) of Banking overnight lending rates in the inter-bank
Regulation Act, 1949. market and to enable smooth monetary
transmission in the financial system.
Money Supply
 The money supply is the total amount of money - cash, coins, and balances in bank accounts - in
circulation. The money supply is commonly defined to be a group of safe assets that households and
businesses can use to make payments or to hold as short-term investments.
 The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is the central bank of our country. It manages the monetary system
of our country.
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 It has classified the money supply of our country into four components which are:
 M1 = It includes money in circulation plus checkable deposits in banks. It is also known as
narrow money.
 M2 = It includes M1 plus savings deposits (less than $100,000) and money market mutual
funds.
 M3 = It includes M2 plus large time deposit in banks.
 M4 = M3 + total post office deposits.
Note: M1, M2 and M3 are measurements of the United States money supply, known as the money aggregates.
Besides savings deposits, people maintain fixed deposits of different maturity periods with the post office.
Stock Exchange
 An exchange is a marketplace where stocks, bonds, commodities, options and futures are traded.
 The main functions of an exchange are to maintain fairness and order among buyers and sellers, and to
efficiently disseminate information about prices for any type of security that trades on that exchange.
There are two major types of Stock Exchanges in India
 Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE): The oldest Stock Exchange of India was established in 1875 in
Mumbai and is the most sensitive share index of the Mumbai Stock Exchange. This is the
representative index of 30 main shares.
 National Stock Exchange (NSE): It was established in 1992 in Mumbai and is accredited as the
pioneer among the demutualised electronic stock exchange markets in India. This stock exchange was
established with the objective to eliminate the monopolistic impact of the BSE in the Indian stock
market.
Types of Shares
As per Section 43 of Companies Act 2013, shares can be classified into two types namely Ordinary equity
shares and Preference Shares.
 Ordinary Equity shares: Ordinary shares are also called common shares issued by the company to
raise funds for the functioning and growth of the business. Owning ordinary shares allows an investor
to own a part of ownership in the company. The shareholders are given voting rights, rights to attend
the annual general meetings, dividends, and bonus shares from the company. It can be done by
initiating IPO (Initial public offering)
Different Types of Ordinary Shares
Voting and non-voting shares: Shareholders holding voting shares are eligible to get voting rights in
the company’s decision-making, formation of a policy, election for the board of directors, or any
corporate changes whereas shareholders holding non-voting rights are not eligible to get voting rights.
Bonus shares: When a company does not pay dividends to its shareholders, it issues bonus shares to
increase the company’s value. It is issued to existing shareholders of the company. Also, it encourages
investors to participate in the stock market or to invest in that particular company.
Rights shares: The existing shareholders of the company get the benefit to buy additional shares of
the company before it is available to external investors. Generally, the company issues right shares to
raise extra capital.
Sweat equity shares: The company issues sweat equity shares at a discount to its board of directors
and employees to reward them for the hard work they have put into the business.
 Preference shares: Preference shares, more commonly referred to as preferred stock, are shares of a
company's stock with dividends that are paid out to shareholders before common stock dividends are
issued. If the company enters bankruptcy, preferred stockholders are entitled to be paid from company
assets before common stockholders.
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Some Other Important terms
 Devaluation: Devaluation happens when a government makes monetary policy to reduce a currency's
value. It also happens as a result of supply and demand in a free foreign exchange market. Devaluation
is a decision that makes a currency lose value.
 Appreciation: Appreciation of the currency refers to the increase in the external value of the domestic
currency occurred due to the operation of market forces.
 Revenue Expenditure: Revenue expenditures are short-term expenses used in the current period or
typically within one year. Revenue expenditures include the expenses required to meet the ongoing
operational costs of running a business, and thus are essentially the same as operating expenses
(OPEX).
 Capital Expenditure: Capital expenditures (CAPEX) are funds used by a company to acquire,
upgrade, and maintain physical assets such as property, plants, buildings, technology, or equipment.
CAPEX is often used to undertake new projects or investments by a company.
Four different concepts of Budget Deficit
 Budget Deficit: A budgetary deficit is referred to as the situation in which the spending is more than
the income. Although it is mostly used for governments, this can also be broadly applied to individuals
and businesses. In other words, a budgetary deficit is said to have taken place when the individual,
government, or business budgets have more spending than the income that they can generate as
revenue.
It is expressed by Formulae: B.D = B.E > B.R (where B.D is Budget Deficit, B.E. is Budget
Expenditure and B.R is Budget Revenue).
 Fiscal Deficit: Fiscal deficit is the difference between the total revenue and total expenditure of a
government in a financial year. Fiscal deficit arises when the expenditure of a government is more than
the revenue generated by the government in a given fiscal year.
Fiscal deficit happens due to events like a major rise in capital expenditure or deficit arising from
revenue. It serves as an indicator of how well the government is managing its finances.
Mathematically, it can be represented as Fiscal deficit = Total Expenditure – Total revenue (Excluding
the borrowings).
 Revenue Deficit: A revenue deficit records the difference between the projected amount of income
and what the income actually was. The revenue deficit is calculated by subtracting total revenue
expenditure from total revenue receipts.
 Primary Deficit: Primary deficit is referred to as the difference that exists between the fiscal deficit of
the current year and the interest payment that was needed to be paid in the previous fiscal year.
It is one of the three important measures of determining the government deficit.
Calculation of primary deficit is represented by the formula Primary deficit = Fiscal deficit – Interest
payments, where Fiscal deficit = (Total expenditure – Total income of the government) and Interest
payments refer to the previous year’s pending payments
Balance of Trade and Balance of Payments
 Balance of Trade: The difference in value over a period of time between a country's imports and
exports of goods and services, usually expressed in the unit of currency of a particular country or
economic union.
Balance of Trade formula = Country's Exports – Country's Imports.
 Balance of Payments: The balance of payments summarises the economic transactions of an economy
with the rest of the world. These transactions include exports and imports of goods, services and
financial assets, along with transfer payments (like foreign aid).
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Structure of Balance of Payment Accounting
A balance of payments statement is a summary of a Nation’s total economic transaction undertaken on
international account. There are two types of account.
1. Current Account: Current account is one of the two component accounts of the balance of payments
of a nation. It records the trade of goods and services of an economy with other countries of the world.
2. Capital Account: The capital account is the part of the balance of payments which records all
transactions made between entities in one country with entities in the rest of the world. These
transactions consist of imports and exports of goods, services, capital, and as transfer payments such as
foreign aid and remittances.
Exchange
 Foreign exchange rate: Foreign Exchange Rate is defined as the price of the domestic currency with
respect to another currency. The purpose of foreign exchange is to compare one currency with another
for showing their relative values.
 Fixed Exchange Rate: A fixed exchange rate is a regime applied by a government or central bank that
ties the country's official currency exchange rate to another country's currency or the price of gold. The
purpose of a fixed exchange rate system is to keep a currency's value within a narrow band.
 Equilibrium rate of exchange: An equilibrium exchange rate is here defined as the level that is
consistent with simultaneous internal and external balances as specified in Montiel (1996).
 Flexible exchange rate: Flexible exchange rate system is the exchange system where the exchange
rate is dependent upon the supply and demand of money in the market. In a flexible exchange rate
system, the value of the currency is allowed to fluctuate freely as per the changes in the demand and
supply of the foreign exchange.
 Appreciation of currencies: Currency appreciation is an increase in the value of one currency in
relation to another currency. Currencies appreciate against each other for a variety of reasons,
including government policy, interest rates, trade balances, and business cycles.
NITI (National Institution for Transforming India) Aayog
 Serves as the apex public policy think tank of the Government of India.
 It was established in 2015, by the NDA government, to replace the Planning Commission which
followed a top-down model.
 The Prime Minister acts as Ex-Officio Chairman.
 NITI Aayog administers all the aspects expects financial aspects.
 Its main aim is to involve and participate in economic policy making process.
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Mini Exercise - III
1. Which of the following taxes is not the indirect tax in Indian economy?
a. Corporation Tax b Sales Tax
c. Excise Duty d Customs Duties
2. What kind of unemployment arises due to the use of Sophisticated Technology?
a. Cyclical b Technical c Seasonal d Disguised
3. __________ is the policy that helps integrate a domestic economy with the world economy.
a. Liberalisation
b. Globalisation
c. Privatisation d None of these
4. Which of these financial sector reforms were introduced in India under the New Economic Policy
(NEP) in 1991?
a. Change in the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Act
b. Freedom for importing of capital goods
c. Reduction in the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) and Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR)
d. None of these
5. Which of the following statement is correct about the NITI Aayog?
a. NITI Aayog was Formed 25 January 2016
b. NITI Aayog comes under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry
c. The full form of NITI Aayog is National institute for Transforming India
d. The NITI Aayog is a policy think tank of the Government of India
6. When was NITI Aayog established?
a. 1st January 2015 b 25th January 2016
c. 14th May 2014 d 1st July 2015
7. Main objective of Cash Reserve ratio (CRR) and Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) is to ensure
1. Liquidity position of Bank
2. Financial position of bank
3. Profit position of Bank
a. Only 1 is correct b Only 2 is correct
c. Only 3 is correct d All are correct
8. Which of these is the regulatory body for the capital markets in India?
a. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
b. Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
c. Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA)
d. Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
9. When was NIFTY (National Stock Exchange Fifty) established?
a. 1992 b 1998 c 1996 d 1994
10. The Reserve Bank of India was established on
a. 1st April, 1935 b 12th July 1982
c. 26th May 2006 d 30th September 2005
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Practice Test - Economics
1. Normally the demand curve will have a _______________ shape.

a. Upward sloping b Downward sloping
c. Vertical d Horizontal
2. Which of the following is an assumption made while drawing the demand curve?
a. The demand curve must be linear
b. The price of substitutes should not change
c. The quantity demanded should not change
d. The price of the commodity should not change
3. Many of the supply curve____ due to increases in marginal cost.
a. is vertical
b. is horizontal
c. has a positive slope d has a negative slope
4. Law of Supply states that there is a direct relationship between the
a. Price of the commodity and the quantity supplied
b. Price of th commodity and the quality of the commodity
c. Rise in price and quality of the commodity
d. Fall in price and quality of the commodity
5. The additional cost incurred to produce an additional unit of output is
a. Marginal cost b Variable cost
c. Fixed cost d Opportunity cost
6. Revenue is directly influenced by
a. Price of the good b Demand of the good
c. Sales level d Supply level
7. Under monopoly MR can be negative only when
a. AR is increasing b AR is decreasing
c. AR is constant d AR = 0
8. Which of the following statements about the demand curve of a firm under monopoly is true?
a. The demand curve of a firm under monopoly has a positive relationship between demand and
price
b. The demand curve of a firm under monopoly has an inverse relationship between demand and
price
c. The demand curve of a firm under monopoly has no relationship between demand and price
9. Firms in a monopolistic market are price
a. Takers b Givers c Makers d Acceptors
10. What is the total of all direct costs known as?
a. Cost of production b Cost of sales
c. Prime cost d Works cost
11. Which of the following statements are true regarding the services sector?
a. As income levels rise, certain sections of people start demanding many more services like
eating out, tourism, shopping.
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b. Over the past decade or so, certain new services such as those based on information and
communication technology have become important and essential.
c. In the year 2010-11, the tertiary sector has emerged as the largest producing sector in India,
replacing the primary sector.
d. All of these are true
12. The net value of Gross Domestic Product after deducting depreciation from it is
a. Net Domestic Product b Net National Product
c. Disposable Income d Gross National Product
13. When depreciation is deducted from Gross National Product, the net value is
a. Net Domestic Product b Net National Product
c. Disposable Income d Gross National Product
14. Which of the following is a method of measuring National Income?
a. Expenditure method b Income method
c. Product method d All of these
15. The combination of stagnation and inflation is known as
a. Stagflation b Cost-push inflation
c. Demand-pull inflation d None of these
16. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) can take the measure of _________ to control inflation within the
country.
a. Rationing of credit
b. Introducing a progressive tax system
c. Improving profits of the public sector
d. Controlling public expenditure
17. What were the reasons for introducing the economic reforms in 1991?
a. The Gulf war
b. The negative balance of payments
c. Increase in fiscal deficit
d. All of these
18. Which of the following institutions are a part of the financial sector of a country?
a. Foreign exchange market
b. Banking and non-banking financial institutions
c. Stock exchange market
d. All of these
19. The concept of Gross Domestic Product was developed by
a. Adam Smith b Simon Kuznets
c. John Maynard Keynes d None of these
20. Which of the following is not the function of the NITI Aayog?
a. To evolve a shared vision of national development priorities sectors and strategies
b. To foster cooperative federalism
c. To give final approval to the Five Year Plans of India
d. To create a knowledge, innovation and entrepreneurial support system
21. The primary purpose of the RBI monetary policy is to maintain
a. Wealth b Exchange rate c Income equality
d. Price stability
22. How many companies are a part of Sensex (Stock Exchange Sensitive Index)?
a. 20 b 30 c 50 d 100
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23. Which have voting rights in all circumstances?
a. Equity share b Preference share
c. Bonus share d None of these
24. Which of the following is true about the functions performed by RBI -
(i) It is the Bank of Issue
(ii) It acts as banker to the Government
(iii) It is the banker of other banks
(iv) It regulates the flow of credit
a. Both (i) and (ii) b Both (iii) and (iv)
b. All of these d None of these
25. The RBI prints all the currency notes except the ______ currency note
a. Two Rupee b Ten Rupee
c. Five Rupee d One Rupee
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Answers – Economics
Mini Exercise – I
1. c The elasticity for the demand of durable goods is greater than unity.
2. c Law of demand shows a relation between the price and quantity of a commodity.
3. d Net Domestic Product (NDP) is an annual measure of the economic output of a nation that is
adjusted as per the depreciation effect.
4. a Marginal cost is defined as the change in total cost due to one unit change in output.
5. a Monopoly means absence of competition.
6. b Revenue refers to the amount received by a firm from the sales of a given quantity of a
particular good.
7. d Under perfect competition forms of market structure does a firm has no control over the price
of its product.
8. c Cost ascertainment refers to the method of determining costs based on data that is actual. Thus,
the calculation of charge in the past is known as cost ascertainment, and the calculation of the future
price is called cost estimation. Cost estimation and cost ascertainment are closely linked and can be
extremely useful to management.
9. c The term “fixed costs” refers to an expense or cost that stays unaffected by the increase or
decrease of the number of goods or services offered. They’re typically related to time, such as rent or
interest paid each month, and are commonly described as overhead costs. They are essential to
achieving higher profits per unit when businesses produce more units.
10. c Both transport and communication comes under Tertiary Sector.
1. c Macroeconomics is the branch of economics that studies behaviour and performance of an

economy as a whole. It is also known as the Theory of income and Employment or income analysis.
2. a Diminishing cost method is not a method to calculate Gross Domestic Product.
3. a Tertiary sector in the economy is the largest contributor to the Gross National Product.
4. c If too much money is chasing too few goods, the resulting inflation is known as Demand-pull
inflation.
5. a Inflation is measured by Consumer price index.
6. d Lorenz curve represents the distribution of income in an economy. It is represented by a
straight line that depicts the perfect distribution of income.
7. a The original Phillips curve illustrates the trade-off between inflation and unemployment
8. a Gini coefficient represents the income distribution of a country’s residents. It was developed by
the Italian statistician and sociologist Corrado Gini. It measures the inequality. The coefficient ranges
from zero to one, with zero representing perfect equality and one showing perfect inequality. The more
the inequality, the more is Gini Coefficient. The more is the value of Gini Coefficient, the more is gap
between rich and poor.
9. b Transfer payments refer to payments that are made without any exchange of goods and
services.
10. a Life expectancy is not a part of Gross Domestic Product.
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1. a Cooperation tax is a direct tax imposed on the net income or profit those enterprise make from
their businesses.
2. a An increase in cyclical unemployment is due to an economic downturn, but if unemployment
persists for many years, it can lead to structural unemployment.
3. b Globalisation is the policy that helps integrate a domestic economy with the world economy.
4. c Reduction in the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) and Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR).
5. d The NITI Aayog is a policy think tank of the Government of India. It replaced the Planning
Commission.
6. a NITI Aayog established on 1 January 2015. Its full form is National institution for
Transforming India.
7. a To control inflation, Reserve Bank of India needs to increase the cost of funds or reduce the
supply of money with the help of tools that are divided in to two categories: Quantitative and
Qualitative tools.
8. b Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI).
9. a NIFTY (National Stock Exchange Fifty) was established in 1992.
10. a On 1st April, 1935 the Reserve Bank of India, which is the central bank of this country, was
established. It was originally started as a shareholders' bank with a share capital of Rs. 5 crore divided
into shares of Rs. 100 each, fully paid-up. But since January, 1949 the Reserve Bank has been
nationalised and it is now purely a concern of the State. The Government of India holds the entire
share capital of the bank which has been acquired by payment of compensation to the shareholders.
Practice Test
1. b Normally the demand curve will have a downward sloping shape.

2. b The price of substitutes should not change.
3. c Many of the supply curve has a positive shape due to increases in marginal cost.
4. a The Law of Supply states that there is a direct relationship between the price of the commodity
and its quantity supplied, ceteris paribus.
5. a The additional cost incurred to produce an additional unit of output is Marginal cost.
6. c Revenue is directly influenced by sales level.
7. b Under monopoly MR can be negative only when AR is decreasing.
8. b The demand curve of a firm under monopoly has an inverse relationship between demand and
price.
9. c Firms in a monopolistic market are price makers.
10. c The total of all direct costs known as Prime cost.
11. d All the given options are true.
12. a The net value of Gross Domestic Product after deducting depreciation from it is Net Domestic
Product.
13. b When depreciation is deducted from Gross National Product, the net value is Net National
Product.
14. d All of the given options are method of measuring National Income.
15. a The combination of stagnation and inflation is known as Stagflation.
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16. a The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) can take the measure of Rationing of credit to control
inflation within the country.
17. d All of the given options were the reasons for introducing the economic reforms in 1991.
18. d All the given institutions are the part of the financial sector of a country.
19. b The concept of Gross Domestic Product was developed by Simon Kuznets.
20. c A final year is finally approved by the National Development Council (NDC). Twelfth five
plans was the last five plan of India. As of now NITI Aayog don’t have any role in five year plans.
21. d The important objective of monetary policy is to maintain price stability while keeping in mind
the objective growth. Price stability is a necessary precondition to sustainable growth.
22. b 30 companies are a part of Sensex (Stock Exchange Sensitive Index).
23. a Equity shares have voting rights in all circumstances.
24. c The Reserve Bank of India, as the central bank of the country, functions as the sole bank with
the right of issuing paper notes, it acts as banker to the Government, it is the banker to other bank and
it regulates the flow of credit.
25. d The Reserve Bank has a monopoly for printing the currency notes in the country. It has the sole
right to issue currency notes of various denominations except one rupee note (which is issued by the
Ministry of Finance).
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Physics
A physical quantity is any physical property of a material or system that can be
quantified, that is, can be measured using numbers and can be expressed as a value,
Physical which is the algebraic multiplication of a numerical value and a unit.
Quantities Examples: mass, amount of substance, length, time, temperature, electric current,
etc.
 Fundamental Quantities: The physical quantities that do not depend upon the quantities. Example
Length (metre), Mass (Kg), Time (Second), Current (Ampere) etc.
 Derived Quantities: The physical quantities that depend upon fundamental quantities are known as
Derived Quantities. Examples Density (Kgm-1), Velocity (ms-1), Acceleration (ms-2) etc.
Rest and Motion
 Rest: An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its position with respect to its surroundings with
time.
 Motion: An object is said to be in motion if the position changes with respect to its surrounding and time.
Rest and Motion Related Terms
Acceleration and Deceleration

 A body is said to be accelerating if it gradually increases its velocity with respect to time.
 Acceleration = Change in velocity ÷ Time taken
 Centripetal Acceleration: It is defined as the property of the motion of an object, traversing a circular
path. Any object that is moving in a circle and has an acceleration vector pointed towards the centre of
that circle is known as Centripetal acceleration. It can be measured by using the equation: a c = v2 ÷ r,
where ac is the centripetal acceleration in metre / second2, v is the velocity in metre / second and r is
the radius in metre.
Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion (Along straight line)
 If a body started its motion with initial velocity u and attains final velocity v in the interval t. The
assumption used in all the equations is that the body covers distance s at constant, then equations of
motion:
 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + (1/2) 𝑎𝑡2
 𝑣2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
 Acceleration and deceleration are vector quantities and its SI unit is 𝑚𝑠−2.
 A body is said to be decelerating if its velocity decreases with time.
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 If acceleration does not change with time, it is said to be constant acceleration.
 Replace ‘a’ with acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ for a freely falling body. Similarly, if the body is
thrown vertically upwards replace ‘a’ with ‘-g’.
Displacement
 It is defined as the shortest distance between the initial position and the final position.
Displacement - Time Graphs
Different cases of the displacement – time graphs (is the angle of slope).
S.No. Different Cases s – t Graph Main Features
1 At Rest Slope ‘v’= 0
 = Constant
2 Uniform Motion v = Constant
a=0
Uniform
accelerated  is increasing, so ‘v’ is
3
motion with u = increasing & ‘a’ is positive.
0, s = 0 and t = 0
Velocity – Time Graphs

 Case – 1: Velocity-time graphs with constant velocity (zero acceleration):
When the velocity is constant, the velocity-time graph,
with Y-axis denoting velocity and the X-axis denoting time,
will be like:
As the graph shows, the velocity is constant (c) throughout the
interval.
 Case 2: Velocity-time graphs with constant acceleration
When the acceleration is constant (positive), and the initial velocity
of the particle is zero, the velocity of the particle will increase linearly
as predicted by the equation: v = u + at, since u = 0
v = at
As shown in the figure, the velocity of the particle will increase linearly with respect to time. The slope
of the graph will give the magnitude of acceleration.
 Case 3: Velocity-time graphs with increasing acceleration
When the acceleration is increasing with time, the velocity-time
graph will be a curve as predicted from the equation:
v = u + at, since u = 0
v= at
Since acceleration is a function of time, the velocity-time graph will be a curve.
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Speed
 The distance covered by a moving body in a unit time interval is called its speed. It is expressed as
speed = (Distance travelled ÷ Time taken).
 Speed is generally shown in a position – time graph.
 Uniform motion: When a body covers equal distance in an equal

interval of time.
 Non-Uniform Motion: Body covers an unequal distance in
equal interval of time.
 As distance can never be negative, so the speed is never negative.
Velocity
 Change in displacement of the body with respect to time is called Velocity. It is a vector quantity i.e. it
has both magnitude and direction.
 It is expressed by the formula (Final position – Initial position) ÷ Time Taken or Velocity =
Displacement ÷ Time.
 As distance can never be negative, velocity can be positive and negative.
 Uniform velocity: Magnitude and direction remain the same with respect to time.
 Non-Uniform velocity: When body covers unequal displacement in an equal interval of time in a
particular direction or if the direction changes, it is said to be moving at non – uniform velocity.
 Average velocity = Time displacement ÷ Total time taken
Rectilinear Motion: A linear motion in which the direction of the velocity remains constant and the path
is a straight line. Kids sliding down from a slide is a rectilinear motion. The motion of planes in the sky is
a rectilinear motion.
Angular Motion: The motion of a body about a fixed point or fixed axis. It is equal to the angle passed
over at the point or axis by a line drawn to the body. Such as particle going on a circle, projectile motion,
rotation of machine shaft etc.
Rotational Motion: “Rotational motion can be defined as the motion of an object around a circular path,
in a fixed orbit.” The dynamics for rotational motion are completely analogous to linear or translational
dynamics. Such as motion of a fan.
Uniform Motion: It an object travels equal distances in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be in
uniform motion.
Non-Uniform Motion: It an object travels unequal distances in equal intervals of time, then it is said to be
in non-uniform motion.
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Types of Motion
Projectile Motion
 The motion of a body when it is thrown or projected with some initial velocity in a plane is known as
Projectile Motion. Examples: The motion of the golf ball, the motion of a rocket after burn-out
Horizontal Projection
Types of Projectile Motion
Angular Projection
 Horizontal Projection: When a body is projected along the horizontal direction with an initial
velocity ‘u’ the projection is known as horizontal projection. It is assumed that there is negligible air
resistance.
Velocity at any time t, v = √ (u2 + (g t)2
The direction of velocity, θ = tan -1 (g t / u)
Time of flight, T = √ 2h / g
Range, R = u √ 2h / g
 Angular Projection: When a body is thrown or projected at an angle with the horizontal direction is
known as angular projection. It is assumed that air resistance is zero. The following equation of
motion can be derived by examining the motion in the horizontal and vertical direction.
Equation of trajectory,
Y = x tan – ½ g [x / u cos θ]2
Time of flight, T = (2u sin θ)/g
Maximum height, H = [u2 sin2 θ] / [2g]
Range, R = [u2 sin2θ] / g
Circular Motion
 The motion of an object along a circular path is called Circular Motion.
 Circular motion with a constant speed is called Uniform Circular Motion.
 The direction of motion at any point in circular motion is given by
the tangent to the circle at that point.
 In uniform circular motion, the velocity and acceleration both changes.
 In case of non-uniform circular motion, the speed changes from point to point on the circular track.
Important Points to Remember

 When a body moves along a circular path at a constant speed, the motion of
the body is known as uniform circular motion.
 The direction of velocity at any point in a circular motion is given by the
tangent to the circle at that point.
 In a uniform circular motion, the velocity and acceleration both change due
to continuous change in direction.
 When the speed of the keeps changing while moving along the circular path,
the motion is called non-uniform circular motion.
 The magnitude of centripetal acceleration, ac = y2 / R
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Friction
Friction is defined as the resistance offered by the surfaces that are in contact when they move past
each other.
Friction is caused due to the irregularities on the two surfaces in contact. So, when one object moves
over the other, these irregularities on the surface get entangled, giving rise to friction. The more the
roughness, the more irregularities and more significant will be the friction.
Factors Affecting Friction
Friction is a force that is dependent on external factors. Following are the two factors on which
friction depends:
1. On the nature of the two surfaces that are in contact: Friction is dependent on the smoothness
or roughness of the two surfaces that are in contact with each other. When the surface is smooth,
the friction between the two reduces as there is not much interlocking of irregularities. While the
surface is rough, friction increases.
2. On the force that is acting on these surfaces: Friction increases when the force is applied along
with the irregularities.
Force
Force: It is defined as the push or pull on an object with mass causes it to

change its velocity. Force is an external agent capable of changing a body’s
state of rest or motion. It has a magnitude and a direction.
The SI unit of force is Newton (N) and CGS unit is dyne. 1 N = 105 dyne.
The equation or the formula for force can be expressed as
F = ma, where m = mass and a = acceleration.
Centripetal Force: Centrifugal Force:

Centripetal force is the force acting on an Centrifugal force is a pseudo force in a
object in curvilinear motion directed circular motion which acts along the
towards the axis of rotation or centre of radius and is directed away from the
curvature. Mathematically it is written as centre of the circle. The force does not
F = mv2 ÷ r, where, F is the Centripetal exist when measurements are made in an
force, m is the mass of the object, v is the inertial frame of reference.
speed or velocity of the object and r is the Mathematically it is denoted as F =  mv2
radius. ÷ r, where F is the Centrifugal force, m is
The force of gravity acting on a satellite the mass of the object, v is the speed or
in orbit is an example of a centripetal velocity of the object and r is the radius.
force. A bike making a turn is an example of a
Centrifugal force.
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Newton’s law of Motion
Newton’s
Laws of
Motion
Third Law
of Motion
Newton’s First Law of Motion:

It states that a body at rest or uniform motion will continue to be at rest or uniform motion until and unless a net
external force acts on it.
Newton’s first law of motion implies that things cannot start, stop, or change direction all by themselves, and it
requires some force from the outside to cause such a change. This property of massive bodies to resist changes in their
state of motion is called Inertia. The first law of motion is also known as the Law of Inertia.
Momentum
The momentum of a moving body is equal to the product of its mass and its velocity.
Conservation of Linear Momentum
 The linear momentum of a system of particles remains conserved if the external force acting on the system is zero.
 Rocket propulsion and engine of jet aeroplane works on principle of conservation of linear momentum. In rocket,
ejecting gas exerts a forward force which helps in accelerating the rocket upward.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

Newton’s second law of motion describes what happens to the massive body when acted upon by an external force.
It states that the acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the object’s mass.
Mathematically, we express it as: f  dP ÷ dt => f  (mv  mu) ÷ t => f  m (v  u) ÷ t => f  ma => f = k m a
Where f is force, P is linear momentum, m is mass of the object, u is initial velocity, v is final velocity and a is
acceleration. In the equation, k is the constant of proportionality, and is equal to 1 when the values are taken in the SI
unit. Hence, the final expression will be F = ma
Newton’s Third Law of Motion:

It states that there is an equal and opposite reaction for every action.
When two bodies interact, they apply forces on each other that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Newton’s third law of motion implies the conservation of momentum.
Impulse
 A large force which acts on a body for a very short interval of time and produces a large change in its
momentum is called an impulsive force.
 Its unit is newton-second.
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Laws of Motion Summary
Newton’s three Laws of Motion
Newton’s First Law Newton’s Third Law
Known as ‘Law of Newton’s Second Law

Inertia’ Known as ‘Action – Reaction'
Objects at Expressed as
Moving objects keep rest stay at If an object
F = ma The 2nd exerts an
moving rest exerts a force on equal & opposite
another object force on 1st
Unless acted on by
More force means More mass means
an unbalanced force
more acceleration less acceleration
Sound
 Sound is a vibration that propagates through a medium in the form of a mechanical wave. It is generated by a
vibrating body. The medium in which it propagates can either be a solid, a liquid, or a gas. It is of three
types:
Infrasonic Waves – 0 to 20,000 Hz Audible Waves – 20 to 20,000 Hz Ultrasonic Waves - > 20,000 Hz
Characteristics of Sound Waves
Wave Length Amplitude Frequency Time Period Velocity

 Wavelength: Wavelength is the distance between any two nearest particle of the medium, vibrating in the
same phase. It is denoted by the Greek letter lambda (λ). In transverse wave distance between two
consecutive crests or troughs and in longitudinal wave, distance between two consecutive compressions or
rarefactions is equal to wavelength.
 Amplitude: It refers to the distance of the maximum vertical displacement of the wave from its mean
position. In light refers to the amount of energy in an electromagnetic wave. Larger the amplitude, the higher
the energy. In sound, amplitude refers to the magnitude of compression and expansion experienced by the
medium the sound wave is travelling through. This amplitude is perceived by our ears as loudness. High
amplitude is equivalent to loud sounds.
 Frequency in a sound wave refers to the rate of the vibration of the sound travelling through the air. This
parameter decides whether a sound is perceived as high pitched or low pitched. In sound, the frequency is
also known as Pitch. The frequency of the vibrating source of sound is calculated in cycles per second. The
wavelength and frequency of a sound wave are related mathematically as:
Velocity of Sound = Frequency × Wavelength
 Reflection of Sound Waves: This property of sound is responsible for the phenomenon of the Echo. The
reflection of sound follows the same principle as light waves. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. This principle of reflection is used in a technology known as SONAR (Sound Navigation and
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Ranging) where the sound waves are used, usually underwater, to navigate and communicate. The sound
waves that reflect from objects are used to detect objects on or under the surface of the water.
 Refraction of Sound Waves: Refraction in light occurs when the density of the medium in which light is
travelling changes. Similarly, Refraction in Sound occurs when the density of the atmosphere it is travelling
through changes. The density of a gas decreases with the rise in temperature, inversely proportional. In fact,
it is so similar to light waves that it even undergoes Total Internal Reflection.
 Diffraction of Sound Waves: When sound waves originated by a vibrating source, they spread in the
medium and if the medium is homogeneous, this leads to bending of sound waves around the edges, which is
known as diffraction. The sound waves diffracted broadly and one can easily hears the voice of the another
person.
Doppler’s Effect: The apparent change in the frequency of source due to relative motion between the
source and observer is called Doppler’s effect.
Applications of Doppler’s Effect: The measurement of Doppler shift (based on Doppler’s effect) has
been used by police to check over speeding of vehicles, at airports to guide the aircraft, to study heart and
blood flow in different parts of the body, by astrophysicist to measure the velocities of planets and stars.
Oscillation and Waves
Oscillation
Oscillation is defined as the process of repeating variations of

any quantity or measure about its equilibrium value in time.
The term vibration is used to describe the mechanical
oscillations of an object. However, oscillations also occur in
dynamic systems or more accurately in every field of science .
For example of oscillation is the movement of spring. The
vibration of strings in guitar and other string instruments are
also examples of oscillations.
Periodic motion is any motion any motion in which all the parameters of motion are repeated after a definite
time interval.
Oscillation Motions
When an object is swinging from side to side in a mechanical system this movement can be termed as
Oscillation Motion. In this type of motion, the potential energy usually changes to kinetic energy. An
oscillation motion consists of one complete cycle.
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Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
It occurs when the restoring force (the force directed toward a stable equilibrium
point) is proportional to the displacement from equilibrium.
Characteristics of SHM
 Repetitive motion through a central equilibrium point.
 Symmetry of maximum displacement.
 Period of each cycle is constant.
 Force causing the motion is directed toward the equilibrium point (minus
Simple sign).
Harmonic  F directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium.
Motion  Acceleration = - ω2 x Displacement
The Simple & the Physical Pendulum
The Simple pendulum The Physical Pendulum

A simple pendulum is constructed by attaching a A physical pendulum is any rigid object that is free
mass to a thin rod or a light string. It is also assumed to oscillate about some fixed axis. The period of
that the amplitude of the oscillations is small. oscillation of a physical pendulum is not necessarily
Time period of a simple pendulum is given by 𝑇 = the same as that of a simple pendulum.
2𝜋 √𝑙 / 𝑔
Damped & Resonant Oscillations

Damped Oscillations Resonant Oscillations
When dissipative forces such as friction are not When a body oscillates with its own natural frequency
negligible, the amplitude of oscillations will (V0) with the help of an external periodic force also called
decrease with time. The oscillations are forced harmonic motion. And if the frequency (v)
damped. provided by the external agent is equal to the natural
frequency of the body, the oscillations of the body are
called Resonant Oscillations.
Wave
A wave transmits information or energy from one point to another in the form of
What is signals, but no material object makes this journey. The frequency of a wave is
Wave? obtained by including a factor of time in the mix.
Mechanical Wave
Types of Wave
Electromagnetic Waves
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Electromagnetic Waves:
Mechanical Wave: The waves
Electromagnetic waves are created by a
which required material medium fusion of electric and magnetic fields.
(solid, liquid or gas) for their The light we see, the colours around us
propagation are called mechanical are visible because of electromagnetic
wave or elastic wave. They are of waves. All the electromagnetic wave
two types. consists of photon.
 Longitudinal Waves The wavelength range of
 Transverse Waves electromagnetic wave is 10−14 m to 104 m.
 Eggs are laid by hens.
 Nests are built by birds.
 Longitudinal Waves: In this type of wave, the movement of the particles is parallel to the motion of the
energy, i.e. the displacement of the medium is in the same direction in which the wave is moving.
Example: Sound Waves, Pressure Waves.
 Transverse Waves: When the movement of the particles is at right angles or perpendicular to the motion
of the energy, then this type of wave is known as a Transverse Wave. Light is an example of a transverse
wave.
Water waves are an example of a combination of both longitudinal and transverse motions.
Some Important Electromagnetic Waves & their discoverer

Electromagnetic Wave Discovered By Electromagnetic Wave Discovered By
γ Rays Henry Becquerel Visible Radiation Newton
X Rays W. Rontgen Infra-Red Rays Hershel
Ultra Violet Rays Johann Ritter Hertzian Waves Heinrich Hertz
Mini Exercise - I
1. In the given options, the secondary fundamental unit is
a. Length b Luminous intensity
c. Plane angle d Time
2. The path length travelled by a body in a given time interval is known as
a. Distance b Velocity c Acceleration d Moment
3. Which of the following quantities specifies its speed with direction?
a. Displacement b Momentum c Velocity d Force
4. A force that opposes the motion of one surface sliding over another is called
a. Ball bearing b Lubrication c Friction d None of these
5. The force that keeps the body moving in circular motion is
a. Centripetal force b Centrifugal Force
c. Force of gravity d Reaction forces
6. The centrifugal force always acts
a. Towards the centre b Away from the centre
c. In the tangential direction d Outside of the plane of motion
7. The mass of a body is equivalent to the ratio of the force acting on it to the acceleration it generates.
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a. the gravitational mass b the mass of the electromagnetic field
c. the mass of the internal organs d the mass of inertia
8. The rate at which a body’s momentum changes is proportional to the force applied and occurs in the
direction in which the force is applied) This is:
a. First law of motion b Second law of motion
c. Law of inertia d Third law of motion
9. Inertia is
a. Property of mass to remain unchanged
b. Property of mass to change continuously
c. Property of mass to accelerate
d. Tendency of mass to accelerate
10. A simple harmonic motion is defined as which of the following?
a. Ball bouncing between two vertical walls
b. Particle moving in a circle with uniform speed
c. Earth spinning about its axis
d. A wave travels through a string that is tied at both ends.
11. The frequency of the note produced by plucking a given string increases as
a. The length of the string increases
b. The tension in the string increases
c. The tension in the string decreases
d. The mass per unit length of the string increases
12. Sound propagates maximum in
a. Gas b Liquid c Solid d All of these
13. What types of waves are Sound Waves?
a. Longitudinal waves b Latitude waves
c. Latitudinal mechanical waves d None of these
14. Sound waves have
a. Amplitude only
b. Frequency and wavelength only
c. Amplitude, frequency and wavelength
d. Amplitude and wavelength only.
15. Which quantity(s) changes in Doppler Effect?
a. Frequency b Intensity and frequency
c. Speed d Speed and frequency
Matter
 The term matter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass. It exist in three states: Solid, liquid
and gas. The most familiar examples of material particles are the electron, the proton and the neutron.
 Solid: A solid is that state of matter which has a fixed shape, mass, and volume. Solid is one of the
fundamental states of matter. It shows very small changes in volume by changing the temperature. It
cannot be compressed.
 Liquid: A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains
a constant volume independent of pressure. It is also one of the fundamental states of matter and is the
only state with a definite volume but no fixed shape.
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 Gas: Gas is a type of matter that has no defined shape or volume. Gases can be made up of a single
element, such as hydrogen gas (H2), a compound, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), or a mixture of
several gases, such as air. It is also one of the fundamental states of matter.
 Strain: The fraction I change in configuration i.e. length, volume and shape, is called Strain. Strain has no
unit. On the basis of change in configuration, strain is of three types:
Longitudinal Strain = Δ𝐼 / 𝐼 Volume Strain = Δ𝑉 / 𝑉 Shearing strain = Δ θ / θ
 Stress: The internal restoring force acting per unit area of cross-section of a deformed body, is called
Stress. Stress is of two types
Normal Stress Tangential Stress

When a force acts perpendicular (or “normal”) When a force acts parallel to the
to the surface of an object, it exerts a normal surface of an object, it exerts a shear
stress. stress.
 Elastic Limit: It is the limit of stress and strain up to which a wire remains elastic.
 Plastic Behaviour: If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic limit, the strain increases much more rapidly.
If the stretching force is removed, the wire does not comes back to its natural length.
 Fracture Point: If the deformation is increased further the plastic behaviour, the wire breaks at a point
known as fracture point.
 Ductile and Brittle Materials: If large deformation takes place between the elastic limit and the fracture
point, the material is called Ductile. If the wire breaks soon after the elastic limit is crossed, it is called
Brittle.
 Elastic Fatigue: It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour becomes less elastic
under the action of repeated alternating deforming force. Due to elastic fatigue, the bridges becomes less
elastic after a use of long time and therefore are declared unsafe.
 Fluid: A substance which begins to flow under an external force is called a Fluid. Liquids and gases are
fluids.
 Fluid Density: The ratio of mass to the volume of a body is called its density. (i.e. mass present in its unit
volume). It is a scalar quantity having SI unit kg/𝑚3.
 Hydrometer: It is an instrument used to measure density or relative density of liquid. Its working is based
on law of floatation.
 Fluid Pressure: Thrust (the normal force) exerted by a liquid / unit area of the surface in contact at rest, is
called Fluid Pressure. Fluid pressure (p) = 𝐹 / A. Its unit is 𝑁𝑚−2 or Pascal (Pa).
 Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure exerted by the atmosphere, is called Atmospheric Pressure. Aneroid
barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure and height of a place. Other units of atmospheric
pressure are Torr and bar.
Pascal’s Law
 According to Pascal's Law, “The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is distributed or
transmitted evenly throughout the liquid in all directions.”
 Pascal's Law formula shows the relationship between pressure, force applied and area of contact i.e. P = F /
A or F = PA, where, P= Pressure, F=Force and A=Area of contact.
 Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press hydraulic brakes works on the basis of Pascal’s law.
Buoyancy
 When a body is partially or wholly immersed in a liquid, an upward force acts on it, which is called
buoyant force or up thrust and this property of fluids is called Buoyancy.
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 Buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the submerged part of the body.
 The buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the liquid displaced by the submerged part of the body,
which is called ‘centre of buoyancy’.
 The unit of buoyant force is Newton (N).
Archimedes Principle
 It states that “the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether partially or
fully submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward direction
at the centre of mass of the displaced fluid”.
 Archimedes’ principle tells us that the weight loss is equal to the weight of liquid the object displaces.
 Archimedes’ Principle Formula: Fb = ρ × g × V, where Fb is the buoyant force, ρ is the density of the fluid,
V is the submerged volume, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Law of Floatation
 When a body floats in a liquid, the weight of the liquid displaced by its immersed part is equal to the total
weight of the body. This is the Law of Floatation.
 In floating condition, the centre of gravity (g) and the centre of buoyancy (B) of the floating body must lie
on the same straight line.
 When a piece of ice floats on water, its (11 / 12) th part submerged in water and (1/12)th part is outside the
water.
Surface Tension
 Surface tension is the tension of the surface film of a liquid caused by the attraction of the particles in the
surface layer by the bulk of the liquid, which tends to minimise surface area.
 Mathematically, surface tension can be expressed as follows: T = F / L, where, F is the force per unit
length, L is the length in which force act, T is the surface tension of the liquid.
 The SI unit of Surface Tension is Newton per Meter or N/m.
 The dimensional formula of surface tension is MT -2.
Factors Affecting Surface Tension
 Temperature -The surface tension of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature.

 Soluble Impurities - If the impurities are less soluble in liquid, then its surface tension decreases. If
impurities are highly soluble in liquid, then its surface tension increases. Surface tension of a liquid
becomes zero at critical temperature.
Capillarity
 Capillary rise or capillarity is a phenomenon in which liquid spontaneously rises or falls in a narrow space
such as a thin tube or in the voids of a porous material. Surface tension is an important factor in the
phenomenon of capillarity.
Cohesive and Adhesive Forces
 The intermolecular force of attraction acting between the molecules of same substance is called cohesive
force. e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting between the molecules of water, mercury etc.
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 The intermolecular force of attraction acting between the molecules of different substance is called
Adhesive force. For e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting between the molecules of paper and gum,
paper and ink, etc.
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics: It is a branch that deals with heat, work and temperature,

and their relation to energy, radiation and physical properties of matter.
Laws of Thermodynamics: The laws of thermodynamics describe how the energy in a system changes and
whether the system can perform useful work on its surroundings.
The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are individually in equilibrium
Zeroth law with a separate third body, then the first two bodies are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
First Law First law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another.
Second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy in an isolated system always increases.
Second Law Any isolated system spontaneously evolves towards thermal equilibrium—the state of
maximum entropy of the system.
Third Law Third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as
the temperature approaches absolute zero.
 Enthalpy: It is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system. The quantity of enthalpy equals the
total heat content of a system, equivalent to the system’s internal energy plus the product of volume and
pressure.
Mathematically, it is expressed as H = E + PV where H is the enthalpy, E is the sum of the internal energy,
P is the pressure, P and V is the volume of the system.
 Entropy: Entropy is a thermodynamic quantity whose value depends on the physical state or condition of a
system. In other words, it is a thermodynamic function used to measure the randomness or disorder. For
example, the entropy of a solid, where the particles are not free to move, is less than the entropy of a gas,
where the particles will fill the container.
 Carnot’s Theorem: Heat engines that are working between two heat reservoirs are less efficient than the
Carnot heat engine that is operating between the same reservoirs.
 Evaporation is a process in which molecules escape slowly from the surface of a liquid.
Humidity
 The presence of moisture in the atmosphere, is called Humidity.

 The amount of water vapour present in the unit volume of atmosphere, is called Absolute Humidity.
 The Relative Humidity of air at a given temperature is the ratio of mass of water vapour present in a certain
volume of air to the mass of water vapour required to saturate the same volume of air at the same
temperature, multiplied by 100. It is measured by hygrometer.
 If relative humidity is very high in air then the sweat from our body does not evaporate readily and
therefore we feel uncomfortable.
 Air conditioning provides comfortable conditions by regulating temperature and humidity.
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Heat
 Heat is the transfer of kinetic energy from one medium or object to another, or from an energy source
to a medium or object.
 Its SI unit is Joule and other unit is Calorie (1 calorie = 4.2 Joule). It is denoted by symbol Q.
Transmission of Heat
 Heat can be transferred from one place to another by process of Transmission.

There are three methods of transmission of heat.
Conduction
 The process of transmission of energy from one particle of the medium
to another with the particles being in direct contact with each other.
 The rate of conduction can be calculated by Q = [K × A × (T hot – T cold)] ÷ d where Q is the transfer of
heat / unit time, K is the thermal conductivity of the body, A is the area of the heat transfer, T hot is the
temperature of the hot region, T cold is the temperature of the cold region and d is the thickness of the
body.
 The coefficient of the thermal conductivity shows that metal body conducts heat better when it comes to
conduction.
 Transmission of heat in solids takes place mainly through Conduction.
 Wood, cotton, wool, glass are bad conductors of heat, dry air is also a bad conductor of heat.
Convection
 As the temperature of the liquid increases, the liquid’s volume also has to increase by the same factor
and this effect is known as displacement.
 The equation to calculate the rate of convection is as Q = hc × A × (Ts – Tf), where Q is the heat
transferred / unit time, hc is the coefficient of convective heat transfer, A is the area of heat transfer, Ts
is the surface temperature, Tf is the fluid temperature.
Radiation
 Thermal radiations are referred to as radiant heat. Thermal radiation is generated by the emission of
electromagnetic waves.
 Radiation heat transfer is measured by a device known as thermocouple. A thermocouple is used for
measuring the temperature.
 As temperature rises, the wavelength in the spectra of the radiation emitted decreases and shorter
wavelengths radiations are emitted. Thermal radiation can be calculated by Stefan-Boltzmann law: P = e
× σ × A × (Tr – Tc)4, where, P is the net power of radiation, A is the area of radiation, Tr is the radiator
temperature, Tc is the surrounding temperature, e is emissivity and σ is Stefan’s constant (σ = 5.67 × 10 -
8
Wm-2 K-4)
Newton’s Law of Cooling: The rate of loss of heat from a body is directly proportional to the difference in
temperatures of the body and its surroundings.
Temperature
 Temperature is the measure of the thermal energy or average heat of the molecules in a substance.
 It is a physical quantity that expresses the coldness and hotness of a body.
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 The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin and is denoted by T.
 The three most common temperature scales are the Fahrenheit (°F), Celsius (°C), and Kelvin (K)
scales.
 The relationship between different temperature scales:
Conversion Equation
Celsius to Fahrenheit TF° = 9/5 TC° + 32
Fahrenheit to Celsius TC = 5/9 TF - 32
Celsius to Kelvin TK = TC° + 273.15
Kelvin to Celsius TC° = TK – 273.15
Fahrenheit to Kelvin TK = 5/9 (T (F°) - 32 ) + 273.15
Kelvin to Fahrenheit TF° = 9/5 (T(K) – 273.15) + 32
Thermometers
It is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient (the degree of hotness or coldness of an
object).
Clinical
Types of Thermometers
Electronic
 Clinical Thermometer: It is used to measure body temperatures and ranges from 96° F to 110°F or 35°C
to 42°C.
 Electronic Thermometer: It detect temperature changes using a thermo resistive device in which the
electrical resistance changes in response to changes in temperature. Range of electronic thermometer is –
40° to 450°F.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is the process in which an object or body expands on the application of heat.
Thermal Expansion of Solids
It is of three types
1. Linear Expansion: A rod or wire has length only. When heated, its length increases. Increase in length is
called linear expansion.
2. Superficial Expansion: A sheet has area. When heated, its area increases. Increase in area is called
superficial expansion.
3. Volume Expansion or Cubical Expansion: A body has volume. When heated, its volume increases.
Increase in volume is called Cubical expansion (also called Volume expansion).
Thermal Expansion of Liquids

In liquids, only expansion in volume takes place on heating and is of two types:
1. When expansion of the container, containing liquid, on heating, is not taken into account, then observed
expansion is called apparent expansion of liquids.
2. When expansion of the container, containing liquid, on heating, is also taken into account, then observed
expansion is called real expansion of liquids. γr = γa + γg where, γr and γa, are coefficients of real and
apparent expansion of liquids and γg = coefficient of cubical expansion of the container.
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Anomalous Expansion of Water: When temperature of water is increased from 0°C, then its volume
decreases up to 4°C, becomes minimum at 4° C and then increases. This behaviour of water expansion around
4°C is called, Anomalous Expansion of Water.
Thermal Expansion of Gases

There are two types of coefficient of expansion in gases.
1. At constant pressure, the change in volume per unit volume per degree Celsius, is called volume coefficient
(γv).
2. At constant volume, the change in pressure per unit, pressure per degree Celsius, is called pressure
coefficient (γp).
Calorimetry
Calorimetry: Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C is called 1 Calorie.
Calorimetry states that heat lost by hotter body equals the heat gained by colder body.
Specific Heat
 The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass (m) of a substance through 1°C, is
called its specific heat (s).
 It is denoted by s and its unit is Cal / g °C or Joule /g°/ C.
 The specific heat of water is 4200 J / kg1 / °C or 1000 Cal / g1 / °C, which is high compared with most
other substances. Therefore, water is used as coolant in radiator in vehicle and hot water is used for the
fermentation.
 Heat energy given or taken to change the temperature of a body is given by Q = m s Δ θ where, m =
mass of the body and Δ θ = change in temperature.
 The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of a gas by 1°C is called molar specific
heat.
Latent Heat
 The heat energy absorbed or released at constant temperature per unit mass for change of state, is
called latent heat.
 It is denoted by L and its SI unit is Cal / g or Kcal / Kg.
 Heat energy absorbed or released during change of state is given by Q = mL where, m = mass of the
substance.
 Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 Cal / g.
 Latent heat of vaporisation of steam is 536 Cal / g.
Viscous Force
 The force which opposes the relative motion between different layers of liquid or gases is called Viscous
Force.
Viscosity
 Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

 The SI unit of viscosity is Poiseiulle (PI). Its other units are Newton-second per square metre (N s m-2 ) or
Pascal-second (Pa s.) The dimensional formula of viscosity is [ML -1T-1].
 Viscosity is measured in terms of a ratio of shearing stress to the velocity gradient in a fluid. If a sphere is
dropped into a fluid, the viscosity can be determined using the following formula: ƞ = 2 g a 2 (Δ p) / 9v,
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where ∆ρ is the density difference between fluid and sphere tested, a is the radius of the sphere, g is the
acceleration due to gravity and v is the velocity of the sphere.
Dynamic Viscosity
Viscosity Types
Kinematic Viscosity
 One way is to measure the fluid’s resistance to flow when an external force is applied. This is known
as Dynamic Viscosity.
 The other way is to measure the resistive flow of a fluid under the weight of gravity. This is called as
the measure of fluid viscosity kinematic viscosity.
Stoke’s Law
 In Stoke's law, the drag force F acting upward in resistance to the fall is equal to 6πrηv, in which r is the
radius of the sphere, η is the viscosity of the liquid, and v is the velocity of fall.
Bernoulli’s Theorem
 It states that the total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational potential energy
of elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and the kinetic energy of the fluid motion,
remains constant.
 Bernoulli’s equation formula is a relation between pressure, kinetic energy, and gravitational potential
energy of a fluid in a container.
 The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given as follows: p + 1/2pv2 + p g h = Constant, where p is the
pressure exerted by the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, ρ is the density of the fluid and h is the height of
the container.
Mini Exercise - II
1. Which of the following is a method of heat transfer?
a. Convection b Radiation c Conduction
d. All of these
2. Which of the following is the rate of heat transfer unit?
a. Watt b Pascal c Joule d Newton
3. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be
a. Created only b Destroyed only c Converted
d. Created and destroyed
4. The application of law of thermodynamics to the enthalpy change was done by
a. Newton b Hess’s c Lewis d Sophocles
5. Which of the following laws was formulated by Nernst?
a. First law of thermodynamics
b. Second law of thermodynamics
c. Third law of thermodynamics
d. None of these
6. Which of the following laws is applicable for the behaviour of perfect gas
a. Boyle's law b Charles’s law c Gas-Lussac law d All of these
7. Humidity is simply the amount of ______held in the air.
a. Water b Water vapour c Oxygen d Liquid
8. Which of the following is the property of Solid?
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a. Have definite shape b Have low density
c. Can be compressed d Intermolecular force is less
9. The Pascal law states that liquid at rest applies pressure at a point is ________ in all directions.
a. Same b Un-same c Not matching d Matching but not equal
10. Buoyant force is also known as
a. Stress b Strain c Pressure force d Thrust force
11. Raindrops are spherical in shape because of
a. Capillary b Surface Tension c Downward motion
d. Acceleration due to gravity
12. Which of the following represents viscosity?
a. Potential energy stored in fluid
b. Resistance to fluid motion
c. Roughness of the surface
d. The pressure difference between the two fluids
13. What is the SI unit of viscosity?
a. Candela b Poiseiulle c Newton/m d No units
14. Bernoulli’s equation is applicable only for
a. Irrational flow b Viscous flow
c. In viscid, incompressible flow d Compressible flow
15. Bernoulli’s principle is derived from which of the following?
a. Conservation of mass b Conservation of energy
c. Newton’s law of motion d Conservation of momentum
Work, Power and Energy

Work
 For work to be done, a force must be exerted and there must be motion or displacement in the direction
of the force.
 The work done by a force acting on an object is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the
distance moved in the direction of the force.
 Work has only magnitude and no direction. Hence, work is a scalar quantity.
 Its SI unit is joule and CGS unit is erg. 1 joule = 10 7 erg.
 Formula of Work: The work done one by a force is defined to be the product of the component of the
force in the direction of the displacement and the magnitude of this displacement. W = F cos  = F d,
where W is the work done, F is the force, d is the displacement, θ is the angle between force and
displacement and F cos θ is the component of force in the direction of displacement.
 The centripetal force acts on a body perpendicular to the direction of motion. Therefore, work done by
or against centripetal force in circular motion is zero.
 If a coolie is carrying a load on his head and moving on a horizontal platform, then work done by force
of gravity is zero as displacement is perpendicular to the direction of force of gravity.
Energy
 Energy is defined as the “ability to do work, which is the ability to exert a force causing displacement
of an object.”
 It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule.
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Types of Energy
Kinetic Energy Potential Energy

The energy possessed by a body of virtue of its The energy possessed by an object by
motion is called Kinetic Energy. Kinetic energy of the virtue of its position or configuration
body of mass m moving with velocity v is given by is called its potential energy. Gravitational
2
K = ½ mv . Potential energy, U = m g h.
Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation
 The equation developed by Albert Einstein, which is usually given as E = mc 2, showing that, when the
energy of a body changes by an amount E (no matter what form the energy takes), the mass (m) of the
body will change by an amount equal to E/c2.
Law of Conservation of Energy
 Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, only one type of energy can be transformed into other
form of energy.
Power
 Power is a physical concept with several different meanings, depending on the context and the
available information.
 Power can be defined as the rate of doing work, and it is the amount of energy consumed per unit of
time.
 Formula of Power: It can be calculated by dividing work done by time and is expressed as P = w / t,
where, P is the power, W is the work done and t is the time taken.
Gravitation
 Gravitation or just gravity is the force of attraction between any two bodies.
 Each body in this universe attracts other bodies towards itself with a force known as Gravitational
Force. Thus, gravitation is a study of the interaction between two masses.
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
 According to Newton’s law of gravitation “Every particle in the

universe attracts every other particle with a force whose magnitude is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
 Gravitational force ((F) = 𝐺𝑚1𝑚2 ÷ 𝑟2, where, G is universal gravitational constant and its value is
6.67 × 10−11 𝑁 –𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2.
 Gravitational force is a central as well as conservative force.
Acceleration due to Gravity of Earth

 Acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration gained by an object due to gravitational force and is
represented by g.
 It is expressed as g = 𝐺𝑀 / 𝑅2, where, M = mass of the earth, R = radius of the earth.
 It has both magnitude and direction, hence, it's a vector quantity.
 The standard value of g on the surface of the earth at sea level is 9.8 m/s 2.
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 Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature. It is 10 36 times smaller than electrostatic force and
1038 times smaller than nuclear force.
Mass and Weight
 Mass is one of the fundamental quantities and the most basic property of matter.
 Mass can be defined as the measure of the amount of matter in a body.
 The SI unit of mass is Kilogram (Kg) and is a scalar quantity.
 Mass of a body does not change at any time.
 The mass may be measured using an ordinary balance.
 Weight is the measure of the force of gravity acting on a body.
 The formula for weight is given by w = mg
 As weight is a force its SI unit is also the same as that of force, SI unit of weight is Newton (N).
 It is a vector quantity
 Weight of a body is not constant, it changes from place to place.
 Weight is measured using a spring balance.
 The relation between weight and mass of an object with 1kg mass will have a weight of 9.8N.
Light
Light is defined as the electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between 380 and 750 nm which is visible
to the human eye.
Reflection of Light (Law of Reflection)

 It is defined as the principle when the light rays fall on the
smooth surface, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle
of incidence, also the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the
normal to the surface all lie in the same plane.
 The law of reflection formula is θi = θr, where θi is the angle of incidence and θr is the angle of reflection.
 The angle of reflection 0r of a ray is the angle measured from the reflected ray to the normal surface.
 The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are calculated by drawing a normal line that is
perpendicular to the reflecting surface.
Concave Mirrors
 By reflection of light, concave mirrors give real, inverted images if the object is beyond the focus and a
virtual, erect, enlarged image if the object has a distance less than the focal length from the pole of the
mirror.
Uses of Concave Mirrors

 Concave mirrors are used in torches, searchlights, and headlights of vehicles to get powerful parallel
beams of light.
 Concave mirrors are also used as shaving mirrors to see a larger image of the face.
 Dentists use concave mirrors to see bigger images of the teeth of the patients.
Convex Mirrors
 By the reflection of light convex Mirrors always give a virtual, erect, diminished image of the object kept
in front of the mirror.
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Uses of Convex Mirrors
 The convex mirror is used as a side-view mirror in vehicles to give a smaller view of the vehicles
coming from behind.
 They are used in shops and supermarkets and any other place where there is a requirement for
detecting burglars.
 Convex mirrors are used in making lenses for sunglasses.
Total Internal Reflection
 When light passes from a denser medium to a lighter medium

at an angle more than the critical angle required for refraction,
then the light is reflected back into the denser medium.
This is a phenomenon called Total Internal Reflection.
Refraction of Light
 Refraction is the change in the direction of a wave passing from one medium to another.
 A light ray refracts whenever it travels at an angle into a medium of different refractive index. This change
in speed results in a change in direction.
Law of Refraction
 Laws of refraction state that the incident ray refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two media at
the point of incidence all lie on the same plane. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of
the angle of refraction is a constant. This is also known as Snell’s law of refraction. It is expressed as
Sin i ÷ Sin r = constant
Refractive Index
 It is also called the index of refraction, describes how fast light travels through the material.
 The refractive Index is dimensionless.
 For a given material, the refractive index is the ratio between the speed of light in a vacuum (c) and the
speed of light in the medium (v). If the refractive index for a medium is represented by n, then it is given
by the following formula: n = c ÷ v
Applications of Refraction of Light
 A lens uses refraction to form an image of an object for various purposes, such as magnification.
 Spectacles worn by people with defective vision use the principle of refraction.
 Refraction is used in peepholes of house doors, cameras, movie projectors and telescopes.
Dispersion of White Light by a Glass Prism
 When white light is passed through a glass prism it splits into its spectrum of colours (in order violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red) and this process of white light splitting into its constituent
colours is termed as dispersion.
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 Refraction Of Light Through Prism: When light travels from one medium to another, the speed of its
propagation changes, as a result, it ‘bends’ or is ‘refracted’. Now when light passes through a prism, it
is refracted towards the base of the triangle.
Atmospheric Refraction
 The air just above the fire becomes hotter than the air further up. The hotter air is lighter (less dense)
than the cooler air above it, and has a refractive index slightly less than that of the cooler air. Since the
physical conditions of the refracting medium (air) are not stationary, the apparent position of the
object, as seen through the hot air, fluctuate. This wavering is thus an effect of atmospheric refraction
(refraction of light by the earth’s atmosphere).
Twinkling of Stars
 The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight.

Advance sunrise and delayed sunset
 The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual
sunset because of atmospheric refraction.
Scattering of Light
 Scattering of light is the phenomenon by which a beam of light is redirected in many different
directions when it interacts with a particle of matter.
 The blue colour of the sky, colour of water in deep sea, the reddening of the sun at sunrise and the
sunset.
Tyndall Effect
 The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light as a light beam passes through a colloid. The individual
suspension particles scatter and reflect light, making the beam visible.
 The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles like smoke, tiny water droplets,
suspended particles of dust and molecules of air. When a beam of light strikes such fine particles, the
path of the beam becomes visible.
 Tyndall effect is seen when a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke-filled room through a small hole.
Tyndall effect can also be observed when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest.
Defects of Vision and Their Correction
 Near-sightedness: If the eyeball is too long or the lens too spherical, the image of distant objects is
brought to a focus in front of the retina and is out of focus again before the light strikes the retina.
Nearby objects can be seen more easily. Eyeglasses with concave lenses correct this problem by
diverging the light rays before they enter the eye. Near-sightedness is called myopia.
 Farsightedness: If the eyeball is too short or the lens too flat or inflexible, the light rays entering the
eye — particularly those from nearby objects— will not be brought to a focus by the time they strike
the retina. Eyeglasses with convex lenses can correct the problem. Farsightedness is called
Hypermetropia.
 Astigmatism: Astigmatism is the most common refractive problem responsible for blurry vision. Most
of the eyeball’s focusing power occurs along the front surface of the eye, involving the tear film and
cornea (the clear ‘window’ along the front of the eyeball). The ideal cornea has a perfectly round
surface. Anything other than perfectly round contributes to abnormal corneal curvature– this is
astigmatism. Cylindrical lens is use to correct astigmatism.
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Electricity & Magnetism
Electricity
 Electricity is briefly defined as the flow of electric charge.
 The electricity produced by friction between two appropriate bodies, is called Static Electricity, it is
also called Frictional Electricity.
Coulomb’s Law
 It states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically
charged bodies is directly proportional to the product of the charge of the charged bodies and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between the centres of the charged bodies.
 It is also referred to as Coulomb’s inverse-square law.
 The formula for Coulomb’s Law is F = Q1Q2 ÷ 4 πƐoƐrd2
where Q1 and Q2 are the electrical charges, d is the distance between the centre of the objects, the
charges objects are placed in medium of permittivity Ɛo Ɛr.
Electric Field
 Electric field can be considered as an electric

property associated with each point in the space
where a charge is present in any form. An electric
field is also described as the electric force per unit charge.
 The formula of electric field is E = F /Q, where, E is the
electric field, F is a force and Q is the charge.
 Electric fields are usually caused by varying magnetic fields or electric charges. Electric field strength
is measured in the SI unit volt per meter (V/m).
Electric Field Lines
 An electric field line is an imaginary line, so that its tangent at any point is in the direction of the
electric field vector at that point.
 Two lines can never intersect. Electric field lines always begin on a positive charge and end on a
negative charge and do not start or stop in mid-space.
Electric Potential
 Electric potential at a point in an electric field is equal to the work done per unit charge in carrying a
test charge from infinity to that point. Its unit is joule/coulomb.
 Electric potential, V = 𝑊𝑞.
 Potential difference is that physical quantity which decides the direction of flow of charge between
two points in electric field.
 Positive charge always tends to move from higher potential towards lower potential.
Electric Dipole and Capacitor
 An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite point charges separated by a very small distance.
 Electric dipole moment of the dipole is product of charge and the separation between the charges.
 A capacitor or condenser is a device over which a large amount of charge can be stored without
changing its dimensions.
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 The capacitance of a conductor is equal to the ratio of the charge (q) given to the conductor to change
in its potential (V) is given by C = 𝑞𝑉.
 Its unit is coulomb/volt or farad. Farad ((F) is a large unit of capacitance. Its practical unit is
microfarad (𝜇𝐹). 1𝜇𝐹=10−6𝐹
Electric Current
 An electric current is a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an
electrical conductor or space. Its S.I. unit is Ampere
 It is measured as the net rate of flow of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume.
 An electric current whose magnitude and direction do not change with time is called Direct Current
(DC) and whose magnitude changes continuously and direction changes periodically is called
Alternating Current (AC).
 Inverter is a device which converts DC to AC.
Resistance
 Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. Resistance is

measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω). Its S.I. unit is ohm.
Conductance
 Conductance is an expression of the ease with which electric current flows through materials like
metals and non-metals.
 It is symbolised with the letter ‘G’ and the standard unit is Siemens (S), formerly known as mho.
 Mathematically, conductance equals the reciprocal of resistance: G = 1/R.
Resistivity
 Resistivity of a material depends on the temperature and nature of the material depends on temperature
and nature of the material. It is independent of dimensions of the conductor, i.e., length, area of cross-
section etc.
 Resistivity of metals increases with increase in temperature.
Combination of Resistances
 If resistors are connected end to end such that same current flows in each resistor but different
potential difference is observed across then such combination is called series combination.
 If resistance 𝑅1, 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 are connected in series, then their equivalent resistance is given by 𝑅=𝑅1 +
𝑅2 + 𝑅3. In series combination, equal current flows through each resistors but Voltage varies.
 If resistances 𝑅1, 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 are connected in parallel, then their equivalent resistance is given by 1 / 𝑅
= 1 / 𝑅1 + 1 / 𝑅2 + 1 / 𝑅3. In parallel combination, potential difference across each resistor remains
same but current varies.
Ohm’s Law
 It states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it,
provided all physical conditions and temperatures remain constant.
 Ohm’s Law Equation: V = IR, where V is the voltage across the conductor, I is the current flowing
through the conductor and R is the resistance provided by the conductor to the flow of current.
Electric Cell
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 An electric cell is a device, which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
 It has two terminals, which are made up of metal: one terminal is positive (+), while the other one is
negative (). When the two terminals are connected to an electrical device, electric current flows
through it.
 An electrochemical cell consists of electrodes namely cathode and anode.
 The non-spontaneous reaction is controlled by an external source of current.
 The decomposition of an electrolytic solution by passing current, which results in the liberation of
corresponding gases is known as electrolysis.
 Therefore, an electric cell is a device used to generate electricity, or to make chemical reactions by
applying electricity.
Two types of Electric Cell
Primary Cell Secondary Cell

Cannot be charged. Voltaic, Daniel and Leclanche Can be charged again and again. Acid
cells are Primary cells and alkali accumulators are Secondary cells.
 Working of electric cells is based on chemical effect of electric current.
Electromotive Force (Emf of Cell)

 The work done by the cell to bring a (+) ve charge from its own terminal to the other is known as its
Electromotive force). Electromotive force is work but not a force.
Joule’s Law of Heating
 Joule's law of heating states that, when a current 'i ' passes through a conductor of resistance 'r' for time
't' then the heat developed in the conductor is equal to the product of the square of the current, the
resistance and time. H=I2 × R × t.
Electric Power
 The electrical energy produced or consumed per unit time is called electric power.
 Electric power, P = VI = 𝐼2𝑅=𝑉2 / 𝑅, where P is the power, V is the potential difference in the circuit
and I is the electric current.
 The SI unit is Watt, Joule / second. 1 KWh = 3.6 × 106 J
Chemical Effect of Electric Current

 When an electric current is passed through an acidic or basic solution, it decomposes into its positive
and negative ions. The positive ions collect at negative electrode (cathode) and the negative ions
collect at positive electrode (anode).
 This phenomenon is called Electrolysis. It is chemical effect of current. The process of coating of a
base metal with a layer of more expensive metal, is called Electroplating.
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Types of Materials
 Conductors are those type of materials which have number of free electrons to conduct the electricity.
The metals are good conductors of electricity.
 Insulators are that type of materials which do not have the free electrons in its volume and hence, it
does not conduct the electricity at all.
 Semiconductor is that type of materials which do not have free electrons at the normal temperature,
but has the free electrons at the increased temperature and hence, behaves like a conductor. The
materials such as silicon, germanium etc., are the semiconductor.
Magnetism
 The force exerted by magnets when they attract or repel each other is called magnetism.
North
Magnet has two poles
South
 A magnet which is prepared artificially is called an Artificial Magnet.
 A current-carrying coil containing a soft iron core is called an Electromagnet.
 An electromagnet is utilised in electric bell, telegraph receiver, telephone diaphragm, transformer,
dynamo etc.
 Permanent Magnets are made of steel and temporary magnet or electromagnets are made of soft iron
because steel cannot magnetised easily but when it is magnetised one time, cannot be demagnetised
easily. The soft iron can be magnetised or demagnetised easily
Properties of Magnetism
 Magnets are attracted to ferromagnetic materials like iron, nickel, and cobalt.
 A magnet's magnetic force seems to be stronger through its extremities than those in the centre point.
 Magnetism is a moving electric charge that produces an attractive as well as a repulsive phenomenon.
 A completely hanging magnet constantly points northwards to southwards.
The two basic laws of Magnets
Like poles (north-north; south-south) will repel each other Unlike poles (north-south) will attract each other.
Magnetic Field
 A magnetic field is a vector field that describes the
magnetic influence on moving electric charges,
electric currents, and magnetic materials. A moving
charge in a magnetic field experiences a force
perpendicular to its own velocity and to the magnetic field.
 A tangent drawn at any point of a magnetic line of force represents the direction of magnetic field at
that point.
 The magnetic flux linked with a surface is equal to the total number of magnetic lines of force passing
through that surface normally. Its unit is weber.
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Earth’s Magnetism
 The earth has its own magnetic field. The pole near the geographic North of the earth is called the
Magnetic North Pole. Similarly, the pole near the geographic South Pole is called the Magnetic South
Pole.
 The Earth's magnetic field diverts charged particle coming from space towards its poles and saves
living beings from being severely harmed.
 Magnetic compass A magnetic needle which always direct in North-South (N-S) direction.
Magnetic Storm
 Local disturbances in the earth’s magnetic field which can damage telecommunication which are
probably caused by lump of charged particles emanating from the sun is known as magnetic storm.
 In the Arctic Circle, they are known as Aurora Borealis or the northern lights, while in the Antarctic
Circle they are called Aurora Australis or the southern lights.
Moving Coil Galvanometer
 A moving coil galvanometer is used to detect the presence of current and the direction of current in
any circuit.
Ammeter and Voltmeter

 An Ammeter is an instrument used to measure electric current. It is always connected in series. The
resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.
 A Galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel.
 A Voltmeter is a device used to measure potential difference between two points in an electric circuit.
 The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity. It is always connected in parallel.
 A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series.
 A small resistance connected in parallel with the load resistance to reduce amount of electric current
through resistor is called shunt.
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI)

 Whenever the magnetic flux linked with an electric circuit changes, an electro motive force (emf) is
induced in the circuit. This phenomenon is called Electromagnetic Induction.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction consists of two laws. The first law describes the induction of
emf in a conductor and the second law quantifies the emf produced in the conductor.
Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction states that whenever a conductor is placed in a
First Law varying magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced. If the conductor circuit is closed, a
current is induced, which is called induced current.
Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction states that the induced emf in a coil is equal
Second Law
to the rate of change of flux linkage.
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Magnetic Substances
Paramagnetic Diamagnetic Ferromagnetic

Materials: Materials: Materials:
Those substances Those substances Those substances
which are feebly which are feebly which are strongly
magnetised in the magnetised in the magnetised in the
direction of magnetic opposite direction of direction of magnetic
field when placed in magnetic field when field when placed in
strong magnetic field, placed in strong it, are called
are called magnetic field are ferromagnetic
paramagnetic called diamagnetic substances.
substances. substances.
Lenz’s Law
 It states that the polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which opposes the
change in magnetic flux that produced it.
 The negative sign in the formula represents this effect. Thus, the negative sign indicates that the
direction of the induced emf and the change in the direction of magnetic fields have opposite signs.
Eddy Current
 If a piece of metal is placed in a varying magnetic field or rotated with high speed in a uniform
magnetic field, then induced current set up in the piece is like whirlpool of air, called Eddy current,
also known as Foucault’s current.
Self and Mutual Induction
 The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a circuit due to change in current flowing in its own,
is called Self-induction.
 The unit of self-induction is Henry (H).
 The phenomenon of production of induced emf in a circuit due to change in magnetic flux in its
neighbouring circuit, is called Mutual induction.
 Its unit is Henry (H).
Alternating Current
 An electric current whose magnitude and direction changes continuously is called Alternating Current.
The frequency of alternating current in India is 50 Hz.
 Mean or average value of AC is zero for one complete cycle.
 Root mean square value of AC is given by 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠=𝐼0 / √2.
 An AC ammeter and AC voltmeter read root mean square value of alternating current and alternating
voltage respectively.
AC Generator or Dynamo
 It is a device which Inverts mechanical energy into alternating current.
 Its working is based on electromagnetic induction.
DC Motor
 It is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
 Its working is based on the fact that when a current carrying coil is placed in uniform magnetic field, a
torque acts on it.
Transformer
 It is a device which can change a low voltage current into a high voltage current and vice-versa.
 Its working is based on mutual induction.
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Step-up Transformer
 It converts a low voltage current into a high voltage current.
Step-down Transformer
 It converts a high voltage current into a low voltage current.
Nuclear Reactor
 A nuclear reactor is a device that contains and controls sustained nuclear chain reactions.
 In nuclear reactors, the nuclear fission is controlled by controlling the number of neutrons released
during the fission.
 The energy liberated in a controlled manner is used to produce steam, which can run turbines and
produce electricity.
 Fuel (Uranium - 235 , Plutonium-239 )
 The fissionable material is used in the reactor along with a small neutron source. The solid fuel is
made into rods and is called fuel rods.
Role of Extra Neutron

 These neutrons in turn can initiate fission processes, producing still more neutrons, and so on. This
starts a chain reaction. Slow neutrons (thermal neutrons) are much more likely to cause fission in
235
U92 than fast neutrons. Fast neutrons liberated in fission would escape instead of causing another
fission reaction.
 If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, it leads to explosive energy output, as in a nuclear bomb or Atom
bomb. Each time an atom splits, it releases large amounts of energy in the form of heat.
Moderators: (water, heavy water (D2O) and graphite)
 Light nuclei called moderators are provided along with the fissionable nuclei for slowing down fast
neutrons.
Core: The core of the reactor is the site of nuclear fission. It contains the fuel elements in suitably fabricated
form.
Reflector: The core is surrounded by a reflector to reduce leakage. The energy (heat) released in fission is
continuously removed by a suitable coolant.
Coolant: (water, heavy-water, liquid sodium, helium, Liquid oxygen)
 The coolant transfers heat produced during fission to a working fluid which in turn may produce
steam. The steam drives turbines and generates electricity.
Control rods: (Cadmium, Boron)
 The reactor can be shut down by means of rods (made of, for example, Cadmium, Boron) that have
high absorption of capacity of neutrons. Cadmium and boron can absorb neutrons to form the
corresponding isotopes, which are not radioactive.
Satellite
 A heavenly body revolving around a planet in an orbit is called a Satellite.
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 Moon is a natural satellite of the earth. The satellite may be artificial. Artificial satellites are of two
types.
Geostationary Satellites
 It revolves around the earth in equatorial orbits which is also called Geostationary or Geosynchronous
orbit. The time period of these satellites is 24 hour.
Polar Satellites
 These satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits at a height of approximately 800 km.
Time Period of a Satellite
 It is the time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution.
 If satellite is near the earth's surface, then T = 2π√𝑅 / 𝑔 ≈ 84.6 min.
Escape Velocity
 Escape velocity is that minimum velocity with which a body should be projected from the surface of
earth so as it goes out of gravitational field of earth and never return to earth.
 Escape velocity is independent of the mass, shape and size of the body and its direction of projection.
 Escape velocity is also called second cosmic velocity. For earth, escape velocity = 11.2 km/s. For
moon, escape velocity = 2.4 km/s.
Orbital Velocity
 Orbital velocity of a satellite 𝑉0=√𝑔𝑅 and escape velocity 𝑉𝑒=√2𝑔𝑅 where R = Radius of earth. i.e.
𝑉𝑒=√2𝑉0 i.e. escape velocity is √2 times the orbital velocity.
 There if the orbital velocity of a satellite is increased to √2 times (increased by 41%), the satellite will
leave the orbit and escape.
Mini Exercise - III
1. A full length of the image of a distant tall building can be seen using
a. Convex mirror b Plane mirror
c. Concave Mirror d None of these
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant. It is
given by
a. Faraday’s Law b Snell’s Law
c. Newton’s law d Murphy’s Law
3. Coulomb law is employed in
a. Electrostatics
b. Magneto statics
c. Electromagnetics d Maxwell theory
4. The force per unit charge is known as
a. Electric current b Electric potential
c. Electric field d Electric space
5. The rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section of a conductor is known as
a. Electric flux b Electric potential
c. Electric current d Electric field
6. Ohm’s law is true for
a. Metallic conductors at low temperature b Metallic conductors at high temperature
c. For electrolytes, when current passes through them
d. For diode when current flows
7. When the length of the conductor is doubled and the area of cross-section remains the same then its
resistance
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a. Remains the same b Will be doubled
c. Will become half d Will increase by four times
8. The capacity of a battery is expressed in terms of
a. Current rating b Voltage rating
c. Ampere hour rating d None of these
9. Which one of the following is the practical unit of power?
a. Watt (W) b Kilowatt hour (KWh)
c. Horse power (HP) d Kilojoule (KJ)
10. Identify the correct formula of electric power.
a. Electric power = time taken / electric work done
b. Electric power = electric work done / time taken
c. Electric power = electric work done × time taken
d. Electric power = 1 / electric work done
11. The magnetism of a magnet is due to
a. Earth b Cosmic rays
c. Due to pressure of big magnet inside the earth
d. Spin motion of electrons
12. Which among the following is true about Faraday’s law of Induction?
a. An emf is induced in a conductor when it cuts the magnetic flux
b. An emf is induced in a conductor when it moves parallel to the magnetic field
c. An emf is induced in a conductor when it moves perpendicular to the magnetic field
d. An emf is induced in a conductor when it is just entering a magnetic field
13. Two magnetic field lines
a. Intersect at neutral point b Never intersect each other
c. Intersect near north-pole or south pole d Intersect at the mid-point of the magnet
14. Name the moderator used in the nuclear reactor?
a. Plutonium b Thorium c Graphite d Beryllium
15. The energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motion is known as
a. Chemical energy b Thermal energy
c. Potential energy d Kinetic energy
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Practice Test - Physics
1. What does the slope of the velocity-time graph give?

a. Speed b Velocity c Acceleration d Displacement
2. Which of the following can sometimes be ‘zero’ for a moving body?
i. Average velocity
ii. Distance travelled
iii. Average speed
iv. Displacement
a. Only (i) b (i) and (ii) c (i) and (iv) d Only (iv)
3. If a body in translator motion moves along a curved path then the motion is
a. Oscillatory motion
b. Rotatory motion
c. Curvilinear motion d Uniform motion
4. A body is moving in a vertical circular motion. Which one of the following forces does it not
experience?
a. Force of gravity b Centripetal force
c. Normal reaction force d Centrifugal force
5. Which one of the following device acts on the principle of circular motion?
a. Centrifuge b Screw Gauge c Ruler d Vernier Callipers
6. Which of the following should be constant for a body to have a constant momentum?
a. Acceleration b Force c Velocity d All of these
7. Swimming is possible on account of
a. First Law of motion b Second Law of motion
c. Third Law of motion d Newton’s law of gravitation
8. The component of contact force that is perpendicular to the surface in contact is referred to as
a. Frictional force b Normal reaction force
c. Both a and b d None of these
9. The coefficient of static friction is
a. Less than the coefficient of kinetic friction
b. Greater than the coefficient of limiting friction
c. Equal to the coefficient of kinetic friction
d. Equal to the tangent of the angle of friction
10. Friction can be increased by
a. Using air cushion b Lubricants
c. Using sand d Using ball bearings
11. A particle of mass m is hanging vertically by an ideal spring of force constant k. If the mass is made to
oscillate vertically, its total energy is
a. Maximum at extreme position b Maximum at mean position
c. Minimum at mean position d Same at all positions
12. Which of the following motions isn’t a simple harmonic linear motion?
a. Motion of a magnet in a vibration magnetometer.
b. Vertical motion of a body tied to a spring.
c. Motion of the needle in a sewing machine.
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d. Simple pendulum motion for minor oscillations.
13. For S.H.M., which of the following is a necessary and sufficient condition?
a. proportionality between acceleration and displacement from equilibrium position
b. constant period
c. proportionality between restoring force and displacement from equilibrium position
d. constant acceleration
14. With the increase in temperature, the frequency of the sound from an organ pipe
a. Decreases b Increases
c. Remain unchanged d Changes erratically
15. What will be the effect of temperature on speed of sound?
a. The speed of sound decreases with the increase of temperature.
b. The speed of sound decreases with the decrease of temperature.
c. The speed of sound increase with the decrease of temperature.
d. The speed of sound increases with the increase of temperature.
16. Sound is a
a. Form of power b form of energy
c. Form of transverse waves d form of latitudinal waves
17. Doppler shift in frequency does not depend on the
a. Speed of the source
b. Speed of observer
c. Frequency of the wave emitted by the source
d. Distance between the source and the observer
18. What is heat transfer?
a. Flow of thermal energy from low-temperature reservoir to high-temperature reservoir
b. Flow of energy in the form of heat from high-temperature reservoir to low-temperature
reservoir
c. Flow of thermal energy irrespective of reservoir temperature
d. None of these
19. Heat transfer takes place according to which of the following law?
a. Newton’s second law of motion
b. First law of thermodynamics
c. Newton’s law of cooling
d. Second law of thermodynamics
20. What is the unit of coefficient of area expansion?
a. per °C b °C c per (°C)2 d (°C)2
21. The change in the energy between a chemical reaction and the surroundings at constant temperature is
called
a. enthalpy change b enthalpy c enthalpy profit
d. dynamic enthalpy
22. Carnot cycle consists of
a. Two constant volume and two reversible adiabatic processes
b. Two isothermal and two reversible adiabatic processes
c. Two constant pressure and two reversible adiabatic processes
d. One constant volume, one constant pressure and two reversible adiabatic processes
23. ______ is a measure of the actual amount of water vapour in the air, regardless of the air’s
temperature.
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a. Relative humidity b Absolute humidity
c. Specific humidity d None of these
24. The Pascal’s law is applicable to the liquid which is
a. Compressible b In-compressible
c. Solid in phase d Super-compressive
25. According to Archimedes principle, loss of weight of a body immersed in a liquid is equal to
a. Weight of the liquid displaced b Weight of the total liquid
c. Weight of the body d None of these
26. When there are no external forces, the shape of a liquid drop is determined by
a. Surface Tension of the liquid b The density of the liquid
c. The viscosity of the liquid d The temperature of air only
27. What happens to the viscosity of liquid with the increase in temperature
a. It increases b It decreases
c. It may increase or decrease d No change
28. Which of these ratios gives the value of viscosity of fluid?
a. Ratio of the shearing stress to the weight of the fluid
b. Ratio of the shearing stress to the density of the fluid
c. Ratio of the velocity gradient and shearing stress
d. The ratio of the shearing stress to the velocity gradient
29. Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to compressible flow at which of the following matches the
number?
a. match number less than 1 b match number equal to 1
c. higher match numbers d does not depends on match number
30. Stagnation pressure or the total pressure is the sum of
a. Kinetic and potential energy b Static and dynamic pressure
c. Kinetic energy + potential energy + gravity d Cannot be determined
31. Twinkling of stars is due to which optical phenomenon?
a. Reflection b Interference
c. Refraction d Divergence
32. The laws of reflection are valid for
a. Convex mirror b Plane mirror
c. Concave mirror d All mirrors irrespective of their shape
33. The Coulomb law is an implication of which law?
a. Ampere law b Gauss law
c. Biot Savart law d Lenz law
34. ________ gives the information on field strength, direction, and nature of the charge.
a. Electric current b Electric flux
c. Electric field d Electric potential
35. Unit of conductance is
a. Dyne b Siemen c Ohm d Volts
36. The opposition offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of current through itself is known as
a. External resistance b Internal resistance
c. Non-resistance d None of these
37. Electric energy is dependent on time.
a. True b False c Partially True d None of these
38. Which of the following statements is true about magnetic field intensity?
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a. Magnetic field intensity is the number of lines of force crossing per unit volume.
b. Magnetic field intensity is the number of lines of force crossing per unit area.
c. Magnetic field intensity is the magnetic induction force acting on a unit magnetic pole.
d. Magnetic field intensity is the magnetic moment per unit volume
39. Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet do not intersect because
a. The lines have similar charges hence they repel each other
b. The lines always diverge from a single point
c. A point always has a single net magnetic field
d. The lines need magnetic lenses to intersect
40. Faraday’s laws are result of the conservation of which quantity?
a. Momentum b Energy c Charge
d. Magnetic Field
41. Which isotope of Uranium has the capacity to sustain the chain reaction?
a. U-230 b U-235 c U-245 d U-225
42. The energy we get in nuclear reaction comes from
a. Energy we put into the reactor b The mass of the fuel
c. Water d The sun
43. The rate of doing work is called
a. Force b Acceleration c Power d Displacement
44. The value of acceleration due to gravity
a. is same on equator and poles b is least on poles
c. is least on equator d increases from pole to equator
45. Law of gravitation gives the gravitational force between
a. the Earth and a point mass only
b. the Earth and Sun only
c. any two bodies having some mass
d. two charged bodies only
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Answers – Physics
Mini Exercise – I
1. b The secondary fundamental unit is Luminous intensity.

2. a The total path length travelled by a body in a given time interval is distance.
3. c A vector quantity is specified by its magnitude as well as the direction.
4. c Friction is a force that opposes motion. When two objects are in contact, friction acts in the
opposite direction to the motion of the object.
5. a Centripetal force is responsible for keeping bodies moving in the circular motion. The
centripetal force is directly proportional to the square of the tangential velocity and inversely to the
radius of circle.
6. b The centrifugal force always acts away from the centre of the circle in which the body is
moving. In contrast to this, the centripetal force always acts towards the centre of the circle, keeping
the body moving in the circle.
7. d The mass of a body is equivalent to the ratio of the force acting on it to the acceleration it
generates the mass of inertia.
8. b The rate at which a body’s momentum changes is proportional to the force applied and occurs
in the direction in which the force is applied). This is Second law of motion.
9. c Inertia is the property of mass to remain unchanged. Inertia is because of which a mass
continues to remain in its original state in absence of any external force. Inertia of a body can be
changed only by an external force.
10. d The nature of a wave travelling through a string with both ends fixed has a simple harmonic
nature.
11. b The frequency of the note produced by plucking a given string increases as the tension in the
string increases.
12. c Sound propagates maximum in solid.
13. a Longitudinal waves
14. c Sound waves have amplitude, frequency and wavelength.
15. a If the source or the observer or both, move with respect to the medium, the frequency observed
may be different from the frequency of the source.
1. d Methods of heat transfer are: Conduction: Heat is transferred by solid materials, Convection:
Heat is transferred by gases and Radiation: Heat is transferred by electromagnetic waves.
2. a The joule is the unit of heat transfer, while the rate of heat transfer is measured in joules per
second, i.e., watts.
3. d The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created and destroyed.
4. b The application of law of thermodynamics to the enthalpy change was done by Hess’s.
5. c Third law of thermodynamics was formulated by Nernst.
6. a All of the options are applicable.
7. b Humidity is simply the amount of water vapour held in the air.
8. a Have definite shape
9. a The Pascal law states that the liquid at rest applies pressure at a point is the same in all
directions. This means that the pressure is there in spite of the direction. And it is present in the same
direction and is having the same magnitude.
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10. d Thrust force is also known as the buoyant force.
11. b Raindrops are spherical in shape because of Surface Tension.
12. b Viscosity represents resistance to fluid motion.
13. b The SI unit of viscosity is Poiseiulle.
14. c Bernoulli’s equation is applicable only for in viscid and incompressible flow because in in
viscid flow, the viscosity is zero and hence no viscous forces acts on the body also incompressible
flow means the density remains constant. The in viscid and incompressible flow reduces many fluid
problems.
15. b It states that the sum of all the forms of energy in flow is the same at all the points in that flow
field. The energy here refers to kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy.
1. a A convex mirror always forms a virtual and smaller image irrespective of the position of the
object. So, a full-length image of a distant tall building can definitely be seen by using a convex
mirror.
2. b According to Snell’s law Sin i/Sin r = constant.
3. a Coulomb law is applied to static charges. It states that force between any two point charges is
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to square of the distance between
them. Thus it is employed in electrostatics.
4. c The force per unit charge is known as the electric field.
5. c The rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section of a conductor is known as
electric current.
6. a Ohm’s law is true for Metallic conductors at low temperature.
7. b When the length of the conductor is doubled and the area of cross-section remains the same
then its resistance will be doubled.
8. c The capacity of a battery is expressed in terms of Ampere hour rating.
9. c The practical unit of power is horse power (HP). Kilo watt is also another practical unit of
power. 1 Kilowatt = 1000 watt; 1 HP = 746 watt. It is usually used in reference to the output of
engines or motors.
10. b Electric power is defined as the rate at which work is done by the source of emf in maintaining
the current in the electric circuit. So, the formula of electric power is: Electric power (P) = electric
work done / time taken.
11. d The magnetism of a magnet is due to spin motion of electrons.
12. a According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an emf is induced in a conductor
when it cuts across the flux of a magnetic field. If the two ends of the conductor are connected to an
outside circuit, the induced emf causes current to flow in the circuit.
13. b Two magnetic field lines never intersect each other.
14. c Graphite is used in the nuclear reactor as the moderator.
15. d The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is known as its kinetic energy. It is
given by the formula: KE = ½ mv2.
Practice Test
1. c The slope of the velocity-time graph gives acceleration.

2. c Average velocity and displacement can be zero for a moving body.
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3. c Curvilinear motion is the movement of an object along a curved path.
4. c A body moving in the vertical circular motion experiences these four forces – centripetal force,
centrifugal force, force of gravity and resistance offered by the medium in which it is moving. Apart
from these, it does not experience any other force in normal conditions.
5. a The centrifuge utilises the centrifugal force produced during circular motion. Centrifuge is
commonly used to separate platelets from blood samples. It is an important for studying blood. Other
variations of centrifuge include devices like cream separator etc.
6. d All of the given options should be constant.
7. c Newton’s third law of motion states that to every action there is always an equal and opposite
reaction.
8. b The component of contact force that is perpendicular to the surface in contact is referred to as
Normal reaction force.
9. d The angle which the resultant of the limiting friction and the normal reaction which makes the
normal reaction is called the angle of friction. But the tangent of the angle of friction is equal to the
coefficient of static friction.
10. c By throwing sand the force of friction between the wheels and the track becomes easier. On
rainy days, we throw sand on the slippery ground. This increases the friction between our feet and the
ground and reduces the chance of slipping.
11. d A particle of mass m is hanging vertically by an ideal spring of force constant k. If the mass is
made to oscillate vertically, its total energy is same at all positions.
12. a Motion of a magnet in a vibration magnetometer.
13. c Proportionality between restoring force and displacement from equilibrium position.
14. b With the increase in temperature, the frequency of the sound from an organ pipe increases.
15. d The speed of sound increases with the increase of temperature.
16. b Sound is a form of energy.
17. d If the source or the observer or both move with respect to the medium, then the frequency
observed may be different from the frequency of the source.
18. b Heat transfer is a branch of thermal engineering which deals with the study of transfer of
energy from a high-temperature reservoir to low-temperature reservoir.
19. d The total entropy of an isolated system (the thermal energy per unit temperature that is
unavailable for doing useful work) can never decrease, according to the second law of
thermodynamics.
20. a The coefficient of area expansion is defined as (ΔA/A)/ΔT. So its unit is per °C. Note that all
the coefficients of thermal expansion, namely linear, area & volume have the same unit.
21. a The change in the energy between a chemical reaction and the surroundings at constant
temperature is called enthalpy change.
22. b Carnot cycle consist of two isothermal and two reversible adiabatic processes.
23. b Absolute humidity is a measure of the actual amount of water vapour in the air, regardless of
the air’s temperature.
24. b The liquid must be incompressible. The Pascal law states that the liquid at rest applies pressure
at a point is same in all directions. This means that the pressure is there in spite of the direction.
25. a According to Archimedes principle, loss of weight of a body immersed in a liquid is equal to
weight of the liquid displaced.
26. a When there are no external forces, the shape of a liquid drop is determined by Surface Tension
of the liquid.
27. b The viscosity of liquid decreases with the increase in temperature.
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28. d The ratio of the shearing stress to the velocity gradient.
29. c Bernoulli’s principle states that increasing the velocity decreases the pressure which gives us a
higher lift. If the matches the number increases, gradually the pressure decreases which leads to an
increase in lift.
30. b The total pressure or stagnation pressure is the sum of static and dynamic pressure. Let p 0 be
the total pressure, ps be the static pressure and p d be the dynamic pressure. Therefore, p0 = ps + pd.
31. c A convex mirror always forms a virtual and smaller image irrespective of the position of the
object. So, a full-length image of a distant tall building can definitely be seen by using a convex
mirror.
32. d The laws of reflection are valid for all mirrors irrespective of their shapes.
33. b The Coulomb law can be formulated from the Gauss law, using the divergence theorem. Thus
it is an implication of Gauss law.
34. c Electric field gives the information on field strength, direction, and nature of the charge.
35. b Unit of conductance is Siemen.
36. b The opposition offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of current through itself is
known as internal resistance.
37. a Yes, electric energy is dependent on time. Electric energy = electric power × time = P × t.
Electric energy is basically the energy derived from electric charge. It can be calculated by multiplying
the electric power of the body with the time taken for the power emission.
38. c Magnetic field intensity is the magnetic induction force acting on a unit magnetic pole.
39. c A point always has a single net magnetic field.
40. b Faraday’s laws are result of the conservation of energy. These laws are based on the conversion
of electrical energy into mechanical energy. Mechanical energy can be converted into electrical energy
such as in the example of a dynamo. In the same way, electrical energy can be converted into
mechanical energy such as in the example of electric motor. Both of the above examples work on the
principle of Faraday’s law.
41. b U-235 isotope of Uranium has the capacity to sustain the chain reaction.
42. b The energy we get in nuclear reaction comes from the mass of the fuel.
43. c Power is defined as the rate of doing work.
44. c The value of acceleration due to gravity is least on equator.
45. c Law of gravitation gives the gravitational force between any two bodies having some mass.
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Chemistry
Substance (or chemical substance): A chemical substance is a form of matter having constant chemical
composition and characteristic properties. Chemical substance cannot be separated into its constituent
elements by physical separation methods, i.e., without breaking chemical bonds. E.g. Salt (Sodium
Chloride), Vinegar, Graphite, Toothpaste (Calcium Carbonate, Sodium Fluoride) etc.
Pure substance: It is a single kind of matter that cannot be separated into other kinds of matter by any
physical means. A pure substance always has a definite and constant composition. E.g. Steel, water etc.
Matter
Solid Liquid Gas
Mixtures Physical Methods Pure Substances

Variable compositions Variable Composition
Homogenous Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixtures Element Compound
Types of Pure Substances

 Elements: Elements constitute the simplest chemical substances in which all
the atoms are exactly the same. The elements are arranged in the periodic table
and are split depending upon their groups as either metallic or non-metallic.
 Compound: When two or more elements chemically combine in a fixed ratio by mass, the obtained
product is known as a compound.
Mixture
A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances

in which each substance retains its own chemical identity.
Mixtures have varying physical and chemical properties.
It can be separated using different separation methods.
E.g A solution like water and oil, Gas and liquid such as
water.
 Homogeneous Mixture: A homogeneous mixture has the
same uniform appearance and composition throughout.
Many homogeneous mixtures are commonly referred to as
solutions.
 Heterogeneous mixture: A heterogeneous mixture consists of visibly different substances or phases.
The three phases or states of matter are gas, liquid, and solid.
Solution
 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of one or more solutes dissolved in a
solvent.
The term solution is commonly applied to the liquid state of matter,
but solutions of gases and solids are possible.
Solute:
 The substance that is dissolved in a solution to produce a homogeneous mixture is called a solute.
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Solvent:
 The substance in which a solute dissolves to produce a homogeneous mixture.
Suspension:
 A suspension is defined as a heterogeneous mixture in which the solid particles
are spread throughout the liquid without dissolving in it.
Solubility:
 The property of a solute (air, water or gas) to dissolve in a solvent (air, water or gas).
Saturated Solution:
 When a solution dissolves solute as much as possible at a particular temperature, is called a saturated
solution. It can also be defined as, at a given temperature when no more solute can dissolve itself in the
solution, it is a saturated solution.
Unsaturated Solution:
 When the quantity of solute is not as same as the saturation level but less than that, it is known as an
unsaturated solution.
Super-saturated Solution:
 A supersaturated solution is a solution that contains more than the maximum amount of solute that is
capable of being dissolved at a given temperature.
Concentration of a solution:
 Concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved in a unit amount of solvent.
 The formula is Concentration of solution = (Weight of the solute in gram) ÷ (volume in Litres).
Mass Percentage (w/w)
 It is expressed in terms of mass percentage of solute to the solution. The formula for mass percentage
is Mass percentage of A = (Mass of component A) ÷ (Total mass of the solution) × 100
Molarity (M)
 It is the number of moles of solute contained in 1000 ml of solution. It is a commonly used method for
expressing concentrations.
 Molarity = (Mass of solute) ÷ (volume of solution in litres)
Molality (m)
 The molality is expressed as the number of moles of a solute contained in 1000 gm of a solvent.
 Molality (m) = (Mass of solute) ÷ (Mass of solvent in Kg)
Normality (N)
 It as the number of equivalents of the solute present in the solution, and it is also called equivalent
concentration.
 Normality (N) = (Weight of solute in grams) ÷ (Equivalent mass × Volume in litre)
Mole Fraction:
 The mole fraction (X) of a component in a solution is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of
that component to the total number of moles of all components in the solution.
Sedimentation
 It is the process of allowing particles in suspension in water to settle out of the suspension under the
effect of gravity. The particles that settle out from the suspension become sediment, and in water
treatment is known as sludge.
Evaporation:
 It happens when a liquid turns into a gas. It can be easily visualized when rain puddles “disappear” on
a hot day or when wet clothes dry in the sun.
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Crystallization:
 It is a technique used for the purification of substances. A separation technique to separate solids from
a solution.
Distillation:
 The process involving the conversion of a liquid into vapour that is subsequently condensed back to
liquid form. It is exemplified at its simplest when steam from a kettle becomes deposited as drops of
distilled water on a cold surface.
Chromatography:
 It is the technique for separating the components, or solutes, of a mixture on the basis of the relative
amounts of each solute distributed between a moving fluid streams, called the mobile phase, and a
contiguous stationary phase.
Alloys:
 Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metal and cannot separated into their components by physical
methods. E.g. Brass is a mixture of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn).
Colloid
 A Colloid is an intermediate between solution and suspension. It has particles

with sizes between 2 and 1000 nanometres.
 Colloids can be distinguished from solutions using the Tyndall effect.
 Tyndall effect is defined as the scattering of light (light beam) through a
colloidal solution.
 The particles are termed as colloidal particles and the mixture formed is known as colloidal dispersion.
 Liquid, solid and gases all mix together to form a colloidal dispersion.
Emulsion
 An emulsion can be defined as a colloid consisting of two or more non-homogenous type of liquids
wherein one of the liquid contains the dispersion of the different form of liquids. Examples are: Milk,
face cream, etc.
Types of Emulsions
Oil in water (O / W type) Water in oil (W/O type)

E.g., milk, vanishing cream, etc e.g., butter, cold cream, etc.
Acid, Base and Salts

Acid
 An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to
another substance.
 An acid is as a substance that tastes sour in water, turns blue litmus
red, and neutralizes bases.
 Acids are corrosive in nature and pH values are always less than 7.
 According to Arrhenius theory of acids, when dissolved in water,
dissociates to give H+ (aq) or H3O+ ion.
 According to Bronsted Lowry theory, acid is an H+ (aq) ion donor.
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 Natural Acids: These are obtained from natural sources, such as fruits and animal products. For e.g.
lactic, citric, and tartaric acid etc.
 Mineral Acids: Mineral acids are acids prepared from minerals. Examples are Hydrochloric acid
(HCl), Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4), and nitric acid (HNO3), etc.
Base
 The most common characteristic of bases is their bitter taste and soapy feel.
 A base is a substance that renders hydroxyl ion (OH–) in their aqueous solution.
 Bases turn the colour of red litmus paper to blue.
 According to Arrhenius theory of bases, when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH - ion.
 According to Bronsted Lowry theory, a base is an H+ (aq) ion acceptor.
 The pH values corresponding to bases are always greater than 7.
Strength of Acids and Bases
Strong acid or base: When all molecules of a given amount of an acid or a base dissociate completely in
water to furnish their respective ions, H+ (aq) for acid and OH− (aq) for base.
Weak acid or base: When only a few of the molecules of a given amount of an acid or a base dissociate in
water to furnish their respective ions, H+ (aq) for acid and OH− (aq) for base.
Salt
 Salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of acids and bases.
 Salts are constituted of positively charged ions, known as cations, and negatively charged ions, known
as anions, which can either be organic or inorganic in nature.
 These ions are present in a relative amount, thus rendering the nature of the salt neutral.
 The reaction between an acid and a base is called a neutralization reaction.
Indicators
 Indicators are substances that change colour when they are added to acidic or alkaline solutions.
 Litmus, phenolphthalein, and methyl orange are all indicators that are commonly used in the
laboratory.
 Litmus has a purple colour in distilled water. When added to an acidic solution, it turns red and when
added to a basic solution, it turns blue.
 The solutions which do not change the colour of either red or blue litmus are known as neutral
solutions. These substances are neither acidic nor basic.
 Olfactory indicators: There are some substances whose odour changes in acidic or basic media.
pH Scale
 pH is defined as the negative logarithm of H+ ion concentration. Hence the meaning of the name pH is
justified as the power of hydrogen.
 The p in pH stands for ‘potenz’ in German, meaning power.
 A pH scale is a tool for measuring acids and bases.
 The scale ranges from 0-14. On this scale, a pH value of 7 is neutral, which means it is neither acidic
nor basic. A pH value of less than 7 means it is more acidic, and a pH value of more than 7 means it is
more basic.
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Structure of Atom
 The atomic structure of an element refers to the constitution of its

nucleus and the arrangement of the electrons around it.
 Primarily, the atomic structure of matter is made up of protons, electrons
and neutrons.
 The protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom, which is surrounded by the electrons
belonging to the atom.
 The atomic number of an element describes the total number of protons in its nucleus.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory: The postulates of his theory are:
 Every matter is made up of atoms.
 Atoms are indivisible.
 Specific elements have only one type of atoms in them.
 Each atom has its own constant mass that varies from element to element.
 Atoms undergo rearrangement during a chemical reaction.
 Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one form to
another.
 Thomson Atomic Model: Sir Joseph John Thomson put forth his model describing the atomic
structure in the early 1900s. He was later awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of “electrons”.
Fundamental Particles of an Atom
Electron: Proton: Neutron:

 Discovered by J.J.Thomson when he  Discovered by E. Goldstein  Discovered by J. Chadwick
was studying the properties of  Protons are positively subatomic  Neutrons are electrically neutral
Cathode ray. particles. particles and carry no charge.
 The charge of an electron is -1e,  The charge of a proton is 1e, which  The mass of a neutron is almost the
which approximates – 1.602 × 10 . –19 corresponds to approximately 1.602 × same as that of proton i.e. 1.672 × 10–
 The mass of an electron is 10–19. 24
.
approximately 9.1 × 10–31.  The mass of a proton is approximately  Different isotopes of an element have
 Due to the relatively negligible mass 1.672 × 10–24. the same number of protons but vary in
of electrons, they are ignored when  The total number of protons in the atoms the number of neutrons present in their
calculating the mass of an atom. of an element is always equal to the respective nuclei.
atomic number of the element.
Rutherford Atomic Theory

 Rutherford modified the atomic structure with the discovery of another subatomic particle called
“Nucleus”. His atomic model is based on the Alpha ray scattering experiment.
 Rutherford proposed his own atomic structure which is as follows.
 The nucleus is at the centre of an atom, where most of the charge and mass are concentrated.
 Atomic structure is spherical.
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a circular orbit, similar to the way planets orbit the sun.
Bohr’s Atomic Theory
 Neils Bohr put forth his model of the atom in the year 1915. This is the most widely used atomic
model to describe the atomic structure of an element which is based on Planck’s theory of
quantization.
 The electrons inside atoms are placed in discrete orbits called “stationery orbits”.
 The energy levels of these shells can be represented via quantum numbers.
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 Electrons can jump to higher levels by absorbing energy and move to lower energy levels by losing or
emitting its energy.
 As longs as, an electron stays in its own stationery, there will be no absorption or emission of energy.
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in these stationery orbits only.
 The energy of the stationary orbits is quantized.
Atomic Structures of Some Elements
The structure of atom of an element can be simply represented via the total number of protons, electrons, and
neutrons present in it. The atomic structures of a few elements are
 Hydrogen: The most abundant isotope of hydrogen on the planet Earth is Protium. The atomic
number and the mass number of this isotope are 1 and 1, respectively.
Structure of Hydrogen atom: This implies that it contains one proton, one electron, and no neutrons
(total number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number)
 Carbon: Carbon has two stable isotopes – 12C and 13C. Of these isotopes, 12C has an abundance of
98.9%. It contains 6 protons, 6 electrons, and 6 neutrons.
Structure of Carbon atom: The electrons are distributed into two shells and the outermost shell
(valence shell) has four electrons. The tetravalency of carbon enables it to form a variety of chemical
bonds with various elements.
 Oxygen: There exist three stable isotopes of oxygen – 18O, 17O, and 16O. However, oxygen-16 is the
most abundant isotope.
Structure of Oxygen atom: Since the atomic number of this isotope is 8 and the mass number is 16, it
consists of 8 protons and 8 neutrons. 6 out of the 8 electrons in an oxygen atom lie in the valence shell.
Electronic Configuration of an Atom
The electrons have to be filled in the s, p, d, f in accordance with the following rule.
 Aufbau’s Principle: The filling of electrons should take place in accordance with the ascending order
of energy of orbitals: Lower energy orbital should be filled first and higher energy levels.
 Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: No two electrons can have all the four quantum numbers to be the same
or if two electrons have to be placed in an energy state they should be placed with opposite spies.
 Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity: In the case of filling degenerate (same energy) orbitals, all
the degenerate orbitals have to be singly filled first and then only pairing has to happen.
Quantum Numbers
 Principal Quantum number (n): It denotes the orbital number or shell number of electron.
 Azimuthal Quantum numbers (l): It denotes the orbital (sub-orbit) of the electron.
 Magnetic Quantum number: It denotes the number of energy states in each orbit.
 Spin Quantum number(s): It denotes the direction of spin, S = -½ = Anticlockwise and ½ =
Clockwise.
Valency
 The combining capacity of an atom is known as its valency.
 The number of bonds that an atom can form as part of a compound is expressed by the valency of the
element.
 Valence electrons are those electrons which are present in the outermost
orbit of the atom.
 Noble gases have a completely filled outermost shell and hence they are
least reactive. Other element’s reactivity depends upon their ability to attain the noble gas
configuration.
 The atoms of elements, having a completely filled outermost shell show little chemical activity, their
valency is zero.
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 An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons is said to possess an octet. Atoms would thus react, so
as to achieve an octet in the outermost shell.
Atomic Number
 Atomic number is the number of protons present in an element's nucleus.
 It is the average weight of an element and is the total number of protons in the atom's nucleus.
 It is denoted by "Z".
Mass number
 The mass number of an atom is equal to the number of protons and neutrons combined.
 Nucleons are made up of protons and neutrons, which are found in the nucleus of an atom.
 It is symbolized by A.
Atomic Weight
 Atomic weight, also called relative atomic mass can be defined as the average weight of an element
with respect to all its isotopes and their relative abundance.
 Atomic weight is measured in units of atomic mass (usually abbreviated to AMU), also known as
Daltons.
 A single element can have several isotopes.
Isotopes
 Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons, but differ in numbers of neutrons.
 Isotopes are different forms of a single element. E.g Carbon 12 and Carbon 14 are both isotopes of
Carbon, one with 6 neutrons and one with 8 neutrons.
 The number of protons in a nucleus determines the element's atomic number on the Periodic Table.
Isobars
 Isobars are atoms (nuclides) of different chemical elements which differs in the chemical property but
has the same physical property.
 So, we can say that isobars are those elements which have a different atomic number but the same
mass number.
Isotones
 Atoms having same number of neutrons.
Isoelectronics
 Isoelectronic refers to two atoms, ions or molecules that have the same electronic structure and same
number of valence electrons.
Mass defect
 The mass defect is the difference between the rest mass of a nucleus and the sum of the rest masses of
its constituent nucleons.
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Mini Exercise - I
1. Which of the following best describes a chemical mixture?

a. A compound made from different elements
b. A substance made through chemical bonding
c. When two substances are combined but are not chemically bonded
d. All of these
2. Acetic acid is weak acid because
a. Its aqueous solution is acidic b It is highly ionised
c. It is weakly ionised d It contains the COOH group
3. Which of the following can be considered as an example of olfactory indicators?
a. Onion
b. Methyl orange
c. Turmeric d China rose
4. Which among the following is not a base?
a. NaOH b KOH c NH4OH d C2H5OH
5. Which of the following properties of colloids does not depend on the charge on particles?
a. Coagulation b Electro-osmosis
c. Electrophoresis d Tyndall effect
6. How does the solubility of gasses vary with pressure?
a. Increases with pressure b Decreases with pressure
c. First increases and then decreases d No effect
7. An alloy is a
a. Pure metal b Mixture of metals in any proportion
c. Mixture of metals in fixed proportion d Mixture of two non-metals
8. Which of the following is an example of an emulsifier?
a. NaCl b CaCO3 c C15H31COONa d CH3COOH
9. The ideal indicator for the titration of strong acid and weak base should have pH range between
a. 5-8 b 4-6 c 8-10 d 7-8
10. Range of pH scale is
a. 7 to 10 b 0 to 10 c 0 to 14 d 7 to 14
11. The nucleus of the atom consists of
a. Protons and neutrons b Protons and electrons
c. Neutrons and electrons d Protons, neutrons and electrons
12. The combining capacity of an element is known as its
a. Valency b Oxidation Number
c. Valence Electron d None of these
13. _____ is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule.
a. Average atomic mass b Atomic mass
c. Gram formula mass d Molecular mass
14. Rutherford’s scattering experiment is related to the size of the
a. Nucleus b Atom c Electron d Neutron
15. Who proposed the atomic theory?
a. John Dalton b Robert Millikan
c. J. J. Thomson d Neils Bohr
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Classification of Elements
Periodic Table
 The periodic table is an arrangement of all the elements known to man in accordance with their
increasing atomic number and recurring chemical properties.
 They are assorted in a tabular arrangement wherein a row is a period and a column is a group.
 Elements are arranged from left to right and top to bottom in the order of their increasing atomic
numbers.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table (1869)
 In 1869, after the rejection of Newlands Octave Law, Mendeleev modelled his Periodic table on the
basis of the increasing atomic mass, fundamental property and chemical properties.
Modern Periodic Law
 It states that “The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic function of their
atomic numbers.”
Long Form of Periodic Table
 Modern or long form of the periodic table is based on the modern periodic law. The table is the
arrangement of elements in increasing order of their atomic numbers. It consists of 18 vertical columns
and 7 horizontal rows.
Periodic Properties
 The periodic properties of an element depend on valency and number of shells in an atom.
 As we move down a group the number of shell increases successively such that the number of the shell
of an element is equal to the number of periods to which it belongs.
 The important periodic properties are atomic size, metallic character, non-metallic character,
ionization potential, electron affinity, and electronegativity
Non-Metallic Trends:
Atomic Size Trends: The elements which have a
Metallic Character Trends:
Ionisation Potential The distance between the tendency to gain electrons are
The elements which lose
Trends: It is defined as the centre of the nucleus and the known as non-metals. The
electrons to form cations are
amount of energy required to outermost shell of an atom is tendency to gain electrons
known as metals. Metallic
remove an electron from the known as the atomic radius. In increases on moving across a
character increases as we move
outermost shell of a gaseous a group the atomic size period due to an increase in the
down the group because the
atom and convert it into a increases due to the addition nuclear charge and a decrease
atomic size increases which lead
positively charged gaseous ion. of shells as we move from one in the atomic size. Hence, non-
to easy loss of electrons.
period to another. metallic character increases
across a period.
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Chemical Reactions and Equation
Chemical Reaction
 A Chemical Reaction is in which the bonds are broken within reactant molecules, and new bonds are
formed within product molecules in order to form a new substance.
Types of Chemical Reactions
Exothermic Reactions Endothermic Reactions

Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation Reactions in which heat is absorbed are
of products, are called exothermic reactions. Known as Endothermic reactions.
Combustion Chemical Reaction
 It is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing energy in the form of light and
heat.
Decomposition Reaction:
 A Decomposition reaction is a reaction in which chemical species break up into simpler parts.
E.g Calcium carbonate decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide on heating.
CaCO3 (s) + Heat → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Neutralisation Reaction:
 A neutralization reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water.
E.g Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride and water.
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
Redox Reaction:
 Redox is a chemical reaction in which simultaneous oxidation and reduction take place. In a redox
reaction electrons are transferred between two reactants.
 Example: Zn + 2 H+ → Zn2+ + H2
Synthesis Reaction:
 Synthesis is a chemical reaction in which multiple simple compounds combine under specific physical
conditions to form a complex product.
 Example: 2 Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl
Precipitation or Double Displacement Reaction:
 It is a kind of displacement reaction in which two reactants exchange ions to form two new
compounds.
Example: AB + CD → AD + CB
Chemical Equation
 It is a mathematical statement which symbolizes the product formation from reactants while stating
certain conditions for which how the reaction has been conducted.
 Reactants are placed on the left side of the equation while products are placed on the right side of the
equation. E.g A + B → C + D
Physical Change
 When a substance undergoes a physical change, its composition remains the same despite its
molecules being rearranged.
 Physical change is a temporary change and affects only physical properties i.e. shape, size, etc.
 In a physical change, no new substance is formed.
 Physical change is easily reversible i.e. original substance can be recovered.
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Chemical Change
 When a substance undergoes a chemical change, its molecular
composition is changed entirely. Thus, chemical changes involve
the formation of new substances.
 Chemical change is a permanent change.
 Chemical change both physical and chemical properties of the substance including its composition
 A chemical change is always accompanied by one or more new substance(s).
 Chemical changes are irreversible i.e. original substance cannot be recovered.
Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation Reduction
Oxidation is the loss of electrons. Reduction is the gain of electrons.
Oxidation is a process which involves the addition Reduction is a process which involves the addition
of oxygen or any electronegative element or the of hydrogen or any electropositive element or the
removal of hydrogen or any electropositive element. removal of oxygen or any electronegative element.
The substance that causes oxidation is called the The substance that causes reduction is called the
oxidizing agent. reducing agent.
 Acceptors of electrons.  Donor of electrons.
 It is a substance which removes the electron from  It is a substance which adds electrons to an
an atom. atom.
 It brings Oxidation.  It brings about Reduction.
Laws of Chemical Combination
1. Law of Conservation of Mass: This law states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
In other words, the total mass, that is, the sum of the mass of reacting mixture and the products
formed remains constant. This law was stated by Antoine Lavoisier in 1744.
2. Law of Definite Proportions: This law was first stated by Proust in 1797 and stated that the
proportion of elements by weight in a given compound will always remain exactly the same. This
law is also called Law of Constant Proportions.
3. Law of Multiple Proportions: This law states that if two elements combine to form more than
one compound, the masses of these elements in the reaction are in the ratio of small whole
numbers. This law was given by Dalton in the year 1803.
4. Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes: This law states that when gases are produced or
combine in a chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio by volume given that all the gases are
at the same temperature and pressure. This law can be considered as another form of the law of
definite proportions. In 1808, Gay Lussac gave this law.
5. Avogadro’s Law: Avogadro proposed this law in the year 1811. It stated that under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure, an equal volume of all the gases contains an equal number
of molecules.
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Electrolysis
 Electrolysis is defined as a process of decomposing ionic compounds

into their elements by passing a direct electric current through the
compound in a fluid form.
 The cations are reduced at cathode and anions are oxidized at the anode.
 The main components that are required for conducting electrolysis are an electrolyte, electrodes, and
some form of external power source is also needed.
Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis
 The amount of the redox reaction depends on the quantity of electricity flowing through the cell.
Amount of reaction or the number of ions discharged is given by Faraday’s law of electrolysis.
 Faraday’s first law can be summarized as; m = EQ / 96485 = E I t / 96485, where, m is the mass of the
substance that has undergone change, E is the equivalent mass of the substance, ‘I’ is the current and
‘t’ is the time in seconds of the passing of current.
 Faraday’s second law compares the mass of different substances undergoing a change for the same
current. According to this second law, M1 / M2 = E1 / E2, where M and E are the changed mass and
equivalent mass of the substances respectively.
Batteries
 A battery is a device that is used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy by using one or
more electrical cells.
Primary Batteries
Types of Batteries
Secondary Batteries
Primary Batteries
 The primary batteries are designed to be used only once and are
non-rechargeable. As the devices are not easily reversible, and active
materials may not return to their original forms, these types of batteries
cannot be recharged once they have been used.
 Dry Cell or Leclanche Cell: It consists of a zinc container that acts as anode
and the cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by powdered
Manganese dioxide and Carbon. A moist paste of ammonium chloride
(NH4CI) and zinc chloride (ZnCI2) is used as an electrolyte. Dry cell is commonly used in our
transistors and clocks.
 Mercury Cell: It is commonly used in low current devices such as hearing aids, watches etc. The
electrolyte is a past of potassium hydroxide (KOH) and zinc oxide (ZnO).
Secondary Batteries
 Secondary batteries are sometimes known as rechargeable batteries.
These types of batteries can be utilized while also being recharged.
 Lead Storage Battery: It consists of a lead as anode and a grid of lead
packed with lead dioxide (PbO2) as cathode. A 38% solution of sulphuric
acid is used as an electrolyte. On charging the battery, the reaction is
reversed and lead sulphate gives lead on anode and cathode is converted
into lead dioxide respectively.
 Nickel Cadmium Cell: It has longer life that the lead storage cell. It consists of a cadmium as anode
and nickel dioxide as cathode. The electrolyte is a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution.
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Catalysis
 Catalysis is the modification of the rate of a chemical reaction, usually an acceleration, by addition of a
substance not consumed during the reaction.
 The catalyst itself does not alter during the reaction.
 Catalysts are specific in their action.
 A catalyst does not change the equilibrium state of a reversible reaction,
only brings it quickly.
 The main function of a catalyst in a reaction is to decrease the activation energy.
Homogeneous
Types of Catalysis
Heterogeneous
 Homogeneous Catalysis: Homogeneous catalysis of chemical reactions is a process where the
reactants involved in the reaction and the catalyst are in the same phase. For example hydrolysis of
sugar in the presence of sulphuric acid.
 Heterogeneous Catalysis: Heterogeneous catalysis of chemical reactions is a process where the
reactants involved in the reaction and the catalyst are in different phases. For example reaction of
hydrogen and nitrogen in the presence of finely divided iron to form ammonia.
 Enzyme Catalysis: The increase in the rate of reaction by the enzymes is known as enzyme catalysis.
They are biocatalysts, all are proteins in nature. The rates of enzymatic reactions are very much
affected by pH change.
Applications of Catalysts in Industrial Processes
 Haber process for ammonia—Iron is used as a catalyst and molybdenum is used as a promoter of
catalyst iron.
 Contact process for Sulphuric acid - Vanadium Pentoxide is used as a catalyst.
 Ostwald process for Nitric acid - Platinum gauze is used as a catalyst.
 Deacon process for Chlorine - Cupric chloride is used as a catalyst.
 Synthesis of petrol—Nickel, iron, cobalt and alumina is used as a catalyst.
Corrosion
 It is basically defined as a natural process that causes the transformation of pure metals into
undesirable substances when they react with substances like water or air.
 This reaction causes damage and disintegration of the metal starting from the portion of the metal
exposed to the environment and spreading to the entire bulk of the metal.
 Corrosion can be classified as an electrochemical process since it usually involves redox reactions
between the metal and certain atmospheric agents such as water, oxygen, sulphur dioxide, etc.
Common Elements & Compounds

1. Carbon
 Carbon (from Latin carbo 'coal') is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6.
 There are a number of pure forms of Carbon including Graphite, Diamond, Fullerenes and
Graphene.
 Diamond is a colourless, transparent, crystalline solid and the hardest known material.
 Graphite is black and shiny but soft. The Nano-forms, Fullerenes and Graphene, appear as black or
dark brown, soot-like powders.
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 Impure carbon in the form of charcoal (from wood) and coke (from coal) is used in metal smelting.
It is particularly important in the iron and steel industries.
 Industrial diamonds are used for cutting rocks and drilling. Diamond films are used to protect
surfaces such as razor blades.
 Graphite is used in pencils, to make brushes in electric motors and in furnace linings. Activated
charcoal is used for purification and filtration. It is found in respirators and kitchen extractor
hoods.
Compounds of Carbon
Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbides:

Carbon Monoxide (CO): Carbon dioxide is used as a refrigerant, A carbide usually describes a compound
Carbon monoxide (CO), an odourless,
in fire extinguishers, for inflating life composed of carbon and a metal.
colourless gas. It is produced any time a
rafts and life jackets, foaming rubber Carbides can be generally classified by
fossil fuel is burned. The most common
and plastics, promoting the growth of the chemical bonds type as salt-like
symptoms of CO poisoning are headache,
plants in greenhouses, immobilizing (ionic), covalent, interstitial compounds,
dizziness, weakness, upset stomach,
animals before slaughter, and in and. "intermediate" transition metal
vomiting, chest pain and confusion.
carbonated beverages. carbides.
2. Nitrogen
 Nitrogen is the chemical element with the symbol N and atomic number 7.
 Nitrogen is a non-metal and the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table.
 It is a common element in the universe, estimated at seventh in total abundance in the Milky Way
and the Solar System.
 It is used to make fertilisers, nitric acid, nylon, dyes and explosives
 In air, 79% of Nitrogen is present (by volume).
Compounds of Nitrogen
 Ammonia
 Nitrogen must first be reacted with hydrogen to produce ammonia. This is done by Haber’s
process.
 Ammonia is a colourless, poisonous gas with a distinct pungent smell.
 About 80% of the ammonia produced by industry is used in agriculture as fertilizer. Ammonia is
also used as a refrigerant gas, for purification of water supplies, and in the manufacture of plastics,
explosives, textiles, pesticides, dyes and other chemicals.
3. Oxygen
 Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8.
 It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive non-metal, and an
oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as with other compounds.
 Common uses of oxygen include production of steel, plastics and textiles, brazing, welding and
cutting of steels and other metals, rocket propellant, oxygen therapy, and life support systems in
aircraft, submarines, spaceflight and diving.
 Oxygen occurs mainly as an element in the atmosphere. It makes up 20.948% of the atmosphere.
 The greatest commercial use of oxygen gas is in the steel industry. Large quantities are also used
in the manufacture of a wide range of chemicals including nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide.
 It is also used to make epoxy ethane (ethylene oxide), used as antifreeze and to make polyester,
and Chloro Ethene, the precursor to PVC.
4. Sulphur (S)
 Sulphur is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16.
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 It is abundant, multivalent and non-metallic. Under normal conditions, Sulphur atoms form cyclic
octatomic molecules with a chemical formula S₈.
 Elemental sulphur is a bright yellow, crystalline solid at room temperature.
 It is used for making car batteries, fertilizer, oil refining, water processing, and mineral extraction..
5. Halogens
 Halogens are non-metals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases and bromine is a
liquid. Iodine and astatine are solids.
 Halogens are very reactive, the reactivity decreases from fluorine to astatine.
 Halogens do not exist in the elemental form in nature. Astatine isotopes are radioactive with short
half-lives.
 Bromine and chlorine are often used as disinfectants for purifying water, swimming pools, fresh
wounds, dishes and sterilizing surfaces.
 Fluoride is found in products such as toothpaste, baby formulas and vitamin supplements.
 Polyhalogenated compounds (PHCs) are used in a wide array of manufactured products and in pest
control.
6. Noble Gases
 The noble gases, also known as the inert gases and aerogens, are the elements that belong to group
18 of the modern periodic table.
 The elements that belong to this group are Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr),
Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn).
 Under standard conditions for temperature and pressure, all the noble gases exist in the gaseous
phase.
 The general electronic configuration of the noble gases can be written as ‘ns 2np6 ’. Therefore, the
outermost valence shells of the noble gases can be considered as ‘full’.
 Helium is used in nuclear reactors as a cooling gas and used as a flow-gas in liquid-gas
chromatography. It finds its application in airships and helium balloons.
 Helium balloons are used to check the weather of a particular region.
Water (H2O)
 Water is the most important compound that is needed for the survival of life on earth.
 Water is present in the oceans, rivers, ponds, lakes, glaciers, etc. Rainwater is considered pure water
because it does not contain any salt dissolved in it thought there are dissolved gases present.
 Water can be classified as hard water (known as hard water because of the presence of salts of
Calcium and Magnesium) and soft water (water which is obtained from the rains is soft water and is
suitable for household purposes for example laundry and cleaning).
 Hardness of water is the amount of dissolved Calcium and Magnesium in the water and is of two
types
 Temporary hardness - The presence of Magnesium and Calcium Carbonates in water makes it
temporarily hard. In this case, the hardness in water can be removed by boiling the water.
 Permanent hardness - When the soluble salts of magnesium and calcium are present in the form of
chlorides and sulphides in water, we call it permanent hardness because this hardness cannot be
removed by boiling.
 Degree of Hardness - It is defined as the number of parts of Calcium Carbonate or equivalent to
various Calcium and Magnesium salts present in a million parts of water by mass. It is expressed in
ppm.
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Washing Soda (Na2CO3)
 Sodium carbonate is the inorganic compound with the formula Na₂CO₃ and its various hydrates. All
forms are white, odourless, water-soluble salts that yield moderately alkaline solutions in water.
 Washing soda "softens" the water by binding to the minerals in the water, allowing the detergents to
lift dirt from fabric.
 Washing soda can also remove coffee and tea stains from ceramics or grease from pots and pans
Plaster of Paris (POP)
 Plaster of Paris is a popular chemical substance that is utilized most commonly for sculpting materials
and in gauze bandages.
 Plaster of Paris is also referred to as Gypsum plaster.
 The chemical formula of Plaster of Paris is CaSO4·1/2H2O.Chemically, it is 2CaSO4.H2O or
CaSO4.1/2H2O (Calcium Sulphate Hemi Hydrate).
 It is used for making the surface of walls and ceiling smooth and for making ‘chalk’ for writing on
blackboard.
Bleaching powder
 Bleaching powder is a pale yellowish powder existing with a strong smell of chlorine.
 It is soluble in water but due to the presence of impurities, never observe a clear solution.
 Its chemical formula is CaOCl2 with its chemical name Calcium hypochlorite.
 It is used for bleaching dirty clothes in the laundry and as a bleaching agent for cotton and linen in the
textile industry.
 It is a strong oxidizing agent, hence used as an oxidizer in many industries.
 It is used as a disinfectant which is used for disinfecting water to make potable water.
 It is also used as disinfectant and germicide for sterilization of water, for the manufacture of
chloroform and used as an oxidizing agent in chemical industry.
Chemical Bonding
 Chemical Bonding refers to the formation of a chemical bond between two or more atoms, molecules,
or ions to give rise to a chemical compound.
 These chemical bonds are what keep the atoms together in the resulting compound.
 The attractive force which holds various constituents (atom, ions, etc.) together and stabilizes them by
the overall loss of energy is known as Chemical Bonding.
Lewis Theory of Chemical Bonding
 An atom can be viewed as a positively charged ‘Kernel’ (the nucleus plus the inner electrons) and the
outer shell.
 The outer shell can accommodate a maximum of eight electrons only.
 The eight electrons present in the outer shell occupy the corners of a cube which surround the
‘Kernel’.
 The atoms having octet configuration, i.e. 8 electrons in the outermost shell, thus symbolize a stable
configuration.
 Only the electrons present in the outer shell, also known as the valence electrons take part in the
formation of chemical bonds. Gilbert Lewis used specific notations better known as Lewis symbols to
represent these valence electrons.
 Generally, the valency of an element is either equal to the number of dots in the corresponding Lewis
symbol or 8 minus the number of dots (or valence electrons).
Kossel’s theory of Chemical Bonding
 Noble gases separate the highly electronegative halogens and the highly electropositive alkali metals.
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 Halogens can form negatively charged ions by gaining an electron. Whereas alkali metals can form
positively charged ions by losing an electron.
 These negatively charged ions and positively charged ions have a noble gas configuration that is 8
electrons in the outermost shell. The general electronic configuration of noble gases (except helium) is
given by ns2np6.
Types of Chemical Bonds
2. Covalent Bonds: A covalent bond indicates

1. Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonding is a type of
the sharing of electrons between atoms.
chemical bonding which involves a transfer of
Compounds that contain carbon (also called
electrons from one atom or molecule to
organic compounds) commonly exhibit this
another. When such an electron transfer takes
type of chemical bonding. The pair of
place, one of the atoms develops a negative
electrons which are shared by the two atoms
charge and is now called the anion.
now extend around the nuclei of atoms,
The other atom develops a positive charge and
leading to the creation of a molecule.
is called the cation.
Types of
Chemical
Bonds
3. Hydrogen Bonds: It is a type of polar covalent 4. Electrovalent or Ionic Bonds:

bonding between oxygen and hydrogen wherein The bond formed as a result of strong electrostatic
the hydrogen develops a partial positive charge. forces of attraction between a positively and
This implies that the electrons are pulled closer negatively charged species is called an
to the more electronegative oxygen atom. This electrovalent or ionic bond. The positively and
creates a tendency for the hydrogen to be negatively charged ions are aggregated in an
attracted towards the negative charges of any ordered arrangement called the crystal lattice
neighbouring atom. This type of chemical which is stabilized by the energy called the
bonding is called a hydrogen bond. Lattice enthalpy.
Some Covalent Compounds

Name Formula
Ethanol (Alcohol) C2H5OH
Ammonia NH3
Acetylene C2H2
Some Electrovalent Compounds
Aluminium Oxide Al2O3
Aluminium Chloride NH4Cl
Calcium Chloride CaCl2
Compounds Containing Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Potassium Cyanide KCN
Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Van der Waals’ Forces
 The ability of geckos (lizard) which can hang on a glass surface using only one toe to climb on sheer
surfaces had been attributed to the Van der Waals’ forces between these surfaces and their foot-pads.
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Metals and Non Metals
 Metals and Non-metals are different types of materials present around us.
 Elements can be divided into Metals and Non-metals.
Metals
 Metals are materials holding or possessing the characteristics of being shiny, hard, fusible, malleable,
ductile, etc. Few examples of metals are Gold, Silver, Aluminium, Copper, Iron, etc.
Physical Properties of Metals
 Malleability: The property of metals by which they may be beaten into thin sheets is malleability.
Example: Silver metal is beaten to make Silver foil used for sweets decoration.
 Ductility: It is the property of metals by virtue which can be drawn into thin wires. E.g Copper, Iron
which can be drawn into thin wires.
 Conductivity: Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. The best conductors of electricity
are Copper and Silver whereas Mercury and Lead are poor conductors.
 Solid: All the metals are solid, except Mercury. At room temperature, Mercury remains in a liquid
state. The exceptional metals are Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), and Mercury. Metals like Potassium
(K) and Sodium (Na) are easily cut with a knife.
Chemical Properties of Metals
 Usually, the density of metals is high.
 Metals are ductile, malleable and forms an alloy with other metals or non-metals.
 More metals produce the metal oxide, and highly reactive metals react violently by burning in the
oxygen of the air.
 Metals like Sodium and Potassium are stored in oil as they react with air in seconds and are highly
reactive.
 Less reactive metals like Silver, Gold and Platinum do not tarnish easily. They stay lustrous and shiny.
Non-Metals
 Non-metals do not hold the characteristics of metals; it means they are not hard, shiny, fusible,
malleable and ductile.
 Many materials like Sulphur and Coal are too soft and dull in appearance. They can be broken down
into very fine thin powdery mass when tapped with a hammer. They are neither sonorous nor very
poor conductors of heat and electricity.
 Non-metal examples are oxygen, carbon, Sulphur, and more.
Physical Properties of Non-metals
 Non-metals may be of solids, liquids, or gases and don’t possess metallic lustre.
 Except for Graphite, non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
 Non-metals do not produce a ringing sound and are not sonorous.
 Non-metals possess no malleability and are not ductile.
 Examples of non-metals are oxygen, carbon, Sulphur, phosphorous, and many more.
Chemical Properties of Non-metals
 Except for Graphite and Gas Carbon, non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity
 Non-metals aren’t ductile and malleable unlike metals.
 Non-metals usually react with other non-metals at high temperatures.
 Most non-metals don’t react with air at room temperature.
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Metallurgy
 Metallurgy is defined as a process that is used for the extraction of metals in their pure form.
Minerals, Ores and Gangue
 The compounds of metals mixed with soil, limestone, sand, and rocks are known as Minerals.
 Metals are commercially extracted from minerals at low cost and minimum effort. These minerals are
known as Ores.
 Gangue or matrix are the impurities associated with the ore.
 A substance which is added to the charge in the furnace to remove the gangue (impurities) is known as
Flux. Metallurgy deals with the process of purification of metals and the formation of alloys.
Alloys
 Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals and cannot be separated into their components by physical
methods.
 Pure metals have poor mechanical properties. Hence, they are not used in their pure form in industry.
 Their properties are modified by adding other elements.
 Alloys are harder and tougher than the base metal and are resistant to corrosion.
 They are inert to commonly used chemicals and are magnetisable and ductile.
Amalgams
 Alloys of Mercury with other metals like Sodium, Potassium, Gold and Zinc etc. are called Amalgams.
 Amalgams stored in iron bottles as iron cannot form amalgam with mercury.
Polymerization
 Polymerisation is the chemical process of monomers joining together to form polymers, often it takes
many thousands of monomers to make a single polymer. Two types of polymerisation reactions are
 Addition Polymerisation: Where monomers add on to each other with the addition of a catalyst, these
are usually alkenes such as Ethene and Propene. Alkenes can act as monomers because they have a
double bond.
 Condensation Polymerisation: This is when monomers join or polymerise with a by-product such as
water, carbon dioxide or ammonia. This usually requires two different types of monomers that join
alternately.
 Polymer: A process called polymerisation is used to join single molecules (monomers) together to
form a chain of many, the above example shows Vinyl Chloride bonded into Poly Vinyl Chloride.
 On the basis of intermolecular forces Polymers are classified as:
 Elastomers- rubber, Buna-S, Buna-N, neoprene etc.
 Thermoplastic polymers - Such plastic which gets deformed easily on heating and can be bent
easily are known as thermoplastics. Polythene and PVC, Polythene, Polystyrene, Polyvinyl, etc.
 Thermosetting Polymers - some plastics which when moulded once, cannot be softened by heating.
These are called thermosetting plastics.eg: Bakelite, Melamine etc.
 Few important polymers are: Low density Polythene, High density Polythene and Poly Tetra
Fluoroethene (Teflon).
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Fertilizers
 Fertilisers are additional substances supplied to the crops to increase their productivity. These are used
to increase the crop yield.
 These fertilisers contain essential nutrients required by the plants, including nitrogen, potassium, and
phosphorus.
 The mixture of nitrogenous, phosphatic and potash fertilizers in suitable amounts, is called NPK
fertilizers
 They also enhance the water retention capacity of the soil and increase its fertility.
 Fertilisers are mainly classified into two main types namely Organic and Inorganic.
 Organic Fertilisers: Natural fertilisers derived from plants and animals are known as Organic
Fertilisers.
 Inorganic Fertilisers: Chemical fertilisers generated by chemical techniques that contain nutrients for
crop growth are known as Inorganic Fertilisers.
 Fertilisers are used for various purposes like used to provide additional nutrients to plants, added to
improve the yield of the crops, added to pot plants to replace the lost nutrients. Organic fertilisers
improve the textures and fertility of the soil and Nitrogen rich fertilisers are used for the greening of
lawns.
Pesticides
 Pesticides are chemical substances that are meant to kill pests.

 It is commonly used to eliminate or control a variety of agricultural pests that can damage crops and
livestock and reduce farm productivity.
 The most commonly applied pesticides are insecticides to kill insects, herbicides to kill weeds,
rodenticides to kill rodents, and fungicides to control fungi, mould, and mildew.

Atmospheric Pollution
 Air pollution is contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical or
biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere.
 Household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities and forest fires are common
sources of air pollution.
 The common air pollutants are Particulate Matter, Ozone (O 3), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Carbon
monoxide (CO), Sulphur dioxide (SO2).
 Both short and long-term exposure to air pollution can lead to a wide range of diseases, like chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, bronchus and lung cancers, asthma and lower respiratory infections.
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Stratospheric Pollution
 Stratospheric pollution means depletion of the ozone layer (ozone hole) by certain compounds like
oxides of nitrogen, chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs)
 Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer
in the upper atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds
containing gaseous bromine or chlorine from industries or other human
activities.”
 The Stratosphere is the layer of earth’s atmosphere just above
the troposphere and below the mesosphere.
 The upper stratosphere consists of a considerable amount of ozone (O3), which protects us from the
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiations coming from the sun. These radiations cause skin cancer in
humans.
Water Pollution
 Water pollution can be defined as the contamination of water bodies.

 Water pollution is caused when water bodies such as rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater and aquifers
get contaminated with industrial and agricultural effluents.
 The key causative of water pollution in India are Urbanization, Deforestation, Industrial effluents,
Social and Religious Practices, Use of Detergents and Fertilizers and Agricultural run-offs- Use of
insecticides and pesticides.
 In some part of India, drinking water is contaminated by the impurities of Arsenic, Fluoride, Uranium,
etc.
Properties of Gases
 Gas has no definite volume or shape. All gases expand equally due to equal temperature difference.
 The other characteristic of gases is their low densities, compared with those of liquids and solids.
 Diffusion of gases: The phenomenon in which a substance mixes with another because of molecular
motion, even against gravity is called diffusion.
 The pressure of a gas: The molecules of a gas, being in continuous motion, frequently strike the inner
walls of their container
 Temperature and Temperature Scales: Temperature is defined as the measure of average heat.
Temperature is independent of the number of particles or size and shape of the object.
 Compressibility: Particles of a gas have large intermolecular spaces among them. By the application
of pressure much of this space can be reduced and the particles be brought closer. Hence, the volume
of a gas can be greatly reduced. This is called compressing the gas.
 Boyle’s Law: It gives the relationship between the pressure of a gas and the volume of the gas at a
constant temperature. The volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure of a gas at a
constant temperature.
 Charles Law: It states that at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
temperature (in Kelvin) in a closed system. This law describes the relationship between the
temperature and volume of the gas.
 Avogadro Number: From Avogadro’s hypothesis, we know equal volume of all gases contain equal
number of molecules at normal temperature and pressure. The number is known as Avogadro Number
and is equal to 6.06 × 1023.
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Mini Exercise - II
1. Which of the following forms the basis of the modern periodic table?
a. Atomic mass b Atomic number
c. Number of nucleons d All of these
2. Which option describes the achievements of the Mendeleev’s Periodic Table?
a. Prediction of noble gases
b. It eliminated the blank spaces left in the table
c. Predicting that the elements can be arranged based on their properties
d. An element in a trend has an average atomic mass of the elements above and below it
3. At the time of Mendeleev, the number of elements known was
a. 63 b 65 c 62 d 64
4. Oxidation is a process which involves
a. Addition of oxygen b Addition of hydrogen
c. Removal of oxygen d Removal of hydrogen
5. Which of the following is an endothermic process?
a. Dilution of sulphuric acid b Sublimation of dry ice
c. Condensation of water vapours d Respiration in human beings
6. Faraday’s law of electrolysis is related to
a. Equivalent weight of the electrolyte b Atomic number of anion
c. Speed of the cation d Atomic number of cation
7. The current flow through electrolyte is due to the movement of
a. Ions b Holes c Electrons d None of these
8. How does a catalyst increase the rate of a reaction?
a. By forming an intermediate complex b By increasing activation energy
c. By lowering the activation energy d By changing equilibrium constant
9. Which one of the following is not a catalysis category?
c. Homogeneous b Heterogeneousc c Artificial d Enzymatic
10. Due to its semiconductor properties the non-metal used in computer, T.V. etc. is
a. Carbon b Silicon c Bromine d Fluorine
11. The most abundant metal in the earth’s crust is
a. Iron b Aluminium c Calcium d Sodium
12. Electrovalent compounds are
a. Low melting b Insoluble in polar solvents
c. Conductors in the fused state d None of these
13. The bond between two atoms of the same element is
a. Polar covalent bond b ionic bond
c. Non-polar covalent bond d None of these
14. Polymer formation from monomer starts by
a. the condensation reaction between monomers
b. the coordinate reaction between monomers
c. conversion of monomer to monomer ions by protons
d. hydrolysis of monomers
15. Which of the following are the primary causes of water pollution?
a. Plants b Animals c Human activities d None of these
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Organic Chemistry
 Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of
carbon-containing compounds.
 Most organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen, but they may also include any number of other
elements (e.g., nitrogen, oxygen, halogens, phosphorus, silicon, sulphur).
 There are 4 major kinds of organic molecules, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
 Friedrich Wohler is the father of Organic Chemistry.
 Urea was the first organic compound prepared in laboratory. It was prepared by Wohler (1828) from
inorganic compound i.e. Ammonium Cyanate.
 Acetic acid was the first organic compound synthesized from the elements by Kolbe.
 Functional group is responsible for the chemical properties of the molecules ex. OH is alcoholic group
 Isomers Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures, e.g. C 2H6O can have
the structure, i.e. CH3OCH3 (dimethyl ether) and C2H5OH (ethanol).
Hydrocarbons (Compounds comprised exclusively of Carbon and Hydrogen)
Aliphatic / Acyclic Alicyclic
Saturated Unsaturated Homocyclic Heteracyclic
Aromatic Non-Aromatic Anti-Aromatic

 Saturated Hydrocarbons: In these compounds, carbon-carbon atoms and carbon-hydrogen atoms are
held together by single bonds. These single bonded compounds are the simplest hydrocarbons. These
types of hydrocarbons don’t have double or triple bonds. These are also called alkanes or paraffins and
have general formula CnH2n+2. Methane is the first member of this group.
 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: These compounds consist of a single, double or a triple bond between
carbon-carbon atoms. The double-bonded compounds are called alkenes and the triple bonded
compounds are called alkynes. The general formula for alkenes is C nH2n and for alkynes the general
formula is C2H2n-2.
 Aromatic Hydrocarbons: These are also called Arenes. Arenes are compounds which consist of at
least one aromatic ring.
 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: They are straight chain structures having no rings in them.
 Alicyclic Hydrocarbons: They are hydrocarbons having a ring structure in them. The carbons atoms
can be Sp, Sp2 or Sp3 hybridised.
Properties of hydrocarbons
The real nature or properties possessed by a hydrocarbon depends on its size to a great extent. The melting
and boiling point varies in different types of hydrocarbons.
 Hydrocarbons are colourless in nature and emit a kind of faint odour.
 Alkynes are highly reactive in the presence of a triple bond.
 The number of carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon determines its boiling point.
 Hydrocarbons are nonpolar which means they are insoluble in water.
 Methane is present in gaseous form at room temperature.
 Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons in contrast with alkenes and alkynes
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Uses of Hydrocarbons
 Hydrocarbons are widely used as fuels. For example LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), CNG (Liquefied
natural gas).
 They are used in the manufacturing of polymers such as Polyethene, Polystyrene etc.
 These organic compounds find their application in the manufacturing of drugs and dyes as a starting
material.
 They serve as lubricating oil and grease.
Reactions of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons undergo three main reactions. They are
 Substitution reaction: Aromatic compounds are those hydrocarbons which are known to undergo this
type of reaction on a large scale. E.g Benzene reacts with Ethylene and gives Ethyl Benzene as the end
product.
 Addition reaction: Addition reaction is restricted to only alkenes and alkynes. It also involves many
reagents situated across pi bonds like chlorine, and water.
 Combustion: When combustion of hydrocarbons takes place, flames are emitted consisting of heat
and light energy. It is used as natural gas. It is the main source of electrical energy and is used in home
heaters as well.
Important Hydrocarbons and their Uses
 Methane (CH4)
 It is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH₄. It is a group-14 hydride, the simplest
alkane, and the main constituent of natural gas.
 Methane is an odourless, colourless and flammable gas.
 It is used primarily as fuel to make heat and light. It is also used to manufacture organic chemicals.
 Methane can be formed by the decay of natural materials and is common in landfills, marshes, septic
systems and sewers.
 Natural gas contains mainly 90% methane along with ethane, propane, butane etc.
 It is used as a fuel gas in making carbon black.
 Ethane (𝐶2𝐻6)
 Ethane is an organic chemical compound with chemical formula C₂H ₆.
 Ethane is structurally the simplest hydrocarbon that contains a single carbon–carbon bond.
 At standard temperature and pressure, ethane is a colourless and odourless gas.
 Like many hydrocarbons, it is isolated on an industrial scale from natural gas and as a petrochemical
by-product of petroleum refining.
 Ethane is mainly used to produce ethylene, which is then used by the petrochemical industry to
produce a range of intermediate products, most of which are converted into plastics.
 Butane (𝐶4𝐻10)
 Butane or n-butane is an alkane with the formula C₄H₁₀.
 It is a gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure and is a highly flammable, colourless, easily
liquefied gas that quickly vaporizes at room temperature.
 The name butane comes from the root but- and the suffix -ane.
 It is typically used as fuel for cigarette lighters and portable stoves, a propellant in aerosols, a heating
fuel, a refrigerant, and in the manufacture of a wide range of products.
 Ethylene (𝐶𝐻2=𝐶𝐻2)
 Ethylene is a hydrocarbon which has the formula C₂H₄ or H₂C=CH₂.
 It is a colourless, flammable gas with a faint "sweet and musky" odour when pure.
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 It is the simplest alkene and is widely used in the chemical industry, and its worldwide production
exceeds that of any other organic compound.
 In World war I| (1914-18), it was used for the manufacturing of mustard gas (poisonous gas). It is also
used as an anaesthetic for the preservation and artificial ripening of green fruits.
 Benzene (𝐶6𝐻6)
 Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C₆H₆. The benzene molecule is
composed of six carbon atoms joined in a planar ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each.
 As it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon.
 It is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon and was discovered by Faraday in 1825.
 Benzene is a chemical that is a colourless or light yellow liquid at room temperature and has a sweet
odour and is highly flammable.
 Benzene evaporates into the air very quickly.
 Benzene is a widely used industrial chemical. Benzene is found in crude oil and is a major part of
gasoline. It's used to make plastics, resins, synthetic fibres, rubber lubricants, dyes, detergents, drugs
and pesticides.
 Toluene (𝐶6𝐻5𝐶𝐻3)
 Toluene is a substituted aromatic hydrocarbon.
 It is a colourless, water-insoluble liquid with the smell associated with paint thinners.
 It is a mono-substituted benzene derivative, consisting of a methyl group attached to a phenyl group.
 Toluene is found naturally in crude oil, and is used in oil refining and the manufacturing of paints,
lacquers, explosives (TNT) and glues.
Halogen Derivatives of Hydrocarbons
 Chloroform (𝐶𝐻𝐶𝐼3)
 Chloroform or Trichloromethane, is an organic compound with formula CHCl₃ and a common organic
solvent.
 It is a colourless, strong-smelling, dense liquid produced on a large scale as a precursor to PTFE.
 It was discovered by Sir James Young Simpson.
 Chloroform is used as a solvent, a substance that helps other substances dissolve.
 It is used as a solvent for lacquers, floor polishes, resins, adhesives, alkaloids, fats, oils and rubber.
 It is also used in the building, paper and board industries, and in pesticide and film production.
 The major use of chloroform today is in the production of the Freon refrigerant, R-22.
 Carbon tetrachloride (𝐶𝐶𝐼4)
 Carbon tetrachloride, also known by many other names is an organic compound with the chemical
formula CCl₄.
 It is a colourless liquid with a "sweet" smell that can be detected at low levels.
 It is practically incombustible at lower temperatures.
 It is used to manufacture propellants and other industrial chemicals. It is also used as a fire
extinguishers under the name pyrene.
 Dichloro diphenyl Trichloro ethane (DDT)
 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a colourless, tasteless, and almost
odourless crystalline chemical compound, an Organo Chloride.
 It is an insecticide used in agriculture.
Alcohols
 Methyl alcohol (𝐶𝐻3𝑂𝐻)
 Methanol is an organic chemical and the simplest aliphatic alcohol, with the formula CH₃OH.
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 It is a light, volatile, colourless, flammable liquid with a distinctive alcoholic odour similar to that of
ethanol.
 It is a poisonous substance that can be absorbed through the eyes, skin, lungs, and digestive system.
 Methanol is widely used in the production of acetic acid and formaldehyde.
 A mixture of water and methanol is used in high-performance engines in order to increase power.
 Methanol is used in the production of hydrocarbons, olefins, and some aromatic compounds.
 Ethyl alcohol (𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻)
 Ethanol is an organic compound. It is a simple alcohol with the chemical formula C₂H₆O.
 Its formula can be also written as CH₃−CH₂−OH or C₂H₅OH.
 It is a volatile, flammable, colourless liquid with a characteristic wine-like odour and pungent taste.
 Ethanol is used in the manufacture of drugs, plastics, lacquers, polishes, plasticizers, and cosmetics.
 It is also used in medicine as a topical anti-infective, and as an antidote for ethylene glycol or methanol
overdose.
 Glycerol (𝐶𝐻2𝑂𝐻.𝐶𝐻𝑂𝐻.𝐶𝐻2𝑂𝐻)
 Glycerol, also called glycerine, is a simple Triol compound.
 It is a colourless, odourless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and non-toxic.
 The glycerol backbone is found in lipids known as glycerides.
 Glycerol is used as a solvent for flavours and food colours.
 It is also used as a humectant, plasticizer, emollient, sweetener, and filler in low-fat food products such
as cookies.
 Phenol (𝐶6𝐻5𝑂𝐻)
 Phenol is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C 6H 5OH.
 It is a white crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule consists of a phenyl group (−C 6H5) bonded
to a hydroxy group (−OH).
 Mildly acidic, it requires careful handling because it can cause chemical burns.
 Phenol is used in many industries. It's used for medicine as a slimicide, antiseptic, and disinfectant and
to manufacture a number of products.
Important Points to Remember

 Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting of only hydrogen and carbon atoms. These
are colourless compounds and have faint odour or no odour at all. They are different in
nature depending upon their molecular composition.
 There are four major types of hydrocarbons namely saturated, unsaturated, aliphatic, and
aromatic hydrocarbons. Saturated hydrocarbons denote a single bond with the carbon atoms
whereas unsaturated hydrocarbons are completely opposite.
 Aliphatic compounds are formed in straight chains where aromatic hydrocarbons are known
for the nature of benzene rings present in them.
 The boiling point of a hydrocarbon fluctuates depending upon the number of carbon atoms
present in it. Hydrocarbons can be present in the form of gas, liquid, or solid at room
temperature.
 All types of hydrocarbons go through three kinds of reactions. These are classified as
substitution reactions and are only restricted to aromatic hydrocarbons.
 Alkenes and alkynes undergo an additional reaction whereas hydrocarbons also go through
combustion and give out heat and light energy.
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Mini Exercise - III
1. Which of the following is the simplest member of organic compounds?
a. Formic acid b Formaldehyde
c. Methane d Methanol
2. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds with element
a. Both hydrogen and carbon b Carbon
c. Hydrogen d Oxygen
3. Which of the following is a classification of Organic compounds?
a. Alicyclic compounds and acyclic compounds
b. Cyclic compounds and alicyclic compounds
c. Open chain compounds and acyclic compounds
d. Open chain compounds and linear chain compounds
4. A crystalline solid possess which one of the following property?
a. Irregularity b Non- symmetric
c. Perfect geometric pattern d Non- stability
5. The simplest member of organic compounds is?
a. Methanol b Methane c Formaldehyde d Formic acid
6. The hydrocarbon in which all the 4 valencies of carbon are fully occupied is called as
a. Alkene b Alkyne c Alkane d Cycloalkane
7. Dehydration of alcohol is an example of
a. Addition reaction b Elimination reaction
b. Substitution reaction d Redox reaction
8. Which of the following is not a characteristic of Organic compounds?
a. They usually have low melting points
b. They usually are only slightly soluble or insoluble in water
c. If water soluble they seldom conduct an electric current
d. Bonds which bind the atoms together are nearly always ionic
9. The element least likely to be found in an organic compound is
a. Oxygen b Sulphur c Nitrogen d Silicon
10. In stable organic compounds, carbon will always form
a. 2 bonds b 4 bonds c 3 bonds d 5 bonds
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Practice Test - Chemistry
1. Which of the following is an example of a homogeneous mixture?

a. Saltwater b Blood c Air d All of these
2. In what type of mixture are the substances evenly distributed throughout the mixture?
a. Homogeneous b Heterogeneous
c. All types of mixtures d No types of mixtures
3. Which force is involved in the Chromatography?
a. Hydrogen bonding
b. London force
c. Electric static force d All of these
4. The pH of a solution is 7. How can you increase its pH?
a. By adding a small amount of acid
b. By adding a small amount of base
c. By adding a small amount of salt
d. By passing carbon dioxide gas through it
5. The ability of an ion to coagulate a given colloid is dependent on the
a. only charge b magnitude
c. both magnitude and charge d sign of the charge
6. Which law explained solubility of gasses in a liquid?
a. Charles law b Henry’s law
c. Raoult’s law d Boyle’s law
7. An alloy can be one of the following type
a. Homogenous b Heterogeneous
c. Intermetallic d All of these
8. An emulsion is a type of colloid.
a. True b False c Partially true d None of these
9. Which of the following is used as an indicator in the titration of a strong acid and a weak base?
a. Phenolphthalein b Thymol blue
c. Fluorescein d Methyl orange
10. pH of neutral salt is
a. 7 b <7 c >7 d 0
11. Neutron was discovered by
a. J.J Thomson b Chadwick c Rutherford d Priestley
12. Isotopes of an element have
a. Different chemical and physical properties
b. Similar chemical and physical properties
c. Similar chemical but different physical properties
d. Similar physical but different chemical properties
13. Valency generally expresses
a. Total electrons in an atom b Atomicity of an element
b. Oxidation Number of an element
d. Combining capacity of an element
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14. Number of protons or electrons present in the nucleus is termed as
a. Nucleons b Mass number
c. Atomic mass d Atomic number
15. Homologous series of Alkanols have a general formula
a. CnH2nO2 b CnH2nO c CnH2n+1O d CnH2n+2O
16. Which of the following bond is made up of a large number of organic compounds?
a. Metallic bond b Dipolar bond
c. Ionic bond d Covalent bond
17. Organic compounds can be classified even based upon the function groups. Which of the following is
not a functional group?
a. Isocyano b Carbonyl c Isocyanide d Carboxyl
18. Which of the following does not come under the organic addition reaction?
a. Halogenation b Hydro halogenation
c. Hydration d Dehydration
19. The displacement of electrons in a multiple bond in the presence of attacking reagent is called
a. Inductive effect b Electromeric effect
c. Resonance d Hyper conjugation
20. If there is no rotation of plane polarized light by a compound in a specific solvent, thought to be chiral,
it may mean that
a. The compound may be a racemic mixture
b. The compound is certainly a chiral
c. The compound is certainly meso
d. There is no compound in the solvent.
21. What is the trend of valency along the periods in the modern periodic table?
a. It increases from left to right b It decreases from right to left
c. It increases and then decreases d It decreases and then increases
22. Newlands relation is called
a. Musical Law b Law of Octaves
b. Periodic Law d Atomic Mass Law
23. Which of the following reactions can also be termed as thermal decomposition reaction?
a. Combination Reaction b Decomposition Reaction
c. Displacement reaction d Double displacement reaction
24. Which information is not conveyed by a balanced chemical equation?
a. Physical states of reactants and products
b. Symbols and formulae of all the substances involved in a particular reaction
c. Number of atoms/molecules of the reactants and products formed
d. Whether a particular reaction is actually feasible or not
25. The best indication about the state of charge on a lead-acid battery is given by
a. Output voltage b Temperature of electrolyte
c. Specific gravity of electrolyte d None of these
26. Local action in a battery is indicated by
a. Excessive gassing under load conditions
b. Excessive drop in the specific gravity of electrolyte even when the cell is on open circuit
c. Both (a) and (b) d None of these
27. Which of the following is changed in a chemical reaction due to a catalyst?
a. Internal energy b Entropy
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c. Enthalpy d Activation energy
28. The factor that influences a heterogeneous catalyst’s activity is
a. Total surface area only
b. The number of active sites per unit amount of catalyst only
c. Method of preparation, prior treatment only
d. Total surface area, number of active sites and method of preparation
29. The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is known as
a. Ductility b Malleability
c. Sonority d Conductivity
30. Non-metals are
a. Generally liquids b Generally gases
c. Generally solids and gases d Generally gases and liquids
31. The paramagnetic nature of oxygen molecule is explained by
a. Valence bond theory b Heitler London theory
c. Hund Mulliken theory d None of these
32. On the basis of mode of formation polymers can be classified
a. as addition polymers only
b. as condensation polymers only
c. as copolymers
d. as addition and condensation polymers
33. In addition polymer, monomer used is
a. Unsaturated compounds b Saturated compounds
c. Bifunctional saturated compounds
d. Trifunctional saturated compounds
34. Which of the following is mainly responsible for the causes of water pollution?
a. Afforestation b Oil refineries
c. Paper factories d Both b and c
35. Which materials are easily removed from the polluted water?
a. Liquid b Solids c Dissolved d Nutrients
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Answers – Chemistry
Mini Exercise – I
1. c When two substances are combined but are not chemically bonded.
2. c In an aqueous solution, a weak acid is one that ionises just minimally. Acetic acid (found in
vinegar) is a highly common weak acid because it doesn’t dissociate much in solution, its ionisation
may be seen below: CH3COOH (aq) ⇄ H+(aq) + CH3COO−(aq). As a result, it is less effective at
donating protons. Because acetic acid’s ionisation is incomplete, the equation is shown with a double
arrow.
3. a A substance whose smell varies when it is mixed with an acidic or basic solution is said to be
an olfactory indicator. In the laboratory, olfactory indicators can be used to determine whether a
solution is a basic or an acid, a procedure known as olfactory titration. Some common examples are
Onion, vanilla, clove oil etc.
4. d C2H5OH is not a base.
5. d Tyndall effect.
6. a The solubility of gasses in liquids increases with increase in pressure.
7. c An alloy is a mixture of metals in fixed proportion.
8. c To obtain a stable emulsion, sometimes, small quantities of certain other substances are added
during its preparation. The substances thus added to stabilize the emulsions are called emulsifiers or
emulsifying agents.
9. b The ideal indicator for the titration of strong acid and weak base should have pH range between
4-6.
10. c Range of pH scale is 0 to 14.
11. a The nucleus of the atom consists of Protons and Neutrons.
12. a The combining capacity of an element is known as its valency.
13. d Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule. Gram
formula mass is the amount of a compound with the exact mass in grams as the formula mass in amu.
The standard unit of mass that measures mass on the molecular scale or an atomic scale is “amu”.
14. a Rutherford’s scattering experiment is related to the size of the Nucleus.
15. a John Dalton proposed atomic theory.
1. b Atomic Number forms the basis of the modern periodic table.

2. a Prediction of noble gases describes the achievements of the Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.
3. a At the time of Mendeleev, the number of elements known was 63.
4. a Oxidation is a process which involves addition of oxygen.
5. b Sublimation of dry ice.
6. a Faraday’s law of electrolysis give the relationship between the quantity of electricity passed
and the amount of material produced at the electrolytes.
7. a The current flow through electrolyte is due to the movement of ions.
8. c A catalyst increase the rate of a reaction by lowering the activation energy.
9. c Artificial because Catalysis is divided into four categories: homogeneous, heterogeneous, auto,
and enzymatic. Catalysis does not include the term “artificial.”
10. b Due to its semiconductor properties the non-metal used in computer, T.V. etc. is Silicon.
239
11. b The most abundant metal in the earth’s crust is Aluminium.
12. c Electrovalent compounds are conductors in the fused state.
13. c The bond between two atoms of the same element is non-polar covalent bond.
14. a Polymer formation from monomer starts by the condensation reaction between monomers.
15. c Human activities are the primary causes of water pollution.
1. c Methane is the simplest member of the alkane family and indeed the simplest of organic
compounds, as all other compounds are derived by altering this compound.
2. a These organic compounds are made up of only carbon and hydrogen and hence the name
hydrocarbons.
3. a Organic compounds are broadly classified into open chain and closed chain compounds.
4. c A solid has a definite shape and volume and in general have higher density. In solids,
intermolecular forces are strong. A crystalline solid is one which possesses perfect geometry, high
stability, symmetric and regularly arranged.
5. b Methane is the simplest member of alkane family and indeed the simplest of organic
compounds, as all other compounds are derived by altering this compound.
6. c Alkanes, the saturated hydrocarbons are those in which the carbon atoms are bonded covalently
to each other (fully occupied). Each carbon atom is tetrahedrally surrounded by H-atoms.
7. b Dehydration of alcohol is an example of elimination reaction.
8. d Bonds which bind the atoms together are nearly always ionic.
9. d The element least likely to be found in an organic compound is Silicon.
10. b In stable organic compounds, carbon will always form 4 bonds.
Practice Test
1. d All of the given options are examples of a homogeneous mixture.

2. a Homogeneous mixture are the substances evenly distributed throughout the mixture.
3. d All of the given option are involved in the chromatography.
4. b By adding a small amount of base.
5. c The ability of an ion to coagulate a given colloid is dependent on both magnitude and charge.
6. b Henry’s law explained solubility of gasses in a liquid.
7. d All of the given options can be the type of alloy.
8. a An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion in which both the dispersed phase and the dispersion
medium are liquids. It is a suspension of two liquids that usually do not mix. These liquids that do not
mix are said to be immiscible.
9. d Methyl Orange is used as an indicator in the titration of a strong acid and a weak base.
10. a pH of neutral salt is 7.
11. b Neutron was discovered by Chadwick.
12. c Atoms of the same element which have the same atomic number but different mass number are
called isotopes. So they have similar chemicals but different physical properties.
13. d Valency generally expresses the combining capacity of an element.
14. d Number of protons or electrons present in the nucleus is termed as Atomic number.
15. d Homologous series of Alkanols have a general formula CnH2n+2O.
16. d This is because they have the tendency to transfer electrons.
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17. c Isocyanide is a compound and it is not a functional group.
18. d Dehydration comes under elimination reaction and hence it does not come under addition
reaction.
19. b The Electromeric effect is a temporary effect brought into play at the requirement of attacking
reagent. Electromeric effect refers to a molecular polarizability effect occurring by an intra-molecular
electron displacement. It is the temporary effect.
20. c Meso compound does not rotate plane polarised light. Compound which contains tetrahedral
atoms with four different groups but the whole molecule is a chiral, is known as meso compound. It
possesses a plane of symmetry and is optically inactive. One of the asymmetric carbon atoms turns the
plane of polarised light to the right and other to the left and to the same extent so that the rotation due
to upper half is compensated by the lower half, i.e., internally compensated, and finally there is no
rotation of plane polarised light.
21. c The trend of valency along the periods in the modern periodic table first increase and then
decreases.
22. b Newlands relation is called Law of Octaves.
23. b Decomposition reactions can also be termed as thermal decomposition reaction.
24. d Whether a particular reaction is actually feasible or not.
25. c The best indication about the state of charge on a lead-acid battery is given by specific gravity
of electrolyte.
26. d None of the given options is correct. The local action of a battery is the deterioration of the
battery due to currents that are flowing from and to the same electrode. Polarization is a defect that
occurs in simple electric cells due to the accumulation of hydrogen gas around the positive electrode.
27. d Activation energy is changed in a chemical reaction due to a catalyst.
28. d Total surface area, number of active sites and method of preparation because Total surface
area, number of active sites per unit amount of catalyst, technique of manufacture, and prior treatment
are the elements that determine the activity of a heterogeneous catalyst.
29. a The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is known as ductility.
30. c Non-metals are generally solids and gases.
31. c The paramagnetic nature of oxygen molecule is explained by Hund Mulliken theory.
32. d On the basis of mode of formation polymers can be classified as addition and condensation
polymers.
33. a In addition polymer, monomer used is unsaturated compounds.
34. d Oil refineries and paper factories are mainly responsible for the causes of water pollution.
35. b The large-sized solid materials can be easily removed from the polluted water by physical or
mechanical means. These can be plastics, metals, sand, etc.
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Biology
Biology: It is a branch of science that deals with living organisms

and their vital processes. Aristotle is called the Father of biology.
Botany
Biology Branch
Zoology
Botany:
It is the scientific study of plants - Zoology:
how plants function, what they Zoology is the study of all animals
look like, how they are related to of all shapes and sizes, from tiny
each other, where they grow, how insects to large mammals.
people make use of plants, and Zoologists investigate what animals
how plants evolved. eat and how they live, and how
Theophrastus is called as father of animals interact with their habitats.
Botany. The father of Zoology is Aristotle.
Cell
 Cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s processes.
 Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings.
 Robert Hooke was the first Biologist who discovered cells in 1665.
What is a
 All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or
Cell? many cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest known cells.
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Characteristics of Cells
 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

 The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and cell growth.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell by synthesising
selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their appropriate locations.
Type of Cells
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. They all are single- Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true
Celled microorganisms. Example archaeo, bacteria nucleus. The size of the cells ranges
Cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5μm in diameter. Between 10-100 μm in diameter.
Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, They reproduce sexually as well as
a form of asexual reproduction. asexually.
Cell Structure
Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in and out of
the cells.
 It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the
cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of selective
substances in and out of the cell.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its surroundings.
Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other cellular
components.
 The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and injuries.
Cytoplasm
 The fluid that fills up the cells is referred to as the Cytoplasm.
 Cellular organelles and structures are suspended in the
cytoplasm.
 In 1863, a Swiss biologist named Rudolf von Kolliker coined
the term “Cytoplasm.” It was regarded as a synonym for
protoplasm.
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Ribosomes:
 Ribosomes are one of the most important cell organelles composed of
RNA and protein that converts genetic code into chains of amino acids.”
 Ribosomes are specialized cell organelles and are found in both
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Every living cell requires ribosomes for
the production of proteins.
 Protein and fat (lipid) help in building the cell membranes. This process is known as membranes
biogenesis.
Golgi apparatus
 The Golgi apparatus has multiple names such as Golgi complex
or Golgi body. The name is given on the name of the scientist,
who discovered the organelle, i.e. Camillo Golgi. It is found in all
the eukaryotic cells, plants as well as animals. They are membrane
-bound organelle present in the cytosol of the cell.
 Its main function is the packaging and secretion of proteins.
 Golgi apparatus is the site for the synthesis of various glycolipids,
sphingomyelin, etc.
Lysosomes (Suicidal bag):
 It is a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.
Mitochondria (Power house):
 The energy required for various chemical activities headed for life is released by mitochondria in the
form of ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) molecules.
 ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.
 Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their own DNA and ribosomes,
therefore mitochondria are able to make their own protein.
 Mitochondria is absent in bacteria and the red blood cells of mammals and higher animals.
Cell Nucleus
 A nucleus is defined as a double-membrane eukaryotic cell organelle that contains the genetic
material.
 The nucleus contain, the following components :
 Nuclear envelope (nuclear membrane)
 Chromatin: When the cell is in resting state there is
something called chromatin in the nucleus.
Chromatin is made up of DNA, RNA and nucleus
protein. DNA and RNA are the nucleus acids inside
the cell. When the cell is going to divide, the
chromatin become very compact. It condenses when the chromatin comes together we can see the
chromosomes.
 Chromosomes: Chromosomes make organisms what they are. They carry all the information used to
help a cell grow, thrive and reproduce. Chromosomes are made up of DNA. Chromosomes are not
always visible. They usually sit around uncoiled and as loose shards called chromatin.
Chromosomes are usually found in pairs. Human Beings probably have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
 Nucleolus: It is a dense spherical granule contained within the nucleus. It stores proteins.
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Cell Theory
 The cell theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and
Rudolf Virchow states that all living species on Earth are composed of cells, a cell is the basic unit of
life and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and contains the following postulates:
Energy flows within the cells, Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other and the
chemical composition of all the cells is the same.
Cell Division
 Cell division happens when a parent cell divides into two or more cells called daughter cells.
 Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.
 All cells reproduce by splitting into two, where each parental cell gives rise to two daughter cells.
 Types of Cell Division
Mitosis: Meiosis:
The process cells use to make Binary Fission:
In this type of cell division,
exact replicas of themselves. Single-celled organisms like
sperm or egg cells are
Mitosis is observed in almost all bacteria replicate themselves
produced instead of identical
the body’s cells, including eyes, for reproduction.
daughter cells as in mitosis.
skin, hair, and muscle cells.
 There are two primary phases in the cell cycle:

 Interphase: This phase was thought to represent the resting stage between subsequent cell divisions,
but new research has shown that it is a very active phase.
 M Phase (Mitosis phase): This is where the actual cell division occurs. There are two key steps in
this phase, namely cytokinesis and karyokinesis.
 There are four stages in the M Phase, namely: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.
Some important facts regarding cells

 Nerve cells in animals are the longest cells.
 Smallest human cell is red blood cell.
 Largest human cell is female ovum.
 Every minute about 3 million cells in our body die.
 The red blood cell carries respiratory gases.
 Matrix is a transparent, homogenous semi-fluid substance. In its
active state. It remains saturated with water.
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Tissue
 Tissue is defined as a group of cells that possess a similar structure and perform a specific function.
 They form a cellular organizational level, intermediate between the cells and organ system. Organs are
then created by combining the functional groups of tissues.
 The word tissue originates from French, which means “to weave.”
Types of Animal Tissue

There are four types of tissue
1. Connective tissue (cartilage, blood, bone): Connective
tissues support and connect different tissues and organs of
the body. They are widely distributed in every part of the
body. They originate from the mesoderm (the middle
germinal layer of the embryo).
The classification of connective tissue is Loose Connective
Tissue, Dense Connective tissue and Specialised Connective
Tissue.
2. Epithelial Tissue (simple epithelium, simple cuboidal, simple columnar epithelium, etc):
Epithelial tissue or epithelium forms the outer covering of the skin and also lines the body cavity. It
forms the lining of respiratory, digestive, reproductive and excretory tracts. They perform various
functions such as absorption, protection, sensation and secretion.
There are three types of epithelial cells, which differ in their shape and function: Squamous Epithelium
(thin and flat cells), Cuboidal Epithelium (short cylindrical cells, appear hexagonal in cross-section)
and Columnar Epithelium (long or column-like cylindrical cells and have nucleus present at the base.)
3. Muscle tissue (cardiac, skeletal and smooth muscle tissues): Muscular tissue is a specialized tissue
in animals which applies forces to different parts of the body by contraction. It is made up of thin and
elongated cells called muscle fibres. It controls the movement of an organism.
The muscular tissue is of three types: Skeletal Muscle Tissue, Smooth Muscle Tissue and Cardiac
Muscle Tissue
4. Nervous tissue (neurons and neuroglia): Nervous or the nerve tissue is the main tissue of our
nervous system. It monitors and regulates the functions of the body. Nervous tissue consists of two
cells: nerve cells or neurons and glial cells, which helps transmit nerve impulses and also provides
nutrients to neurons.
The types of Nervous tissue are Neurons and Neuroglia.
Types of Plant Tissue
 The classification of plant tissues are mainly based
on the two important criteria: on the different
part of plants and based on the different types of cells.
 Plant Tissues are broadly categorized into three tissue
systems. This classification is on the basis of parts of
the plants they are present.
1. Epidermis Tissues: Cells formed from the outermost
surface of the leaves.
2. Vascular Tissues: Involved in transporting fluid and nutrients internally.
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3. Ground Tissue: Involved in producing nutrients by photosynthesis and preserve nutrients.
 Plant tissue is divided into two types. This classification is on the basis of the types of cells
1. Meristematic tissues: They are the group of young cells, which consists of continually dividing cells
and helps in the increase of length and width of the plant. The three main types of meristematic tissues
depending on the occurrence of the meristematic tissue on the plant body are Apical Meristem, Lateral
Meristem and Intercalary Meristem.
2. Permanent tissues: A group of cells which are similar in origin, structure and in function. They are
involved in complete growth and differentiation during the ineffective of meristematic activity. The
three types of permanent tissues are Simple Permanent Tissues, Complex Permanent Tissues and
Special or Secretory Tissues.
Osmosis
Osmosis: It is a process by which the molecules of a solvent pass from a solution

of low concentration to a solution of high concentration through a semi-
permeable membrane.
Endosmosis
Types of Osmosis
Exosmosis
 Endosmosis: When a substance is placed in a hypotonic solution,
the solvent molecules move inside the cell and the cell becomes
turgid or undergoes deplasmolysis. This is known as Endosmosis.
 Exosmosis: When a substance is placed in a hypertonic solution,
the solvent molecules move outside the cell and the cell becomes
flaccid or undergoes plasmolysis. This is known as Exosmosis.
Osmotic Solutions
The three different types of solutions are:
Isotonic Solution: that has the same concentration of solutes both inside and outside the cell.
Hypertonic Solution: that has a higher solute concentration outside the cell than inside.
Hypotonic Solution: that has a higher solute concentration inside the cell than outside.
Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop water from diffusing through a membrane by osmosis. It is
determined by the concentration of the solute.
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Plastids
 Plastids are pivotal subcellular organelles that have evolved to perform specialized functions in plant
cells, including photosynthesis and the production and storage of metabolites.
Types of Plastids
1. Chromoplast (Colour Plastids): impart colour 2. Leucoplast (White or Colourless Plastids): present in
to flowers and fruits. which starch, oils and protein are stored.
Types of
Plastids
3. Plastids are self-replicating, i.e. they have the 4. Plastids contains the pigment chlorophyll that is
power to divide, as they contain DNA, RNA and known as chloroplast. It is the site for photo synthesis.
ribosomes.
Mini Exercise - I
1. The term Cell was given by

a. Leeuwenhoek b Robert Hooke c Flemming
d. Robert Brown
2. The function of ribosomes is
a. Metabolism b Lipid synthesis
c. Protein synthesis d Photosynthesis
3. An organelle that mainly serves as a packaging area for molecules that are distributed across the cell
and are called
a. Golgi apparatus b Mitochondria c Plastids d Vacuole
4. Which of these scientists observed the different types of cells in plant tissue?
a. Rudolf Virchow b Antony Von Leeuwenhoek
c. Theodore Schwann d Matthias Schleiden
5. Which of these is not a postulate of the cell theory?
a. Cells are the basic units of life
b. All cells contain a nucleus which has the genetic material
c. Living things are composed of one or more cells
d. Cells arise from existing cells
6. Which of the following tissues has dead cells?
a. Parenchyma b Sclerenchyma c Collenchyma d Epithelial tissue
7. Meristematic tissues in plants are
a. localised and permanent b not limited Lo certain regions
c. localised and dividing cells d growing in volume
8. Diffusion of water through selectively permeable membrane is
a. Osmosis b Imbibition c Translocation d Diffusion
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The Nervous System
 The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of nerves.
 This system sends messages back and forth between the brain and the body.
 The brain controls all the body's functions.
 The spinal cord runs from the brain down through the back.
 The four main functions of the nervous system are: Control of body's internal environment to maintain
'homeostasis', Programming of spinal cord reflexes, Memory and learning and voluntary control of
movement.
Human Brain
 The human brain controls nearly every aspect of the human body ranging from physiological functions
to cognitive abilities.
 It functions by receiving and sending signals via neurons to different parts of the body.
 On average an adult brain weighs between 1.0 to 1.5 Kg.
 The brain is about 60% fat and the remaining 40% is a combination of water, protein, carbohydrates
and salts.
 The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial
cells.
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Parts of Human Brain
The Forebrain The Middle Brain The Hindbrain

Largest Part of the brain. It is anterior Smallest and central part of the The lower part of the brain
part of brain. The forebrain parts includes brain. The midbrain consists of The hindbrain is composed
Cerebrum, Hypothalamus and Thalamus. Tectum and Tegmentum. of Cerebellum, Medulla &
It controls the reproductive functions, body pons. It coordinates all
temperature, emotions, hunger and sleep. all processes necessary
for survival.
 Cerebrum:
 It is the largest part of the brain
 It consists of the cerebral cortex and other subcortical structures.
 The cerebrum is responsible for thinking, intelligence, consciousness and memory. It is also
responsible for interpreting touch, hearing and vision.
 Thalamus
 The thalamus is a small structure, located right above the brain stem responsible for relaying sensory
information from the sense organs.
 It is also responsible for transmitting motor information for movement and coordination.
 Hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus is a small and essential part of the brain, located precisely below the thalamus. It is
considered the primary region of the brain.
 It receives impulses, regulates body temperature, controls mood and emotions and controls the sense of
taste and smell.
 It also synthesises the body’s essential hormones, coordinates the messages from the autonomous
nervous system and controls appetite, peristalsis, the rate of heartbeat, and blood pressure.
 Tectum
 Tectum is a small portion of the brain, specifically the dorsal part of the midbrain.
 It serves as a relay centre for the sensory information from the ears to the cerebrum.
 It also controls the reflex movements of the head, eye and neck muscles.
 Tegmentum
 Tegmentum is a region within the brainstem. It is a complex structure with various components, which
is mainly involved in body movements, sleep, arousal, attention, and different necessary reflexes.
 Cerebellum
 The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain, located in the posterior portion of the medulla
and pons.
 The cerebellum and cerebrum are separated by cerebellar tentorium and transverse fissure.
 It is mainly responsible for coordinating and maintaining the body balance during walking, running,
riding, swimming, and precision control of the voluntary movements.
 Medulla
 The medulla oblongata is a small structure present in the lowest region of the brain.
 It mainly controls the body’s autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and digestion.
 It plays a primary role in connecting the spinal cord, pons and the cerebral cortex.
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 Pons
 The pons is the primary structure of the brain stem present between the midbrain and medulla
oblongata.
 It serves as a relay signals between the lower cerebellum, spinal cord, the midbrain, cerebrum and
other higher parts of the brain.
The Neuron
 Neurons (also called neurones or nerve cells) are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous
system, the cells responsible for receiving sensory input from the external world, for sending motor
commands to our muscles, and for transforming and relaying the electrical signals at every step in
between.
Spinal Cord
 It is a long pipe-like structure arising from the medulla oblongata,
part of the brain consisting of a collection of nerve fibres, running
through the vertebral column of the backbone.
 It is segmented with a pair of roots (dorsal and ventral roots)
consisting of nerve fibres joining to form the spinal nerves.
 In adults, the spinal cord is usually 40cm long and 2cm wide.
It forms a vital link between the brain and the body.
 The spinal cord is divided into five different parts namely sacral
cord, lumbar cord, thoracic cord, cervical cord and coccygeal.
Human Eye
 The human eye is a sensory organ, part of the sensory nervous system that helps us in visualizing
objects and also helps us in light perception, colour and depth perception.
 A human is about 2.3 cm in diameter and is almost a
spherical ball filled with some liquid.
Parts of Human Eye
 Retina: It is a light-sensitive layer that consists of numerous
nerve cells. It coverts images formed by the lens into electrical
impulses. These electrical impulses are then transmitted to the
brain through optic nerves.
 Cornea: The front transparent part of the sclera is called the cornea. Light enters the eye through the
cornea.
 Pupil: A small opening in the iris is known as a pupil. Its size is controlled with the help of iris. It
controls the amount of light that enters the eye.
 Iris: A dark muscular tissue and ring-like structure behind the cornea is known as the iris. The colour
of the iris actually indicates the colour of the eye. The iris also helps regulate or adjust exposure by
adjusting the iris.
 Sclera: It is the outer covering, a protective tough white layer called the sclera (white part of the eye).
 Lens: Behind the pupil, there is a transparent structure called a lens. By the action of ciliary muscles, it
changes its shape to focus light on the retina. It becomes thinner to focus on distant objects and
becomes thicker to focus on the nearby objects.
 Optic nerves: Optic nerves are of two types. These include cones and rods.
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o Cones: Cones are the nerve cells that are more sensitive to bright light. They help in detailed central
and colour vision.
o Rods: Rods are the optic nerve cells that are more sensitive to dim lights. They help in peripheral
vision.
 At the junction of the optic nerve and retina, there are no sensory nerve cells. So no vision is possible
at that point and is known as a blind spot.
 An eye also consists of six muscles. It includes the medial rectus, lateral rectus, superior rectus,
inferior rectus, inferior oblique, and superior oblique. The basic function of these muscles is to provide
different tensions and torques that further control the movement of the eye.
The Endocrine System

 The endocrine system is a network of glands and organs located
throughout the body.
It is responsible for regulating a range of bodily functions through the
release of hormones.
 Hormones are chemical substances that act like messenger molecules
in the body.
They travel in your bloodstream to tissues or organs.
They work slowly, over time, and affect many different processes,
including growth and development.
 Gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body. Endocrine
and exocrine glands release the substances they make into our bloodstream.
Endocrine System Functions
 Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and
reproduction
 Controls how our hormones are released.
 Sends those hormones into our bloodstream so they can travel to other body parts.
Parts of Endocrine System

 Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus produces multiple hormones that control the pituitary gland. It’s
also involved in regulating many functions, including sleep-wake cycles, body temperature, and
appetite. It can also regulate the function of other endocrine glands.
 Pituitary gland: The pituitary gland is located below the hypothalamus. The hormones it produces
affect growth and reproduction. They can also control the function of other endocrine glands.
 Pineal: This gland is found in the middle of our brain. It’s important for our sleep-wake cycles.
 Thyroid: The thyroid gland is located in the front part of your neck. It’s very important for
metabolism.
 Parathyroid: It is also located in the front of your neck and is important for maintaining control of
Calcium levels in your bones and blood.
 Thymus: It is located in the upper torso, the thymus is active until puberty and produces hormones
that are important for the development of a type of white blood cell called a T cell.
 Adrenal gland: These glands produce hormones that are important for regulating functions such as
blood pressure, heart rate, and stress response. Adrenal glands are also known as suprarenal glands.
Adrenal gland can be found on top of each kidney.
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 Pancreas: The pancreas is located in your abdomen behind your stomach. Its endocrine function
involves controlling blood sugar levels.
 Ovaries: In women, these organs make Estrogen and Progesterone. These hormones help develop
breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support a pregnancy.
 Testes: In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It also
tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making sperm.
Lymphatic System and Immunity

The Lymphatic System
 It protects our body against foreign invaders:
 The lymphatic system is part of the immune system.
 It produces and releases lymphocytes (white blood cells) and other immune cells that monitor and then
destroy the foreign invaders such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi that may enter our body.
Function of Lymphatic System
 It keeps the body cells moist.
 It transports oxygen, hormones and nutrients to different parts of the body and removes metabolic
waste from the cells.
 It transports antibodies and lymphocytes to the blood. Maintaining the composition of tissue fluid and
the volume of blood.
Components of the Lymphatic System
 Lymph: also called lymphatic fluid, is a collection of the extra fluid that drains from cells and tissues
(that is not reabsorbed into the capillaries) plus other substances. Lymph is a fluid similar in
composition to blood plasma.
 Lymphatic Vessels: These are the network of capillaries (micro vessels) and a large network of tubes
located throughout your body that transport lymph away from tissues.
 Lymphatic nodes: Lymph nodes are bean-shaped glands that monitor and cleanse the lymph as it
filters through them. The nodes filter out the damaged cells and cancer cells.
Immunity
 Immunity is the capability of multicellular organisms to resist harmful microorganisms.
 It involves both specific and nonspecific components. The nonspecific components act as barriers or
eliminators of a wide range of pathogens irrespective of their antigenic make-up.
Passive (Maternal)
Natural
Adaptive Immunity Active (Infection)
Immunity Passive (antibody

Artificial
transfer)
Innate Immunity Active
(Immunisation)
 Innate immunity: also known as native immunity is defined as the first line of defence against
pathogens, representing a critical systemic response to prevent infection and maintain homeostasis,
contributing to the activation of an adaptive immune response.
 Adaptive or acquired immunity: is the active component of the host immune response, mediated by
antigen-specific lymphocytes. Adaptive immunity can be acquired either 'naturally' (by infection) or
'artificially' (through deliberate actions such as vaccination).
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Adaptive immunity can also be classified as 'active' or 'passive'.
Active immunity is acquired through the exposure to a pathogen, which triggers the production of
antibodies by the immune system.
Passive immunity is acquired through the transfer of antibodies or activated T-cells derived from an
immune host either artificially or through the placenta; it is short-lived, requiring booster doses for
continued immunity.
Blood
 Our blood is made up of liquid and solids.
 The liquid part called Plasma is made of water, salts, and protein. Over half of our blood is Plasma.
 The solid part of our blood contains Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells and Platelets.
 Red blood cells (RBC) deliver oxygen from our lungs to our tissues and organs.
 Blood is a major fluid connective tissue.
 William Harvey, an English physician discovered how blood circulated around the body, with the
heart pumping blood into the body through the arteries, and the blood returning back to the heart
through the veins.
 Blood cells are made in the bone marrow. The bone marrow is the soft, spongy material in the centre
of the bones. It produces about 95% of the body's blood cells.
 The amount of blood in the human body is generally equivalent to 7% of body weight.
 pH value of blood is 7.4.
 The average adult weighing 150 to 180 pounds (68 to 80 Kg) should have about 1.2 to 1.5 gallons (4.5
to 5.5 Litres) of blood in their body. Female contains half litre of blood less in comparison to male.
 Study of blood is called Haematology.
Functions of Blood
 Transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
 Transportation of digested food from the small intestine to the tissues and cells around the body.
 Carries cells and antibodies that fight infection.
 Supplying the waste products to the kidneys and liver, which filter and clean the blood.
 Its flow can regulate body temperature.
 It also fights infection and regulates temperature.
Red Blood Corpuscles - Carry oxygen
 Red blood cells carry fresh oxygen all over the body.
 Red blood cells are disc-shaped cells containing haemoglobin.
 Haemoglobin is the protein inside red blood cells. It carries oxygen. Red blood cells also remove
carbon dioxide from our body.
 Red blood cells are made in the bone marrow. They typically live for ~120 days, and then they die.
White Blood Cells:
 White blood cells circulate around the blood and help the immune system fight off infections.
 White blood cells, also known as a leukocyte or white corpuscle.
 Its life span is from 1 to 2 days.
 White blood cells have nuclei and are also made in the bone marrow.
Platelets: Responsible for clotting
 Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small, colourless cell fragments in our blood that form clots and stop or
prevent bleeding.
 Platelets are made in our bone marrow, the sponge-like tissue inside our bones.
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Muscular and Skeletal System
 Our musculoskeletal system includes our bones, cartilage,

ligaments, tendons and connective tissues.
 Our skeleton provides a framework for our muscles and other soft
tissues. Together, they support our body's weight, maintain our
posture and help us move.
 Tendons connect the skeletal system to the muscular system by
attaching muscle to bone.
 When muscle contracts, the tendon acts on the bone, causing
movement.
 Joints, the point at which two or more bones connect, can be fixed,
slightly movable, or freely movable.
Bones
 Bones of all shapes and sizes support our body, protect organs and tissues, store Calcium and fat and
produce blood cells.
 A bone’s hard outside shell surrounds a spongy centre. Bones provide structure and form for our body.
 They work with muscles, tendons, ligaments and other connective tissues to help us move.
Cartilage
 A type of connective tissue, cartilage cushions bones inside our joints, along our spine and in our
ribcage. Firm, rubbery cartilage protects bones from rubbing against each other. Cartilage is also in our
nose, ears, pelvis and lungs.
Joints
 Bones come together to form joints.
 Some joints have a large range of motion, such as the ball-and-socket shoulder joint.
 Other joints, like the knee, allow bones to move back and forth but not rotate.
Muscles
 Each muscle is made of thousands of stretchy fibres.
 Our muscles allow us to move, sit upright and stay still.
 Some muscles help us run, dance and lift.
Ligaments
 Made of tough collagen fibres, ligaments connect bones and help stabilize joints.
Tendons
 Tendons connect muscles to bones. Made of fibrous tissue and collagen, tendons are tough but not
very stretchy.
Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System
 Myasthenia gravis: It is the abnormal weakening and rapid fatigue of certain muscles. It is due to a
breakdown in communication between nerves and muscles.
 Muscular Dystrophy: This is mostly hereditary. It causes progressive weakness and degeneration of
skeletal muscle, which controls movement.
 Arthritis: Inflammation of one or more joints. Arthritis leads to the limited movement of joints and
pain.
 Osteoporosis: The chances of contracting this disease increase with age, resulting in reduced bone
mass and fragile bones, thus increasing the chances of fracture. Low levels of Estrogen are a common
cause.
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The Circulatory System
The circulatory system is made up of blood vessels that carry blood away from and towards the heart.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry blood back to the heart.
The circulatory system carries oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells, and removes waste products,
like carbon dioxide.
Human Heart
 The heart is a fist-sized organ that pumps blood throughout your body.
 It's the primary organ of our circulatory system. Our brain and nervous system direct our heart's
function.
 It is located between the lungs in the thoracic cavity, slightly towards the left of the sternum
(breastbone). It is derived from the embryonic mesodermal germ layer.
 The human heart four main sections (chambers) made of muscle and powered by electrical impulses:
The right atrium and The left atrium and left A wall of muscle called Valves prevent backflow,
right ventricle together ventricle make up the the septum separates keeping the blood
make up the "right "left heart". the two sides of the flowing in one direction
heart". heart. through the heart.
The Function of Heart
 The primary functions of the human heart is to pump blood throughout the body.
 Blood delivers oxygen, hormones, glucose and other components to various parts of the body,
including the human heart.
 The heart also ensures that adequate blood pressure is maintained in the body
Structure of the Heart Wall
 The heart wall is made up of 3 layers, namely:
Epicardium: It is the Myocardium: This is a layer Endocardium: It is the innermost

outermost layer of the heart. of muscle tissue and it layer that lines the inner heart
It is composed of a thin- constitutes the middle layer chambers and covers the heart
layered membrane that wall of the heart. It valves. Furthermore, it prevents
serves to lubricate and contributes to the thickness the blood from sticking to the
protect the outer section. and is responsible for the inner walls, thereby preventing
pumping action. potentially fatal blood clots.
Types of Circulation
Pulmonary Circulation Systemic Circulation

 Pulmonary circulation: It is a portion of circulation responsible for carrying deoxygenated blood
away from the heart, to the lungs and then bringing oxygenated blood back to the heart.
 Systemic circulation: It is another portion of circulation where the oxygenated blood is pumped from
the heart to every organ and tissue in the body, and deoxygenated blood comes back again to the heart.
Pulmonary circulation (blue)

Systemic circulation (red)
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Blood Vessels
In organisms with closed circulatory systems, the blood flows within vessels of varying sizes. All
vertebrates, including humans, possess this type of circulation. The external structure of the heart has many
blood vessels that form a network, with other major vessels emerging from within the structure. The blood
vessels typically comprise the following:
 Veins supply deoxygenated blood to the heart via inferior and superior vena cava, and it eventually
drains into the right atrium.
 Capillaries are tiny, tube-like vessels which form a network between the arteries to veins.
 Arteries are muscular-walled tubes mainly involved in supplying oxygenated blood away from the
heart to all other parts of the body. Aorta is the largest of the arteries and it branches off into various
smaller arteries throughout the body.
Valves
Valves are flaps of fibrous tissues located in the cardiac chambers between the veins. They ensure that the
blood flows in a single direction (unidirectional). Flaps also prevent the blood from flowing backwards.
Based on their function, valves are of two types:
 Atrio ventricular valves are between ventricles and atria. The valve between the right ventricle and
right atrium is the tricuspid valve, and the one which is found between the left ventricle and left atrium
is known as the mitral valve.
 Semilunar valves are located between the left ventricle and the aorta. It is also found between the
pulmonary artery and the right ventricle.
Facts about Human Heart

 The heart pumps around 6,000-7,500 litres of blood in a day throughout the body.
 The heart is situated at the centre of the chest and points slightly towards the left.
 On average, the heart beats about 100,000 times a day, i.e., around 3 billion beats in a lifetime.
 The average male heart weighs around 280 to 340 grams. In females, it weighs around 230 to 280 grams.
 An adult’s heart beats about 60 to 100 times per minute, and a new born baby’s heart beats at a faster pace
than an adult which is about 90 to 190 beats per minute.
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Important Points
 Aorta: The aorta is the main artery that carries blood away from our heart to the rest of our
body.
 Atria: The two upper chambers in the heart, which receive blood from the veins and push it
into the ventricles.
 Capillaries: Capillaries are delicate blood vessels that exist throughout our body. They
transport blood, nutrients and oxygen to cells in our organs and body systems. Capillaries are
the smallest blood vessels in our vascular system.
 Oxygenated Blood: Oxygen-rich blood.
 Deoxygenated Blood: Oxygen-poor blood.
 Heart Ventricles: The lower right and left chambers of the heart.
 Interventricular Septum: The Interventricular septum separates the left ventricle and the
right ventricle.
 Lungs: The lungs are a pair of spongy, air-filled organs located on either side of the chest
(thorax).
 Myocardium: The muscles of the heart, termed the myocardium, make up the middle and
thickest layer of the heart wall.
 Pulmonary Artery: The pulmonary arteries carry blood from the right side of the heart to the
lungs.
 Pulmonary Circulation: The circulation of the blood through the lungs.
 Pulmonary Veins: The veins that return the oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left
atrium of the heart.
 A pulse is the alternate contraction and relaxation of an artery as blood passes through it.
 Blood pressure is the force blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels.
 A Sphygmomanometer is used for measuring blood pressure (normally 120/80 mm Hg).
Blood Groupings
 The 4 main blood groups (types of blood) are A, B, AB and O.
 Our blood group is determined by the genes we inherit from our parents. Each group can be
either RhD positive or RhD negative, which means in total there are 8 blood groups.
 Father of Blood Grouping: Karl Landsteiner and discovered A, B and O blood groups
 Decastello and Sturli discovered AB blood groups
Rh factor
 The Rh factor is an inherited protein that can be found on the surface of the red blood cell.
 The positive or negative sign next to the blood groups is known as the Rhesus (Rh) factor.
 A person can be Rh+ or Rh- depending upon the presence of Rh factor in RBC.
 If our blood type is positive, then our blood cells have the Rh protein.
 Blood transfusion techniques was developed by Dr. James Blundell.
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The Reproductive System
 The reproductive system is the human organ system responsible for the production and fertilization of
gametes (sperm or eggs) and carrying of a foetus. Both sexes gonads produce gametes.
 Reproduction is the production of offspring. There are two main forms: Asexual and Sexual
reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
 This process of reproduction involves only one parent and the new offspring produced is genetically
similar to the parent.
Sexual Reproduction
 This process of reproduction is very complex that involves the formation and transfer of gametes,
followed by fertilization, the formation of the zygote, and embryogenesis.
Human Reproductive System
 The reproduction in human beings involves the fusion of male and female gametes produced in their
reproductive system. The male reproductive system is different from the female reproductive system,
both in structure and in function.
The Male Reproductive System
 The male gametes, i.e., sperms are produced within the male reproductive system. Sperms are small
unicellular structures with a head, middle piece, and a tail.
The male reproductive system consists of
 Testicles (testes): A pair of oval-shaped organs masked in a pouch called the scrotum. They are
responsible for the production of sperms and the male hormone testosterone.
 Scrotum: It is a sac-like organ that hangs below the penis and behind it. It is the houses of the
testicles, or testes, and maintains a temperature that is required for the production of sperm by it.
 Accessory glands: This includes three glands, namely seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and
Cowper’s gland. The secretions from the three glands mix to form a fluid called semen. Semen
nourishes the sperm, increases the volume and helps in lubrication.
 Penis: Penis is a cylindrical tube which serves as both reproductive organ and an excretory organ. It
delivers sperms into the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Female Reproductive System
 The female reproductive system is active before, during and after fertilization as well. It consists of the
following parts:
 A pair of ovaries: Ovaries produce and store ovum in them. They also produce a female hormone
called Estrogen.
 Fallopian tubes (Oviducts): They are the site of fertilization. They connect ovaries with the uterus.
 Uterus: Uterus is the site of development for the embryo.
 Vagina: It is the part which connects the cervix to the external female body parts. It is the route for
the penis during coitus as well as a foetus during delivery.
Plant Reproduction
 Plant reproduction is the process by which plants produce new individuals or offspring. It is an
inherent characteristic of all living organisms to continue or maintain their races by the mechanism of
reproduction.
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Modes of Reproduction in Plants
Asexual Sexual
 New plant arises from vegetative • New plant arises from reproductive
parts parts
 No seed formation takes place.  Fruits and seeds are formed.
Leaf Stem Root • No seedFlower

formation takes
(Vegetative Parts) (Reproductive
place. Parts)
 The modes of plant reproduction can be majorly classified as Asexual mode of reproduction and
Sexual mode of reproduction
 Asexual Reproduction: In this mode of reproduction, plants can give rise to new plants without the
involvement of male and female reproductive parts. In this mode, plants do not produce fruits and
seeds.
Asexual reproduction in plants can occur in a variety of forms

 Vegetative Propagation: New plants are developed from a portion of the main plant’s body. It
can be reproduced both naturally as well as by the artificial method of vegetative propagation.
For example- Onion bulbs are produced by natural propagation. Rose and banana plants are
produced by artificial methods of propagation.
 Budding: In this mode of asexual reproduction, new plants grow from an outgrowth or bud in
the plant body.
 Fragmentation: New plants are developed from fragments of the parent plant.
 Sexual Reproduction: This mode of reproduction involves the production of new plants through
embryos developed by the fusion of male and female gametes. In sexual reproduction, a fusion of male
and female gametes produces fruits that contain seeds. The seeds give rise to new plants.
Sexual reproduction is divided into three stages:
 Pollination: A process in which the pollen grains are transferred across the anther to the stigma of
the same flower or flowers of different plants. There are two types of pollination- self-pollination
and cross-pollination.
 Zygote formation: After the transfer of pollen grains, the male gamete is transferred down through
the style of the pistil to the ovary where the male gamete is fused with the female gamete to form a
zygote.
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 Fruit and seed formation: After fertilization, a formed zygote is developed into an embryo. The
ovary develops into fruit and ovules into seeds.
The Digestive System

 The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of
digestion.
 Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be
absorbed and assimilated into the body.
Parts of the Human Digestive System
Mouth
 Food starts its journey from the mouth or the oral cavity. There are many other organs that contribute
to the digestion process, including teeth, salivary glands, and tongue. Teeth are designed for grinding
food particles into small pieces and are moistened with saliva before the tongue pushes the food into
the pharynx.
Pharynx
 A fibro muscular y-shaped tube attached to the terminal end of the mouth. It is mainly involved in the
passage of chewed/crushed food from the mouth through the oesophagus. It also has a major part in
the respiratory system, as air travels through the pharynx from the nasal cavity on its way to the lungs.
Oesophagus
 This is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx, which is a part of an upper section of the
gastrointestinal tract. It supplies swallowed food along with its length.
Stomach
 It serves as a muscular bag which is situated towards the left side of the abdominal cavity, beneath the
diaphragm. This vital organ acts as a storage for the food and provides enough time to digest meals.
The stomach also produces digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid that maintains the process of
digestion.
Small Intestine
 The small intestine is a thin, long tube of about 10 feet long and a part of the lower gastrointestinal
tract. It is present just behind the stomach and acquires a maximum area of the abdominal cavity. The
complete small intestine is coiled and the inner surface consists of folds and ridges.
Parts of small intestine
Duodenum Jejunum Ileum

Large Intestine
 This is a thick, long tube measuring around 5 feet in length. It is present just beneath the stomach and
wraps over the superior and lateral edges of the small intestine. It absorbs water and consists of
bacteria (symbiotic) that support the breakdown of wastes to fetch small nutrients.
Rectum
 Waste products are passed into the end of the large intestine called the rectum and eliminated out of
the body as a solid matter called stool. It is stored in the rectum as semi-solid faeces which later exits
from the body through the anal canal through the process of defecation.
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Pancreas
 It is a large gland present just behind the stomach. It is short with its anterior connected to the
duodenum and posterior pointing towards the left part of the abdominal cavity. The pancreas releases
digestive enzymes to complete the process of chemical digestion.
Liver
 The liver is a roughly triangular, reddish-brown accessory organ of the digestive system located to the
right of the stomach. It produces bile, which helps in the digestion of fat in the small intestine. The bile
is stored and recycled in the gallbladder. It is a small, pear-shaped organ which is located just next to
the liver.
Stages in the Digestive Process
Mixing and Secretion: Digestion: Absorption: Excretion:

The stomach, small The process of This process The process of
Movement:
intestine, liver, and converting begins in the removing
It involves the
pancreas secrete complex food small intestine indigestible
process of
enzymes and acids particles into where most of the substances and
lubricating and
to aid the process of simpler substances nutrients and waste by-
manipulating food
digestion. It in the presence of minerals are products from
and pushing it
functions by enzymes and acids absorbed. The the body
down the food
breaking down food secreted by excess water in through the
through the food
particles into different digestive the indigestible process of
pipe and into the
simple components organs. matter is defecation.
stomach.
and easily absorbed by the
absorbable large intestines.
components.
 In a nutshell, the digestion process consists of the six following steps: Ingestion ⇒Mixing and
Movement ⇒ Secretion ⇒ Digestion ⇒Absorption ⇒Excretion
Functions of the Human Digestive System
 Digestion and absorption are the two main functions of the digestive system.
 Digestion is necessary for breaking down food particles into nutrients that are used by the body as an
energy source, cell repair and growth.
 Food and drink need to be converted into smaller molecules of nutrients before it is absorbed by the
blood and carried to the cells throughout the body. The body breaks the nutrients present in the drinks
and food into carbohydrates, vitamins, fats and proteins.
Facts about Human Digestive System

 The human digestive system breaks down food to release energy essential for the body to carry out its
activities.
 The process of digestion takes place in 6 major steps.
 The food is ingested by the alimentary canal and is propelled through the body for further processing.
 The autonomous nervous system controls the peristalsis, contraction and relaxation of muscles within the
alimentary canal wall.
 The food is passed to the small intestine where it is digested, and the nutrients are absorbed.
 Water, electrolytes and vitamins are absorbed by the large intestine and the waste is defecated.
The Excretory System
 The excretory system consists of organs which remove metabolic wastes and toxins from the body. In
humans, this includes the removal of urea from the bloodstream and other wastes produced by the
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body. The removal of urea happens in the kidneys, while solid wastes are expelled from the large
intestine.
 The excretory system functions as the bulwark and balance to the digestive system. It regulates the
fluid balance of the body, maintaining adequate salt and water levels.
 The excretory system in humans consists mainly of the kidneys and bladder. The kidneys filter urea
and other waste products from the blood, which are then added to the urine within the bladder. Other
organs, such as the liver, process toxins but put their wastes back into the blood.
 Kidneys: The kidneys are paired, bean-shaped organs located in the abdomen, on either side of the
spine. They are made of a large number of structural and functional subunits called nephrons. These
nephrons perform the primary task of filtering blood and removing waste products.
 Urinary Bladder: The urinary bladder is a sac-like structure with muscular walls that holds urine until
it is expelled from the body during micturition. The bladder receives urine through two ureters – one
from each kidney –that enter through openings called ureteric orifices.
 Liver: The liver is the main detoxifying organ of the body, especially for nitrogenous wastes. The
cells of the liver play host to biochemical processes that create ammonia from amino acids. Since
ammonia is extremely toxic, it is quickly converted to urea before being transported in the blood
towards the kidney.
 Large Intestine: The liver is also necessary for the removal of the decomposed haemoglobin, some
drugs, excess vitamins, sterols, and other lipophilic substances. These are secreted along with bile and
finally removed from the body through feces. The large intestine, therefore, plays a role in excretion,
especially for hydrophobic particles.
 Skin: The skin is a secondary excretory organ since sweat glands in the dermis can remove salts and
some excess water. The skin also has sebaceous glands that can secrete waxy lipids.
 Lungs or Gills: A major product that must be excreted from all animals is carbon dioxide. Carbon
dioxide is created in the cells, as they undergo aerobic respiration. This waste product is removed from
the cells and transferred to the bloodstream. When the blood reaches the gills or lungs, it is exchanged
for oxygen and released into the atmosphere. Fish also use their gills to expel a number of other waste
products.
Excretory System Facts

 The urinary bladder can hold up to 600 ml of liquid. During early pregnancy, the uterus presses on to
the bladder, creating a greater frequency of urination.
 Most of the amniotic fluid surrounding the growing fetus is fetal urine, though its composition is very
different from normal urine. The bladder of the fetus begins to empty around the 10th week of
gestation.
 This fetal urine and the amniotic fluid are actually important for the development of fetal lungs.
 The white parts in bird excreta are composed mostly of uric acid.
 The brownish pigmentation of feces mostly derives from bile salts.
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Mini Exercise - II
1. What are the three categories of the muscles?

a. Tendons, Ligaments, Joints b Cardiac, Smooth, Skeletal
c. Flexion, Smooth, Extension d Skeletal, Stringy, Smooth
2. Where cardiac muscle is found?
a. Skin b Lungs c Bones d Heart
3. Neurons are aided by following glial cells except for
a. Ependymal b Lymphocytes c Oligodendrocytes d Astrocytes
4. Which of the following is one of the parts of the hindbrain?
a. Hypothalamus b Cerebellum c Corpus callosum d Spinal cord
5. System of the body which coordinates and controls its activity is known as
a. Organ system b Muscular system
c. Nervous tissue d Nervous system
6. The muscular diaphragm that controls the size of the pupil is
a. Cornea b Ciliary muscles c Iris d Retina
7. In which part of the human eye is the image of an object formed?
a. Iris b Pupil c Retina d Cornea
8. An injury sustained by the hypothalamus is most likely to interrupt
a. Coordination during locomotion
b. Short term memory
c. Regulation of body temperature
d. Executive function like decision making
9. This is not an endocrine gland
a. Adrenal b Pituitary c Lacrimal d Thyroid
10. Why is oxygen important to blood and to the cells?
a. Oxygen helps the blood to clot
b. Oxygen is necessary for cell growth and energy.
c. Oxygen brings food to the cells.
d. Oxygen is not important -- carbon dioxide is the most important substance to the body.
11. Which type of blood vessels carries blood away from the heart?
a. Veins b Arteries c Capillaries d Arteries, veins and capillaries
12. Spermatogonia are formed by
a. Meiosis b Mitosis c Amitosis d Meiosis II
13. Where does food pass through between the mouth and the stomach?
a. The Esophagus b The rectum c The small intestine d The large intestine
14. The kidneys in humans are mainly responsible for
a. Nutrition b Urination c Respiration d None of these
15. Bean shaped excretory organ of human is
a. Ureter b Urinary bladder c Urethra d Kidney
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Vitamins
 The vitamins are natural and essential nutrients, required in small quantities and play a major role in
growth and development, repair and healing wounds, maintaining healthy bones and tissues, for the
proper functioning of an immune system, and other biological functions.
 There are thirteen different types of vitamins and all are required for the metabolic processes.
 The discovery of the vitamins was begun in the year 1912 by a Polish American biochemist Casimir
Funk. Based on his research and discoveries on vitamins, their sources, functions and deficiency
disorders, he is considered as the father of vitamins and vitamin therapy.
Types of Vitamins
Fat Soluble Water Soluble
A, D, E, K B, C
Fat-Soluble Vitamin
 Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the fat cells and as the name suggests, these vitamins require fat in
order to be absorbed. Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble vitamins.
Water-soluble vitamin
 Water-soluble vitamins are not stored in our body as its excess gets excrete through the urine.
Therefore, these vitamins need to be replenished constantly. Vitamin B and C are water-soluble
vitamins.
Vitamin A (Retinol)
 Vitamin A plays a role in our vision, bone growth, reproduction, cell functions, and immune system.
 Vitamin A has an antioxidant properties.
 Rich sources of Vitamin A are cheese, eggs, potato, carrots, pumpkins, spinach, milk and yoghurt.
 Symptoms of Vitamin A Deficiency are Night blindness, dry eyes, dry skin, Stomach discomfort, Poor
growth, Weak bones and teeth
Vitamin B
 B vitamins are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism and
synthesis of red blood cells.
Vitamin B1 (Thymine)
 It is vital to the healthy growth and function of organs, including the brain and heart.
 Found in pork chops, ham, enriched grains and seeds.
 Deficiency disease - Beriberi
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
 The body needs vitamin B2 to break down fats and drugs.
 Found in whole grains, enriched grains and dairy products.
 Deficiency disease - Cheilosis, ulceration
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
 The body needs niacin to maintain healthy skin, nerves, and digestion. Doctors sometimes prescribe
high doses of niacin to help improve cholesterol levels.
 Found in mushrooms, fish, poultry, and whole grains.
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Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)
 Vitamin B5 is essential for the health of the brain and nervous system.
 Found in chicken, broccoli, legumes and whole grains.
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
 Vitamin B6 helps the body make new red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout the body. It also
helps keep the immune system strong.
 Found in fortified cereals and soy products.
Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
 Biotin is essential for healthy hair, nails, and nerve function.
 Found in many fruits like fruits and meats.
Vitamin B9 (Folic acid)
 The body uses folic acid or folate, its natural form to make DNA and genetic material. Before and
during pregnancy, sufficient amounts of folic acid help to reduce the risk of certain birth defects.
 Found in leafy vegetables.
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
 The body’s nerve and blood cells require vitamin B12. Adequate levels of B12Trusted Source also
prevent pernicious anaemia, which is a deficiency of this nutrient.
 Found in fish, poultry and meat and dairy products.
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
 Found in citrus fruits and juices, such as oranges and grapefruits.
 Function: helps to protect cells and keeping them healthy, maintaining healthy skin, blood vessels,
bones and cartilage and helps in wound healing.
 Symptoms of Deficiency: skin bleeding, weakness, fatigue, bone pain and aching joints etc.
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)
 Source - Green leafy vegetables, soya beans. The human body can also produce Vitamin K through
germs in the colon (part of small intestine).
 Function: Helps blood clotting, prevent over bleeding, maintains health of the liver
 Symptoms of deficiency- Uncontrolled bleeding from wounds due to clotting difficulty
Vitamin E (Tocopherol) = Beauty Vitamin
 It is also known as Anti sterility Vitamin.
 Source: Green leafy vegetables, whole-wheat cereals, nuts, sprouts, egg yolk.
 Function: Maintains normal conditions of cells, and healthy skin and tissues, Protects red blood cells,
Antioxidation and Enhance immunity
 Symptoms of deficiency: New born infants: haemolytic anaemia, Adults: weakness.
Vitamin D (Calciferol) = (Sunshine Vitamin)
 Source: Egg yolk, liver, cod liver oil, fish. Our skins also produces Vitamin D when exposed to
sunlight.
 Function: Helps body absorb and utilize calcium and phosphorus, so as to maintain bones, teeth and
brain healthy, maintains normal calcium level in blood
 Symptoms of deficiency: Children: Rickets, Adults: Osteomalacia, Osteoporosis.
Minerals
 Minerals are those elements on the earth and in foods that our bodies need to develop and function
normally.
 Those essential for health include Iron (for haemoglobin), iodine (for thyroxin), calcium (for bones),
fluoride (for teeth) and sodium (nerve message transmission).
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Photosynthesis
 It states that the process exclusively takes place in the chloroplasts through photosynthetic pigments
such as chlorophyll, carotene and xanthophyll.
 All green plants and a few other autotrophic organisms utilize photosynthesis to synthesize nutrients
by using carbon dioxide, water and sunlight.
 The by-product of the photosynthesis process is oxygen.
 A visual representation of the photosynthesis reaction:
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen

 Photosynthesis is also used by algae to convert solar energy into chemical energy. Oxygen is liberated
as a by-product and light is considered as a major factor to complete the process of photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis occurs when plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose
and oxygen. Leaves contain microscopic cellular organelles known as chloroplasts.
 Each chloroplast contains a green-coloured pigment called chlorophyll. Light energy is absorbed by
chlorophyll molecules whereas carbon dioxide and oxygen enter through the tiny pores of stomata
located in the epidermis of leaves.
 Another by-product of photosynthesis is sugars such as glucose and fructose.
Process of Photosynthesis:
 At the cellular level, the photosynthesis process takes place in cell organelles called chloroplasts.
These organelles contain a green-coloured pigment called chlorophyll, which is responsible for the
characteristic green colouration of the leaves.
 The process of photosynthesis occurs in two stages:
o Light-dependent reaction or light reaction:
 Photosynthesis begins with the light reaction which is carried out only during the day in the
presence of sunlight. In plants, the light-dependent reaction takes place in the thylakoid
membranes of chloroplasts.
 The Grana, membrane-bound sacs like structures present inside the thylakoid functions by
gathering light and is called photosystems.
 These photosystems have large complexes of pigment and proteins molecules present within
the plant cells, which play the primary role during the process of light reactions of
photosynthesis.
 Under the light-dependent reactions, the light energy is converted to ATP and NADPH, which
are used in the second phase of photosynthesis.
 During the light reactions, ATP and NADPH are generated by two electron –transport chains,
water is used and oxygen is produced.
 The chemical equation is
2H2O + 2NADP + 3 ADP + 3Pi O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP
 Light independent reaction or dark reaction:
 Dark reaction is also called carbon-fixing reaction.
 It is a light-independent process in which sugar molecules are formed from the water and
carbon dioxide molecules.
 The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast where they utilize the NADPH and
ATP products of the light reaction.
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 Plants capture the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through stomata and proceed to the
Calvin photosynthesis cycle.
 The chemical equation for the dark reaction can be reduced to:
3CO2 + 6 NADPH + 5H2O + 9ATP → G3P + 2H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi
* G3P – glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
Diversity in Living Organisms
 Our planet is gifted with numerous living organisms, which vary in their size, shape, habitat, nutrition,
reproduction and a lot more. Based on their physical features and their habitat, these animals of
Kingdom are classified into different order and class.
 Diversity in living organisms can be experienced everywhere on earth. The warm and humid regions
of the earth are highly diverse and are called the region of mega biodiversity.
Classification
 The arrangement of the organisms in groups on the basis of their similarities and differences is known
as classification.
Basis of Classification
 Over millions of years, we have seen diversity in living beings. We look for similarities between
organisms so that we can classify them into classes, for this, fundamental characteristics need to be
decided which would form the foundation for classifying.
 Classification can be carried out based on many factors such as Presence of nucleus, Body design –
make up of cells (Single-celled or Multicellular organisms), Production of food, Level of the
organization in bodies of organisms carrying out photosynthesis and in animals – an organization of
one’s body parts, development of body, specialized organs for different functions
 These features can differ in both plants and animals as they differ in their body design. Hence, these
prominent designs and characteristic features can be used to make subgroups and not a broad
classification.
Classification System: The classification system is of two types:
 Two-Kingdom Classification: This system was proposed by Carolus Linnaeus who classified
organisms into two types- plants and animals.
 Five-Kingdom Classification: This kingdom was proposed by H. Whittaker who divided the
organisms into five different classes namely Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
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Characteristic of Five kingdoms
 These are unicellular prokaryotes.

 They lack a true nucleus.
Kingdom  They may or may not contain a cell wall.
 They may be heterotrophic or autotrophic.
Monera
For e.g. Bacteria, Cyanobacteria
 These contain unicellular, eukaryotic organisms.

 They exhibit an autotrophic or heterotrophic mode of
nutrition.
Kingdom  They possess pseudopodia, cilia, flagella for locomotion.
Protista For e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium
 These are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms.

 They exhibit a saprophytic mode of nutrition.
 The cell wall is made up of chitin.
Kingdom  They live in a symbiotic relationship with blue-green algae.
Fungi For e.g. Yeast, Aspergillus
 These are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms.

 The cell wall is made up of cellulose.
 They prepare their own food by means of photosynthesis.
Kingdom  Kingdom Plantae is sub-divided into- Thallophyta,
Plantae Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms.
For e.g. Pines, ferns, Mango tree
 These are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms without a cell

wall.
 They are heterotrophs.
 The organisms in kingdom Animalia can be simple or complex.
 They are genetically diverse.
 They exhibit an organ-system level of organization.
 It is sub-divided into different phyla such as Porifera,
Kingdom
Coelenterate, Echinodermata, Chordata, etc.
Animalia
For e.g., Earthworms, Hydra, etc.
Viruses
 A virus is an infectious microbe consisting of a segment of nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA)
surrounded by a protein coat.
 A virus cannot replicate alone; instead, it must infect cells and use components of the host cell to make
copies of itself.
 In 1898, a Dutch biologist named Martinus Beijerinck carried out experiments and claimed to have
found a new type of infectious organism and named it "virus".
 Mega virus Chilensis (Capsid diameter 440 nm) is the biggest and Adenovirus is the smallest virus.
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Plant Kingdom
 It includes all the plants. They are eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic organisms. The plant cell
contains a rigid cell wall. Plants have chloroplast and chlorophyll pigment, which is required for
Photosynthesis.
 A plant kingdom is further classified into subgroups. Classification is based on the following criteria:
 Plant body: Presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant body. E.g. Root, Stem and
Leaves.
 Vascular system: Presence or absence of a vascular system for the transportation of water and
other substances. E.g. Phloem and Xylem.
 Seed formation: Presence or absence of flowers and seeds and if the seeds are naked or
enclosed in a fruit.
 The plant kingdom has been classified into five subgroups according to the above-mentioned criteria:
Classification of Plant Kingdom
Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms

Thallophyta is a Traditional name for A pteridophyte is a Gymnosperms are non- Angiosperm, also
division of the plant any nonvascular vascular plant (with flowering plants called flowering
kingdom including seedless plant—namely, xylem and phloem) belonging to the sub- plant, any of
primitive forms of any of the mosses that disperses kingdom Embophyta.
about 300000
plant life showing a (division Bryophyta), spores. Because The seeds are not species of
simple plant body. hornworts (division pteridophytes enclosed in an ovary or flowering plants,
Including unicellular Anthocerotophyta), and produce neither fruit. They are exposed the largest and
to large algae, fungi, liverworts (division flowers nor seeds, on the surface of the most diverse
lichens. The first ten Marchantiophyta). Most they are sometimes leaf-like structures of group within the
phyla are referred to bryophytes lack complex referred to as the gymnosperms. They
kingdom Plantae.
as Thallophytes. tissue organization, yet "cryptogams", can be classified as
They are simple they show considerable meaning that their Coniferophyta,
plants without roots diversity in form and means of Cycadophyta,
stems or leaves. ecology. reproduction is Ginkgophyta and
hidden. Gnetophyta.
Animal Kingdom
 Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular, species belonging to the Kingdom Animalia.

 Every animal has its own unique characteristics. They obtain their energy either by feeding on plants
or on other animals.
 There are millions of species which have been identified, few share similar characteristics while others
differ drastically.
Classification of Animal Kingdom
 The major phyla that constitute the animal kingdom and their respective features that distinguish them
from one another are:
Phylum Porifera
 Sponges, a multicellular, primitive animal with cellular grade organization, exemplify the phylum
Porifera.
 They are free-living, aquatic life forms with no fixed body shape or plane of symmetry.
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 A new sponge can be regenerated from even a few detached cells from a pre-existing sponge.
 Examples: Spongilla (fresh water sponge) and Euspongia (bath sponge).
Phylum Cnidaria
 The members of Phylum Cnidaria, the coelenterates, are radially symmetrical and possess tissue level
organization (their tissues do not form organs).
 The organisms’ bodies generally have two main forms, polyp, and medusa. The former is fixed and is
cylindrical in structure, while medusa is freely swimming and umbrella-shaped. This form of
polymorphism can differ among the members of this phylum and can have multiple varieties.
 Examples: Adamsia (Sea anemone) and Meandrina (Brain coral).
Phylum Platyhelminthes
 The members of Phylum Platyhelminthes are bilaterally symmetrical animals with organ-system level
of organization.
 Flatworms, the members of phylum Platyhelminthes, lack body cavities (acoelomate) and are devoid
of proper circulatory and respiratory organs. Parenchyma, a type of connective tissue, packs the organs
of the flatworms’ bodies.
 Example: Fasciola (liver fluke)
Phylum-Aschelminthes
 They are also triploblastic organisms with a pseudo coelom located between the gut and the body wall.
The cavity is not lined by mesodermal epithelium, and thus, despite the presence, the members of
Aschelminthes are classified as pseudo coelomates or organisms lacking true body cavity. They may
be free-living, aquatic and terrestrial or parasitic in plants and animals.
 Examples: Ascaris (Round worm) and Wuchereria (filarial worm)
Phylum-Annelida
 The members of phylum Annelida are triploblastic, i.e. they develop from the three germ layer
organization and have bilaterally symmetrical bodies. They are also in possession of a true coelom or
body cavity, which is lined by a layer of mesodermal epithelium.
 Examples: Pheretima (Earthworm) and Hirudinaria (Blood sucking leech).
Phylum-Arthropoda
 With the largest phylum under animal kingdom, the arthropods exhibit organ-system level of
organization with bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic bodies. They also possess true body cavity or
coelom (coelomates).
 All members of this phylum are characterized by the presence of an exoskeleton composed of
Chitinous cuticles. To keep up with the growth of the organism, the cuticle sheds from time to time
and is replaced by a new one.
 Examples: Apis (Honey bee) and Periplanata (cockroach).
Phylum-Mollusca
 The second largest phylum under the animal kingdom, Mollusca includes common aquatic animals
like snails, slugs, octopuses, oysters etc.
 They possess organ-level organization in their systems and their body is bilaterally symmetrical,
triploblastic (made up of three germ layers) and coelomate (containing true body cavity, lined by
mesodermal epithelium). The body is covered by calcareous shells and consists of a distinct head
portion, a visceral hump, and muscular feet.
 Examples: Pila (apple snail) and Dentalium (tusk shell).
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Phylum-Echinodermata
 Triploblastic, coelomate animals belonging to phylum Echinodermata are marine and inhabit the
bottom of the sea (banthoic). The adult organisms are radially symmetrical while at the larval stage
they exhibit bilateral symmetry.
 The most distinctive feature of the phylum Echinodermata is the presence of a water vascular system
in their bodies.
 Examples: Antedon (water lily or feather star) and Echinoidea (sea urchin).
Phylum-Chordata
 Animals belonging to Phylum Chordata are triploblastic, exhibit bilateral symmetry and organ system
level of organization, along with a true coelom. The most significant feature of this phylum is the
presence of notochord, a dorsal, hollow nerve cord, and paired pharyngeal slits.
 This phylum includes birds (Aves), reptiles (Reptilia), amphibians (Amphibia), fishes, and mammals
(Mammalia).
 Example: Scoliodon (dog fish), Betta (fighter fish), Bufo (toad), Draco (flying lizard) and Corvus
(crow).
Micro Organisms
 Microorganisms or microbes are microscopic organisms that exist as unicellular, multicellular, or cell
clusters.
 Microorganisms are widespread in nature and are beneficial to life, but some can cause serious harm.
 They can be divided into six major types: bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses.
Different Types of Microorganisms
Bacteria Protozoa Algae Fungi
Example Example Example Example

Lactobacillus Bacteria Amoeba Chlamydomonas Yeasts
Rhizobium Bacteria Paramecium Spirogyra Moulds
+
Virus
Example
Common Cold Virus, HIV Virus

 They operate the basic drug cycles that are necessary for the plants' supply of nutrients via the reaction
of organic matter in soil.
 Microbes are tiny living things that are found all around us and are too small to be seen by the naked
eye.
 Many microbes are useful to us, such as bacteria which are used for making curd from milk, yeast used
to ferment the batter of bread, bacteria used for making other milk products, bacteria and fungi used
for making antibiotics. The bacteria are even used for pollution control.
 The existence of microscopic organisms was discovered during the period 1665-83 by two Fellows of
The Royal Society, Robert Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek.
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 Fermentation is defined as a metabolic process in which bacteria transform glucose into acid, alcohol,
or gas in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic).
 Fermentation occurs in muscles, bacteria, and yeast.
 Lewis Pasteur discovered fermentation in 1857. He demonstrated that lactic acid corrosion is caused
by a microorganisms.
 Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin.
 Microbes that cause disease are called pathogens.
 Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person through air water, food
or physical contact are called communicable diseases. I.e. cholera, common cold, chicken pox and TB.
 Female anopheles mosquito which carries the parasite of malaria.
 Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengue virus.
 Robert Koch discovered the bacteria (bacillus anthracis) which causes anthrax disease.
Mini Exercise - III
1. Which is the leading cause of blindness in children worldwide?

a. Glaucoma b Cataracts
c. Colour blindness d Vitamin A deficiency
2. Which of the following vitamin deficiency causes Beriberi?
a. Vitamin B1 b Vitamin B2
c. Vitamin B6 d Vitamin B12
3. Which of the following vitamins is also known as Cobalamin?
a. Vitamin B11 b Vitamin B2 c Vitamin B6 d Vitamin B12
4. Which is a fat-soluble vitamin?
a. Vitamin B b Vitamin K c Vitamin B12 d Vitamin C
5. Photosynthesis occurs in
a. Chlorophyll b Golgi body c Endoplasmic reticulum
d. Nucleus
6. Coelenterates that are umbrella shaped are called as
a. Medusa b Polyp c Taenia d Aurelia
7. The property of not having separate sexes in an organism is called as
a. Hermaphrodite b Oogamous
c. Homogamous d Heterogamous
8. Rhodophyceae is called red algae because of the pigment
a. Fucoxanthin b Phycoerythrin
c. Carotenoids d Chlorophyll c
9. Living organisms which are invisible to the naked eye are called
a. Particles b Molecules c Microorganisms d Macroorganisms
10. ______ is used for the production of alcohol and wine.
a. Yeast b Mosquito c Ant d Algae
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Practice Test - Biology
11. Plasma membrane is

a. Impermeable b Semi-Permeable
d. Completely Permeable d Differentially Permeable
12. Which of the following does not have cell wall?
a. Mycoplasma b Bacteria c PPLO
d. Blue green algae
13. The Cell theory is not applicable to
a. Fungi b Algae c Virus d Microbes
14. The organelle serving as a primary packaging area for molecules that will be distributed throughout the
cell is
a. Vacuole b Plastids c Mitochondria d Golgi apparatus
15. __________ increases the surface area for mitochondrial activity.
a. Inner membrane b Inter membrane space
c. Matrix d Cristae
16. During cell division, the spindle fibres attach to the chromosomes at a region called
a. Chromo centre b Kinetochore
c. Centriole d Chromo mere
17. Which of the following process is responsible and repairing tissues?
a. Movement b Mobility c Cell division d Growth
18. Mitosis can be observed in
a. Polyploid individual b Diploid individual
c. Haploid individual d All of these
19. The longest stage in the cell cycle is
a. Interphase b Anaphase c Metaphase d None of these
20. Osmosis is a special kind of ………………
a. Regulation b Absorption c Diffusion d Adsorption
21. Nervous tissue is not found in
a. Brain b Spinal cord c Tendons d Nerves
22. The muscular tissue which function throughout life continuously without fatigue is
a. Skeletal muscle b Cardiac muscle
c. Smooth muscle d Voluntary muscle
23. Plastids are absent in ________.
a. Fungi b Bacteria c Blue-green algae
d. All of these
24. In plants ……………… tissues conduct food and water from one part of the plant to other parts.
a. Transport b Circulatory c Vascular d None of these
25. Survival of plants in terrestrial environment has been made possible by the presence of
a. Intercalary meristem b Conducting tissue
c. Apical meristem d Parenchymatous tissue
26. Which of the following vitamin helps in blood clotting?
a. Vitamin A b Vitamin C c Vitamin D d Vitamin K
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27. Which of the following vitamins function as both a visual pigment as well as a hormone?
a. Thiamine b Folic acid c Riboflavin d Retinal
28. Which of the following is a water-soluble vitamin?
a. Vitamin B1 b Vitamin C c Vitamin B2 d All of these
29. Scientific name of vitamin K is?
a. Ascorbic acid b Pantothenic Acid
c. Tocopherol d Phytonadione
30. Deficiency of which vitamin causes an increase in The Fragility of red blood cells and weakness in
muscles?
a. Deficiency of vitamin D b Deficiency of vitamin E
c. Deficiency of vitamin C d Deficiency of vitamin A
31. The process in which green plants synthesize organic food by utilizing carbon dioxide and water as
raw materials, in the presence of sunlight is called as ______
a. Respiration b Food synthesis
c. Photosynthesis d Light synthesis
32. Which is correct regarding photosynthesis?
a. Carbon dioxide is obtained from the atmosphere
b. Water is absorbed from the soil through the stem system
c. Sunlight is trapped by pigments called xanthophyll
d. Chlorophyll absorbs green light
33. The half leaf experiment showed that _____ is important for photosynthesis.
a. O2 b CO2 c Sunlight d Chlorophyll
34. Who found the presence and properties of glucose in green plants?
a. T. W. Engelmann b C. Van Neil
c. Julius Von Sachs d Jan Ingenhousz
35. Which among the following is incorrect about transport canal system in Porifera?
a. Water enters the cavity through minute pores called as Ostia
b. Flagellated cells create water currents inside spongocoel
c. Collar cells help in the distribution and filtering of food materials
d. Water leaves the spongocoel through Osculum
36. The seedless vascular plants whose sporophytes are larger than their small and independent
gametophytes are
a. Pteridophytes b Angiosperms
c. Gymnosperms d None of these
37. Which of the following is used to grow microbes?
a. Laminaria b Gelidium c Chlorella d Sargassum
38. Bryophytes are called amphibians of plant kingdom because
a. These plants live in soil and depend on marine organisms for asexual reproduction.
b. These plants live in soil and depend on water for sexual reproduction.
c. These plants live in water and depend on land animals for sexual reproduction.
d. These plants live near water bodies.
39. Skeletal muscle is responsible for
a. Carries out most of the involuntary processes such as digestion as well as pumping the blood
through arteries.
b. Control of most of the involuntary movements
c. Voluntary movements of body.
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d. None of these
40. Use of oxygen to breakdown the food for the formation of energy is
a. Anaerobic respiration b Aerobic respiration
c. Cellular Respiration d Oxygen
41. Which of the following parts of the brain controls the body temperature and urge of eating?
a. Thalamus b Cerebellum c Pons d Hypothalamus
42. The defect of vision in which the person is able to see distant object distinctly but cannot see nearby
objects clearly is called
a. Long-sightedness b Far-sightedness
c. Hypermetropia d All of these
43. This part of the human brain is also known as the emotional brain
a. Epithalamus b Limbic system
c. Broca’s area d Corpus callosum
44. Pituitary hormone triggering the male testes to generate sperm and in females, triggering follicular
development on a monthly basis is
a. Prolactin b Growth hormone
c. Follicle-stimulating hormone d Luteinizing hormone
45. ___________ is a condition where a blood clot forms in the circulatory system.
a. Thrombosis b Strombus c Hematoma d None of these
46. What is the main job of the red corpuscles in the blood?
a. To clot blood b To fight disease
c. To transport oxygen to the body's cells and carry away carbon dioxide from the cells
d. To transport carbon dioxide to the body's cells and carry away oxygen from the cells
47. Which of the following organ is devoid of gland?
a. Vulva b Oviduct c Uterus d Vagina
48. The digestive system processes food into usable and unusable materials. The usable materials are sent
to the body's cells as food. What happens to unusable materials?
a. It goes into the pancreas to await disposal.
b. It goes to the right ventricle to await disposal.
c. It goes into the large intestine to await disposal.
d. It goes into the small intestine to await disposal.
49. The opening of the urinary bladder is known as
a. Nephridia b Ureter c Urethra d Nephron
50. Name the filtration units of the excretory system in human
a. Ureter b Nephrons c Neurons d Urethra
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Answers – Biology
Mini Exercise – I
1. b Robert Hooke is the Scientist who coined the term cell for the compartments observed in a
cork.
2. c Ribosomes are called protein factories because they synthesize proteins.
3. a Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi body, is a cell membrane that is a part of the
endomembrane system in the cytoplasm. It is a 'membrane-bound organelle' of the eukaryotic cell
which is made up of a series of 'flattened, stacked pouches’ called 'cisternae'. This organelle serves as a
'primary packaging area' for molecules that will be distributed throughout the cell. It packs the protein
into membrane-bound vesicles inside the cell before sending it to its destination. This jellylike
substance inside the plasma membrane in which all cell organelles are floating is Cytoplasm.
4. d Matthias Schleiden was a German botanist who observed the different types of cells present in
plant tissue of various types of plants in 1838. Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell
theory.
5. b Matthias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann together formulated the cell theory. It states that
living things are composed cells, that the cell is the basic unit of life, and that new cells arise from
existing cells.
6. b Parenchyma cells have thin cellulosic cell walls. Collenchyma cells have thicker cellulosic
walls and also may have pectin deposition in the corners. Sclerenchyma cells have thick lignified cell
walls and are dead at maturity and provide protection to the different parts of the body. Epithelial cells
are thin-walled and living.
7. c Meristematic tissues in plants are localised and dividing cells.
8. a Diffusion of water through selectively permeable membrane is Osmosis.
1. b Cardiac, Smooth and Skeletal are the three types of muscles.
2. d Cardiac muscle cells are striated and controlled involuntarily and are situated in the heart’s
walls. Smooth muscle fibres, with the exception of the heart, are found in the walls of the hollow
visceral organs, are spindle-shaped, and are controlled involuntarily.
3. b Neurons are aided by following glial cells except for Lymphocytes.
4. b Cerebellum is the part of the hindbrain.
5. d Nervous system is the one which is responsible for all the activities of the body. It coordinates
and controls the activities of the animal.
6. c Iris control the size of pupil.
7. c In the human eye, the image of an object is formed in the retina.
8. c An injury sustained by the hypothalamus is most likely to interrupt regulation of body
temperature.
9. c Lacrimal is not an endocrine gland.
10. b Oxygen is important because it gives energy for our cells to work and not only the cells but
also the cell organelles. By which the new systems of our brain and body gets opened our nerves
which are blocked due to some reasons gets opened which helps faster blood circulation.
11. b The arteries (red) carry oxygen and nutrients away from your heart, to your body's tissues.
12. b Mitosis is a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having same number
and kind of chromosome as in the parent nucleus. Spermatogonia are formed by Mitosis.
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13. a Esophagus: The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx (throat) to the
stomach. The esophagus contracts as it moves food into the stomach.
14. b The kidneys in humans are mainly responsible for urination.
15. d Human and animals have a pair of bean shaped organ called kidney.
1. d In children, vitamin A insufficiency is the main cause of avoidable blindness. Vitamin A is

required by human eyes for a variety of functions, including the nourishment and protection of the
cornea, which is the clear covering on the front of the eye. The cornea is vulnerable to injury and
scarring, which can result in blindness.
2. a Beriberi is caused by thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency. It's usually found in places where
polished rice is a staple of the diet.
3. d Vitamin B12, also known as Cobalamin, is a component of the vitamin B complex, which also
includes vitamins B11 (folic acid), B6 (pyridoxine), and B2 (Riboflavin).
4. b Vitamins that are fat-soluble are absorbed along with fats in the meal and stored in the body's
fatty tissue and liver.
5. a Photosynthesis occurs in the leaves of the green plants with the help of the green pigments
named chlorophyll. In the presence of these pigments, the leaves take up sunlight and carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere.
6. a Coelenterates that are umbrella shaped are called Medusa and those that are cylindrical are
called Polyp. Some cnidarians exhibit metagenesis i.e. both forms exist in alternative generations.
7. a The property of not having separate sexes in an organism is called Hermaphrodite. In
organisms of this kind eggs and sperms are produced by the same individual. Example: Sponges.
8. b Members of Rhodophyceae are commonly called red algae because of the predominance of the
red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body.
9. c Living organisms which are invisible to the naked eye are called microorganisms.
Microorganisms are too small to be seen with our naked eyes. They can be seen only through a device
known as a microscope.
10. a Yeast is used for the production of alcohol and wine by the process of fermentation.
Practice Test
1. b Plasma membrane is a selective permeable membrane that allows only selective molecules to
pass through it. The permeability depends on the electric charge and polarity of the molecules.
2. a Mycoplasma does not have cell wall. PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia like Organisms).
3. c The Cell theory is not applicable to Virus.
4. d The organelle serving as a primary packaging area for molecules that will be distributed
throughout the cell is Golgi apparatus.
5. d The inner membrane forms a number of folding called cristae towards the matrix. These cristae
increases the surface area.
6. b The key feature of metaphase is the attachment of spindle fibres to kinetochores of
chromosomes. Kinetochores are disc-shaped structure at the surface of the centromeres. These
structures serve as the site of attachment of spindle fibres to the chromosomes that are moved toward
poles. So, the correct answer is 'Kinetochore'.
278
7. c Replacement and repair of tissues in multicellular organisms occur due the process of mitotic
cell division. Cell division is the process in which the parent cell divides to form two or more new
daughter cells.
8. d Mitosis can be observed in Polyploid individual, Diploid individual and Haploid individual.
9. a Interphase is the longest part of the cell cycle. This is when the cell grows and copies its DNA
before moving into mitosis.
10. c Osmosis is a special type of diffusion because in both cases there is a movement of particles
from a higher concentration region to a lower concentration region. In the process of osmosis, particle
movement takes place from the region of higher concentration to lower concentration via the semi-
permeable membrane.
11. c Nervous tissue is not found in Tendons.
12. b The muscular tissue which function throughout life continuously without fatigue is cardiac
muscle.
13. d Plastids are absent in Fungi, Bacteria and Blue-green algae.
14. c In plants, vascular tissues conduct food and water from one part of the plant to other parts.
15. b Survival of plants in terrestrial environment has been made possible by the presence of
conducting tissue.
16. d Vitamin K is involved in the alteration of several blood clotting components once they have
been translated. It is a fat-soluble vitamin that is required for proper blood coagulation protein
synthesis.
17. d Vitamin A, commonly known as retinol, is isoprenoid alcohol that is required for vision,
development, reproduction, and epithelial tissue maintenance.
18. d Water-soluble vitamins are transported to the tissues of the body but are not stored there. They
can be found in a variety of plant and animal foods, as well as dietary supplements, and must be
consumed on a daily basis.
19. d Phytonadione (vitamin K) is used to reduce bleeding in persons who have blood coagulation
issues or have a deficiency in vitamin K. Vitamins, such as Phytonadione, are a type of medication.
20. b Vitamin E insufficiency induces red blood cell fragility and neuron degeneration, especially in
peripheral axons and posterior column neurons. These chemicals operate as antioxidants, preventing
polyunsaturated fatty acid lipid peroxidation in cellular membranes. Vegetable oils and nuts are good
sources of vitamin E in the diet.
21. c The process in which green plants synthesize organic food by utilizing carbon dioxide and
water as raw materials, in the presence of sunlight is called Photosynthesis. This is the pure definition.
Oxygen is a by-product which is advantageous for all living organisms.
22. a The carbon dioxide is obtained from the atmosphere whereas water is absorbed from the soil
through the root system. Sunlight is trapped by pigments present in the leaf called chlorophyll and it
absorbs violet, blue, and red lights and reflects green light.
23. b This experiment showed that CO2 is important for photosynthesis. It was experimented by a
scientist named Molls. It was named half leaf experiment because half of the leaf was enclosed in a
test tube.
24. c Julius Von Sachs found out the production of glucose in plants growth. He also found out that
green parts of the plant store glucose and it is usually in the form of starch. Glucose was not stored in
plants as it increases the osmotic pressure.
25. c Water enters the central cavity through minute pores called as Ostia and leaves the cavity
through Osculum. Flagellated cells create water currents inside spongocoel. Collar cells filter the food
materials and amoeboid cells distribute food materials.
279
26. a The seedless vascular plants whose sporophytes are larger than their small and independent
gametophytes are Pteridophytes.
27. b Agar is extracted from Gelidium and Gracilaria, it is used to grow microbes and in preparation
of ice-cream and jellies.
28. b Bryophytes are called amphibians of plant Kingdom because they live in soil and depend on
water for sexual reproduction. They usually occur in damp humid and shaded areas.
29. c Voluntary movements of body is the correct answer. Body movements like typing, extending
the arm, breathing, writing, and so on are all controlled by the skeletal muscles. Muscle contraction
creates movement by pulling on the tendons on the bones.
30. c Cellular respiration is a process of breaking down the food to produce energy. Most organisms
have cellular respiration taking on within their cells.
31. d Hypothalamus is the part of brain which controls the body temperature and urge of eating.
32. d Hypermetropia is also called long-sightedness or far-sightedness.
33. b Limbic system is the part of brain also known as emotional brain.
34. c Pituitary hormone triggering the male testes to generate sperm and in females, triggering
follicular development on a monthly basis is follicle-stimulating hormone.
35. a When blood clots form within blood vessels they can obstruct blood flow, a condition is called
thrombosis.
36. a Red blood cells are responsible for transporting oxygen from your lungs to your body's tissues.
37. b Oviduct is a simple ciliated tube, lined with tissues. It is devoid of a gland.
38. c The process in which the complex and insoluble contents of food are converted into simpler
and soluble substances, suitable for absorption and assimilation is called digestion. The food is
digested by the digestive system with the help of digestive enzymes. The usable materials are
absorbed by the small intestine and the unusable food is passed on to the large intestine where the
water is absorbed and moves to the anus for removal. The usable materials are sent to the body's cells
as food and unusable material goes into the large intestine to await disposal.
39. c The urethra is an opening of the urinary bladder.
40. b Nephrons
280

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Indus Valley Civilisation or Harappan Civilisation

Vedic Culture (1500 BC – 600 BC)

Rig Veda Yajur Veda Sam Veda Atharva Veda

 Besides these Vedas, there were:

Classification of Vedic Period

Buddhism Era in India

Shishunaga Dynasty (413 BC – 395 BC)

The Mauryan Dynasty (325 BCE – 185 BCE)

Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 297 BC):

Gupta Empire Golden Age of India

Other Dynasties & Rulers (7th Century – 12th Century AD)

Harshavardhana (AD 606 – 647)

The Pandyas The Cholas The Cheras

The Chalukyas The Cholas (9th to 13th Century) The Ghaznavis

1. The Slave Dynasty 2. The Khilji Dynasty 3. The Tughlaq

The Slave Dynasty

Qutubuddin Aibak (1206-10):

Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-96 AD)

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik (1320 – 1325 A.D)

Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489 AD)

 Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.

Sur Empire (Second Afghan Empire 1540-55)

Sher Shah (1486-1545)

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

 Known the Indian History as King Makers.

1. Who was the founder of the Slave Dynasty?

The Advent of the Europeans

Portuguese, their Policies and Works in India

Francisco de Almeida Alfonso d’ Albuquerque Nino da Cunha Martin Alfonso de Souza

2nd Portuguese Governor in

Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757)

Mir Jafar (1757-60)

Mir Qasim (1760-63)

Place Leaders – Revolt of 1857 Place Leaders – Revolt of 1857

Governor Generals of India

Year Governor – General of India Events during Regime

1885 – Formation of Indian National Congress

1919 – Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

1942 – Quit India Movement

Name of Battle Year Importance

1st battle of Tarain 1191 Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Mohammed Ghori

2nd battle of Tarain 1192 Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan

1st battle of Panipat 1526 Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi

Viceroy Tenure Achievements

19th Century Social and Religious Reform Movements

There were two kinds of reform movements in the 19 th century

Types of Reform Movements

1. Muslim communalism was lent an impetus by the activities of?

1. Who is regarded as the ‘father of modern India’?

1. a Lothal and Dholavira is located in Gujarat while Banawali is located in Haryana.

Evolution and Framing of Constitutions

First Interim National Government

Part Subject Articles Part Subject Articles

Sources of Our Constitution

Important Schedules in the Constitution

1. The Constitution of India came into effect on

PART-I: The Union and its Territories

Habeas Corpus Mandamus

Part-IV: Directive Principles of State Policy (Article 36 to 51)

The Union Executive (Article 52-78)

Prime Minister and Council

 The first and foremost part of the Executive is the President.

The Union Council of Ministers