CHAPTER

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
1

SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

1. __________ Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular
basis of biological activity. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and
chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns
itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell,
including the interactions between the different types of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid),
RNA (Ribonucleic acid) and protein biosynthesis as well as learning how these
interactions are regulated.
2. __________ It includes the chemical processes involved in the maintenance and
reproduction of body cells and the chemical reactions carried out inside cells that make
up the metabolism. Overall regulation of these chemical processes is a function of
hormones, whereas regulation of individual reactions is carried out by enzymes.
3. __________ Biochemists can therefore learn about the chemical changes occurring
inside cells from measurements of the various minerals, gases, enzymes and proteins in
blood, urine and other body fluids. Such tests are used to make diagnoses, to screen for
a disease and to monitor its progress. The most common biochemical tests are
performed on blood, and they include liver function tests and kidney function tests.
However, biochemical tests can also be performed on urine and other body fluids.
4. __________ Branches of human genetics include population genetics, which studies
the relative frequency of various genes in different races, molecular genetics, which is
concerned with the structure, function and copying of DNA, and clinical genetics,
which is concerned with the study and prevention of genetic disorders.

EXERCISE A. Match the topic sentences below with one of the paragraphs above.
A. A constant interchange occurs between cell fluids and blood and urine.
B. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring
in living organisms.

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C. Genetics is the study of inheritance, the chemical basis by which characteristics are
determined, and the causes of the similarities and differences among individuals of a
species or between different species.
D. Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of
biological activity.

EXERCISE B. Answer the questions below.

1. What is the main focus of molecular biology?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Which process is affected by enzymes?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What three elements are examined via the medium of fluid tests?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. According to the text, what are the three branches of genetics?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5. As mentioned in the text, what can biochemical tests be performed on?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Figure 1.1 Introduction to molecular genetics

Source: Biocomputing

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 SECTION II INTRODUCTION TO CELLS

The cell is the smallest unit of life, so all cells, whether they are (1) ___________
organisms or just a tiny part of a multicellular organism, have certain characteristics in
common: they must (2) ___________ genetic information and the mechanisms to
regulate and use that information to produce its own parts and to reproduce new cells,
they must be able to use (3) ___________ in chemical reactions and physical actions,
they must be able to regulate those activities, and they must respond to stimuli.

TYPES OF CELLS
There are two basic types of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The difference is
simple and readily recognizable under light microscopy. Eukaryotic cells contain
intracellular membrane-bound compartments (called organelles). Prokaryotic cells do
not contain any such compartments.
There is only one membrane in prokaryotes, the cell membrane, and only one
(4) ___________in prokaryotic cells, the cytoplasm. That does not preclude a certain
level of organization in prokaryotes, but it is not as complex as eukaryotes. The
genomic DNA is usually organized in a central (5) ___________. There are not
intracellular membranous organelles, but the cell is defined by a cell membrane. Outside
of the cell membrane, prokaryotes have a cell wall. This wall is relatively
(6)___________ and confers shape to the cell. Depending on the type of bacteria, the
thickness of the wall (7)___________(thick = “gram positive”, thin = “gram negative”).
Some, but not all bacteria also (8)___________another layer outside of the cell wall.
This is a relatively tight matrix called a capsule that helps protect the cell from
(9)___________in dry environments. A comparatively loose matrix of the same types of
molecules may be secreted, and instead of the capsule, the result is called a slime layer.
The slime layer is important in bacterial (10)___________ and formation of biofilms
(Extracellular Matrix).
Eukaryotic cells are considerably more complex. Eukaryotic organisms are
currently classified into four kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi, and protists. The animal
cell depicts has many features in common with cells of the other three kingdoms.
Obviously, the biggest difference between the animal cell (or any eukaryotic cell)
and prokaryotic cells is the presence of internal membrane-bound compartments, or
organelles. The most prominent of these is the nucleus, which houses the DNA.
Traditionally, it has been assumed that most eukaryotic genomes can range from 10 to
100 x 106 nucleotides (10-100 Mb) in total length, over two or more chromosomes
(DNA molecules) of roughly similar size. In contrast, prokaryotic genomes have

9
traditionally beenviewed as a single circular chromosome, and mostly
under a megabase (106 nucleotides) in length.

MAIN CELL PARTS

The nucleus is bounded by a double-layered membrane (most other organelles are
bounded by a single membrane) that is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER). The endoplasmic reticulum is subdivided into the rough ER (RER) and the
smooth ER (SER) based on appearance in electron micrographs. The “studs” on the
RER are ribosomes, which are the molecular machinery for making proteins in the cell.
There are also free-floating ribosomes - the difference is that the free ribosomes make
proteins that stay in the cytoplasm, while ribosomes attached to the RER are
synthesizing proteins that are destined to insert into a membrane, localize inside an
organelle, or be secreted out of the cell entirely. The RER makes modifications to the
proteins as well as compartmentalizing them. The SER counts lipid synthesis (e.g. to
make membranes) and detoxification reactions among its duties. It should be noted that
ribosomes on the RER are not permanently attached, and after they have produced a
protein, they dissociate from the RER and rejoin the general pool of free ribosomes in
the cytoplasm.
The Golgi complex, or Golgi bodies, while physically independent, are a functional
extension to the protein processing and sorting that occurs in the ER. Proteins leave the
Golgi in vesicles bound for the cell membrane or other organelles. Vesicles, while
membrane-bound, are not generally counted as organelles: they are simply small
transport packages.
Mitochondria are complex organelles that are not only bounded by a membrane, but
also contain a second membrane that is highly crenulated. Mitochondria make aerobic
respiration possible, using oxygen as an oxidizer to produce chemical energy (i.e. ATP)
far more efficiently than the anaerobic processes used by most prokaryotes. This ability
to produce more energy from the same amount of food allows eukaryotic cells to grow
larger than prokaryotes.
Lysosomes are acidic and contain digestive enzymes that break down large food
molecules - particularly proteins and fats - to make them usable by the rest of the cell.
These enzymes work optimally in acidic conditions, which act as a sort of safety
mechanism: if a lysosome breaks and releases its enzymes into the cytoplasm, they will
not break down cellular components at random because the cytoplasmic pH is close to
neutral and the enzymes do not work well. Once thought to be exclusive to animal cells,
lysosomes have now been described in all cells from all eukaryotic kingdoms.

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 Peroxisomes also break down or convert molecules, but they generally act on smaller
molecules by oxidation. For example, some peroxisomes in human liver cells are used to
break down alcohol (ethanol). Processes like this often produce H2O2, hydrogen per-
oxide, as a byproduct. Since H2O2 in high concentrations is harmful, peroxisomes often
contain an enzyme, catalase that converts it into water and molecular oxygen.
Finally, consider the cytoplasm. Once considered merely the aqueous environment
in which the “important” molecules or organelles floated, it is now better understood to
be filled with important structural and transport elements. The cytoskeleton provides not
only an internal physical structure but also a transport system to move molecules,
vesicles, and even organelles to where they are needed.

ENERGY FOR CELLS

Since cells are a highly ordered collection of very complex molecules, they must
therefore require energy to remain as cells. Thus, life requires the ability to obtain
energy, either from sunlight or food, and the ability to convert that energy into forms
that can be readily used by the cell to maintain itself by building or rearranging
necessary molecules and macromolecular structures.
How do cells know when to carry out these activities? This leads us to the next
characteristic of living cells, the ability to respond to stimuli. In other words, they are self-
regulating. If glucose levels run low and the cell needs energy, glucose transport proteins
are made, or if the cell needs to move to an area of higher food concentration, the cell
cytoskeleton rearranges to move the cell. The cell has the ability to initiate repair processes
if it detects lesions in its genome, it can pause the cell cycle to allow such repair processes
time, and it can even initiate its own death if repairs are repeatedly unsuccessful.
In addition to responding to internal signals, living cells are also able to respond to
external stimuli. Whether it is in contact with a neighboring cell, binding a hormone
released from a cell far away, or simply interacting with non-cellular environmental
objects, a cell is able to respond to such stimuli. Responses may include making new
proteins, destruction of existing proteins, moving away from the stimulus, moving
towards the stimulus, initiation of reproduction, and many other possibilities.

CATABOLIC REACTIONS OF THE CELL

Life requires energy. The major functional components of the cell are mostly
polymers - long chains of smaller individual molecular units. Each addition of a small
link to the chain costs energy. Chemical reactions that build up complex molecules from
simple ones are known as anabolic reactions. Conversely, heterotrophic organisms such
as animals ingest food made up of these large polymers, which, when broken down in
the digestive process, release energy for use in maintaining and building that organism.

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Such chemical reactions, in which complex molecules are broken down to simpler
components, are classified as catabolic reactions. Taken as a group of reactions within a
cell or even an organism, they can be referred to as the cell’s or organism’s anabolism
or catabolism. The sum total of both types of reactions is the metabolism. Nearly all
metabolic reactions are catalyzed by enzymes in order to keep up with the energy and
material demands of the cell.

EXERCISE A. Complete the texts above with one of the words listed below. When
you have completed this, take turns reading the completed texts with a partner.

nucleoid contain unicellular compartment attachment

desiccation varies rigid secrete energy

EXERCISE B. Circle the correct word or phrase, according to the text, to complete
each sentence. Take turns reading the correct sentences aloud with a partner.
1. Organelles are found in prokaryotic/eukaryotic cells.
2. Genomic DNA can be found in a central nucleoid/cytoplasm.
3. The slime layer/cell wall is important in shaping the cell.
4. Animals, plants, fungi and protists are prokaryotic/eukaryotic organisms.
5. The nucleus/cell membrane is the most prominent organelle.
6. From the perspective of shape, eukaryotic/prokaryotic genomes have always been
seen as one round chromosome.

EXERCISE C. Read the passage about “Main cell parts” and decide if the
statements below are true (T) or false (F).
1. ___________Unlike most other organelles the nucleus is bounded by a single
membrane.
2. ___________The manufacture of proteins in the cell is galvanized by ribosomes.
3. ___________Ribosomes joined to the RER are synthesizing proteins.
4. ___________RER and SER ribosomes are both only temporarily attached.
5. ___________Vesicles are not membrane-bound.
6. ___________Lysosomes are one of the agents of the digestive process.

EXERCISE D. Match the terms with their definitions by writing the letters in the
correct blanks.
_________1. Endoplasmic reticulum
_________2. Nucleus
_________3. Vesicles
_________4. Mitochondria

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A. Small transport packages that are not, in general, counted as organelles.
B. Contain a highly crenulated second membrane.
C. This is divided into two categories.
D. This is contained by a double-layered membrane.

EXERCISE E. Read the passage about “Energy for cells” and Answer the questions
below.
1. What are the two chief sources of energy essential to sustain life?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What happens if glucose levels run low?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What happens if a cell cannot repair itself?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. What do living cells respond to?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5. What are the chemical reactions that build up complex molecules from simple ones
known as?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
6. What is the opposite chemical reaction to the one above?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

EXERCISE F. Match the terms with their definitions by writing the letters in the
correct blanks. Then compare your answers with those of a partner.
_____1. ingest A. causes so much damage to a thing that it is completely ruined.
_____2. stimuli B. wounds
_____3. polymers C. something that encourages activity in people or things
_____4. glucose D. a series of intercellular proteins
_____5. molecules E. a type of sugar
_____6. maintain F. minimal chemical substances which can exist unaided
_____7. destruction G. take into
_____8. components H. long chains of smaller individual molecular units
_____9. lesions I. not let something stop or grow weaker
_____10. cycloskeleton J. parts that make something up

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 SECTION III BASIC GENETIC MECHANISMS

GENETIC INFORMATION
Cells use DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) for their genetic material, and all cells
contain the transcriptional and translational enzymes to read it and use the information
to (1) ___________more cell components. However, simply having genetic material
does not define life: (2) __________have genetic material containing all the information
necessary to make a complete virus, but it does not contain the (3) ___________
necessary to do so, nor the ability to obtain the raw (4) ___________ material needed to
do so. It is absolutely dependent on the machinery inside whatever cell it infects.
Therefore, a virus is not a living (5) ___________.
DNA is normally found as a double-stranded molecule in the (6) ___________
whereas RNA is mostly single-stranded. It is important to understand though, that under
the (7) ___________conditions, DNA could be made single-stranded, and RNA can be
double-stranded. In fact, the molecules are so (8) ___________that it is even possible to
create double-stranded hybrid molecules with one strand of DNA and one of RNA.
Interestingly, RNA-RNA double helices and RNA-DNA double (9) ___________are
actually slightly more stable than the more conventional DNA-DNA double helix.
The basis of the double-stranded nature of DNA, and in fact the basis of nucleic
acids as the medium for storage and transfer of (10) ___________information, is
base-pairing. Base- pairing refers to the formation of hydrogen bonds between
adenines and thymines, and between guanines and cytosines. These pairs are
significantly more (11) ___________than any association formed with the other
possible bases. Furthermore, when these base-pair associations form in the context
of two strands of nucleic acids, their spacing is also uniform and highly stable. You
may recall that (12) ___________bonds are relatively weak bonds. However, in the
context of DNA, the hydrogen bonding is what makes DNA extremely stable and
therefore well suited as a long-term storage medium for genetic information.
The genome is not only an (13) ___________set for making a cell (or an organism,
for that matter), it is also replicable itself. Roughly speaking, during part of its life
cycle, the cell makes an extra copy of its genome and increases the numbers of all the
other “stuff” (proteins, fats, etc.) of which it is made, and then it reproduces by
(14)___________: the mother cell splits into two (15) ___________cells, each with the
same complement of genetic information, and with approximately the same cellular
components. Thus we see that while the genome is often considered the blueprint for a
cell/organism, in fact cells are not built up from scratch directly from DNA. Every cell
comes from another cell. The DNA can then be used to customize that cell for specific
purposes as determined by its environment. When a particular component of the cell is

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needed, the information for making that component is read from the DNA and copied
into RNA which is used as a program from which ribosomes can manufacture the
proteins needed. A living cell needs all these things: the genetic information, the
mechanisms and machinery to use the information to build cell parts, and the ability to
harness energy to do so.

DNA REPLICATION, REPAIR AND RECOMBINATION

1. ___________ DNA replication is the process of producing two identical replicas from
one original DNA molecule. This biological process occurs in all living organisms and is
the basis for biological inheritance. DNA is made up of two strands and each strand of the
original DNA molecule serves as template for the production of the complementary
strand, a process referred to as semiconservative replication. Cellular proof-reading and
error-checking mechanisms ensure near perfect fidelity for DNA replication.
2. ___________ In a cell, DNA replication begins at specific locations, or origins of
replication, in the genome. Unwinding of DNA at the origin and synthesis of new
strands results in replication forks growing bidirectional from the origin. A number of
proteins are associated with the replication fork which helps in terms of the initiation
and continuation of DNA synthesis. Most prominently, DNA polymerase synthesizes
the new DNA by adding complementary nucleotides to the template strand.
3. ___________ DNA replication can also be performed in vitro (artificially, outside a
cell). DNA polymerases isolated from cells and artificial DNA primers can be used to
initiate DNA synthesis at known sequences in a template DNA molecule. The
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a common laboratory technique, cyclically applies
such artificial synthesis to amplify a specific target DNA fragment from a pool of DNA.
4. ___________DNA repair is a collection of processes by which a cell identifies and
corrects damage to the DNA molecules that encode its genome. In human cells, both
normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as UV light and radiation
can cause DNA damage, resulting in as many as 1 million individual molecular lesions
per cell per day. Many of these lesions cause structural damage to the DNA molecule
and can alter or eliminate the cell's ability to transcribe the gene that the affected DNA
encodes. Other lesions induce potentially harmful mutations in the cell's genome, which
affect the survival of its daughter cells after it undergoes mitosis. As a consequence, the
DNA repair process is constantly active as it responds to damage in the DNA structure.
When normal repair processes fail, and when cellular apoptosis does not occur,
irreparable DNA damage may occur, including double-strand breaks and DNA
crosslinkages (interstrand crosslinks or ICLs).
5. ___________The DNA repair ability of a cell is vital to the integrity of its genome and
thus to the normal functionality of that organism. Many genes that were initially shown to
influence life span have turned out to be involved in DNA damage repair and protection.

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6. ___________Genetic recombination is the process by which two DNA molecules
exchange genetic information, resulting in the production of a new combination of
alleles. In eukaryotes, genetic recombination during meiosis can lead to a novel set of
genetic information that can be passed on to progeny. Most recombination is naturally
occurring. During meiosis in eukaryotes, genetic recombination involves the pairing of
homologous chromosomes. This may be followed by information exchange between the
chromosomes. The information exchange may occur without physical exchange (a
section of genetic material is copied from one chromosome to another, without the
donating chromosome being changed); or by the breaking and rejoining of DNA
strands, which forms new molecules of DNA.
7.___________Recombination may also occur during mitosis in eukaryotes where it
ordinarily involves the two sister chromosomes formed after chromosomal replication.
In this case, new combinations of alleles are not produced since the sister chromosomes
are usually identical. In meiosis and mitosis, recombination occurs between similar
molecules (homologs) of DNA. In meiosis, non-sister homologous chromosomes pair
with each other so that recombination characteristically occurs between non-sister
homologues. In both meiotic and mitotic cells, recombination between homologous
chromosomes is a common mechanism used in DNA repair.
8. ___________Genetic recombination and recombinational DNA repair also occur in
bacteria and archaea. Recombination can be artificially induced in laboratory (in vitro)
settings, producing recombinant DNA for purposes including vaccine development.
9. ___________V(D)J recombination, less commonly known as somatic recombination,
is the unique mechanism of genetic recombination that occurs only in developing
lymphocytes during the early stages of T and B cell maturation. Together with an
adaptive immune system, it is a type of site-specific genetic recombination that helps
immune cells rapidly diversify to recognize and adapt to new pathogens.

TRANSCRIPTION
Although DNA is an excellent medium for the storage of information, the very
characteristic that makes it so stable and inherently self-correcting - being double-
stranded - also makes it unwieldy for using that genetic information to make cell
components. Since the informational parts of the molecule (the nitrogenous bases) are
locked inside the ladder, reading it requires the energetically expensive task of breaking
all the hydrogen bonds holding the two strands together. To do so for every single copy
of each protein needed by the cell would not only take a lot of energy, but a lot of time.
Instead, there must be a mechanism to take the information from DNA once (or a few
times), and then make many copies of a protein from that single piece of information.
That mechanism is transcription.

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 In order to obtain the genetic information in a form that is easily read and then used
to synthesize functioning proteins, the DNA must first be transcribed into RNA (ribo-
nucleic acid). The process of copying DNA into RNA is called transcription. In both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes, transcription requires certain control elements (sequences
of nucleotides within the DNA) to proceed properly. These elements are a promoter, a
start site, and a stop site. The need for a recognizable point to begin and a point to end
the process is fairly obvious. The promoter is somewhat different. The promoter
controls the frequency of transcription. If you imagine the needs of a cell at any given
time, clearly not all gene products are needed in the same quantity at the same time.
There must be a way to control when or if transcription occurs, and at what speed.

EXERCISE A. Read and complete the first passage about “Genetic information”
with the words below.

genetic instruction viruses

organism construct stable
daughter molecular appropriate
hydrogen division helices
enzymes cell similar

EXERCISE B. Read the first passage about “Genetic information” and decide if
the sentences below are True or False. Correct the false sentences.
1. ___________Viruses have the enzymes to produce a complete virus.
2. ___________Under the appropriate conditions RNA could be double stranded.
3. ___________Hydrogen bonds are not particularly strong.
4. ___________Each daughter cell has very different cellular components.
5. ___________Living cells need three things in order to construct parts and obtain energy.

EXERCISE C. Read the second passage about “DNA replication, repair and
recombination” and match the headings A-I with the paragraphs 1-9.
A. ___________The Artificial Induction of Recombination
B. ___________DNA Damage repair in the Genome
C. ___________The DNA Repair Processes
D. ___________Recombination in Mitosis and Meiosis
E. ___________Replication Outside a Cell
F. ___________The Exchange of Genetic Information
G. ___________Recombination in developing Lymphocytes
H. ___________Replication-Locations and Origins
I. ___________What is DNA Replication

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EXERCISE D. Read the questions and then scan the second passage about “DNA
replication, repair and recombination” for answers. Discuss the answers with your
partner.
1. What purpose does each strand of the original DNA molecule serve?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What is the function of DNA polymerase?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What happens when normal DNA processes fail?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. What happens in genetic recombination during meiosis?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Where can recombination be induced?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
6. What is another term for V(D)J recombination?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
7. How does V(D)J recombination help the immune cells?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

EXERCISE E. Match the terms in the third passage about “Transcription” with
their definitions by writing the letters in the correct blanks.
1. energetically A. point to end
2. start site B. process of copying DNA to RNA
3. promoter C. not likely to change
4. mechanism D. coming in a particular order
5. sequences E. point to begin
6. transcription F. not working particularly well
7. stop site G. something performing a particular function
8. unwieldy H. controls the frequency of transcription
9. stable I. having two single thin pieces
10. double-stranded J. involving a great deal of physical movement

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EXERCISE F. Read the third passage about “Transcription”. Work with a
partner to label each statement true (T) or false (F). If the statement is false,
correct it so that it is true.
1. _________The process of unlocking the informational parts of the molecule is not
time- consuming.
2. _________Hydrogen bonds must be broken to read the informational parts of the
molecule.
3. _________DNA is not good for making cell components.
4. _________There is no need for control elements in transcription.
5. _________All gene products are needed in equal amounts at a specific time.

EXERCISE G. Use the correct forms of the words in the brackets to complete the
following passage about “ Gene therapy”.
As we all know, gene therapy is a kind of (1. TREAT) _________ which involves
(2. MODIFY) _________ the genes in body cells in order to stop disease. Genes are the
(3. CARRY) _________ of DNA, which is the code that is in charge of the body’s form
and function. Diseases happen when these genes don’t work according to plan.
That is where gene therapy comes in to the rescue. It’s a method that involves
(4. REPLACE) _________ faulty genes or the addition of it as a way to cure disease or
(5. IMPROVEMENT) _________ the ability of the body to fight disease. Gene therapy
has shown some promise in (6. TREATMENT) _________ a large list of diseases such
as cancer, cystic fibrosis, heart disease, diabetes, hemophilia and AIDS.
Gene therapy experienced some early (7. FAIL) _________ leading people to dismiss
the treatment. However, since 2006, notable (8. SUCCEED) _________ have regained
the attention of researchers but as of 2014, it is still largely an
(9. EXPERIMENT)_________ technique. Gendicine, the first commercial gene therapy,
was approved for the treatment of certain cancers in China in 2003. Glybera, a treatment
for a rare (10.INHERIT) _________ disorder, was the first treatment to be approved for
clinical use in either the US or Europe after it was endorsed by the European
Commission in 2012.

Figure 1.2 How gene therapy works

inside the body
Source: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

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 SECTION IV CELLS IN THEIR SOCIAL CONTEXT

INTRODUCTION TO CANCER
1. Cancer, also known as a malignant tumor or malignant neoplasm, is a group of diseases
involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the
body. Not all tumors are cancerous; benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the
body. Possible signs and symptoms include: a new lump, abnormal bleeding, a prolonged
cough, unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements, among others. While
these symptoms may indicate cancer they may also occur due to other issues. There are
over 100 different known cancers that affect humans.
2. Tobacco use is the cause of about 22% of cancer deaths. Another 10% is due to obesity,
a poor diet, lack of physical activity, and drinking alcohol. Other factors include certain
infections, exposure to ionizing radiation, and environmental pollutants. In the developing
world, nearly 20% of cancers are due to infections such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and
human papillomavirus. These factors act, at least partly, by changing the genes of a cell.
Typically many such genetic changes are required before cancer develops. Approximately
5–10% of cancers are due to genetic defects inherited from a person's parents. Cancer can
be detected by certain signs and symptoms or screening tests. It is then typically further
investigated by medical imaging and confirmed by biopsy.
3. Many cancers can be prevented by not smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, not
drinking too much alcohol, eating plenty of vegetables, fruits and whole grains, being
vaccinated against certain infectious diseases, not eating too much red meat, and
avoiding too much exposure to sunlight. Early detection through screening is useful for
cervical and colorectal cancer. The benefits of screening in breast cancer are
controversial. Cancer is often treated with some combination of radiation therapy,
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surgery, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy. Pain and symptom management are an
important part of care. Palliative care is particularly important in those with advanced
disease. The chance of survival depends on the type of cancer and extent of disease at
the start of treatment.

BREAST CANCER
Breast cancer is cancer that develops from breast tissue. Signs of breast cancer may
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include a lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, fluid
coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a red or scaly patch of skin. In those
with distant spread of the disease, there may be bone pain, swollen lymph nodes,
shortness of breath, or yellow skin.
Risk factors for developing breast cancer include being female, obesity, lack of
physical exercise, drinking alcohol, hormone replacement therapy during menopause,

20
ionizing radiation, early age at first menstruation, having children late or not at all, older
age, prior history of breast cancer, and family history. Breast cancer most commonly
develops in cells from the lining of milk ducts and the lobules that supply the ducts with
milk. Cancers developing from the ducts are known as ductal carcinomas, while those
developing from lobules are known as lobular carcinomas. The diagnosis of breast
cancer is confirmed by taking a biopsy of the concerning lump. Once the diagnosis is
made, further tests are done to determine if the cancer has spread beyond the breast and
which treatments are most likely to be effective.

LUNG CANCER
Lung cancer, also known as lung carcinoma, is a malignant lung tumor
characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. This growth can spread
beyond the lung by the process of metastasis into nearby tissue or other parts of the
body. Most cancers that start in the lung, known as primary lung cancers, are
carcinomas. The two main types are small-cell lung carcinoma and non-small-cell lung
carcinoma. The most common symptoms are coughing including coughing up blood,
weight loss, shortness of breath, and chest pains.
The vast majority about 85% of cases of lung cancer are due to long-term tobacco
smoking. About 10–15% of cases occur in people who have never smoked. These cases
are often caused by a combination of genetic factors and exposure to radon gas,
asbestos, second-hand smoke, or other forms of air pollution. Lung cancer may be seen
on chest radiographs and computed tomography (CT) scans. The diagnosis is confirmed
by biopsy which is usually performed by bronchoscopy or CT-guidance.
Avoidance of risk factors, including smoking and air pollution, is the primary
method of prevention. Treatment and long-term outcomes depend on the type of cancer,
the stage (degree of spread), and the person's overall health. Most cases are not curable.
Common treatments include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Non-small-cell
lung carcinoma is sometimes treated with surgery, whereas small-cell lung carcinoma
usually responds better to chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

EXERCISE A. Complete the sentences below using the words given. Take turns
reading the correct sentences aloud with a partner.
genetic benign symptoms chemotherapy
signs combination tumours tobacco

1. Some cancer_____________
tumours are _____________
benigned and do not spread to other parts of
the body.
2. There are several _____________
signs and _____________
symptoms to indicate the presence of
cancerous cells in the body.

21
3. Over twenty percent of cancer deaths are caused by the use of _____________
tobacco

products.
4. A variety of _____________
genetic changes must take place before cancer develops.
5. _____________may be used to treat cancer as part of a _____________
chemotherapy combination alongside
other treatments.

EXERCISE B. Find a word in the first passage about “Introduction to cancer”

(paragraphs 1-3) to match the definitions below.
1. _____________A
lump
small, hard swelling (paragraph 1)
2. _____________To enter in an unpleasant and difficult way (paragraph 1)
bowel movement

3. _____________To
prolonged last a long time (paragraph 1)
4. _____________The
obesity result of overeating and lack of exercise (paragraph 2)
5.environmental
_____________Gases
polutants and poisonous waste (paragraph 2)
6. _____________The removal and examination of fluids or patients body to discover
why they are ill (paragraph 2)
7. _____________To
prevent continue without letting something grow weaker (paragraph 3)
8. _____________A subject of intense public argument, disagreement or disproval
controversial

(paragraph 3)
9. _____________A
palliative care drug or medical treatment that relieves suffering without treating
the cause of the suffering (paragraph 3)
10. _____________A
advance
particular stage (paragraph 3)

EXERCISE C. Complete the following paragraph about the risks of breast cancer
with the correct forms of the words in the brackets.
Risk factors for (1. DEVELOP) _____________ breast cancer include being female,
(2. OBESE) _____________, lack of physical exercise, drinking alcohol, hormone
replacement therapy during menopause, ionizing radiation, early age at first.
(3. MENSTRUATE) _____________
Menstruation having children late or not at all, older age, prior
history of breast cancer, and family history. Breast cancer most (4. COMMON)
_____________
commonly develops in cells from the lining of milk ducts and the lobules that
supply the ducts with milk. Cancers developing from the ducts are known as ductal
carcinomas, while those developing from lobules are known as (5. LOBULE)
_____________ carcinomas. The diagnosis of breast cancer is confirmed by taking a
biopsy of the concerning lump. Once the diagnosis is made, further tests are done to
(6. DETERMINATION) _____________ if the cancer has spread beyond the breast and
which (7. TREAT) _____________ are most likely to be effective.

22
EXERCISE D. Cover the preceding text about “Lung cancer” and complete the
cloze passage below.
Lung cancer, also known as lung (1) _____________, is a malignant lung tumor
characterized by (2) _____________ cell growth in tissues of the lung. This growth can
spread beyond the lung by the process of (3) _____________ into nearby tissue or other
parts of the body. Most cancers that start in the lung, known as (4) _____________ lung
cancers, are carcinomas. The two main types are small-cell lung carcinoma and non-
small-cell lung carcinoma. The most common (5) _____________ are coughing
including coughing up blood, weight loss, shortness of breath, and chest pains.

EXERCISE E. Choose the best answer to complete each of the following sentences.
1. Cancer also known as a __________ tumor or __________ neoplasm, is a group of
diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other
parts of the body.
A. malignant B. temporary C. benign D. chronic
2. Approximately 5–10% of cancers are due to genetic defects cell growth __________
from a person's parents.
A. inheritance B. inheriting C. inherit D. inherited
3. Many cancers can be prevented by not smoking, maintaining a healthy weight, not
drinking too much alcohol, eating plenty of vegetables, fruits and whole grains, being
vaccinated against certain __________ diseases, not eating too much red meat, and
avoiding too much exposure to sunlight.
A. infected B. infection C. infectious D. infecting
4. Signs of breast cancer may __________ a lump in the breast, a change in breast
shape, dimpling of the skin, fluid coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a
red or scaly patch of skin.
A. consist B. include C. comprise D. compose
5. The diagnosis is confirmed by biopsy which is usually performed by __________ or
CT-guidance.
A. bronchoscopy B. gastroscopy C. endoscopy D. microscopy

Figure 1.3 A tumour forms made up

of billions of copies of the original
cancerous cell.
Source: Cancer Research UK

23
 SECTION V STEM CELLS

Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into specialized
cells and can (1)_____________(through
divide mitosis) to produce more stem cells. They are
found in multicellular organisms. In (2)_____________,
mammals there are two broad types of
stem cells: embryonic stem cells, which are (3)_____________isolated from the inner cell mass
of blastocysts, and adult stem cells, which are found in various tissues. In adult
organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body,
(4)_____________adult
replenishing tissues. A progenitor cell is a biological cell that, like a stem
cell, has a tendency to differentiate into a specific type of cell, but is already more
specific than a stem cell and is pushed to differentiate into its "target" cell. The most
important differencevô thời between
hạn stem cells and progenitor cells is that stem cells can
(5)_____________indefinitely, whereas progenitor cells can (6)_____________only
replicate divide a
limited number of times.
In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all the specialized cells -
ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm but also maintain the normal turnover of
regenerative organs, such as blood, skin, or (7)_____________
intestinal tissues.
There are three known accessible sources of autologous tự thân
adult stem cells in humans:
1. Bone marrow, which requires extraction by harvesting, that is, drilling into bone
(typically the femur or iliac crest). hút mỡ
2. Adipose tissue (lipid cells), which requires extraction by liposuction.
hiến máu
3. Blood, which requires extraction through apheresis, wherein blood is drawn from the
donor (similar to a blood donation) and passed through a machine that extracts the stem
cells and returns other portions of the blood to the donor.
Stem cells can also be taken from umbilical cord blood just after birth. Of all stem
cell types, autologous harvesting involves the least risk. By definition, autologous cells
are obtained from one's own body, just as one may bank his or her own blood for
thủ tục phẫu thuật tự chọn
elective surgical procedures.
Adult stem cells are frequently used in medical therapies, for example in bone
cấy ghép nhân tạo
marrow transplantation. Stem cells can now be artificially grown and transformed
nhất quán
(differentiated) into specialized cell types with characteristics consistent with cells of
various tissues such as muscles or nerves. Embryonic cell lines and autologous
embryonic stem cells generated through somatic-cell nuclear transfer or
dedifferentiation have also been proposed as promising candidates for future therapies.

24
EXERCISE A. Look at the first two paragraphs. There are several words missing
from the text. Use the words below to fill in the gaps.

divide (x2) isolated replenishing

intestinal replicate mammals

EXERCISE B. Read the questions and then scan the passage about stem cells for
answers.
1. How is bone marrow obtained?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Which process is used to extract adipose tissue?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What is apheresis?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Which stem cell harvesting process involves the least risk?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5. What can now be done with stem cells?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
6. What have been proposed for future therapies?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Figure 1.4. Stem cells

Source: Medicine for all

25
 SECTION VI FURTHER PRACTICE

EXERCISE A. Choose the best answer for the sentences below.

1. The word ‘leukocyte’ means _________.
A. white blood cell Bạch cầu B. red blood cell
C. malignant tumor D. platelet
2. _________ is defined as 'the study of cells'.
A. Dermatology Derma-: skinOnc-:
B. Oncology
C. Cytology tumor D. Histology
3. ‘A specialist in cells’ is referred to as _________.
A. cytologist B. oncologist
C. epidemiologist chuyên gia tế bào học D. psychologist
4. The suffix ‘-ectomy’ is known as _________.
A. excision/removal cắt bỏ B. inflammation. sưng, viêm
C. incision rạch D. exploratory surgery. phẫu thuật thăm dò
5. The suffix ‘-ologist’ could best be referred to as_________.
A. researcher B. paramedic nhân viên y tế
C. specialist D. nurse
6. The suffix ‘-ology’ means _________.
A. condition B. study of
C. specialist D. like/resembling
7. The suffix ‘-cyte’ is known as _________.
A. cell B. fat
C. tumor D. tissue
8. The suffix ‘-it is’ could best be described as _________.
A. growth -itis: viêm B. inflammation
C. condition D. disorder
9. The suffix ‘-otomy’ is known as_________.
A. incision B. excision
C. examination D. disease
10. _________ is referred to as the word 'oncology'.
A. Study of the skin
B. Study of tumors and neoplastic diseases
C. Study of the spread of disease
D. Study of the tissue

26
EXERCISE B. Complete the following paragraph with suitable words on the basis
of your background knowledge.
Cells are the basic (1)__________
units of life because cells (2)__________
make up all living
things. Cells come from other cells, meaning they can (3)__________ to create new cells
reproduce

of the same kind. The nucleus of a cell is usually found in its (4)__________.
center The nucleus
could be considered the brain of the cell. The (5)__________
molecules of DNA are found in the
nucleus of a cell which determines the (6)__________
characteristics of the organism, such as what it
will look like. DNA molecules contain the (7)__________
instruction for life. The cell membrane is
s
like a (8)__________
boundary between the inside and outside of cells. Cell membranes have
different functions depending on the type of cell the membrane surrounds.

EXERCISE C. Match each of cell types with its correct definition or characteristics.
A. Adipose cells (Adipocytes) B. Blood cells
C. Bone cells (Osteocytes) D. Cartilage cells (Chondrocytes)
E. Epithelial cells F. Muscle cells (Myocytes)
G. Nerve cells H. Secretory cells
1. __________They
Bone cells are the toughest body cell systems and are bound together by
calcium and phosphate.
2. __________They
Cartilage cells are present in ear bone (hence ears are foldable), in between large
bones to help them bend and move freely like in between two ribs, spinal bones, joints etc.
3. __________They
Nerve cells are human brain cells and are found in plenty in brain and the
spinal cord and form the nervous tissue.
4. __________These
Epithelial cells cells are very simple cells which form covering of other cells and
covering layers of all the organs.
5. __________They
Secretory cells are found in secretary glands and secrete something important.
6. __________These
Adipose cells are fat cells and are storage in nature to store fat.
7. __________They
Muscle cells are rich in proteins actin and myosin, mostly long, large and have
ability to contract and relax providing movements.
8. __________These
Blood cells cells include red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells
(leukocytes), thrombocytes.

EXERCISE D. Complete the following passage with no more than two words.
Cancer also known as a malignant tumor or malignant (1)__________,neoplasm is a group of
diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts
of the body. Not all tumors are cancerous; (2)__________do
benign tumors not spread to other parts of the
body. Possible signs and symptoms include: a new lump, abnormal bleeding, a prolonged
cough, (3)__________
unexplained weight loss, and a change in bowel movements, among others.
While these symptoms may indicate cancer, they may also occur (4)__________other
due to
issues. There are over 100 different known cancers that affect humans.

27
Tobacco use is the cause of about 22% of cancer deaths. Another 10% is due to
(5)__________,
obesity a poor diet, lack of physical activity, and drinking alcohol. Other
factors include certain infections, exposure to ionizing (6)__________, radiation and
environmental pollutants. In the developing world, nearly 20% of cancers are due to
infections such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and human papilloma virus. These factors act,
at least partly, by changing the (7)__________
genes of a cell. Typically many such genetic
changes are required before cancer develops. Approximately 5–10% of cancers are due
to (8)__________
genetic defects inherited from a person's parents. Cancer can be detected by certain
signs and symptoms or (9)__________.
screening test It is then typically further investigated by
medical imaging and confirmed by (10)__________.
biopsy

EXERCISE E. Work in pairs. Ask and answer the following questions without
looking at the reading passage.
1. What are the three studies that overlap with molecular biology?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What is the main difference between the two basic cell types?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Which type of cell is much more complex?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Are vesicles counted as organelles?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Why do lysosome enzymes not break down cellular components at random?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
6. What is required to ensure that cells remain a highly ordered collection of extremely
complex molecules?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
7. Which two chemical reactions make up the metabolism?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
8. What is the main physical difference between DNA and RNA molecules?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

28
 Figure 1.5 Illustration showing the structures of a cell
Source: Genome Research Limited

29
 WORD BANK
aerobic genome mitochondria
base-pairing Golgi complex neoplasm
benign helix – helices nucleus
biopsy hepatitis palliative care
blueprint hybrid peroxisome
chemotherapy infection radiation
cytoplasm lump ribonucleic acid (RNA)
cytoskeleton lysosome ribosome
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) malignant rough ER (RER)
digestive enzyme mechanism screening test
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) medical imaging smooth ER (SER)
genetic defect medium targeted therapy

SOURCES FOR THE READING PASSAGES

CHAPTER 1
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_Biology_of_the_Cell_%28textbook%29
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_cancer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_cancer
www.cs.helsinki.fi/bioinformatiikka/mbi/.../Lectures_1509_and_1709.pd..
www.biologymad.com/resources/Ch%201%20-%20Cells.pdf

30