Developmental Psychology: Childhood

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 Contents
PART I Introduction to Developmental Psychology 3
Chapter 1 Introduction to Developmental Psychology
and Its Research Strategies 3
Introduction to Developmental Psychology 4
What Is Development? 4
Research Strategies: Basic Methods and Designs 10
Research Methods in Child and Adolescent Development 10
Detecting Relationships: Correlational, Experimental, and Cross-Cultural Designs 19
Focus on Research A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Gender Roles 26
Randall Fung/Corbis/Jupiter Images

Research Strategies and Studying Development 26

Research Designs for Studying Development 27
Ethical Considerations in Developmental Research 34
Applying Research to Your Life Becoming a Wise Consumer
of Developmental Research 36
Themes in the Study of Human Development 37
The Nature/Nurture Theme 37
The Active/Passive Theme 38
The Continuity/Discontinuity Issue 38
The Holistic Nature of Development Theme 39
Summary 41
Chapter 1 Practice Quiz 42
Key Terms 43
Media Resources 43

PART II Biological Foundations of Development 45

Chapter 2 Hereditary Influences on Development 45
Principles of Hereditary Transmission 46
The Genetic Material 46
Growth of the Zygote and Production of Body Cells 46
The Germ (or Sex) Cells 47
Multiple Births 48
Male or Female? 48
© Eastphoto/Taxi/Getty Images

Focus on Research Crossing-Over and Chromosome Segregation During Meiosis 49

What Do Genes Do? 50
How Are Genes Expressed? 51

vii

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viii Contents

Applying Research to Your Life Examples of Dominant and Recessive

Traits in Human Heredity 53
Hereditary Disorders 55
Chromosomal Abnormalities 56
Genetic Abnormalities 58
Predicting, Detecting, and Treating Hereditary Disorders 59
Detecting Hereditary Disorders 60
Treating Hereditary Disorders 61
Applying Research to Your Life Ethical Issues Surrounding Treatments
for Hereditary Disorders 63
Hereditary Influences on Behavior 64
Behavioral Genetics 64
Theories of Heredity and Environment Interactions in Development 73
Contributions and Criticisms of the Behavioral Genetics Approach 77
The Ethological and Evolutionary Viewpoints 78
Assumptions of Classical Ethology 79
Ethology and Human Development 79
Modern Evolutionary Theory 80
Contributions and Criticisms of Ethological and Evolutionary Viewpoints 81
Applying Developmental Themes to Hereditary Influences on Development 82
Summary 83
Chapter 2 Practice Quiz 85
Key Terms 85
Media Resources 86

Chapter 3 Prenatal Development and Birth 89

From Conception to Birth 90
The Period of the Zygote 90
The Period of the Embryo 92
The Period of the Fetus 93
Potential Problems in Prenatal Development 97
Teratogens 97
© CNRI/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Characteristics of the Pregnant Woman 109

Prevention of Birth Defects 113
Birth and the Perinatal Environment 114
The Birth Process 114
The Baby’s Experience 115
Labor and Delivery Medications 117
The Social Environment Surrounding Birth 117
Applying Research to Your Life Cultural and Historical Variations
in Birthing Practices 118
Potential Problems at Birth 121
Anoxia 121
Prematurity and Low Birth Weight 122
Reproductive Risk and Capacity for Recovery 125
Applying Developmental Themes to Prenatal Development and Birth 126
Summary 127
Chapter 4 Practice Quiz 128
Key Terms 129
Media Resources 129

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 Contents ix

Chapter 4 Infancy 131

The Newborn’s Readiness for Life 132
Newborn Reflexes 132
Infant States 134
Developmental Changes in Infant States 135
Applying Research to Your Life Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 136
Research Methods Used to Study the Infant’s Sensory and Perceptual Experiences 138

© John Griffin/The Image Works

The Preference Method 138
The Habituation Method 138
The Method of Evoked Potentials 139
The High-Amplitude Sucking Method 139
Infant Sensory Capabilities 140
Hearing 140
Focus on Research Causes and Consequences of Hearing Loss 142
Taste and Smell 143
Touch, Temperature, and Pain 143
Vision 144
Visual Perception in Infancy 146
Perception of Patterns and Forms 146
Perception of Three-Dimensional Space 148
Intermodal Perception 151
Are the Senses Integrated at Birth? 151
Development of Intermodal Perception 152
Explaining Intermodal Perception 153
Cultural Influences on Infant Perception 154
Basic Learning Processes in Infancy 155
Habituation: Early Evidence of Information Processing and Memory 155
Classical Conditioning 156
Operant Conditioning 157
Newborn Imitation or Observational Learning 159
Focus on Research An Example of Observational Learning 161
Applying Developmental Themes to Infant Development, Perception, and Learning 163
Summary 164
Chapter 4 Practice Quiz 166
Key Terms 167
Media Resources 167

Chapter 5 Physical Development: The Brain, Body, Motor Skills,

and Sexual Development 169
An Overview of Maturation and Growth 170
Changes in Height and Weight 170
Changes in Body Proportions 171
Skeletal Development 171
Muscular Development 172
Variations in Physical Development 172
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Development of the Brain 173

Neural Development and Plasticity 173
Brain Differentiation and Growth 175
Motor Development 179

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x Contents

Basic Trends in Locomotor Development 179

Fine Motor Development 183
Psychological Implications of Early Motor Development 184
Beyond Infancy: Motor Development in Childhood and Adolescence 185
Focus on Research Sports Participation and Self-Esteem Among
Adolescent Females 186
Puberty: The Physical Transition from Child to Adult 187
The Adolescent Growth Spurt 187
Sexual Maturation 187
Causes and Correlates of Physical Development 190
Biological Mechanisms 190
Environmental Influences 191
Applying Developmental Themes to Physical Development 195
Summary 196
Chapter 5 Practice Quiz 198
Key Terms 198
Media Resources 199

PART III Cognitive Development 201

Chapter 6 Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Theory and
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Viewpoint 201
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 202
What Is Intelligence? 202
How We Gain Knowledge: Cognitive Schemes and Cognitive Processes 203
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development 205
The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years) 205
The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years) and the Emergence of Symbolic
Thought 212
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Applying Research to Your Life Cognitive Development and Children’s Humor 217
The Concrete-Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years) 221
The Formal-Operational Stage (11 to 12 Years and Beyond) 223
Focus on Research Children’s Responses to a Hypothetical Proposition 223
An Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory 227
Piaget’s Contributions 227
Focus on Research Evaluating Piaget Through a Cross-Cultural Lens 228
Challenges to Piaget 228
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 231
The Role of Culture in Intellectual Development 231
The Social Origins of Early Cognitive Competencies and the Zone
of Proximal Development 232
Implications for Education 238
The Role of Language in Cognitive Development 239
Vygotsky in Perspective: Summary and Evaluation 240
Applying Developmental Themes to Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories 243
Summary 244
Chapter 6 Practice Quiz 246
Key Terms 247
Media Resources 247

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 Contents xi

Chapter 7 Cognitive Development: Information-Processing Perspectives 249

The Multistore Model 250
Development of the Multistore Model 252
Developmental Differences in “Hardware”: Information-Processing
Capacity 252
Developmental Differences in “Software”: Strategies and What
Children Know About “Thinking” 254

Photo Alto Photography/Veer.com

Development of Attention 261
Development of Memory: Retaining and Retrieving Information 265
The Development of Event and Autobiographical Memory 265
Applying Research to Your Life What Happened to Our Early Childhood
Memories? 266
The Development of Memory Strategies 268
Development of Other Cognitive Skills 274
Analogical Reasoning 274
Arithmetic Skills 277
Evaluating the Information-Processing Perspective 282
Applying Developmental Themes to Information-Processing Perspectives 283
Summary 284
Chapter 7 Practice Quiz 285
Key Terms 286
Media Resources 286

Chapter 8 Intelligence: Measuring Mental Performance 289

What Is Intelligence? 290
Psychometric Views of Intelligence 290
A Modern Information-Processing Viewpoint 294
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 296
How Is Intelligence Measured? 298
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 298
Mark Scott/Taxi/Getty Images

The Wechsler Scales 299

Group Tests of Mental Performance 300
Newer Approaches to Intelligence Testing 300
Assessing Infant Intelligence 301
Stability of IQ in Childhood and Adolescence 302
What Do Intelligence Tests Predict? 303
IQ as a Predictor of Scholastic Achievement 303
IQ as a Predictor of Vocational Outcomes 304
IQ as a Predictor of Health, Adjustment, and Life Satisfaction 305
Factors That Influence IQ Scores 306
The Evidence for Heredity 306
The Evidence for Environment 308
The Evidence for the Transaction of Heredity and Environment 309
Social and Cultural Influences on Intellectual Performance 309
Social-Class and Ethnic Differences in IQ 309
Focus on Research Do Socioeconomic Differences Explain Ethnic
Differences in IQ? 314
Improving Cognitive Performance Through Compensatory
Education 316

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xii Contents

Long-Term Follow-Ups 316

The Importance of Parental Involvement 317
The Importance of Intervening Early 318
Creativity and Special Talents 319
What Is Creativity? 319
Applying Developmental Themes to Intelligence and Creativity 323
Summary 323
Chapter 8 Practice Quiz 325
Key Terms 326
Media Resources 326

Chapter 9 Development of Language and Communication Skills 329

Five Components of Language 330
Phonology 330
Morphology 330
Semantics 331
Syntax 331
Pragmatics 331
Theories of Language Development 332
The Learning (or Empiricist) Perspective 332
JGI/Jupiter Images

The Nativist Perspective 333

Focus on Research On the “Invention” of Language by Children 336
The Interactionist Perspective 337
The Prelinguistic Period: Before Language 341
Early Reactions to Speech 341
The Importance of Intonational Cues 342
Producing Sounds: The Infant’s Prelinguistic Vocalizations 342
What Do Prelinguistic Infants Know about Language and
Communication? 343
The Holophrase Period: One Word at a Time 344
Early Semantics: Building a Vocabulary 345
Attaching Meaning to Words 346
When a Word Is More Than a Word 350
The Telegraphic Period: From Holophrases to Simple Sentences 350
A Semantic Analysis of Telegraphic Speech 351
The Pragmatics of Early Speech 352
Applying Research to Your Life Learning a Gestural Language 353
Language Learning during the Preschool Period 353
Development of Grammatical Morphemes 355
Mastering Transformational Rules 356
Semantic Development 357
Development of Pragmatics and Communication Skills 358
Language Learning During Middle Childhood and Adolescence 359
Later Syntactic Development 359
Semantics and Metalinguistic Awareness 359
Further Development of Communication Skills 360
Bilingualism: Challenges and Consequences of Learning
Two Languages 363

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 Contents xiii

Applying Developmental Themes to Language Acquisition 365

Summary 366
Chapter 9 Practice Quiz 368
Key Terms 369
Media Resources 369

PART IV Social and Personality Development 371

Chapter 10 Emotional Development, Temperament, and Attachment 371

Emotional Development 372
Displaying Emotions: The Development (and Control) of Emotional
Expressions 372
Recognizing and Interpreting Emotions 378
Emotions and Early Social Development 380
Focus on Research Assessing Emotional Competence in Young Children 381
Temperament and Development 381
Anatoliy Samara/Shutterstock

Hereditary and Environmental Influences on Temperament 382

Stability of Temperament 384
Attachment and Development 386
Attachments as Reciprocal Relationships 386
How Do Infants Become Attached? 387
Applying Research to Your Life Combating Stranger Anxiety: Some Helpful
Hints for Caregivers, Doctors, and Child-Care Professionals 393
Individual Differences in Attachment Quality 396
Fathers as Caregivers 398
Factors That Influence Attachment Security 400
Attachment and Later Development 404
Applying Developmental Themes to Emotional Development, Temperament,
and Attachment 408
Summary 409
Chapter 10 Practice Quiz 410
Key Terms 411
Media Resources 411

Chapter 11 Development of the Self-Concept 413

How the Self-Concept Develops 414
Self-Differentiation in Infancy 414
Self-Recognition in Infancy 415
LWA/Sharie Kennedy/Blend Images/Jupiter Images

“Who Am I?” Responses of Preschool Children 418

Conceptions of Self in Middle Childhood and Adolescence 419
Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept 420
Self-Esteem: The Evaluative Component of Self 421
Origins and Development of Self-Esteem 421
Social Contributors to Self-Esteem 425
Development of Achievement Motivation and Academic Self-Concepts 428
Early Origins of Achievement Motivation 429
Achievement Motivation During Middle Childhood and Adolescence 429
Beyond Achievement Motivation: Development of Achievement Attributions 434

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xiv Contents

Applying Research to Your Life Helping the Helpless Achieve 438

Who Am I to Be? Forging an Identity 438
Developmental Trends in Identity Formation 439
How Painful Is Identity Formation? 440
Influences on Identity Formation 440
Identity Formation Among Minority Youth 442
The Other Side of Social Cognition: Knowing About Others 444
Age Trends in Person Perception 444
Applying Research To Your Life Racial Categorization and Racism
in Young Children 446
Theories of Social-Cognitive Development 447
Applying Developmental Themes to the Development of the Self
and Social Cognition 451
Summary 451
Chapter 11 Practice Quiz 453
Key Terms 454
Media Resources 454

Chapter 12 Sex Differences and Gender-Role Development 457

Defining Sex and Gender 458
Categorizing Males and Females: Gender-Role Standards 459
Some Facts and Fictions About Sex Differences 460
Actual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes 460
© Jupiterimages/Goodshoot/Jupiter Images

Cultural Myths 463

Do Cultural Myths Contribute to Sex Differences in Ability
(and Vocational Opportunity)? 464
Developmental Trends in Gender Typing 466
Development of the Gender Concept 467
Development of Gender-Role Stereotypes 467
Development of Gender-Typed Behavior 470
Theories of Gender Typing and Gender-Role Development 474
Evolutionary Theory 474
Money and Ehrhardt’s Biosocial Theory of Gender Differentiation
and Development 475
Focus on Research Is Biology Destiny? Sex Assignment
Catastrophes 479
A Psychobiosocial Viewpoint 480
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 480
Social Learning Theory 481
Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 482
Gender Schema Theory 484
An Integrative Theory 485
Applications: On Changing Gender-Role Attitudes and Behavior 485
Applying Developmental Themes to Sex Differences and Gender-Role
Development 488
Summary 488
Chapter 12 Practice Quiz 489
Key Terms 490
Media Resources 491

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 Contents xv

Chapter 13 Aggression, Altruism, and Moral Development 493

The Development of Aggression 494
Origins of Aggression in Infancy 494
Developmental Trends in Aggression 495
Individual Differences in Aggressive Behavior 497
Cultural and Subcultural Influences on Aggression 501
Coercive Home Environments: Breeding Grounds for Aggression 502

Photothek/Andia/Alamy Limited
Applying Research To Your Life Methods of Controlling Aggression
in Young Children 503
Altruism: Development of the Prosocial Self 505
Origins of Altruism 505
Developmental Trends in Altruism 506
Sex Differences in Altruism 506
Social-Cognitive and Affective Contributors to Altruism 506
Cultural and Social Influences on Altruism 509
Who Raises Altruistic Children? 510
Moral Development: Affective, Cognitive, and Behavioral Components 511
How Developmentalists Look at Morality 512
The Affective Component of Moral Development 512
The Cognitive Component of Moral Development 513
The Behavioral Component of Moral Development 520
Applying Research to Your Life How Should I Discipline My Children? 525
Applying Developmental Themes to the Development of Aggression,
Altruism, and Morality 527
Summary 528
Chapter 13 Practice Quiz 529
Key Terms 530
Media Resources 530

PART V The Context of Development 533

Chapter 14 The Context of Development I: The Family 533
The Ecological Systems Viewpoint 534
Bronfenbrenner’s Contexts for Development 534
Understanding the Family 537
The Family as a Social System 537
Families Are Developing Systems 538
monkeybusinessimages/iStockphoto.com

Conclusions About Understanding Families 539

Parental Socialization During Childhood and Adolescence 541
Two Major Dimensions of Parenting 541
Four Patterns of Parenting 542
Focus on Research Parenting Styles and Developmental Outcomes 544
Applying Research To Your Life Renegotiating the Parent–Child Relationship
During Adolescence 545
Social Class and Ethnic Variations in Child Rearing 547
Focus on Research Developmental Surprises from Affluent Parents 549
The Influence of Siblings and Sibling Relationships 551
Changes in the Family Systems When a New Baby Arrives 551
Sibling Relationships over the Course of Childhood 552
Positive Contributions of Sibling Relationships 553

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xvi Contents

Diversity in Family Life 555

Adoptive Families 555
Donor Insemination (DI) Families 556
Gay and Lesbian Families 557
Family Conflict and Divorce 558
Applying Developmental Themes to Family Life, Parenting, and Siblings 561
Summary 562
Chapter 14 Practice Quiz 563
Key Terms 564
Media Resources 564

Chapter 15 The Context of Development II: Peers, Schools, and Technology 567
Peers as Agents of Socialization 568
Who Is a Peer, and What Functions Do Peers Serve? 568
The Development of Peer Sociability 569
Peer Acceptance and Popularity 573
School as a Socialization Agent 575
Schooling and Cognitive Development 575
Alberto Pomares/iStockphoto.com

Applying Research To Your Life Should Preschoolers Attend School? 576

Determinants of Effective Schooling 576
Education and Developmental Transitions 580
The Effects of Television on Child Development 582
Development of Television Literacy 583
Focus on Research Do The Mighty Morphin Power Rangers Promote Children’s
Aggression? 584
Some Potentially Undesirable Effects of Television 584
Television as an Educational Tool 588
Child Development in the Digital Age 590
Computers in the Classroom 591
Beyond the Classroom: Benefits of Internet Exposure 591
Concerns About Computers 593
Final Thoughts on the Context of Development 595
Applying Developmental Themes to the Context of Development 597
Summary 598
Chapter 15 Practice Quiz 599
Key Terms 600
Media Resources 600

Appendix A–1
Glossary G–1
References R–1
Name Index I–1
Subject Index I–15

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 Preface
Our purpose in writing this book has been to produce a current and comprehensive
overview of child and adolescent development that reflects the best theories, research,
and practical advice that developmentalists have to offer. Our goal is for a substantive
developmental text that is also interesting, accurate, up to date, and written in clear,
concise language that an introductory student could easily understand. We believe a
good text should talk “to” rather than “at” its readers, anticipating their interests, ques-
tions, and concerns, and treating them as active participants in the learning process. In
the field of developmental psychology, a good text should also stress the processes that
underlie developmental change so that students come away from the course with a
firm understanding of the causes and complexities of development. Finally, a good text
is a relevant text—one that shows how the theory and the research that students are
asked to digest can be applied to real-life settings.
The present volume represents our attempt to accomplish all of these objectives.
We have tried to write a book that is both rigorous and applied—one that challenges
students to think about the fascinating process of developmental psychology, to share
in the excitement of our young and dynamic discipline, and to acquire the knowledge
of developmental principles that will serve them well in their roles as parents, teachers,
nurses, day-care workers, pediatricians, psychologists, or in any other capacity by which
they may one day influence the lives of developing persons.

Philosophy
Certain philosophical views underlie any systematic treatment of a field as broad as
developmental psychology. Our philosophy can be summarized as follows:

Theoretical Eclecticism
There are many theories that have contributed to what we know about development,
and this theoretical diversity is a strength rather than a weakness. Although some theo-
ries may do a better job than others of explaining particular aspects of development,
we will see—time and time again—that different theories emphasize different aspects of
­development and that knowledge of many theories is necessary to explain the course and
complexities of development. So this book does not attempt to convince its readers that
any one theoretical viewpoint is “best.” The psychoanalytic, behavioristic, cognitive-
development, ecological, sociocultural, social-cognitive, information-processing, etholog-
ical, evolutionary, and behavioral genetic viewpoints (as well as several less-encompassing
theories that address selected aspects of development) are all treated with respect.

The Best Information about Human Development

Comes From Systematic Research
To teach this course effectively, we believe that one must convince students of the value
of theory and systematic research. Although there are many ways to achieve these ob-
jectives, we have chosen to discuss and illustrate many methodological approaches and
specific examples. We examine how researchers use science to test their theories and
answer important questions about development, children, and adolescents. We’ve taken
xvii

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xviii Preface

care to explain why there is no singular “best method” for studying development, and
we’ve repeatedly stressed that our most reliable findings are those that can be replicated
using a variety of methods.

A Strong “Process” Orientation

A major complaint with many developmental texts is that they describe development
without adequately explaining why it occurs. In recent years, investigators have become
increasingly concerned about identifying and understanding developmental processes—
the biological and environmental factors that cause us to change. This book clearly
reflects this emphasis. Our own process orientation is based on the belief that students
are more likely to remember what develops and when if they know and understand the
reasons why these developments take place.

A Strong “Contextual” Organization

One of the more important lessons that developmentalists have learned is that children
and adolescents live in historical eras and sociocultural contexts that affect every aspect
of their development. We have highlighted these contextual influences throughout the
text. Cross-cultural comparisons are discussed throughout. Not only do students enjoy
learning about the development of people in other cultures and ethnically diverse sub-
cultures, but cross-cultural comparisons also helps them to see how beings can be so
much alike, and at the same time so different from one another. Our contextual empha-
sis is also highlighted in Part Five, The Context of Development.

Human Development Is a Holistic Process

Although individual researchers may concentrate on specific topics such as physical de-
velopment, cognitive development, or moral development, development is not piecemeal
but holistic: human beings are at once physical, cognitive, social, and emotional creatures,
and each of these components of “self ” depends, in part, on the changes that are taking
place in other areas of development. This holistic perspective is a central theme in the
modern developmental sciences—and one that is emphasized throughout the text.

Organization
There are two traditional ways of presenting human development. In the chronological,
or “ages and stages” approach, the coverage begins at conception and proceeds through
the life span, using ages or chronological periods as the organizing principle. The topical
approach is organized around areas of development and follows each from its origins to
its mature forms. Each of the presentations has advantages and disadvantages.
We’ve chosen to organize this book topically to focus intently on developmental
processes and to provide the student with an uninterrupted view of the sequences of
change that children and adolescents experience within each developmental domain.
This topical approach best allows the reader to appreciate the flow of development—
the systematic, and often dramatic, transformations that take place over the course of
childhood and adolescence, as well as the developmental continuities that make each
individual a reflection of his or her past self. At the same time, we consider it essential
to paint a holistic portrait of the developing person. To accomplish this aim, we’ve
stressed the fundamental interplay among biological, cognitive, social, and cultural in-
fluences in our coverage of every aspect of development. So even though this text is
topically organized, students will not lose sight of the whole person and the holistic
character of development.

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of English and
American tool builders
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: English and American tool builders

Author: Joseph Wickham Roe

Release date: November 5, 2023 [eBook #72046]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: McGraw Hill Book Company,

1916

Credits: deaurider, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file
was produced from images generously made available
by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH

AND AMERICAN TOOL BUILDERS ***
 Please see the Transcriber’s Notes
at the end of this text.
New original cover art included with
this eBook is granted to the public
domain.

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN TOOL

BUILDERS
Henry Maudslay
English and American
Tool Builders

By
JOSEPH WICKHAM ROE
Museum of the Peaceful Arts, City of New York,
Professor of Industrial Engineering,
New York University

First Printed in 1916

Reprinted in 1926

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE
LONDON: 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 4
1926

Copyright, 1916
BY
 Joseph Wickham Roe

First published May, 1916

Republished March, 1926

“Man is a Tool-using Animal. Weak in himself, and of small stature, he

stands on a basis, at most for the flattest-soled, of some half-square foot,
insecurely enough; has to straddle out his legs, lest the very wind
supplant him. Feeblest of bipeds! Three quintals are a crushing load for
him; the steer of the meadow tosses him aloft, like a waste rag.
Nevertheless he can use Tools, can devise Tools: with these the granite
mountain melts into light dust before him; seas are his smooth highway,
winds and fire his unwearying steeds. Nowhere do you find him without
Tools; without Tools he is nothing, with Tools he is all.”
Carlyle: “Sartor Resartus,” Chap. IV.
 PREFACE

The purpose of this book is to bring out the importance of the work
and influence of the great tool builders. Few realize that their art is
fundamental to all modern industrial arts. Without machine tools
modern machinery could not be built. Little is known by the general
public as to who the great tool builders were, and less is known of
their lives and work.
History takes good care of soldiers, statesmen and authors. It is
even kind to engineers like Watt, Fulton and Stephenson, who have
conspicuously and directly affected society at large. But little is
known, even among mechanics, of the men whose work was mainly
within the engineering profession, and who served other engineers
rather than the general public. The lives and the personalities of men
like Maudslay, Nasmyth and Eli Whitney, can hardly fail of interest to
the mechanic of today. They were busy men and modest, whose
records are mainly in iron and steel, and in mechanical devices
which are used daily with little thought of their origin.
In following the history of English and American tool builders, the
query arises as to whether there might not have been important
contributions to tool building from other countries. Others have
contributed to some degree, but practically all of the creative work in
tool building has been done in these two countries. Although the
French were pioneers in many mechanical improvements, they have
always shown an aptitude for refinements and ingenious novelties
rather than for commercial production on a large scale. They have
influenced other nations more through their ideas than through their
machinery. The Swiss are clever artisans, particularly in fine work,
but they have excelled in personal skill, operating on a small scale,
rather than in manufacturing. Germany has, under the Empire,
developed splendid mechanics, but the principal machine tools had
taken shape before 1870, when the Empire began. The history of
English and American tool building, therefore, covers substantially
the entire history of the art.
Almost the only book upon tool builders and their work is Samuel
Smiles’ “Industrial Biography,” which is out of print and little known. It
is an admirable and interesting book, and a mine of information upon
the English tool builders down to about 1850. The writer has used it
freely and would urge those who are interested in the subject to go
to it for further information on the early mechanics. It was written,
however, over fifty years ago and contains nothing about modern
developments or about the American tool builders who have
contributed so much.
The writer has tried to trace the origin and rise of tool building in
America and to give something of its spread in recent years. The
industrial life of the United States is so vast that a comprehensive
history of even a single industry, such as tool building, would run far
beyond the limits of one volume. This book, therefore, is confined to
the main lines of influence in tool building and to the personalities
and cities which have been most closely identified with it. The later
history of American tool building has never been written. For this the
writer has had to rely largely upon personal information from those
who are familiar with it, and who have had a part in it.
Part of the material contained in this book has appeared from time
to time in the American Machinist, and the writer would acknowledge
his indebtedness most of all to Mr. L. P. Alford, the editor of that
journal. His help and counsel have given these pages much of such
value as they possess. So many have helped with information,
corrections and suggestions that acknowledgments can be made
only to a few. The writer would particularly thank Mr. L. D.
Burlingame, Mr. Ned Lawrence, Mr. James Hartness, Mr. Coleman
Sellers and Mr. Clarence Bement.
If these pages serve to stimulate interest in the lives and work of
the tool builders, to whom we owe much, they will fulfill the hope of
the writer.
Sheffield Scientific School,
Yale University,
October, 1915.
 AUTHOR’S NOTE

In reprinting this book certain minor corrections have been made.

In the later chapters references occur here and there to the “present”
condition of various plants and firms. After careful consideration, it
seems wise to let these statements stand as they were written in
1915. Interest in this subject centers chiefly on the early history of
the plants and firms rather than on recent changes. To revise the
statements, bringing them up to date, would add little. With the ever
shifting status of a live industry, the statements, so revised, would
remain correct for only a short time. Therefore, when a reference is
made to present conditions it should be understood to cover those at
the beginning of the World War, which is a natural dividing point in
our industrial history.
The general predictions made in the last two paragraphs of the
book have been borne out by the developments in American
toolbuilding since that time.
Museum of the Peaceful Arts,
City of New York,
February, 1926.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
Chapter I. Influence of the Early Tool Builders 1
Chapter II. Wilkinson and Bramah 11
Chapter III. Bentham and Brunel 22
Chapter IV. Henry Maudslay 33
Chapter V. Inventors of the Planer 50
Chapter VI. Gearing and Millwork 63
Chapter VII. Fairbairn and Bodmer 71
Chapter VIII. James Nasmyth 81
Chapter IX. Whitworth 98
Chapter X. Early American Mechanics 109
Chapter XI. The Rise of Interchangeable Manufacture 128
Chapter XII. Whitney and North 145
Chapter XIII. The Colt Armory 164
Chapter XIV. The Colt Workman—Pratt & Whitney 173
Chapter XV. Robbins & Lawrence 186
Chapter XVI. The Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing
Company 202
Chapter XVII. Central New England 216
Chapter XVIII. The Naugatuck Valley 231
Chapter XIX. Philadelphia 239
Chapter XX. The Western Tool Builders 261
Appendix A 281
Appendix B, The Jennings Gun 292
A Partial Bibliography on Tool Building 295
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Henry Maudslay Frontispiece

Fig. 1. Smeaton’s Boring Machine, Carron
Iron Works, 1769 Facing page 2
Fig. 2. French Lathes of about 1772 Facing page 2
Fig. 3. French Slide-Rest, 1772 Facing page 6
Fig. 4. French Lathe for Turning Ovals,
1772 Facing page 6
Fig. 5. Genealogy of the Early English Tool
Builders page 7
Fig. 6. John Wilkinson Facing page 14
Fig. 7. Wilkinson’s Boring Machine Facing page 14
Fig. 8. Eminent Men of Science Living in
1807-8 Facing page 20
Fig. 9. Sir Samuel Bentham Facing page 22
Fig. 10. Sir Marc Isambard Brunel Facing page 26
Fig. 11. Brunel’s Mortising Machine Facing page 30
Fig. 12. Brunel’s Shaping Machine Facing page 30
Fig. 13. French Screw-Cutting Lathe,
Previous to 1569 page 37
Fig. 14. French Screw-Cutting Lathe, about
1740 page 37
Fig. 15. Maudslay’s Screw-Cutting Lathe,
about 1797 Facing page 42
Fig. 16. Maudslay’s Screw-Cutting Lathe,
about 1800 Facing page 42
Fig. 17. French Planing Machine by
Nicholas Forq, 1751 Facing page 50
Fig. 18. Matthew Murray Facing page 58
Fig. 19. Richard Roberts Facing page 58
Fig. 20. Roberts’ Planer, Built in 1817 Facing page 60
Fig. 21. Roberts’ Back-Geared Lathe Facing page 60
Fig. 22. James Nasmyth Facing page 82
Fig. 23. First Sketch of the Steam Hammer,
November 24, 1839 Facing page 94
Fig. 24. Model of the First Steam Hammer Facing page 94
Fig. 25. Sir Joseph Whitworth Facing page 102
Fig. 26. Samuel Slater Facing page 122
Fig. 27. Genealogy of the New England Gun
Makers page 139
Fig. 28. The First Milling Machine, Built by
Eli Whitney about 1818 Facing page 142
Fig. 29. Blanchard “Gun-Stocking” Lathe,
Built in 1818 for the Springfield
Armory Facing page 142
Fig. 30. Eli Whitney Facing page 152
Fig. 31. Samuel Colt Facing page 164
Fig. 32. The Colt Armory Facing page 168
Fig. 33. Root’s Chucking Lathe, about 1855 Facing page 170
Fig. 34. Root’s Splining Machine, about
1855 Facing page 170
Fig. 35. Francis A. Pratt Facing page 178
Fig. 36. Amos Whitney Facing page 178
Fig. 37. Genealogy of the Robbins &
Lawrence Shop page 187
Fig. 38. Robbins & Lawrence Armory,
Windsor, Vt. Facing page 190
Fig. 39. Frederick W. Howe Facing page 196
Fig. 40. Richard S. Lawrence Facing page 196
Fig. 41. James Hartness Facing page 198
Fig. 42. Joseph R. Brown Facing page 202
Fig. 43. First Universal Milling Machine,
1862 Facing page 208
Fig. 44. Early Micrometer Calipers Facing page 212
Fig. 45. Genealogy of the Worcester Tool page 223
Builders
Fig. 46. Lucius W. Pond Facing page 228
Fig. 47. Salmon W. Putnam Facing page 228
Fig. 48. Hiram W. Hayden Facing page 232
Fig. 49. Israel Holmes Facing page 232
Fig. 50. Genealogy of the Naugatuck Brass
Industry page 235
Fig. 51. William Sellers Facing page 248
Fig. 52. Coleman Sellers Facing page 252
Fig. 53. William B. Bement Facing page 252
Fig. 54. Worcester R. Warner Facing page 262
Fig. 55. Ambrose Swasey Facing page 262
Fig. 56. The “Mult-au-matic” Lathe, 1914 Facing page 276
Fig. 57. Machine Tool Building Area of the
United States, 1915 page 279
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN TOOL
BUILDERS
 CHAPTER I
INFLUENCE OF THE EARLY TOOL BUILDERS
Well-informed persons are aware of the part which machinery in
general has had on modern industrial life. But the profound influence
which machine tools have had in that development is scarcely
realized, even by tool builders themselves.
Three elements came into industrial life during the latter part of the
eighteenth century. First, the development of modern banking and
the stock company brought out the small private hoards from their
hiding places, united them, and made them available for industrial
undertakings operating on the scale called for by modern
requirements. Second, Watt’s development of the steam engine and
its application to the production of continuous rotative motion gave
the requisite source of power. But neither the steam engine itself nor
the machinery of production was possible until the third element,
modern machine tools, supplied the means of working metals
accurately and economically.
It is well to glance for a moment at the problems which were
involved in building the first steam engine. Watt had been working for
several years on the steam engine when the idea of the separate
condenser came to him on that famous Sunday afternoon walk on
the Glasgow Green, in the spring of 1765, and, to use his own
words, “in the course of one or two days the invention was thus far
(that is, as a pumping engine) complete in my mind.”[1] He was a
skilled instrument maker and his first small model was fairly
successful, but when he undertook “the practice of mechanics in
great,” his skill and all the skill of those about him was incapable of
boring satisfactorily a cylinder 6 inches in diameter and 2 feet long;
and he had finally to resort to one which was hammered. For ten
weary years he struggled to realize his plans in a full-sized engine,
unable to find either the workmen or the tools which could make it a
commercial success. His chief difficulty lay in keeping the piston
tight. He “wrapped it around with cork, oiled rags, tow, old hats,
paper, and other things, but still there were open spaces left,
sufficient to let the air in and the steam out.”[2] Small wonder! for we
find him complaining that in an 18-inch diameter cylinder, “at the
worst place the long diameter exceeded the short by three-eighths of
an inch.” When Smeaton first saw the engine he reported to the
Society of Engineers that “neither the tools nor the workmen existed
that could manufacture so complex a machine with sufficient
precision.”[3]
[1] Smiles: “Boulton & Watt,” pp. 97, 98. London, 1904.
[2] Ibid., p. 114.
[3] Ibid., p. 186.

Smeaton himself had designed a boring machine in 1769 for the

Carron Iron Works for machining cannon, an illustration of which is
given in Fig. 1.[4] It consisted of a head with inserted cutters mounted
on a long, light, overhung boring bar. The work was forced forward
on a rude carriage, as shown. The method of supporting the cutter
head, indicated in the section, shows an ingenious attempt to obtain
a movable support from an inaccurate surface. One need hardly say
that the work resulting was inaccurate.
[4] “Engineer,” London, March 4, 1910; p. 217. Drawn from the
description given in Farey’s “Treatise on the Steam Engine.”
 Figure 1. Smeaton’s Boring Machine

Carron Iron Works, 1769

Figure 2. French Lathes of about 1772

 Fortunately, in 1774, John Wilkinson, of Bersham, hit upon the
idea, which had escaped both Smeaton and Watt, of making the
boring bar heavier, running it clear through the cylinder and giving it
a fixed support at the outboard end as shown in Fig. 7. The
superiority of this arrangement was at once manifest, and in 1776
Boulton wrote that “Mr. Wilkinson has bored us several cylinders
almost without error; that of 50 inches diameter, which we have put
up at Tipton, does not err the thickness of an old shilling in any
part.”[5] For a number of years, Wilkinson cast and bored all the
cylinders for Boulton & Watt.
[5] Farey: “Treatise on the Steam Engine,” p. 328. 1827.

The importance to Boulton & Watt of the timely aid of Wilkinson’s

boring machine can hardly be overestimated. It made the steam
engine a commercial success, and was probably the first metal-
working tool capable of doing large, heavy work with anything like
present-day accuracy.[6]
[6] Watt’s beautiful parallel motion, invented in 1785, was made
necessary by the fact that there were no planers to machine a crosshead
and guides. Planers were not developed until thirty years later.

We hardly realize the crudity of the tools available in the

eighteenth century. In all machinery the principal members were of
wood, as that could be worked by the hand tools then in use. The
fastenings and smaller parts only were of metal, and consisted of
castings and forgings fitted by hand. There were some lathes of the
very simplest type. Most of them were “pole” lathes, operated by a
cord reaching from a foot treadle, around the work itself, and up to a
pole or wooden spring attached to the ceiling. The work rotated
alternately forward and backward, and was caught with a hand tool
each time as it came forward. Two are shown in Fig. 2, one at the
back and one at the left. Only the very best forms had continuous
motion from a direct drive on the live spindle, as shown at the right of
the same figure. This figure is reproduced from the French
Dictionnaire des Sciences, published in 1772. Such lathes were
almost useless for metal cutting, as they lacked both the necessary
power and a holding device strong enough and accurate enough to