Module 1 (Maths)

Module 1
Mathematics
Contents
Subject area Page
1.1 Arithmetic 3
1.2 Algebra 101
1.3 Geometry 163
2
1.1 Arithmetic
3
NUMBER
Numbers Place Value
The size of a number depends on the position of the figures and the size of the figures. You
may find the place value headings helpful.
Millions Hundred Ten Thousands Hundreds Tens Units

thousands thousands
Example
What is the value of the digit 5 in 6 350? The value is 5 tens or 50.
Example
8 000 = 8 thousand
It can also be written as 80 hundreds, 800 tens or 8 000 units.
Example
Write 2 004 in words.
2 004 is 2 thousand, 0 hundreds, 0 tens and 4 units and is written as two thousand and four.
Note the importance of the zeros.
Example
Write one hundred thousand and six in figures.
Millions Hundred Ten Thousands Hundreds Tens Units

thousands thousands
1 0 0 0 0 6
One hundred thousand and six is 100 006.
4
SEE IF YOU CAN DO THESE AND CHECK YOUR ANSWERS AT THE BACK OF
THIS UNIT. ASK IF YOU NEED ANY HELP.
Exercise 1
1. What is the value of the underlined digit in each of the following

a) 6 270 b) 14 236 c) 43 256?
2. Complete the following statements 10 000 = thousands
or hundreds
or tens
or units
3.Write the largest and smallest numbers possible with the digits 6, 7, 8, 2 and 1.
(use each digit once)
4. Write the following in words.
a) 2 084 b) 27 284 c) 40 315 d) 620 797 e) 1 209 005
5. Write the following in figures.
a)four thousand nine hundred and twenty three

b)twenty thousand and five
c)six hundred and thirty two thousand and twenty
d)one million, twenty nine thousand
e)four million and five
Have you checked your answers?
Four Rules
You can use numbers in four different ways :
WAYS SIGNS AND WORDS USED
Addition + adding, sum of, total
Subtraction - subtract, take - away, difference between, minus
Multiplication x multiply, times, product
Division ÷ divide, sharing, quotient
5
Try the following exercises without using a calculator. Check your answers
regularly and ask for help if necessary.
Exercise 2
1.Add 274 to 648.
2.Find the total of 362 and 479.
3.Find the sum of 462, 87 and 8.
4.Add two thousand and seventeen to six hundred and ninety four.
5.Find the sum of seven thousand seven hundred and seven and nine hundred and ninety
two.
Exercise 3
1.What is the difference between 1 741 and 3 100?
2.How many more than 2 975 is 6 428?
3.How many less than 7 000 is 285?
4.Take ninety seven from two thousand and thirty.
5.Twenty four thousand and four minus eight hundred and ninety.
Exercise 4
1.Multiply 245 by 4.
2.Double four hundred and eighty six.
3.Which number is 3 times greater than 207?
4.What is the product of 6 and 4?
5.325 times 16.
Exercise 5
1. Divide 707 by 7.
2. How many sixes are there in 912?
3. Divide nine hundred and forty five by nine.
4. Divide five thousand five hundred and fifty five by five.
5. 164
4
6. 308
14
6
Order of Operations
If a calculation involves a mixture of operations the correct order is
a) Brackets first
then b) Multiplication / Division
and lastly c) Addition / Subtraction
As an aid to memory you may find the word BODMAS helpful.
B ODM AS
Brackets Of , Divide,Multiply Add,Subtract
N.B. In Maths "of" means "multiply" .
Example
3 x(4 +6 ) Brackets
= 3 x 10 Multiply
= 30
Example
16-4x3-(4-2) Brackets
= 16- 4 x 3 - 2 Multiply
= 16-12-2 Subtraction
=2
7
Try the following exercises without a calculator. Exercise 6
1. 6 + 4 ÷2 2. 6 x 2 + 4
3. 16 - 4 ÷ 2 4. 3 (2 + 4 ) this means 3 x ( 2 + 4)
5 . 9 - (6 - 4 ) 6. 6 x 2 + 3 x 4
7. 6 + 24 ÷ 3 - 2 8. (6 + 24) ÷ 3 - 2
9. (2 + 9) x 5 10. 16 + 4 ÷ 2 – 4 x 3
Exercise 7
1. A reel of ribbon holds 120 cm. How many pieces of ribbon of length 9 cm can be cut
from the reel, and how much is left over?
2. If we add the numbers in the square we find that any row, column or diagonal adds
up to15. This is called a magic square and 15 the magic number.
8 3 4
1 5 9
6 7 2
Complete this magic square.
10 a 6
b 7 11
8 9 c
3. On Monday morning a shop keeper had 300 packets of tea and he had a delivery
of another 200 packets on Wednesday. During the week he sold 280 packets. How
many does he need to get his stock up to 300 packets again on the following
Monday morning?
4. Increase sixty three million by five hundred and thirty three million.
8
5. Write the correct amount in figures in the box.
6. A family of 2 adults and 2 children go on holiday to Tenerife. The cost for each adult is
£447 and for each child is £265. Other charges come to £89. What is the total cost of the
holiday?
7. A lady won nine hundred and twenty three thousand and six pounds on the pools. She
bought a house costing one hundred and fifteen thousand pounds. How much did she
have left?
8. The meter at the side of a tank showed 21 706 litres. After a delivery it showed
27 432 litres. How many litres were delivered?
9. In 1978 there were 4 092 932 pupils in state secondary schools. Write this figure in words.
10.
Item Page Nos.
Wall Clocks ...... ………216-217
Washing Machine……...95
Waste Bins ........……….125 , 129
Watches ............……….198-210
The above is part of the index of an Argos Catalogue.
a)How many pages feature waste bins?
b)How many pages feature watches?
9
Using a calculator
For this course you will need a Scientific Calculator, which will have keys labelled, for
example,
π sin cos tan x2 √ and a b/c
as well as the usual keys for +, -, x and *.
It is not essential to have a calculator that has the ability to deal with fractions, a b/c , but it is
highly recommended. An important advantage which a scientific calculator has over an
ordinary one is that it is programmed to carry out mathematical operations in the correct
order i.e. it can cope with BODMAS.
Scientific calculators vary in layout, but the methods of using each type are similar. Each
calculator is supplied with an instruction booklet and it is important that you keep this with
the calculator for reference, until you are happy with its operation. You should then put it in a
safe place, as you may need to refer to it again later.
As we said above your calculator should be able to operate BODMAS. To check this please
repeat the even numbers of Exercise 6 above, simply pressing the keys in the order in which
the numbers and operations are written. You should obtain the same answers as you
worked out without the calculator - if you do not, ASK FOR HELP.
In particular, you should ask if your calculator does not appear to have keys for brackets
(sometimes known as parentheses keys) or if you are having problems with these keys.
Some calculators require you to insert a multiplication sign between a number and a bracket
- you should check carefully what you have to do to get the correct answer to question 4.
Now we shall use the calculator to help with calculations with larger numbers than in
Exercise 6.
Exercise 8
1. 1 753 + 237 - 279 + 32 222 2. 563 x 23 - 792
3. 1 863 - 675 ÷ 27 4. 7 + 321 x 73
5. 54 + 3 (116 - 43) 6. (1 372 - 727) x 23
7. (3 456 + 189) x (3 456 - 189) 8. 25 270 x 3 723 ÷ 51 + 987
9. 12 635 - (2 734 - 1 325) 10. 272 x 33 x (6 231 + 324 - 6 157)
10
Answers
Exercise 1
1. a) 7 tens 70 b) 4 thousand 4 000 c) 40 thousand 40 000
2. 10 thousands or 100 hundreds or 1 000 tens or 10 000 units
3.largest = 87 621 smallest = 12 678
4.a) two thousand and eighty four

b)twenty seven thousand, two hundred and eighty four
c)forty thousand, three hundred and fifteen
d)six hundred and twenty thousand, seven hundred and ninety seven
e)one million, two hundred and nine thousand and five
5.a) 4 923 b) 20 005 c) 632 020 d) 1 029 000 e) 4 000 005
Exercise 2
1. 922 2. 841 3. 557 4. 2 711 5. 8 699
Exercise 3
1. 1 359 2. 3 453 3. 6 715 4. 1 933 5. 23 114
Exercise 4
1. 980 2. 972 3. 621 4. 24 5. 5 200
Exercise 5
1. 101 2. 152 3. 105 4. 1 111 5. 41 6. 22
Exercise 6
1. 8 2. 16 3. 14 4. 18 5. 7
6. 24 7. 12 8. 8 9. 55 10. 6
11
Exercise 7
1. 13 pieces, 3cm leftover 2. a = 5, b = 3, c = 4 3. 80
4. 596 million 5.20 010 6. £1 513 7. £808 006 8. 5726
9. four million, ninety two thousand, nine hundred and thirty two 10. a) 2 b) 13
Exercise 8
1. 33 933 2. 12 157 3. 1 838 4. 23 440 5. 273
6.14 835 7.11 908 215 8.1 845 697 9.11 226 10. 3 572 448
12
Decimal Arithmetic - without a calculator
Addition And Subtraction Of Decimals
Adding and subtracting decimals is done in the same way as adding and subtracting whole
numbers. You must be careful to keep the decimal points in line underneath each other,
making sure that your columns are in order.
Example 1
12.36 + 324.962 should be written like this 12.36

+ 324.962
337.322
After you have written down the sum, write in the decimal point before you start adding (or
subtracting).
Example 2
3 + 12.639 + 0.027 3.0

12.639
+ 0.027
15.666
Example 3
Subtract 8.357 from 20.162 20.162

- 8.357
11.805
Example 4
47 take away 3.64 47.00 (NOTE put noughts here)

- 3.64
43.36
Exercise 1
1) 62.34 + 41.11 2) 12.1 + 8.71 + 29.12
3) 862.3 + 298.4 4) 18.352 + 17.265
5) 67.105 + 18.031 + 24 6)16.38 -11.97
7) 1.43 - 1.38 8)13 - 0.16
9) 6003.5 - 830.16 10) 62.56 - 19
13
Multiplication Of Decimals
Use the same method as for long multiplication, ignoring the decimal point in the
multiplying out. The decimal point is "put into position" at the end of the sum.
Example 1
6.7 x 2 67
x2
134
There is one figure after the decimal point in the question so there must be only one after the
point in the answer, so the answer to this example is 13.4
Example 2
30.6 x 2.1 306 306

x21 x21
306 OR 6120
6120 306
6426 6426
Now the decimal point must be placed in the number to give the correct answer. Count the
number of figures AFTER the decimal points in the question.
with 30.6 there is one figure after the"." with 2.1 there is
one figure after the "."
So, there are 2 figures after the decimal point in the question, and therefore in the answer.
This means that the point goes here:
Answer = 64.26
Example 3
2.9 x 0.0351 351

x 29
3159
7 020
10 179
There are 5 figures after the decimal points in the question, so the point must be inserted in
the answer where there are also 5 figures after the point.
Answer = 0.10179
(If there are no whole numbers in the answer, put 0 in front of the decimal point to show
this.)
Example 4
1.2 x 0.0034 34
14
x 12
68
340
408
5 figures after decimal point in question, the answer is 0.00408.
Noughts were added in this case, so that there were 5 figures after the decimal point in the
answer.
Exercise 2
1) 4.2 x 6 2) 1.25 x 0.6
3) 3.15 x 18 4) 10.09 x 0.3
5) 0.46 x 0.023 6) 7.31 x 3.2
7) 186.41 x 0.27 8) 3.006 x 0.1
9) 27.6 x 0.01 10) 0.007 x 0.0002
Division Of Decimals
The important points to remember are:
1)The number you are dividing by MUST be a whole number. To do this you will need
to multiply the number which you are DIVIDING BY, by 10, or 100, or 1000.
2)Whatever you do to that number, you must do the same to the number which you are
DIVIDING.
3)The number you are dividing by is the denominator, the number which is being divided
is the numerator.
15
Example 1
4.48 4.48 x 10 44.8

0.4 becomes 0.4 x 10 = 4
Now that the denominator is a whole number, the division can be done.
_____
4 │ 44.8
Put the decimal point on the 'answer line' directly above the other decimal point as soon as
you have written out the question in this form.
___.__
4│ 44.8
Then do the sum
11.2 Answer = 11.2

4│ 44.8
Example 2
0.36 ÷ 0.6
0.36 3.6
= 0.6 which becomes 6 NOTE top and bottom multiplied by 10
Now write it as follows:
0.6 Answer = 0.6

6│3.6
Example 3
42.82 ÷ 0.002
42.82 42820
Answer = 21410
16
Example 4
0.175 ÷ 0.25
0.175 17.5
00.7
25│17.5 Answer = 0.7
Exercise 3
1) 6.25 ÷ 0.5 2) 54.63 ÷ 0.3 3) 9.9 ÷ 0.11 4) 16.86 ÷ 0.2 5) 10.25 ÷ 1.25
Money
Remember- when adding, subracting, multiplying and dividing money, use the same
rules as for numbers
Exercise 4
1) £4.96 + £14.21 2) £53.47 + 53p
3) £74.20 - £9.38 4) £100 - £68.35
5) £14.27 x 3 6) £1.98 x 7
7) £15.60 ÷ 12 8) £65.50 ÷ 50
9) Find the cost of 8 articles at 14p each.
10)Find the cost of 24 articles at £8.15 each.
11)What is the change from £1 after buying 15 sweets at 3p each?
12)Divide £3.60 among 9 people.
17
Answers
Exercise 1
1) 103.45 2) 49.94 3) 1 160.7 4) 35.617 5) 109.136
6) 4.41 7) 0.05 8) 12.84 9) 5 173.34 10) 43.56
Exercise 2
1) 25.2 2) 0.75 3) 56.7 4) 3.027 5) 0.010 58
6) 23.392 7) 0.05 8) 12.84 9) 0.276 10) 0.000 001 4
Exercise 3
1) 12.5 2) 182.1 3) 90 4) 84.3 5) 8.2
Exercise 4
1) £19.17 2) £54.00 3) £64.82 4) £31.65 5) £42.81
6) £13.86 7) £1.30 8) £1.31 9) £1.12 10) £195.60
11) £0.55 or 55p 12) £0.40 or 40p
18
Fractions
What is a fraction?
A fraction is a part of a whole.
As you can see, these figures are divided into EQUAL parts.
If all the parts are different, as in the example below (not equal parts), then the shaded area is
not a third.
19
Example
A coach holds 56 people. How many people are on the coach when it is a)
half full b) quarter full c) three quarters full?
a) ½ of 56 = 56 ÷ 2 = 28
b) ¼ of 56 = 56 ÷ 4 =1 4
four 14s
14 14
giving a total
of 56
14 14
c) ¾ of 56 = 1 4 x 3 = 42
Example
1/10 of the students at college travel in by car. 3/10 walk to college.
If 2 000 students attend the college, how many students

a) travel to college in a car? b) walk to college?
a) 1
10 of 2 000 = 2000 ÷ 10 = 200 by car
200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
b) 3
10 of 2 000 = 3 x 200 = 600 walk
Exercise 1
1. 5_
Shade in 6 of the following shape. Show 2 different ways that this can be done.
2. Write down as fractions, the readings at A, B, C and D.
20
3. If 7/io of the questions answered in an exam are correct, what fraction are incorrect?
4. If 5/7 of the students coming to college are part time, what fraction are full time?
5. What is the cost of 1 ¼ Ib of sausages priced at 96p per Ib?
6. ¼ of the apples in a box are bad. How many are good if there are 120 apples in the box?
7. What is the length of a piece of wood if 1/3 of it measures 36 cm?
8. Work out the sale price for each item in the following advert.
Don't forget to check your answers regularly.
A fraction has a top number NUMERATOR
AND
a bottom number DENOMINATOR
The line shows that the top number (the numerator) is DIVIDED BY the bottom number
(the denominator).
21
There are THREE types of fraction:
1 COMMON (or VULGAR or PROPER) fractions where the numerator is LESS THAN
the denominator.
e.g. 1 3 1
2 , 4 , 8
2 IMPROPER (sometimes called TOP HEAVY' fractions) where the numerator is

GREATER THAN the denominator.
e.g. 5 7 19
2 , 3 , 7
3 MIXED NUMBERS, where the number has WHOLE numbers and parts of whole
numbers (common fractions).
e.g. 12 ½ , 345 4 / 9 , 27 11
/ 12
Equivalent Fractions
As can be seen by the diagrams above 1/3 is equivalent to 3/9
Using the following method, equivalent fractions can be worked out without drawing
diagrams.
The value of a fraction is unchanged if the numerator and the denominator are BOTH
divided by or are BOTH multiplied by the same number.
22
Example
What is the new numerator here?
3 ?_
4 = 28
Look at the denominators. You must ask yourself "by what have I multiplied the 4 to get to
28?".
3 ?_
4 x7 = 28
The answer is 7, so you must multiply the numerator by 7 to give you the new numerator.
x7
3 21
4 x7 = 28
Example
What is the new denominator here?
6_ 2
27 = ?
By what have you divided 6 to get to 2?

÷3
6_ 2
27 = ?
Answer is by 3, so you must now divide 27 by 3 to give you the new denominator.
÷3
6_ 2
27 ÷3 = 9
Exercise 2
1) 2 ?_ 2) 4 ? 3) 3 6 4) 3 ?
7 = 14 5 = 25 8 = ? 10 = 40
23
5) 1 5 6) 4 1 7) 10 ? 8) 9 3
7=? 12 = ? 25 = 5 15 = ?
9) 8_ ? 10) 18 3
64 = 8 48 = ?
Reducing a Fraction to its Lowest Terms
(You may know this as 'cancelling')
Example
Reduce 10/12 to its lowest terms.
First ask which number goes into BOTH 10 and 12 (without a remainder, of course!)
Answer is 2, so divide both numerator and denominator by 2. What does this give you?
÷2
10 5
12 ÷2 = 6
As there is no number which 'goes into' both 5 and 6, this fraction cannot be reduced any
further, so you have now finished cancelling.
Example
132
Reduce 198 to its lowest terms.
1) Divide top and bottom by 2, to give

÷2
132 66
198 ÷2 = 99
2) Divide the new numerator and denominator by 3

÷3
66 22
99 ÷3 = 33
3) Now divide the numerator and denominator by 11

÷11
22 2
33 ÷11 = 3
This will reduce no more.
Exercise 3
24
Reduce to lowest terms:
1) 9 2) 15 3) 42 4) 180 5) 210
18 25 48 240 315
Expressing One Quantity as a Fraction of Another
What is Quantity A as a fraction of Quantity B?
Quantity A
Quantity B reduce to lowest terms where possible
Example
What fraction of this shape is shaded?
4 out of 12 are shaded _4

12
When reduced to lowest terms _4 1

12 = 3
25
Example
What fraction of the counters are white?
3
3 out of 11 are white 11
Example
An evening class has 36 adult students of which 14 are women. What fraction of the class is
female?
14 7
36 = 18
Example
Out of a group of 3 200 people, 400 were children. What fraction of the group were adults?
3200 - 400 = 2800 adults
2800 28 7
3200 = 32 = 8
Exercise 4
Reduce to lowest terms where possible.
1. What fraction of the shape is shaded?
2. What fraction of the counters are a) black b) white?
26
3. What fraction of a year is 3 months?
4. A barrel holds 50 litres when full. If 10 litres are poured into it, what fraction is filled?
5. What fraction of an hour is
a) 30 mins b) 40 mins c) 37 mins?
Comparing Fractions
You can only compare fractions when the denominators are the same.
Example
Write in order of size, smallest first 2 3 1

5 , 8 , 4
Ask yourself which is the lowest number that 5, 8, and 4 will divide into exactly i.e. the
lowest common multiple.
LCM of 5, 8 and 4 = 40
2 16 3 15 1 10
5 = 40 8 = 40 4 = 40
1 3 2
Answer 4 , 8 , 5
27
Exercise 5
5_ 1 1
1. Write in order of size, smallest first 12 , 3 , 2
2. Fred scored 7 out of 10 in a French test and 16 out of 25 in a German test. In which did he
do better?
3. Manchester United have played 10 games and won 8. Manchester City have played 12
games and won 9. Which team has won the larger fraction of their games?
Changing Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions
2 ¼ is a mixed number
How do I change this into an improper fraction?
1) A whole = 4 quarters
2 wholes = 2x4 = 8 quarters
2) Add the extra quarter to give the new numerator 8 + 1 = 9
3) The denominator stays the same i.e. 4

9_
4) The new numerator, 9, is placed over the 4 giving 4
Example
3 Change 5 3/7 to an improper fraction.
1)Multiply the whole numbers, by the denominator 7, 5 x 7 = 35
2)Add to this the numerator, 35 + 3 = 38

38
3)Put this over the original denominator, giving 7
Example
43
4 3/10 as an improper fraction is 10
Go through the steps to check how this answer was reached, then try the exercise.
Exercise 6
Change to improper fractions:
1) 3 ½ 2) 4 2⁄5 3) 3 7⁄8 4) 15 ½ 5) 3 5⁄9
28
Changing Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers
If you find the following examples difficult to understand, ASK A TUTOR FOR HELP.
Example
22
Change 7 to a mixed number.
Divide the numerator by the denominator 22 ÷ 7 = 3 remainder 1.
The 3 is the whole number and the remainder is the new numerator. The denominator
stays the same.
Answer = 3 1⁄7
You may use a calculator to help you.
22 ÷ 7 = 3.142 857 1…………………….
Take the whole number part of the answer and multiply by the denominator:
3x 7 = 21
22 21 +1 = 3 1
Now write the fraction 7 as 7 7 7
Example
Change 7 to a mixed number.

2
Divide the 7 by 2, this gives 3 remainder 1.
The 3 is the whole number, the remainder is the numerator. The denominator stays the
same.
1
Answer 3
2
Exercise 7
Change to mixed numbers :
13 23 18 29 53
1) 2 2) 7 3) 5 4) 11 5) 12
29
Multiplication of Fractions
In all of the following exercises, we recommend that you use your calculator
to check your answers if you are able to input fractions.
Example
1 1
x
2 3
As already mentioned in Unit 1 'of’ means multiply.
i.e 1 x 1 means 1 of 1
2 3 2 3
1 1 of 1 = 1
3 2 3 6
Steps to take to multiply
1)See if any numbers will cancel (in this case, none will).
2)Multiply the numerators (top numbers) to give the new numerator 1 x 1 = 1 .
3)Multiply the denominators (bottom numbers) to give the new denominator 2 x 3 = 6.
So the answer is 1x1 = 1

2x3 6
30
Example
x 5 6
8 7
1)Will any numbers cancel? Yes 2 will go into 6 and 8.
2)Now multiply the numerators (5 x 3 = 15)
3)Multiply the denominators (4 x 7 = 28)
Answer = 15
28
Do not worry if you have not cancelled fully at the end of the first stage - you will be able to
reduce the fraction to its lowest terms at the end of your calculation. The advantage of
cancelling is that it keeps the numbers smaller and you are less likely to make a mistake with
the arithmetic.
5 6 30 15
x = 8 =
7 56 28
The MAIN POINT TO REMEMBER is that, when you are cancelling, you can cancel ANY
NUMERATOR with ANY DENOMINATOR.
Example
31
Multiplication with Mixed Numbers Example
1 4
3 2 x 7 =
FIRST STEP - change mixed numbers to IMPROPER FRACTIONS.

1 7
3 becomes
2 2
The calculation now looks like this:
Answer = 2
Notice that cancelling takes place as usual AFTER you have changed the mixed numbers to
improper fractions.
Example
1 4 x 2 1 = 13 x 5
9 2 9 2
= 65
18
= 3 11
18
Example
3
2 x
7
2 is written as 2 so the calculation can be written as
1
2 3 6
x =
1 7 7
32
Example
2 1
What is 3 of 4 2 ? You know that 'of means multiply, so you can now write this calculation
as follows:
Answer = 3
Example
Mr. Smith, the Conservative Party candidate received 2/s of the 30 600 votes cast. How
many people voted for Mr. Smith?
2 of 30 600 = 2 x 30600 = 12240
5 5 1
Exercise 8
9. In a batch of 1 000 electrical components 3⁄20 are faulty. How many are faulty?
10.A sales representative drives 46 500 miles in a year of which 9⁄10 is business mileage.
How many miles are for his private use?
33
Exercise 9
PLEASE SHOW ALL THE STEPS IN YOUR CALCULATIONS
1. Write down, as fractions, the readings at A, B, C and D on these scales. Give your
answers in their lowest terms.
2.
a)What fraction of a full tank is shown by the petrol gauge?
b)The petrol tank in this car holds 72 litres of petrol when it is full. How many litres of
petrol are in the tank now?
3. A tank of oil holds 500 litres of oil when it is ¼ full. How many litres of oil does the tank
hold when full?
4. A pound is about 9⁄20 of a kilogram. What fraction of a kilogram is ½ pound?

(Remember' of' means multiply)
5. A 25 ½ Ib pack of tea is split into ¼ Ib packets. How many packets are there?
6. A woman died and in her will she left ¾ of her estate to her husband, half of the remainder
to her children and the rest to a local hospice. If the hospice receive £2 500, how much did
she leave?
7. In a union election at least 11⁄20 of the total membership of 34 000 are required to support
strike action before it can take place. How many members are needed to support strike
action before it can take place?
34
8. Bill is 45 years old. His son Jack is 15 years old.
a)What fraction of Bill's age is Jack now?
b)Will Jack be the same fraction of Bill's age in 15 years time?
9. A bakery makes brown and white loaves some sliced and the rest unsliced. ¾ of the loaves
made are brown and ½ of the white loaves are sliced. What fraction of the bakery's loaves
are white and sliced?
10. What is the cost of 1lb of sausages if ¾ Ib cost 90p?
Answers
Exercise 1
1. Ask to have your answer checked
35
36
Summary
1. Equivalent fractions
x7
3 21
4 x7 = 28
2. Reducing to lowest terms

÷2
10 5
12 ÷2 = 6
3. Expressing one quantity as a fraction of another What fraction of the

months of the year start with a J?
3 out of 12 3 1
12 = 4
4. Comparing fractions
Fractions must have a common denominator before they can be compared.
5.Changing mixed numbers to improper fractions

1 13
3 = 3x4 = 12
4 4
12 + 1 = 13
6.Changing improper fractions to mixed numbers

19 3
= 4 19 ÷ 4 = 4 remainder 3
4 4
7.Multiplying fractions
Mixed numbers must be changed to improper fractions. Cancel where
possible.
Multiply the numerators to give the new numerator. Multiply the
denominators to give the new denominator.
Answer = 2
8.Remember 'of means multiply.
37
Calculating with Fractions
In all of the following exercises, we recommend that you use your calculator to
check your answer if you are able to input fractions.
Division
Example
÷ 2 5
3 7
1)The first fraction remains the same.
2)Change the division sign to a multiplication sign.
3)Invert (i.e. turn upside down) the second fraction.
4)Carry on as you would for multiplication of fractions.
(Refer to Unit 3 if you have forgotten how to multiply fractions.)
÷ = x 2 5 2 7
3 7 3 5
= 14
15
Remember that, as with multiplication, you must change MIXED NUMBERS to
IMPROPER FRACTIONS.
Example
4 2 9 3
1 ÷ = x
5 3 5 2
= 27
10
= 7_ 2
10
38
Example
4 1 4 7
1 ÷ 2 5 = 3 ÷ 5 3
= x 4 3
5 7
27
=
35
Example
Remember 10 can be written as 10

1
2 ÷ 101 = ÷ 5 10
2 2 1
= x 1 1
2 2
1
=
4
Exercise 1
39
Addition
You can only add (or subtract) fractions WHEN THE DENOMINATORS ARE THE
SAME.
Twelfths can be added to twelfths and thirds can be added to thirds but fifths cannot
be added to sevenths until they are altered to the same denominator.
NOTICE THAT ONLY THE NUMERATORS ARE ADDED !!!!!
+ = 1 2 3
5 5 5
Two or more fractions which have DIFFERENT DENOMINATORS cannot be
added UNTIL you alter them so that the denominators are the same.
You will now use your knowledge of EQUIVALENT FRACTIONS and LOWEST
COMMON MULTIPLE!
Example
1 1
+ 2 3
These fractions cannot be added until the denominators are the same. Which is the
lowest number into which both 2 and 3 will divide exactly?
The multiples of 2 are 2, 4, 6, 8, 1 0, etc.
The multiples of 3 are 3, 6, 9, 1 2, etc.
6 is the lowest number into which 2 and 3 will divide exactly i.e. 6 is the LCM of 2 and 3.
1 3 1 2
You know that 2 = 6 and 3 = 6
Now that you have the equivalent fractions with the same denominator, the adding
can take place,
1 1 3 2 5
+2 3 = 6 +6 6= NOTE: ONLY NUMERATORS ARE ADDED!!!!
40
Example
- 2 3
7 4
The multiples of 4 are 4 , 8 , 12 , 16 , 20 , 24 , 28 , etc.
The multiples of 7 are 7 , 1 4 , 21 , 28 , etc.
28 is the lowest number into which 4 and 7 will divide.
= 2 and 8_ = 3 21
7 28 4 28
Now that the denominators are the same the two fractions can be added to give:
+ 2 = 3 + 8_ = 21 29
7 4 28 28 28
= 1 1
28
If you have MIXED NUMBERS, there are various methods which you can use. We
suggest that the following way may be the simplest:
1 +12 1
= 1 + + 21+ 1
2 3 2 3
1) Add the whole numbers to give
1 1
3 + + 2 3
2) Now carry on as before for the fraction parts.
3 + 3 + 2 = 3 + 5 = 3 5
6 6 6 6
MAKE SURE that you write the whole number each time (otherwise, you may forget it).
Example
41
Example
Exercise 2
Subtraction
As in addition of fractions, the denominators of the fractions MUST be the same.
Example
ONLY THE NUMERATORS ARE SUBTRACTED !!
Example
42
Example
LCM of 4 and 3 is 12
so we can now write
Example
As with addition of fractions the whole numbers can be dealt with separately.
Example
43
Example
Ask a tutor if you

need further help.
Exercise 3
Questions with both Adding and Subtracting
Example
In this case deal with the whole numbers and take care not to confuse the signs.
2 - 1 + 3 = 4
This calculation can now be written as:
Example
44
Exercise 4
Miscellaneous Exercise
1 . At a Youth Club 2⁄5 of those present were playing darts and ¼ were playing other
games.
a)What fraction were playing games?
b)What fraction were not playing games?
2. In a survey carried out in an office block ¼ walked to work, 3⁄5 came by car, 1⁄10 came on
the bus and the rest travelled to work on their bikes. What fraction used a bike?
3. Show all the stages of the following calculations
Remember BODMAS
4. A piece of wood 1⁄8 in thick is glued to another piece of wood 2⁄3 in thick. How thick is
the new piece of wood?
5. In a cancer charity ½ of the donations went to research, 2⁄7 supported carers and the
rest to administration? if £270 000 was spent on administration, how much was donated
to the charity?
6. Bottle A contains 4⁄9 of a litre and Bottle B contains 400 ml. Which bottle contains the
least and by how much? Give your answer to the nearest ml.
7. Draw a diagram to show that ½ of ¾ is equal to 3⁄8.
8. In a batch of 28 microwaves 4 are faulty. In a second batch of 30 microwaves 5 are

faulty. Which is the worst batch?
45
9. Calculate the total weight that can be carried by a fleet of 50 lorries if 20 carry
3 ¾ tonnes and the remainder carry 2 7⁄8 tonnes.
10.A jockey was placed first in 1⁄3 of his races in one year, second in ¼ of his races and
third in a half of the rest of his races. How many races did he run if he was not placed
in 15 of his races?
11.In an hour of Channel 4 television there were advertisements lasting 2 ¼ min, 2 2/3
min, 1 ¾ min and 1 ½ min. What was the total length of advertisements in that hour?
Give your answer in minutes.
12.A drum of cornflour weighs 120 Ib. How many packets of cornflour weighing ¾ Ib can
be packed from this drum?
Answers
46
47
48
PERCENTAGES
Percentage (written %) means "OUT OF ONE HUNDRED"
e.g. 12% means "twelve out of a hundred" or 12_

100
50% means "fifty out of a hundred" or 50_
100
Changing fractions to percentages
Fractions and decimals can easily be changed into percentages and vice-versa. To
change a fraction into a percentage: multiply the fraction by 100.
Exercise 1
1. Change the following fractions to percentages (give exact answers):
49
2. What is 2⁄3 of £900? What percentage is this?
3. A cake is shared equally between 8 people. What percentage does each person receive?
4. If 75 out of 80 people pass a Mathematics exam, what is the percentage pass rate?
5. A 65 year-old man has spent 51 years working. What percentage of his life is this?
Changing decimals to percentages
The very simple rule is " multiply the decimal by 100"
Example 1 Change 0.82 to a percentage.
0.82 x 100 = 82%
Example 2 Change 4.5 to a percentage.
4.5 x 100 = 450%
Exercise 2
Change the following decimals to percentages:
1. 0.65 2. 0.375 3. 0.89 4. 0.609 5. 0.01

Changing percentages to fractions
Again a very simple rule: " divide by 100"
This follows from "per cent" meaning "out of 100" as we saw on page 1.
Example 1 Change 75% to a fraction.
Example 2 Change 12 ½ % to a fraction.
50
Changing percentages to decimals
The rule is basically the same as in the last section i.e. "divide by 100" but this time we
write the answer as a decimal.
Example 1 Change 54% to a decimal.
54% = 54_ =0.54 note that dividing by 100 is equivalent to

100
moving the decimal point 2 places to the left.
Example 2 Change 2.3% to a decimal.
2.3% = 23_ = 0.023 check the answer on your calculator

100
Exercise 4
Change the following percentages to decimals:
1. 63% 2. 4.7% 3. 51.65% 4. 3.1% 5. 7%
51
Revision Exercise You can omit this exercise if you are short of time.
1. Change the following fractions to percentages:
2. Change the following decimals to percentages:
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.1 (d) 0.75 (e) 0.4 (f) 0.9
3. Change the following percentages to fractions:
(a) 15% (b) 95% (c) 8% (d) 7½% (e) 16 2⁄ 3%
4. Change the following percentages to decimals
(a) 10% (b) 15% (c) 87% (d) 34.6% (e) 115%
Percentage changes
You may have seen notices in shops which say such things as:
" All goods 10% off marked prices"
or " Set meal £6.50 +17 ½ % VAT"
These are just 2 examples of calculations which involve a percentage change.
Example 1 Find 6% of £50 (recall that "of" means "multiply").
Example 2 Increase £50 by 6%
We could proceed as in example 1 i.e. find 6% of £50 to give £3 then

add this onto £50 to give the required answer i.e. £53.
This is correct but there is another way which is useful in later calculations.
52
Example 3 If the marked price of an article in a shop is £8.40 and a sale notice in the shop
window says " 10% off all marked prices", how much would you actually pay for the article?
We could calculate 10% of £8.40 and then take this away from £8.40 but, instead,
we will use the technique given in the last example.
Example 4 The price of a meal on a restaurant menu is given as £6.75 + 17 ½ %

VAT. What is the full cost of the meal?
We need to find the value of 117 ½ % of £6.75 which is
Exercise 5
1. Find (a) 15% (b) 12 ½ % of the following:
(i) £90 (ii) 40 metres (iii) 1000cm3 (iv) 500kg
2. Increase £120 by (a) 5% (b) 7½%
3. Decrease £5000 by (a) 8% (b) 2½%
4. Find the cost of the following items when 17 ½ % VAT is added:
(a) A car tyre priced at" £40 plus VAT"
(b) A 5 litre tin of paint priced at "£24.99 plus VAT"
53
There are many other types of problem involving percentages and the following examples
illustrate some of the commonest types:
Example 1 In a Mathematics class there are 12 boys and 18 girls. What percentage of the
class are boys?
The fraction which is boys is 12⁄30 and we multiply this by 100
Example 2 A double-glazing salesman is paid 2% commission on his sales. If, in one week,
he sells £3 500 worth of double-glazing units, how much is his commission
worth?
We require 2% of £3 500 (recall that "of" means "multiply"...BODMAS rule)
Example 3 A saleswoman is paid a basic weekly wage of £120 and 5%
commission on her sales. If, in one week she receives a total wage of
£180, find the value of her sales for that week.
Commission received = £180 - £120 = £60
This represents 5% of the value of the sales
and 100% has a value of 100 x £12 = £1 200 = weekly sales
Exercise 6
1. On a particular day 120 trains arrived at London Euston station. Of these 100 were
on time,15 were late and the rest were early. What percentage of the trains were
(a) early (b) late?
2. Suppose you earn £200 per week and then your wage changes as follows:
you receive a 10% rise and then, sometime later your wage is reduced by 10%.
What is your wage after both changes take place?
3. When selling houses an estate agent charges 2% on the first £50 000 of the value
of a house and then 1 % on any value above this figure. What would he charge on a
house worth:
(a) £50000 (b) £100000?
54
4. Furniture worth £900 is sold by a salesman who, in addition to his weekly
wage of £130 is paid commission of 3% of his sales. How much will he earn
that week?
5. The pie-chart shows the numbers of people with

differing eye colours in a particular group of students. What %
of each colour is in the group?
Hire Purchase and Bank Loans
If we buy goods and pay for them by instalments, over a certain period of time, this is
called buying goods on hire purchase.
Usually, a deposit is required first, and then the difference or balance and any interest
must be
repaid in a number of instalments.
"Interest free credit" means that no interest is charged on the balance.
Example
A newly married couple buy a three-piece suite for £1 500. They have to pay a deposit
of 10% and the amount outstanding (the balance) is charged at 12% per annum. The
amount owing is then paid off in 12 equal monthly instalments. How much will each
instalment be?
55
It is possible to borrow money from a bank or building society on a "personal loan".
The bank/building society charges a rate of interest for the loan, and the loan, plus the
interest, is usually repaid over an agreed period in equal monthly payments.
Example
A person borrows £1 000 from a bank and the bank charges 18% interest per
annum. If the loan is repaid over 2 years in equal monthly payments, calculate the
amount of each monthly payment to the nearest pence.
Discount
In some shops, if you pay cash for an article, the shopkeeper will reduce the
marked price by a percentage which is known as a discount.
e.g. if the marked price of a TV is £400 and the shop offers a discount of 1 0%
for cash payment, then you need to pay only 90% of the marked price.
90_
i.e. you would actually pay x £400 = £360
100
Exercise 7
1. A person sees a car he would like to buy in a car showroom. The marked
selling price is £6 500 however the salesman explains that it can be bought on hire
purchase with a deposit of 20% and the balance, charged at a rate of 7% per
annum, spread over 2 years. How much more would the person pay if he bought
the car on hire purchase as opposed to paying cash?
2. A building society offers you a loan of £5 000 at an annual rate of interest of 1

6%. What would be the difference in the monthly amounts you pay if you repaid
the loan over a period of 5 years as opposed to 2 years?
3. A mirror has a marked price of £1 5 but is available at a discount of 1 0%.

By how much will the marked price be reduced?
4. A shop offers a discount of 6p in the £1 . How much discount will be allowed on

an item costing £300?
56
Profit and Loss
When someone buys an article this price is called the cost price (CP).
If the article is then sold then this is called the selling price (SP).
The profit or loss is the difference between the CP and the SP.
(the profit and loss are sometimes called the gain and loss respectively)
% profit and % loss are calculated as follows:
Note that in each formula it is the CP that is used, not the SP.
Example 1
If you buy a T-shirt for £8 and sell it for £10, what is your percentage profit?
Gain is £10 - £8 = £2
£2_
Percentage profit = x 1 00 = 25%
£8
Example 2
A man buys a car for £5 400 and, later, sells it for £4 500. What is his percentage
loss? Loss is £5 400 - £4500 = £900
Percentage loss £900_ x 100 = 16 2⁄ 3 %

£5 400
Exercise 8
1. A car is bought for £2 400 and sold for £1 800. Find the percentage loss.
2. A shopkeeper buys 40 articles costing 2p each and sells them at 3p each.

What is her percentage gain?
3. A man weighs 100 kg. After a diet he weighs 90 kg. Find his percentage
loss in weight.
4. A plant was bought when it was 12 cm high and it grew to a height of 16 cm.
What was the percentage gain in height?
57
Cost Price and Selling Price - more examples and problems
In some problems we are asked to:
find the SP given the CP and the gain/loss
or find the CP given the SP and the gain/loss.
In the second type, i.e. starting with the SP and finding the CP, it is useful to
think of the CP as representing 100% and hence the SP will be greater than
100% if a gain is involved or less than 100% if a loss is involved.
Example 1
An item was bought for £10 and had to be sold at a profit of 20%. What should the
selling price be?
The CP needs to be increased by 20% i.e. we need to find the value of 120% of £10
120
120% of £10 = 100 x £10 = £12 which is the required SP.
(alternatively we could have found 20% of £10, which is £2 profit and then added
this on to the CP to give us the SP).
Example 2
A car was bought for £3 000 and was later sold at a loss of 15%. How much was
the car sold for?
We need to decrease the CP by 15% i.e. we need to find the value of 85% of £3 000.
85_
85% of £3 000 = 100 x £3 000 = £2 550 which is the SP
58
Example 3 This is an example of the second type mentioned at the top of the previous
page.
If the selling price of an article is £22 and the profit made was 10%, what was cost price?
The CP represents 100%
hence the SP represents 110% (i.e. 1 0% above the CP).
Now: 110% has a value of £22
hence 1 % has a value of £22

110
£22
so 100% has a value of 100 x 110 = £20 which is the CP.
You should develop the habit of checking that your answers are "sensible",
e.g. in example 2, if the car is sold at a loss, a "sensible" answer 1 is one
which is less than the CP. ( A check for sensible answers should 1 in fact be a
standard procedure throughout your studies ).
1
Exercise 9 1
1
1. if an article costs £120 and is sold at a gain of 5%, what was the selling price?
0
2. If an item was sold for £45 to make a profit of 20%, what was the cost price?
3. If the cost price of an article was £320 and was sold at a loss of 12.5%, how
much was it sold for?
4. If you buy an article for £79.90 which includes 17 ½ % VAT, how much would the
article cost without VAT?
59
1. The brick wall has been painted with a

waterproofing solution (not the base).
(a)How many bricks are in the wall?
(b)What percentage of the bricks will

be painted on 2 faces only?
(c) What percentage of the bricks will

be painted on 3 faces only?
2. Two groups decided to have a meal in the restaurant. The first group of 2 people each had
the set meal only. How much was their bill with VAT?
The second group of 3 people each had the set meal and also 3 glasses of wine each. They
then decided to leave a "tip" on the table of 10% of the total bill (i.e. including VAT). How
much did they leave on the table?
60
3. A family with 2 children spends most of its money on the home. The table below gives the
average percentages in a recent year for the U.K.
Money spent per week (%)
Housing 15.2%
Fuel, light and power 5.6%
Food 25.6%
Drink 4.2%
Tobacco 3.1%
Clothes and shoes 9.0%
Furniture, }
washing machine, } Durable goods 6.7%
T.V. etc. }
Crockery, }
hobbies etc. } Other goods 7.8%
Transport and vehicles 13.1 %
Holidays, }
bank interest, } Services 9.7%
hairdressing etc. }
Total 100.0%
If the weekly family income is £220 per week, calculate how much they spend on
(a) housing (b) food (c) services?
61
4. The chart shows how house prices
changed during the period April 1989
to April 1990 in various regions of the
country.
(a)Find the 1990 value of house in

the Northwest region if it was
valued at £53 000 in 1989.
(b)Repeat part (a) for the Outer

London region.
(c)Find the 1989 value of a house in

the Northern region if it was
valued at £65 000 in 1990.
(d)Repeat part (c) for East Anglia
5. The house shown was put up for sale

even though the owner knew that house
prices were falling by ½ % per month.
If the house went onto the market at the

beginning of June what could he sell it at
(a)at the end of June?
(b)at the end of July?
62
Answers Exercise 1
3. 12.5%
4. 93.75%
5. 78.46% (to 2 decimal places ).
Exercise 2
1. 65% 2. 37.5% 3. 89% 4. 60.9% 5. 1%
Exercise 3
Exercise 4
1. 0.63 2. 0.047 3. 0.5165 4. 0.031 5. 0.07
Revision Exercise
1. (a) 10% (b) 25% (c) 20% (d) 30% (e) 15%
(f) 35% (g) 14%
2. (a) 50% (b) 25% (c) 10% (d) 75% (e) 40% (f) 90%
4. (a) 0.1 (b) 0.15 (c) 0.87 (d) 0.346 (e) 1.15
Exercise 5
63
1. (i) (a) £13.50 (b) £11.25 (ii) (a) 6 m (b) 5m
(iii) (a) 150cm3 (b) 125cm3 (iv) (a) 75kg (b) 62.5kg
2. (a) £126 (b) £129
3. (a) £4600 (b) £4875
4. (a) £47 (b) £29.36 (to the nearest pence )
Exercise 6
(a) 4 1⁄6 % (b) 12 ½ %
1. £198 3. (a) £1 000 (b) £1 500
4. £157 5. Brown = 50%, Blue = 33 1⁄3 %, Green = 16 2⁄3 %
Exercise 7
1. £728 2. £125
3. £1.50 4. £18
Exercise 8
1. 25% 2. 50% 3. 10% 4. 33 1/3 %
Exercise 9
1. £126 2. £37.50 3. £280 4. £68
1. (a) 60 (b) 36 2⁄3 % (c) 6 2⁄3 %
2. £11.75, £3.03
3. (a) £33.44 (b) £56.32 (c) £21.34
4. (a) £66250 (b) £45580 (c) £48148 (d) £74713
5. (a) £199000 (b) £198005
64
Percentages without a calculator
LEARN
50% = ½ 25% = ¼ 10% = 1⁄10 20% = 1⁄5 33 1⁄3 % = 1⁄3
Many percentages can be calculated by dividing
Example 1
Find 50% of £96.
50% = ½ £4 8
2 │ £916
50% of £96 = £48
Example 2
Find 33 1⁄3 % of £147.
33 1⁄3 % = 1⁄3 £4 9
2
3 │ £14 7
331/3%of£147 = £49
Do not use a calculator for the exercises - show your calculations in full.
Exercise 1
1.Calculate the following
a) 10% of £12.50 b) 25% of £100 c) 331/s% of £27.90
2.A television costs £375. It is reduced by 20% in the sale. What is the sale price?
3.In 1990 the population of Highden was 10 920. In 1991 it had increased by 10%. What
was the population in 1991?
65
After finding 10% of a quantity it is possible to 30%, 40%, 60%, 70%, 80%, and
90% by multiplying by 3, 4, 6 etc.
Example
Find 40% of £240.
10% = 1/10
1
/10 of £240 = £24
Remember to divide by 10 no calculation is necessary - move numbers one place to

the right.
40% of £240 = 4 x 10%
= 4 x £24
= £96
Exercise 2
1.Calculate the following
a) 30% of £90 b) 80% of £375 c) 90% of £75
2.A customer receives 10% discount for cash. The bill is £120 and he pays cash. How much
does he pay?
3.A survey team asked 1500 dog owners which pet food their dogs preferred. 30% replied
Chunky. How many dogs preferred Chunky?
4.A firm guarantees 90% germination on a packet of seeds. A packet contains 380 seeds.
What is the minimum number of seeds you can expect to germinate?
5.A survey in college found that 60% of full time students had tried smoking and that 40% of
those who had tried it were still smoking. 1200 students took part in the survey.
a)How many students had tried smoking?
b)How many students were still smoking at the time of the survey?
66
10% can also be used for a starting point to calculate 171/2% VAT.
Example
Exercise 3
1 .Joe is given 5% staff discount on items he purchases from work. How much does
he actually pay for goods priced at £44?
2.Philip earns £140 a week. He is given a pay rise of 2 ½ %. How much does he earn
each week after his pay rise?
3.A calculator costs £43.60 excluding VAT. What is the price of the calculator including
17 ½ %VAT?
4.The Halifax Building Society announced that house prices this year have gone up
by 7 ½ %. How much is a house this year that cost £54 000 last year?
5.Susan works as a waitress in a local bistro. Last week she worked 36 hours and her
gross wages were £126. She had a total of 15% deducted from her wage. What was
her take home pay after deductions?
6.Find the simple interest on £360 at 7% per year for 5 years. (Hint: Divide by 10 to find
10% then divide your answer by 10 to find 1%)
RSA6SUP/3
67
Answers
Exercise 1
1. a) £1.25 b) £25 c) £9.30 2. £300 3.12 012
Exercise 2
1. a) £27 4.342 b) £300 C) £67.50 2. £108 3.450
4. 342 5. a) 720 b) 288
Exercise 3
1. £41.80 2. £143.50 3. £51.23
4. 58 050 5. £107.10 6. £126
68
Ratio and Proportion
A ratio gives us a way of comparing two or more quantities. It is important that ratios are
written in the correct order.
The ratio of fat to flour when making pastry is 1 to 2. This means that whatever the weight
of fat used we need twice the weight of flour. Conversely the ratio of flour to fat is 2 to 1.
In ratios the symbol ':' is used to mean 'to'. 1 to 2 is written as 1 : 2 and it can be written
as a fraction ½. This can be expressed as a decimal 0.5 and a percentage 50%.
Ratios can be expressed in lowest terms. This means that the ratio is given as simply as
possible without units or fractions. The method of simplifying the ratio is the same as for
fractions. Both sides of the ratio must be multiplied or divided by the same quantity.
Example 1
Simplify 16 : 24
2 : 3 ÷ both sides by 8
Example 2
Simplify 2kg : 500 g
2000g : 500 g change kg to g
2000 : 500 remove units
4 : 1 ÷ by 500
Example 3
Exercise 1
1. Simplify the following ratios

a) 2 : 4 b) 8 : 12 c) 60 : 150 d) 18 : 5
2.Express the ratio £5 to 25p in its lowest terms.
3.Express the ratio 400 m to 2.5 km in its lowest terms. (1000m = 1 km)
69
4. This table shows the mixes of different types of mortar.
What type of mortar is mixed if 8 buckets of cement are
mixed with 40 buckets of sand?
5. Express the following ratios as fractions, decimals and percentages.

a) 4 : 5 b) 1 : 8
Proportional Parts
Example 1
Divide £500 between Mary and Jane in the ratio 2 : 3.
This means that for every £2 (2 parts) Mary receives, Jane will receive £3 (3 parts).
The total number of parts = 2 + 3 = 5 parts
The total number of parts is equal to the total amount of money 5 parts = £500
Find 1 part by dividing the total amount of money by the total number of parts
Mary receives 2 parts = £100 x 2 = £200 Jane receives 3 parts = £100 x 3 = £300
Check £200 + £300 = £500
Example 2
A line 30 cm long is to be divided into 3 sections in the ratio 2 : 3 : 5 . Find the length of the
LONGEST section.
Total number of parts = 2 + 3 + 5=10 10 parts = 30 cm 1 part = 30 cm = 3 cm

10
The longest section = 5 parts. The longest section is 5 x 3 cm = 15 cm
Exercise 2
1 . Divide £300 in the ratio of 2 : 1 .
2. £60 is divided between Janet and Jim in the ratio 5 : 7.
a)What fraction of the total does Jim receive?
b)What percentage of the total does Janet receive?
c)How much do Janet and Jim each receive?
d)Express the ratio 5 : 7 as a decimal.
70
3. A line is divided into 3 sections in the ratio 2 :3 :7. If the line is 84 cm long calculate the
length of each section.
4. The ratio of fat to flour in pastry is 1 : 2.

a)How much fat is required if 30 oz of pastry is needed to make jam tarts?
b)What percentage of flour is used to make the pastry?
Example 3
This example differs from Examples 1 and 2 because we are given the value of one of the
quantities and from that we work out the value of one part.
Concrete is made by mixing gravel, sand and cement in the ratio 7:5:2. What quantity of
gravel is needed to mix with 30 kg of sand?
Here we are given the quantity of sand which corresponds to the 5 in the ratio. So 5
parts = 30 kg
1part = 30 kg = 6kg
5
7 parts = 7 x 6 = 42 kg Quantity of gravel needed is 42 kg
Exercise 4
1. A sum of money is divided between Fred and Peter in the ratio of 2 : 3. Peter receives
£18.
a)What is the original sum?
b)How much does Fred receive?
c)Express this ratio as a percentage.
2.A sum of money is divided amongst three children in the ratio of their ages. John is
5 years old, Claire is 7 years old and Robert is 8 years old. How much money does Claire
receive if John receives £150?
3. Fred, Graham and Simon stake £12 on the football pools. Fred pays £3, Graham pays
£4 and Simon pays £5. They agree to share any winnings in the same ratio as their
payments. One week they win and Graham receives £12 000.
a)What fraction of the stake is Graham's?

b)What percentage of the stake is Fred's?
c)What was the total amount they won?
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Direct Proportion
If two quantities increase or decrease at the same rate, they are said to VARY DIRECTLY
TO ONE ANOTHER, which means that if 2 pens cost £1.24, then we would know that 4
pens would cost £2.48, 6 would cost £3.72 and 1 would cost 62p.
Double the amount - double the cost
Treble the amount - treble the cost
Half the amount - half the cost
Example 1
If 3 kg of apples cost £1 .80, how much will 5 kg cost?
3kg = £1.80
5 kg will cost 5 x 60p = 300p or £3.00
Example 2
A car travels 100 km in 2 hours. How long will it take to travel 250 km?
100 km in 2 hours
Exercise 4
1.7 pears cost £1.26. What is the cost of 5 pears?
2.5 kg of potatoes cost £1.60. What is the cost of 8 kg?
3.A train travels 300 km in 5 hours. How long will it take to complete a journey of 450 km?
4.Three metres of wood costs £3.36. What is the cost of 7.35 m?
5.3.1 pounds of steak cost £12.56. What is the cost of 2.3 pound?
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Foreign Currency And Exchange
Every country has its own currency. There is a "rate of exchange" between countries.
£1 buys
Spain (pesetas) 200
Germany (marks) 2.43
France (francs) 8.30
Italy (lira) 2360
Example 1
How many French francs would you receive in exchange for £15?
Each pound buys 8.30 francs. £15 buys 15 x 8.30 francs = 124.50 francs
Example 2
A leather coat in Spain costs 18 500 pesetas. How much is this in £s?
Each pound buys 200 pesetas. 18 500 pesetas = 18 500 ÷ 200 = £92.50
Exercise 5
1.A man takes £200 to France. How many francs does he receive in return?
2.A businessman spends 6 000 francs on travelling in France. How much does he spend in
£s?
3.A woman returned from Germany with 750 marks. How much did she have in £s ?
4.If a couple went to Italy and took £200 to spend, how many lira did they receive?
5.Last year I went to Spain with £600, changed it all to pesetas and came back with
11 050 pesetas. How much did I spend in Spain? (Give this answer in £s)
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Inverse Proportion
If an increase in one quantity produces a proportional decrease in another, then this is

said to be a case of INVERSE PROPORTION.
Example 1
If 10 men take 8 days to build a wall, how long will it take 4 men to do the same job?
Think before you start. Will 4 men take more or less time than 10 men to do the same
job?
10 men take 8 days
1 man takes 10 x 8 = 80 days

80
4 men take = 20 days
4
Example 2
15 women can pack 2000 articles into boxes in 3 days, how long will it take 10 women to
pack the same quantity?
Here, the details about how many articles there are is hot relevant, as the women are
packing the same quantity.
Will 10 women take more or less time than 15 women?
15 women take 3 days
1 woman takes 3 x 1 5 = 45 days
10 women take 45 = 4.5 days

10
Example 3
A college building can be decorated by 12 men working 8 hours a day for 5 days. If
10 men worked 6 hours a day, how many days would it take them?
This example must be calculated in hours as the working days are different lengths.
12 men take 8x5 = 40 hours
1 man takes 12 x 40 = 480 hours
10 men take 480 = 48 hours

10
48
If each man works 6 hours a day it will take them 6 = 8 days
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Exercise 6
1.4 men can decorate a house in 3 days. How long does it take 2 men?
2.An amount of money is divided amongst 8 children. Each child receives £9 . If the same
amount of money was divided amongst 12 children, how much would each child receive?
3.20 men produce 1000 articles in 5 days. How long would it take 25 men to produce the
same number of articles?
4.A group of 11 people are going on a trip and they have enough food to last them 2 weeks.
How long will the food last the group if 5 more people decide to go on the trip?
Scales
If you are not familiar with metric units refer to Unit 11 before continuing.
Example
This is an accurate drawing of a car.
How long is the real car?
scale 1 :50
The scale means that 1 cm on the drawing represents 50 cm on the real

car.
The drawing of the car is 6 cm long.
The real car is therefore 6 x 50 cm = 300 cm = 3 m
The width of the actual car is 1.55 m. What would be the width, in centimetres, of the car
shown in the diagram?
1.55m = 155 cm
50 cm on the real car is represented by 1 cm on the drawing.
155 cm represented by 155 cm = 3.1 cm

50
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Exercise 7
1. This scale drawing shows a pylon drawn to a scale 1 : 750.
How tall is the pylon and how broad is the base?
2. A woman wishes to make a model of this

church. She wants the overall height to be
about 50 cm.
a)What would be a suitable scale for her to

use?
Using this scale:
b)What would be the height of the cross?
c)What would be the width of the church?
1. a) Express the following ratios in their lowest terms:

i) 15: 25: 50 ii) 8 cm : 9 m iii) 17.8:1
b) Write 3 : 8 as a i) fraction ii) decimal iii) percentage
2. Divide £24 in the ratio a) 1 : 3 : 5 b) 3 : 5 : 8 : 9
3.A rectangular photograph has sides in the ratio 7: 5.

a)If the longer side of the photograph is 10.5 cm find its shorter side.
b)The photograph is enlarged so that its width is 8.75 cm. Find the length of the
enlargement.
4.The instructions on a bottle of Ribena are:
Mix 1 part concentrate with 6 parts water

a)What fraction of the drink is water?
b)How much water would there be in 210 millilitres of drink?
c) John mixes 20 centilitres of concentrate with 140 centilitres of water. Is this stronger or
weaker than the recommended mix?
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5. This is the list of ingredients for Braised Steak and Onions in Stout. (Serves 3 people)
450 grams braising steak
1 tablespoon oil
2 large onions
150 millilitres stout
½ teaspoon Worcester sauce salt and pepper
How much braising steak and stout would you need if you were cooking for 5 people?
6. A model of a plane was made to a scale 1 : 200. If the wing span of the model is 25
cm, what is the actual wing span of the plane in metres?
7. A model is made of this bridge to a
scale of 1 : 500.
What is the length of this bridge on the

model?
8.In a college there are 2 550 part time students and 800 full time students. What is the
ratio of full time to part time students?
9.The amount of commission earned by a salesman is directly proportional to the amount of
sales. In a certain week he was paid £387 on sales of £7 740. How much will he expect to
earn on sales of £9 920 during another week?
10.In a school the ratio of the number of pupils to the number of teachers is 18 :1. If the
number of pupils is 540, how many teachers are there?
11.In France a bottle of perfume costs 54.50 francs. A similar bottle in England costs £12.
How much will be saved, in £, by buying it in France? Exchange rate 8.30 francs = £1
12.A car travels 12 km on a litre of petrol. How many litres will be needed to make sure of
completing a journey of 100 km?
13.A garage displays the following chart to help customers convert litres to gallons.
a)Estimate how many litres of petrol are equivalent to 9 gallons of petrol.

b)How many litres are equivalent to 10 gallons of petrol? Give your answer to the
nearest litre.
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14.Change £150 into U.S. dollars when the exchange rate is 1.51 dollars to £1.
15.If 2 men can paint a fence in 6 hours, how long will it take 3 men to paint it?
Answers
Exercise 2
1. £200, £100 2. a) 7⁄12 b)41 2/3% c) £25 , £35 d) 0.714 to 3 s.f.
3. 14cm , 21 cm , 49cm 4a) 10oz b) 66 2/3%
Exercise 3
1.a) £30 b) £12 c) 66 2/3 % 2. £210
3. a) 1⁄3 b) 25% c) £36 000
Exercise 4
1. 90p 2. £2.56 3. 71/2h
4. £8.23 to the nearest p 5. £9.32 to the nearest p
Exercise 5
1. 1 660 2. £722.89 to the nearest p
3. £308.64 4. 472 000 lira 5. £544.75
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Exercise 6
1. 6 days 2. £6 3. 4 days
4. 9 days (not enough for 10)
Exercise 7
1. 31.5 - 32m 15m 2. 1 :30 6.7 cm 20 cm
1. a) i) 3 : 5 : 10 ii) 2 : 225 iii) 89.5

b) i) 3⁄8 ii) 0.375 iii) 37 ½ %
2. a) £2.76 £8 £13.33 b) £2.88 £4.80 £7.68 £8.64
3. a) 7.5 cm b) 12.25cm
4. a) 6⁄7 b) 180ml c) weaker
5. 750 G steak 250 ml stout
6. 50 m 7. 12.2cm 8. 16 : 51
9. £496 10. 30 11. £5.43
12. 8 1⁄3 litres 13. a) 45 b) 45
14.$226.50
15.4 h
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Summary
1.Ratios must be stated as simply as possible without units or fractions.
2.Ratios can be expressed as fractions, decimals or percentages.
3.Proportional parts
Always find the value of one part first.
4.Direct proportion
Two quantites are in direct proportion if an increase in one quantity produces

a proportional increase in the other.
5.Inverse proportion
Two quantities are in inverse proportion if an increase in one quantity

produces a proportional decrease in the other.
6.Foreign currency
To change foreign currency to pounds sterling
÷ by the exchange rate
Always give your answer to the nearest p.
To change pounds sterling to foreign currency
x by the exchange rate
7.Scale drawing
1 : 20 means that 1 cm on the drawing represents 20 cm on the actual object.
Make sure you learn your units of measurement.
Accuracy and Approximation
In this unit we shall be thinking about what we mean when we write down a number of a
particular size, and we shall also be considering ideas of accuracy.
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Introduction
As an example, let us consider the attendance at a football match.
The match is played at home by Manchester United, and the number of people who
actually attend is 42 623.
To the Club it is important to know this figure exactly, as they want to know how much money
to expect to have taken, they need to know because of safety requirements, tax etc., etc.
However, to the reporter from the local paper who is covering the match, the exact number is
not important. He is more likely to include in his column a comment that: "42 600 people
attended Old Trafford this afternoon" or "43 000 people attended Old Trafford this afternoon".
For the reader of the newspaper, either of the figures is quite sufficient to give an impression
of the size of the crowd, and the detail of the exact number is irrelevant.
Rounding or Correcting to a Given Degree of Accuracy
In the example above, the exact number 42 623 has been given approximately as 43 000 or
42 600. Mathematically, we say that 42 623 has been rounded or given correct to a
particular degree of accuracy.
If we give 42 623 as approximately 43 000, we are rounding to the nearest thousand. We

know that 42 623 lies between 42 000 and 43 000. If we then think about the 623, we can see
that 42 623 lies closer to 43 000 than it does to 42 000. We say, therefore that 42 623 = 43
000 (correct to the nearest thousand)
The other figure we suggested that the reporter might use is 42 600. In this case, we are
using a figure rounded to the nearest hundred. Again we think of the numbers between
which our number lies, but this time we concentrate on the hundreds rather than the
thousands. 42 623 lies between 42 600 and 42 700 but this time lies closer to the lower
figure.
We say, therefore, that 42 623 = 42 600 ( correct to the nearest hundred).
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Exercise 1
1.Write each of the following numbers correct to the nearest thousand:

(i) 19 326 (ii)24713 (iii)96518 (iv) 156 321 (v) 238 501
2.Write each of the following numbers correct to the nearest hundred:

(i)3638 (ii)27222 (iii)18584 (iv) 36 352 (v) 9 999
3.In 1985 the population of the United Kingdom was approximately 56 438 000.
What was the population correct to the nearest million?
4.In an average week Cyril earns £242. Give Cyril's wage to:
(a)the nearest £100.
(b)the nearest £10.
5. The number of people attending a pop concert at Wembley Stadium is 76 036

How many people attended (a) to the nearest hundred?
(b) to the nearest ten ?
6. The distance from London to Aberdeen is 794 miles.

What is this distance (a) to the nearest ten miles?
(b) to the nearest hundred miles?
7.In a sale Anna buys a pack of oddments of material. She measures the lengths of the
pieces of material and finds that they are 56.7 cm, 32.3 cm, 84.9 cm and 105.2 cm long.
Give each of the lengths to the nearest centimetre.
8.On five trips to Savemore Supermarket, Mr. Murray spends £32.47, £56.83, £48.92,
£22.23 and £43.54. When he is working out how much he has spent over a period of time,
he writes down each of these amounts correct to the nearest pound.
What figures does he write down?
Rounding
To obtain the answers in the exercise above, you were looking at a number lying between
two other numbers and working out which one it was closer to. There is another way of
reaching the answer which will be useful to us in the following section.
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Let us look again at the answers to question 7:
56.7 cm ≈ 57 cm
32.3 cm ≈ 32 cm Note - the symbol ‘≈’ means
84.9 cm ≈ 85 cm ‘approximately equal to'
105.2cm ≈ 105cm
Where the figure after the decimal point was 2 or 3 we left the whole number unchanged.
Where the figure after the decimal point was 7 or 9 we increased the whole number by one.
By extending this idea we can see that for 0,1,2,3 or 4 we shall leave the whole number
unchanged.
For 6,7,8 or 9 we increase the whole number by one.
Now what would we have done if one of the pieces of material had measured 87.5 cm?
87.5 cm lies exactly halfway between 87 cm and 88 cm and so we cannot use the idea of its
lying closer to one than the other. It is accepted practice that when we have a 5 we round up.
So 87.5 cm = 88 cm (correct to the nearest cm).
Thus for 0,1,2,3 or 4 we round down i.e. keep the first part of the number unchanged.
For 5,6,7,8 or 9 we round up i.e. increase the first part of the number by one.
Now let us look again at the answers to question 8.
To round to the nearest pound we only need to look at the first figure after the decimal point
and apply the rounding rules as above.
£32.47 and £22.23 have a 4 and a 2 respectively after the decimal point and so round to £32
and £22.
£56.83, £48.92 and £43.54 have 8,9 and 5 after the point and so are rounded up to the next
whole number of pounds.
Notice that we can ignore the second figure after the decimal point here completely. We are
only concerned with the figure following the one required.
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Now try the following exercise using the method discussed above.
Exercise 2
1. Write each of the following numbers correct to the nearest whole number
(i) 26.32 (ii) 32.678 (iii) 33.481 (iv) 98.55 (v) 417.5
Decimal Places
We can use the ideas of rounding which we have met, when we are required to give a
shorter answer than the one which we have worked out.
Example 1 :3.68472 is your answer, but you are asked to give the answer "correct to 2
decimal places"
In order to answer this question, you must look at the THIRD number after the decimal point,
even though, in your answer, there will be only TWO figures after the point.
If the third number is
0,1,2, 3 or 4
then the second number will remain the same (as in the example given above). If the
third number is
5, 6, 7, 8 or 9
then the second number is increased by 1.
In this example the third figure after the decimal point is 4, and so the answer will be:
1.68 (correct to 2 decimal places)
Example 2 : Give 3.68872 correct to 2 decimal places
Look at the third figure after the point; it is 8, and because it is in the group 5,6,7,8,9 then
the second figure is increased by 1 ,so the answer is:-
3.69 correct to 2 decimal places.
84
You may be asked to give a number correct to ANY number of decimal places.
REMEMBER if you are asked to give a number correct to 1 decimal place, you look at the
2nd figure after the decimal point,
for 2 decimal places, you look at the 3rd figure after the decimal point for 3
decimal places, you look at the 4th figure after the point, and so on.
Example 3
12.051 correct to 1 decimal place = 12.1
(The 2nd figure is 5, so increase 0 by 1, giving 1.)
12.051 correct to 2 decimal places = 12.05
(The 3rd figure is 1, so the 5 remains the same.)
Example 4
(The 2nd figure is 7, so the 6 is increased by 1)
(The 3rd figure is 5, so the 7 is increased to 8.)
Example 5
Example 6
( Ask a tutor to explain if you do not understand this answer.)
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Exercise 3
1. Write down why these answers are true.
(i)16.00726 correct to 1 d.p. = 16.0
(ii)16.00726 correct to 2 d.p. = 16.01
(iii)16.00726 correct to 3 d.p. = 16.007
(iv)16.00726 correct to 4 d.p. = 16.0073
2.Write each of these numbers correct to:
(a) 1 decimal place (b) 2 decimal places
(i) 63.147 (ii) 4.093 (iii) 5.088 metres
3.The average age of a group of friends is 21.2365. Write this average age correct to
2 decimal places.
4.Going to Scotland for a holiday, Tony drives 289 miles using 42 litres of petrol. How many
miles does he travel per litre, correct to 1 decimal place?
Significant figures
Suppose you are trying to tell someone the length of a window, and you have a metal tape
measure; you may say that the window is 167.3 cm long. However if you use a flexible tape
measure, you cannot measure the length of the window to such a high degree of accuracy,
and you will be able to say only that it is 167 cm long.
A convenient way of indicating the degree of approximation is in terms of the number of

figures used. Thus, 167.3 is "four figure accuracy" and 167 is "three figure accuracy".
Sometimes we wish to approximate a given number to a particular degree of accuracy, in

which case we say that we are giving the number to a particular number of significant
figures.
The groups 0 - 4 and 5 - 9
which you used for decimal places, apply for significant figures. As before, you go to the
figure AFTER the one required and, depending on which group it is in, increase the
previous figure or leave it unchanged.
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Example 1 :167.3 has 4 significant figures
To give it correct to 3 significant figures, count along from the left to the 4th significant figure.
As this is a 3 we leave the 7 unchanged.
167.3 = 167 (correct to 3 significant figures)
To give it correct to 3 significant figures once again count along from the left to the 4th
significant figure. As this is an 8, we increase the number by 1.
167.8 = 168 (correct to 3 significant figures)
7.392 = 7.39 (correct to 3 significant figures), because the 4th significant figure is 2, and so
the 9 is left unchanged.
7.392 = 7.4 (correct to 2 significant figures), because the 3rd significant figure is a 9 so the
2nd significant figure is increased.
Now, returning to the example of the window mentioned above, the measurement could have
been given in metres, or even kilometres. Since 100 centimetres = 1 metre, the measurement
of 167.3 cm could have been given as 1.673 m. Also since 1 kilometre = 1 000 metres, an
alternative is 0.001 673 kilometres.
The degree of approximation of the measurement has not changed, but we may now have
more than four figures given. However, each of 167.3,1.673 and 0.001 673 is said to have 4
significant figures, as has 167 300.
The zeros are said to be "not significant" as they are there simply to show where the decimal
point occurs.
Zeros CAN be significant when they are included for a purpose other than to show the position
of the decimal point.
Example 5 :504 has 3 significant figures
Example 6 : 5.04 has 3 significant figures
In Examples 5 and 6 the zero is "sandwiched" between two other significant figures and so is
itself significant.
87
Another situation in which a zero is significant is when it occurs at the end of a number after a
decimal point, as follows.
Example 7 :2.40 km has 3 significant figures
The zero signifies that the length has been measured to the nearest hundredth of a
kilometre:
i.e. 2.40 km to 3 significant figures, means that the length is nearer to 2.40 km than it is to
2.39 km or 2.41 km.
However, 2.4 km to 2 significant figures means that the length is nearer to 2.4 km than it is to
2.3 km or 2.5 km.
This can be seen clearly

using simple number lines:
Further Examples
Example 1 8.619
8.619 = 9, correct to 1 significant figure ( 2nd sig. fig. is a 6, so the 8 increases to a 9)
8.619 = 8.6, correct to 2 significant figures (3rd sig. fig. is a 1, so the 6 remains the same)
8.619 = 8.62, correct to 3 significant figures ( 4th sig. fig. is a 9, so the 1 increases to a 2)
Example 2 23.61
23.61 = 20, correct to 1 significant figure ( 2nd sig. fig. is a 3, so the 2 remains the same)
( note that the order of size must not alter and therefore the zero is required to keep
the 2 in the "tens" column )
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23.61 = 24, correct to 2 significant figures ( 3rd sig. fig. is a 6, so the 3 increases to a 4) 23.61
= 23.6, correct to 3 significant figures (4th sig. fig. is a 1, so the 6 remains the same)
Example 3 127.9
127.9 = 100, correct to 1 significant figure (2nd sig. fig. is a 2, so the 1 remains the same)
127.9 = 130, correct to 2 significant figures ( 3rd sig. fig. is a 7, so the 2 increases to a 3)
127.9 = 128, correct to 3 significant figures (4th sig. fig. is a 9, so the 7 increases to an 8)
( Remember to insert non significant zeros, so the number retains the same order of size.)
Example 4 4 309
4 309 = 4000, correct to 1 significant figure
4 309 = 4300, correct to 2 significant figures
4 309 = 4310, correct to 3 significant figures
Example 5 0.273
0.273 = 0.3, correct to 1 significant figure
0.273 = 0.27, correct to 2 significant figures
Example 6 0.091 5
0.091 5 = 0.09, correct to 1 significant figure
(Remember! The zeros simply give the position of the decimal point.)
0.091 5 = 0.092, correct to 2 significant figures
Example 7 0.006 008
0.006 008 = 0.006, correct to 1 significant figure
0.006 008 = 0.006 0, correct to 2 significant figures
0.006 008 = 0.006 01, correct to 3 significant figures
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Exercise 4
1. Write down the answers to the following questions, remembering to count along to one
more significant figure than is required and then to decide which group that figure is in.
(a)correct to 1 significant figure
(b)correct to 2 significant figures
(c)correct to 3 significant figures
(1)14.7541 (ii) 165.5 (iii) 37 654.21 metres
2.The mathematical value of jc given by Sarah's calculator is 3.141592654. Give this value
correct to 4 significant figures.
3.Bryan cycles to work six days a week. The journey measures 1.36 miles each day.
Give, correct to 2 significant figures, the distance Bryan cycles in:
(a) one week (b) four weeks.
Accuracy
(i) Note that in working with either decimal places or significant figures, you should retain in
your calculation at least one more figure than you are required to give in the answer.
Example 1: Calculate 13.2 x 4.70 + 6.32 giving your answer to 3 significant figures.
13.2x4.70 = 62.04
If this is corrected to 3 significant figures at this stage we have :
62.0 + 6.32 = 68.32 which would give 68.3 to 3 significant figures. However the correct
answer is obtained in the following way:
13.2x4.70 = 62.04
62.04 + 6.32 = 68.36
68.36 = 68.4 (correct to 3 significant figures)
This is a very common error and although the discrepancy may seem small, in certain
cases it is important and so you must always carry out the calculation using at least one
more figure than you require in the answer.
90
(ii) It should also be noted that if the accuracy to which an answer should be given is not
stated in the question, you should be VERY CAREFUL about the number of figures you give
in the answer. You DO NOT improve the accuracy of an answer by writing down all the
figures shown on your calculator.
Example 2 : 1.456 x 3.789 = 5.517
In fact the calculator shows 5.516784 but as each of the numbers in the question has 4
significant figures the answer would also normally be given to no more than 4 significant
figures.
(iii) Sometimes you will encounter questions where you are given the corrected value and
you have to find a starting value.
Example 3
We ate given that 6 000 people are attending a performance at the theatre. If we assume
that this figure is correct to 1 significant figure, what is the smallest audience size that could
actually attend the show?
Let us consider which numbers would give 6 000 when corrected to 1 significant figure.
All numbers from 5 500 to 6 499 would be given as 6 000, correct to 1 significant figure. (Note
that 6 500 would round to 7 000 and so should not be included.)
So the smallest audience is 5 500.
Exercise 5
1.Calculate 16.2 + 3.5 + 3.74 giving your answer to 1 decimal place.
2.Calculate 3.76 x 2.4 + 2.64 giving your answer to 3 significant figures.
3.Calculate 4.2 x 1.9 x 1.33. (HINT : How many significant figures are in numbers in the
question? How many should be given in the answer?)
4.Calculate 6.3
1.9
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5. If the length of a rectangular window is 167.3 cm and the width is 102.4 cm, find the
area of the window in cm giving your answer to
(a)4 sig. figs.
(b)1 decimal place.
( NOTE :Area of a rectangle = length x width)
Which would be the more sensible answer and why?
6.The number of people attending a pop concert was given as 53 000. If we assume that this
figure is given correct to 2 significant figures, what is the largest number of people who
could have attended?
7.A road race is advertised as being 10 kilometres long. If it is accepted that the length is
correct to the nearest kilometre, what is the shortest distance the runners could expect to
cover?
8.In a 100 metres sprint, Carl records a time of 10.23 seconds. If the timing mechanism is
known to be accurate to 4 significant figures, and Carl takes the shortest possible time,
write down the time taken to five figure accuracy.
Approximation and Estimation
In many situations it is useful to have an estimate of the size of an answer.
For example, a painter producing a quotation for the cost of papering and painting a room
would work out roughly how much wallpaper and how many tins of paint would be
required.
If you wanted to know if you could afford to buy a carpet you would work out the
approximate area of the room and use the approximate cost of the carpet, per square metre,
to give a rough idea of the total cost.
To carry out this type of calculation, you round the numbers first so that you are able to
work out the answer in your head. Often, but not always, this means rounding each of the
numbers of the calculation to one significant figure.
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Example 1
A rectangular room has measurements of 4.3 metres by 3.4 metres approx. The carpet that
is to be used to cover the floor of the room costs £22.50 per square metre and the underlay
costs £5.25 per square metre. Estimate how much it would cost to cover the floor.
It would be simplest to say the floor measures 4 metres by 3 metres, the carpet costs £20 and
the underlay £5.
Since to find the area of a rectangle we multiply length by breadth, the area of the room is
estimated as 12 metres2
The cost of covering the floor is then 12 x £20 plus 12 x £5.
This means it would cost approximately £300 to cover the floor.
Example 2
If you and three friends went out for a meal, and the bill came to £28.47, you would each pay
approximately £7 (£28 ÷ 4 = £7).
( Notice here that it is easier to calculate if we keep the £28 correct to 2 significant figures
rather than changing it to 1 significant figure.)
Example 3
Find the approximate cost of buying 334 large brown envelopes at 18 pence each.
334 is 300 and 18 is 20 when corrected to 1 sig. fig.
300 x 20 = 6000 pence.
So the answer will be in the region of £60
To give a better approximation, we could round each number to the nearest 10:
334 is roughly 330 and 18 is roughly 20
330 x 20 = 6600 pence.
So the answer will be in the region of £66
93
Now try this exercise Exercise 6
Estimate the following 1.34 x 17 2.233x17
3.An employer pays his 274 workers £3.46 an hour. Estimate how much the employer has to
pay out each hour.
4.£346 000 pools winnings are to be divided between 47 different people. Estimate how
much they will each receive.
5.A driver has 3 hours and 15 minutes to make 17 deliveries. Estimate how long he should
allow himself to make each delivery, giving your answer in minutes.
Summary
1. Decimal Places
Numbers may be approximated by being given to a particular number of decimal places; the
number of figures (including zeros) after the decimal point gives the number of decimal
places.
RULE: If the first figure to be discarded is in the group 0 - 4, then the previous figures are left
unchanged.
For the group 5 - 9, the previous figure is increased by 1.
2. Significant Figures
All figures except zero are said to be significant when they appear in an answer. Zeros
are significant when:
(i) they are sandwiched between other significant figures
(ii) they appear on the end of a number after the decimal point to signify that a
measurement has been made to a particular degree of accuracy.
Zeros are not significant when they are used to mark the position of the decimal point.
94
3. Accuracy
(i) Always retain in your calculation at least one more figure than you are required to give in
the answer.
(ii) Take care not to give more figures in the answer than can be justified on the information
given in the question.
4. Approximation
If you are asked to find an approximate answer for a calculation, you round the numbers in
such a way as to make the calculation easier.
In most cases, but not all, the easiest way to produce a rough estimate is to correct each
number in the calculation to 1 significant figure.
1. The percentage daily interest rate on a student loan is given as 0.015483011. Give this
figure correct to
(a)4 decimal places
(b)4 significant figures
2.When shopping Flo buys 18 packets of mints at 12 pence each, and 35 packets of crisps at
21 pence each. Estimate how much Flo spent at the shops.
3.Three brothers all work in the same factory. Geoff earns £798.45 per month, Les earns
£632.78 per month and Bernard earns £807.50.
(i) By rounding each wage to the nearest ten pounds, estimate how much the brothers earn
in total per month.
(ii) Work out the exact total wage and use it to calculate their average wage correct to:
(a) 3 significant figures (b) the nearest pence
4. In 1986, there were 2 004 500 accidents in the home in England. Two-fifths of these
accidents occurred in the kitchen and three-tenths in the garden.
(i) John estimated, without using his calculator, that there were approximately 800 000
accidents in the kitchen. Explain how he might have arrived at this estimate.
(ii) In a similar way, find an estimate for the number of accidents in the garden.
95
5. Look at the information given in the
diagram; now answer the following
questions:
(a)How many full time staff are employed

in the Roads and Transport department?
(b)Write this figure correct to 3 sig. figs.
(c)What is the total number of full-time

staff employed by the County Council?
(d)Write this number in words.
(e)Write this number correct to the

nearest thousand.
(f)Which department employs the largest

number of full-time staff?
(g)Write this number correct to the

nearest hundred.
(h) What is the total number of full-time

staff employed in Education?
(i) Write this number correct to the nearest thousand,
(j) Write the answer to (h) correct to 2 sig. figs.
6. The diagram shows a gas cooker with the

dimensions given in both millimetres and inches.
The figures in brackets are in inches.
(a)What is the total height of the cooker in

millimetres,
correct to the nearest hundred millimetres?
(b)Give the dimensions in inches to the nearest

inch of the
floor space which will be occupied by this cooker.
96
(f) What is the area of the floor occupied by this cooker in square metres correct to 2
significant figures?
( N.B There are 1 000 millimetres in 1 metre and so 1 000 000 square millimetres in 1
square metre and the area of a rectangle = length x breadth.)
7. The dimensions of a rectangular mirror are given as 25 inches by 16 inches, each

measurement to 2 significant figures.
(a)Between what values does this mean that the length of 25 inches actually lies?
(b)By considering the largest possible values of the two measurements, calculate the
maximum possible value of the area of the mirror.
( N.B Area of a rectangle = length x breadth )
8.The population of Cheshire is said to be 947 000 people. ,
(a)If this figure has been given correct to the nearest thousand, what is the smallest value
that the actual number of people living in Cheshire can take?
(b)If the figure of 947 000 has been given correct to 4 significant figures, what is the
largest value which would give this result?
ANSWERS
Exercise 1
1. (i)19000 (ii)25000 (iii) 97 000 (iv) 156 000 (v) 239 000
2.(i) 3 600 (ii)27200 (iii) 18 600 (iv) 36 400 (v) 10 000
3. 56 000 000
4.a) £200 b) £240
5.a) 76 000 b) 76 040
6.a) 790 miles b) 800 miles
7. a) 57 cm b)32cm c) 85 cm d) 105 cm
8. a) £32 b)£57 c) £49 d) £22 e) £44
97
Exercise 2
1.(i)26 (ii)33 (Hi) 33 (iv) 99 (v)418
Exercise 3
1. (i) 16.007 26 correct to 1 decimal place = 16.0 because 2nd fig after d.p. =
(ii) 16.007 26 correct to 2 decimal places = 16.01 because 3rd fig after d.p. = 7
(iii) 16.007 26 correct to 3 decimal places = 16.007 because 4th fig after d.p. = 2
(iv) 16.007 26 correct to 4 decimal places = 16.007 3 because 5th fig after d.p. = 6
2.(i) a) 63.1 b) 63.15 (ii)a)4.1 b)4.09 (iii) a) 5.1m b) 5.09m
3.21.24
4. 6.9 miles
Exercise 4
1.(i)a)10 b)15 c)14.8
(ii)a)200 b)170 c) 166
(iii)a) 40 000 m b) 38 000 m c) 37 700 m
2.3.142
3.a) 8.2 miles b) 33 miles
Exercise 5
1.8.4
2.11.7
3.11 (to 2 s.f.)
4.3.3 (to 2 s.f.)
98
5. a) 17 130 cm2 b) 17 131.5 cm2
a) because each of the original measurements has been given to 4 s.f.
6.53499 7.9.5km 8.10.225s
Exercise 6
The answers to this exercise depend on the approximations you have made; alternative
answers are given here but other answers are possible. If you have any problems then
check with a tutor.
1.600
2. 4 000, 4 600
3. £900, £810
4. £6 000, £7 000
5.10 minutes
1.a) 0.015 5 b) 0.015 48
2.a) £10
3.(i) £2 240 (ii) 2 238.73 a) £746 b) £746.24
4.a) Two-fifths of 2 000 000 = 800 000 b) 600 000
5.a) 1 031 b) 1 030 c) 27 869
d) Twenty-seven thousand, eight hundred and sixty-nine
6)28000 f) Education - Teachers g) 10 100 h)16732 i) 17 000 j) 17 000
6.a) 1 500 mm b) 22 in x 24 in f) 0.33 m2
7.a) 24.5 in and 25.5 in b) 421 in2 (420.75 corrected to 3 s.f.)
8. a) 946 500 b) 947 049
99
1.2 Algebra
100
Formulae and Substitution
This unit is concerned with the use of simple formulae. You may be surprised to find that
you already use a lot of these in your daily lives.
Examples of simple formulae
Example 1
'A litre of water is a pint and three-quarters'. This reminds us that a litre of water is about
one and three quarter pints, and can be written as a formula using words as follows:
No. of pints = 13/4 x No. of litres
e.g. To convert 3 litres to pints No. of pints = 13/4 x 3 = 51/4
Example 2
To convert from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit you multiply by 9, divide by 5 and
add 32. This can be written as a formula using words as follows:
Temperature in °F = Temperature in °C x 9 ÷ 5 + 32
e.g. To convert 20°C to °F
Temperature in °F = 20 x 9 ÷ 5 + 32 = 68
Example 3
A nurse may calculate the dose of a medicine for a child by multiplying the adult dose by
the age of the child and dividing by the age plus 12. This can be written as a formula using
words as follows:
Child's dose = (Adult's dose x child's age) ÷ (Child's age + 12)
e.g. To calculate dose for a child aged 8 when the adult dose is 10 ml.
Child's dose = (10 x 8) ÷ (8 + 12) = 80 ÷ 20 = 4 ml
101
Example 4
A wages clerk may calculate an employee's net pay using the following formula:
Net pay = basic pay + overtime - tax - national insurance
e.g. To calculate the net pay of an employee earning a basic wage of £150 plus £72
overtime and paying income tax of £40.50 and £22 national insurance.
Net pay = 150 + 72 - 40.50 - 22 = £159.50
Exercise 1
Use the formulae given above to answer these questions:
1.How many pints are there in 5 litres?
2.Convert the following to degrees Fahrenheit:
(a) 100°C (b) 0°C (c) -5°C
3.Calculate the dose for a child aged 12 if an adult dose is 15 ml.
4.Calculate an employee's net pay if his basic pay is £320, he earns £58 overtime, and his
deductions are £92.40 income tax and £32.80 national insurance.
Using letters instead of words
Sometimes it is more convenient to use letters instead of words in our formulae. We must
follow certain simple rules if confusion is to be avoided. Here are some examples of
expressions taken from formulae, with brief explanations of their meaning:
3a means 3xa or "3 times a"
abc means axbxc or "a times b times c"
a2 means axa or "a times a"

a
/b means a÷b or "a divided by b"
a(b + c) means a x (b + c) or "a times the sum of b and
The formulae we have looked at so far can be rewritten, using letters, as follows:
102
Example 1 Conversion of Litres into Pints
P = 13/4L
P is the number of pints, L is the number of litres, and 13/4 L is just another way of writing
1 3/4 x L. We could also have written 1 .75L.
Example 2 Conversion of Celsius to Fahrenheit temperatures
F= 9C + 32
5
F is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, and C is the temperature in degrees Celsius.
Example 3 Conversion of Adult dose to Child's dose
C= AY__
Y + 12
A is the adult dose, Y is the child's age, and C is the child's dose
Example 4 Calculation of an employee's net pay
n=b+o-t-i
n is net pay, b is basic pay, o is overtime, t is tax and i is national insurance.
Substitution
In exercise 1 above you have already practised substitution by replacing some of the words in
the formulae by numbers. In the same way, if we have letters in our formulae, we can
substitute numbers for the letters. Here are some simple examples:
Example 1
In the formula A = 2B - C , calculate A if B = 5 and C = 4
A=2x5-4 REMEMBER BODMAS!!
A=10 - 4 = 6
Example 2
In the formula Z = X2 + 3Y, find Z if X = 5 and Y = 7
Z = 52 + 3 x 7
Z = 25 + 21 = 46
Example 3
103
Exercise 2
If B = 3, C = 4, D = — 2 and E = 0, calculate the value of A using each of these formulae:
1. A = 2B-C 2. A = BC-D2
2
3. A=B(C + D) 4. A = D + 5C
2B
5. A = BCD 6. A = 2B2
7. A = (2B)2 8. A = (2B + C)2
9. A=BC-BE 10. A = 2E(B + C)
Exercise 3
If x = 2, y = - 3 and z = 0, calculate the value of w using each of these formulae:
1. w = x + y 2. w = x + yz
3. w = x(y + z) 4. w = 3y
5. w = 3y2 6. w=x—y
7. w = z(x - y) 8. w = 4z 2 + 3y – x
104
Formulae involving Units
Many of the formulae you use will not be purely numerical, as in Exercises 2 and 3, but will
involve actual measurements, expressed in a variety of units. It is important that:
a)you work only in one unit or another, and not in a combination of units; and
b)you express your answer in the appropriate units.
Example 1
The cost of hiring a car is £18 per day plus 6 pence for every mile. What is the cost of a
journey of 240 miles in 2 days?
We choose either to work in pence or in pounds
a) £18 per day equals (18 x 100) pence per day.
The cost of the journey is therefore (18 x 100) x 2 + 6 x 240 = 5040 pence
b) 6 pence per mile equals £ (6 ÷ 100) per mile
The cost of the journey is therefore 18x2 + (6 ÷ 100) x 240= £50.40 In this
example it is appropriate to work in pounds rather than pence.
Example 2
The perimeter of a rectangular room is twice the length plus twice the width. Find the
perimeter of a room 3.5 m long and 2.4 m wide.
2 x 3.5 + 2 x 2.4 = 11.8
But this is not the answer, because there are no units. The full answer is
Perimeter = 11.8 m
Exercise 4
1. The hire of a van costs £25 per day plus 7 pence per mile. Calculate the cost of hiring a
van for the following journeys:
a) 200 miles in one day b) 530 miles in 3 days c) 1254 miles in 7 days
2. To convert the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius you subtract 32,
multiply by 5 and divide by 9 (the reverse, or inverse, of the formula to convert °C to °F).
Calculate the temperature in °C corresponding to:
a) 50°F b) 23°F c) 95°F
N.B. Be careful when using your calculator. Remember BODMAS.
105
3. The area of a rectangular room is found by multiplying its length by its width. Find the
areas of the following rooms:
a) 12 ft by 10 ft b) 4m by 2.5m c) 350 cm by 500 cm
ANSWERS
Exercise 1
1) 8 3/4 or 8.75 litres 2) (a) 212°F (b) 32°F (c) 23°F
3) 7.5 ml 4) £252.80
Exercise 2
1) 2 2) 8 3) 6 4) 4 5) - 24
6) 18 7) 36 8) 100 9) 12 10) 0
Exercise 3
1) – 1 2) 2 3) – 6 4) – 9 5) 27
6) 5 7) 0 8) – 11
Exercise 4
1. a) £39 b) £112.10 c) £262.78
2. a) 10 oC b) – 5 oC c) 35 oC
3. a) 120 ft2 (or square feet) b) 10 m2 (or square meters)
c) 17.5m2
This is more appropriate than the alternative, and equally correct, answer of 175 000 cm2
Compound Units
miles per hour (mph) grams per pence (g per p org/p) pounds per
square metre (£ per m2)
These are all examples of combinations of two measurements. By expressing

measurements as a rate you are able to compare them.
'Best Buy' Problems Example
A 125 ml bottle of shampoo costs 56p

A 225 ml bottle of shampoo costs 96p
Which is the better buy?
Method 1
125 ml cost 56p

56 p_ 106
125ml
1 ml costs = 0.45 p per ml (to 2 d.p.)
i.e. 1 ml costs 0.45 p Remember 'per' means

'divided by'
225 ml cost 96 p
96 p_
1 ml cost 225 ml = 0.43 p per ml (to 2 d.p.)
i.e. 1 ml costs 0.43 p
The 225 ml bottle is the better buy as each millilitre (ml) costs less.
Method 2
56 p buys 125 ml of shampoo
1 p buys 125 ml_ = 2.23ml i.e. 2.23 ml per p to 2 d.p.

56 p
96 p buys 225 ml of shampoo
1 p buys 225 ml = 2.34ml i.e. 2.34 ml per p to 2 d.p.

96 p
The 225 ml bottle is the better buy as each pence buys more.
Although either method is permissible you should make sure that you stick to the
same method within each problem.
107
Look at the units
pence
pence per ml pence ÷ ml ml
ml__
ml per pence ml ÷ pence
pence
It does not matter which way you calculate "best buys" but check the units and think,
"What do they mean?", as in one case the best buy is the smaller number and in the
other you take the larger number.
Method 1 the answer is the smaller number.
Method 2 the answer is the larger number.
Exercise 1
1.Which is the best buy a) 100 g of cornflour at 75 p, 160 g at £1.25 or 210 g at £1.78?
b)100 g of coffee at £1.48, 250 g at £3.00 or 1.25 kg at £13.50?
c) 1 Ib of jam at 75 p, 450 g at 65 p or 1.5 kg at £2.05?

(Hint: find the cost of 1 kg.)
2.Which is the best buy?
4 packets of apple juice for £2.23, 6 packets for £3 or 8 packets for £3.96
3.Packets of a supermarket's own brand of custard are available in three sizes.
Only considering the cost, which size is the best value for money?
108
Average Speed
Speed is another compound measurement. The units we have to consider are miles
per hour (mph), kilometres per hour (km/h) and metres per second (m/s).
Total distance
Average Speed =
Total time
If you think of miles per hour as miles divided by hours it will help
you to remember that average speed equals total distance divided
by total time.
Questions are usually straightforward i.e. substituting numbers into a formula but
care must be taken with the units. Read the questions carefully.
Example
A coach travels 120 miles in 4 hours. What is its average speed?

Total distance
Average Speed = Total time
= 120 miles
4h
= 30 mph
Example
A man walks 1 km in 15 min. What is his average speed in km/h?
Before the numbers can be substituted into the equation the minutes have to be changed to
hours.
109
Example
Linford Christie runs 100 m in 9.95 sec. What is his average speed in km/h?
Exercise 2
1.A car travels 200 km in 4 hours. What is its average speed?
2.A man walks 24 km in 3 ½ hours. What is his average speed?
3.The finalist at the local Athletics Club completes the Women's 200 m in 28.4 sec. What
is her average speed in km/h?
4.Fred ran 100 m in 12.6 sec. Harry cycles at 26 km/h. Fred claims that during the race he
ran faster than Harry cycles. Is Fred right? Show your working.
Average speed can be used to calculate
a) total distance travelled Total distance = Average speed x Total time D = S x T
b) total time taken
The following diagram will help you to decide which to use.
The letters are written in the triangle in alphabetical order.
'Cover up' the one you wish to find and you will see what it
equals.
e.g. Cover up the S and you are left with D

T
D
S =
T
110
Example
A car travels for 20 mins at 60 km/h. How far has it travelled?
Distance = Speed x Time Note - the speed is in km/h and the time is in
minutes 20 1
60 3
= 60 x 1/3 20 min = h = h
= 20km
Example
A coach travels 350 km at an average speed of 55 km/h. How long does the journey take?
Give your answer to the nearest minute.
Distance___
Time = Average speed
= 350 km
55 km/h
= 6.364 h to 4 s.f.
So the time is 6 hours and 0.364 hours which we have to change to minutes.
0.364 x 60 = 21. 8 min to 3 s.f.
= 22 min (to the nearest min)
Time taken = 6 h 22 min Example
For the first 2 hours of a 260 km journey, the average speed was 30 km/h. If the average
speed for the remainder of the journey was 50 km/h, calculate the average speed for the
whole journey.
111
THIS QUESTION MUST BE SPLIT UP INTO PARTS
Often it helps to make a diagram of the problem as shown here:
Before we can find the average speed for the whole journey we need to know the total
distance travelled and the total time taken.
We already know the total distance but have to find the total time.
112
FIRST PART OF JOURNEY
Time = 2 h Average speed = 30 km/h
Distance = Speed x Time
= 30 x 2 = 60km
SECOND PART OF JOURNEY
Distance = 260 - 60 = 200 km Average speed = 50 km/h

Total distance_
Time = Average speed
200 km
=
50 km/h
= 4h
We now know that:
Total distance = 260 km Total time = 6 h

Total distance_
Average speed = Total time
= 260 km_
6h
= 43.3 km/h (to 3 s.f.)
Exercise 3
1.If a boy cycles for 2.5 hours at an average speed of 20 km/h, how far has he travelled?
2.A train travels 2 hours at an average speed of 60 km/h, then 3 hours at an average
speed 70 km/h. What is the average speed of the whole journey?
3.A bus travels for 9 hours between A and B, which are 270 km apart. On the return
journey from B to A, the average speed is reduced by 3 km/h. Calculate the time taken
for the return journey.
4.A bus travels 516 km at an average speed of 50 km/h. How long does it take? Give your
answer to the nearest minute.
113
5.
At 0930 Train 1 travelling from Birmingham to London and Train 2 travelling from London to
Birmingham are 60 miles apart. Train 1 is travelling at constant speed of 60 mph and Train 2
is travelling at 80 mph. How far apart will they be at 1015 if they continue to travel at these
speeds?
Other Rates
There are many other times when rates are used. It is impossible to cover all of them.
However, the principle is always the same.
miles per gallon miles ÷ gallons g per cm3 g ÷ cm3
(cm3 cubic centimetres - units of volume)
Example
What is the petrol consumption of your car if it covers 234 mile with 8 gallons of petrol? Give
your answer in miles per gallon.
miles ÷ gallons 234 miles = 29.25 miles per gallon

8 gallons
Example
A packet of lawn feed costs £4.25 and covers 90 m2. How much does this feed cost per m2.
Give your answer to the nearest pence.
425 p
Cost per m 2 =
90 m2
= 4.72.... = 5 p per m2 (to the nearest p)
Example
The density of copper is 8.93 g/cm3. How much will 1 50 cm3 weigh? Give your answer to the
nearest g.
Each cm3 of copper weighs 8.93 g.
150 cm3 weigh 150 x 8.93 = 1 339.5 g = 1 340 g to the nearest g
114
Exercise 4
1.0.9 Ib of cheese cost £1.44. What is the cost per Ib?
2.125 g of salt are added to 9.5 litres of water.
a)What is the concentration in g per litre?
b)How much salt would need to be added to 25 litres of water if the solution was to be
the same strength?
3.
a)How many litres of water are needed to dilute this packet?
b)How many square metres can be treated?
4.Find the average price per kg, if 3 kg of apples costing 81 p per kg are mixed with 5 kg
of pears costing £1.00 per kg.
5.Fred makes a water clock by piercing a hole in the bottom of a 900 cm3 plastic bottle
and filling it with water. The water drips out at a steady rate and the bottle is empty in
30 minutes.
a)What is the rate of water loss in cm3 per second?
b)How much water is there left after 25 minutes?
115
Answers Exercise 1
1.a) 100 g at 75 p b) 1.25 kg at £13.50 c) 1.5 kg at £2.05
2. 8 pkts for £3.96 3. Catering size

Exercise 2
1. 50 km/h 2. 6.86 km/h (to 3 s.f.) 3. 25.4 km/h (to 3 s.f.)
4. Yes. Fred runs at 28.6 km/h (3 s.f.)
Exercise 3
1.50km 2. 66 km/h 3. 10 hours
4. 10 h 19 min 5. 45 miles
Exercise 4
1. £1.60 2. a) 13.16 g per litre (to 4 s.f.) b) 329 g (to 3 s.f.)
3.a) 11 litres b) 71/3 m2 4. 93 p to the nearest p
5. a) 0.5cm3 per sec b) 150cm3
116
Summary
1 • Comparing costs
Always compare
EITHER the price of the same quantity
OR the quantity the same amount of money will buy.
2. Per means ÷
3. Distance/Time/Speed formulae
117
Standard Index Form
The mass of the earth is about 5 980 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 grams.
The mass of an electron is about 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 91 grams.
Scientists, engineers and accountants, amongst others, often find it necessary to perform
calculations using very large or very small numbers like these.
As such numbers are very cumbersome and difficult to work with in this form, it is more usual
to write them in another way, known as standard index form, (or sometimes just standard
form) or scientific notation.
Rewriting the statements above in standard form we have:

The mass of the earth is about 5.98 x 1027 grams, and
the mass of an electron is about 9.1 x 10-28 grams.
Here are some other numbers written in standard index form:
6.25 x 103 2 x 10 -4 9.6 x 107
You will notice that all the numbers have two parts.
The first part is always a number between 1 and 10;
the second part is a power of 10.
Converting Numbers in Standard Form into ordinary Decimal Numbers
Example 1 5.3 x 103
From our work on indices we know that 103 means 10 x 10 x 10

and so 5.3 x 103 means 5.3 x 10 x 10 x 10,
which we can calculate as 5 300.
118
Hence 5.3 x 10 3 = 5300
This example illustrates that
(i) the number in the power gives us the number of places which we
should move the decimal point to arrive at the answer.
The point moved three places from between the 5 and the 3, to after the
second zero.
(ii) a positive power of 10 means that the number is large. Here are
some further examples:
Example 2 2.54 x 10 7 = 25 400 000
To obtain this answer, write down the given numbers 254 and add sufficient zeros to be able
to move the point seven places, (i.e. the power of 10) to the end of the number.
Examples 9.5 x 10 2 = 950
(Write down the 9 and the 5, then add a zero to allow the decimal point to be moved
two places.)
Example 4 3 x 10 6 = 3 000 000
Now, let us consider what happens when the power of 10 is negative:
Examples 6.74 x 10 -4
1_ 1_______
You will remember that 10-4 means or
104 10 x 10 x 10 x 10
This means that when we multiply by 10-4 we are making the number smaller (i.e. it is
equivalent to dividing by 104).
We, therefore, move the point 4 places to the left, giving:
6.74 x 10-4 = 0.000 674
119
Examples 1.4 x 10-6
Here the power of 10 is -6, and so we have to move the point 6 places to the left,
thereby giving a small number.
We write down the 1 and the 4 with sufficient zeros before the 1 to allow us to move the
decimal point six places.
Hence 1.4 x 10 -6 = 0.0 000 014
Now try the following exercise, remembering that:
(i) the number in the power gives the number of places moved by
the decimal point, (not the number of zeros).
(ii) a positive power of 10 means that the number is large, (so move
the point to the right);
a negative power of 10 means that the number is small, (so move

the point to the left).
Exercise 1
Write as ordinary decimal numbers:
1. 2.11 x 104 2. 3.5 x 108 3. 4.2 x 10-3
4. 6.54 x 10-2 5. 8 x 10 3 6. 1.2 x 10 7
7.The distance from the earth to the sun is 1.495 x 108 km .
Write this as an ordinary decimal number.
8.When the temperature of a metre bar of steel is increased by 1 oC, its length increases by
1.1 x 10-5 metres. Write this number as an ordinary decimal number.
9. The number of used vehicle tyres dumped per day in the United Kingdom is 5.7 x 104.
(a)Write this number as an ordinary decimal number.

(b)How many tyres are dumped annually ? Write your answer (i) in standard form
(ii) in words.
10. The densities of hydrogen and helium in g/cm3 are 8.99 x 10-5 and 1.785 x 10-4,
respectively.
(a)Write these numbers as ordinary decimal numbers. .
(b)Which gas has the greater density?
(c)Is it possible to answer question (b) without answering question (a), i.e. by looking at
the numbers expressed in standard form? Explain!
Converting Numbers into Standard Index Form
120
We now reverse the process which we were carrying out above, and convert ordinary
decimal numbers into standard form.
The following should be borne in mind as you carry out the process:
(a) the first part of the number is always between 1 and 10.
(Note that the number can be 1, but is never 10)
(b)this is followed by "x 10" to a power - as we shall see

later in the unit, this is not given in the display on a
calculator, but must be written everywhere else,
(c)the power is the number of places moved by the decimal

point,
(d) for a large number, the power of 10 is positive; for a number

less than 1, the power of 10 is negative.
121
Example 1 542 000 = 5.42 x 105
The steps taken to arrive at this answer are as follows:
(i) We write down the non-zero numbers 542.
(ii) We put in the decimal point to give a number between 1 and 10, in
this case 5.42.
(iii) We count how many places we have moved the decimal point from
its position in the original number, in this case 5.
(iv) We write x 10 to the power of the number we found in (iii), in this

case x 105.
Example 2 21.56 = 2.156 x 10 1
Follow through as in Example 1: ask a tutor if you need some help.
Examples 0.001 9 = 1.9 x 10 -3
(i) Write down 19.
(ii) Put in the decimal point to give 1.9.
(iii) Count how many places the decimal point has been moved, in this
case 3.
(iv) Because 0.001 9 is a small number, we write x 10-3.
Example 4 9 = 9 x 10°
Now try the following exercise.
Be sure to ask for help if you are getting the answers wrong.
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Exercise 2
Write in standard index form:
1. 120 2. 56 300 3. 18.3 4. 0.000 067
5. 0.362 5 6. 80 7. 600 000 8. 0.035
9.0.007 10. 5 11. 16 million 12. three-tenths
13.The speed of light is 30 000 000 000 cm/s. Express this number in standard form.
14.The mass of plutonium held by the USA in 1984 was 380 000 pounds.
The number of human deaths possible from one pound of plutonium is 42 000 000 000.
Express both numbers in standard form.
15. The mass of a hydrogen atom is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 67 g, while
that of a uranium atom is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 395 g.
Write both numbers in standard index form.
Which atom has the larger mass?
Comparison of Numbers in Standard Form
Do you remember that in the last questions of Exercises 1 and 2, you were asked to
compare the size of two quantities expressed in standard form?
Let us look in more detail at comparison of numbers expressed in standard index form.
We shall start by considering the numbers 2 x 10 4, 4 x 103 and 6 x 103, and putting
them into order of size, smallest first.
We begin by looking at the powers of 10: 10 4, meaning 10 000, is larger than 103, which
equals 1 000 and so we can identify 2 x 10 4 as the largest of the three numbers without
looking at the 2, 4 or 6.
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The other two numbers contain the same power of ten, and so we sort them into size by
looking at the 4 and the 6.
Thus, in order of size, smallest first, we have: 4 x 103,6 x 103,2 x 104.
Example
The table shows the blood flow in cm3 per minute to various regions of the human body during
fairly strenuous exercise.
(a)Which region has the greatest blood flow?
(b)Does the skin or the brain have less blood flow during this type of exercise?
Region Blood flow (cm3/min)

Heart muscles 7.5 x 10 2
Skeletal muscles 1.25 x 104
Kidneys 6 x 102
Gut 6 x 102
Skin 1.9 x103
Brain 7.5 x 102
All other regions 4 x 10 2
TOTAL 1.75 x 104
(a)To find the region with the greatest blood flow, we look for the largest number in the
table, (with the exception of the total!). The only number with 104 is 1.25 x 104 for
skeletal muscles, and so this is the region with the greatest blood flow.
(b)Look first at the power of 10: skin is x 103 .whereas brain isx 102.
We, therefore, do not need to look at the numbers between 1 and 10 to establish that it is the
brain that has less blood flow.
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Exercise 3
1. Using the table given earlier on blood flow to regions of the human body, find
(a)which of the heart muscles or the skeletal muscles have less blood flowing to them
during this type of exercise?
(b)which of the heart muscles or the kidneys has greater blood flow?
2. The table shows the number of copies sold per day by some daily papers in 1988.
Newspaper No. of copies

Daily Express 1.68 x106
Daily Mail 1.79 x 106
Daily Mirror 3.08 x10 6
Daily Telegraph 1.14 x10 6
Financial Times 2.87 x 1 05
Guardian 4.70 x10 5
Independent 3.75 x10 5
Star 1.01 x106
Sun 4.15 x10 6
Times 4.51 x105
Today 4.08 x 1 05
Total 1.48 x107
(a)Does the Guardian or the Sun sell more papers per day?
(b)Which paper sold about half a million more copies than the Daily Telegraph?
(c)Write down the names of two papers which sold equal numbers of copies correct to
the nearest 100 000.
3. It has been found by physicists that the electron, neutron and proton have masses
9.108 3 x 10-28g, 1.674 70 x 10-24 g and 1.672 39 x 10-24 g, respectively. List the
particles in increasing order of mass.
125
1. Write the following numbers in standard index form:
(a) 365 000 (b) 0.001 49 (c) 5 421
2. Write as ordinary decimal numbers:
(a) 2.5 x 10 6 (b) 3.24 x 10-6 (c) 7 x 10 -2
3. The electric charge carried by an electron is 1.602 x 10 -19 coulombs.

Write this as an ordinary decimal number.
4. In the five years from 1988 to 1993, bonuses paid to road-building contractors by the
Department of Transport amounted to £17.3 million.
In the same period, penalty payments to the Department of Transport by road-building
contractors amounted to £1.25 million.
Express both numbers in standard form.
By how much did the bonus payments exceed the penalty payments?
(Give this answer in standard form.)
5. The number of telephones in Britain in 1977 was 2.17 x 10 7, and in 1990 it was
4.56 x 107. What was the increase in the number of telephones in this period?
What was the percentage increase?
6. The number of television sets in the world in 1947 was 170 000, and in 1991
it was 750 000 000.
Write both numbers in standard index form.
What was the increase in the number of television sets during this period?
Write this number correct to 2 significant figures.
What do you notice?
7. In 1992, the estimated number of BT and Mercury telephone calls per day
was 9 x 107. How many calls were there in that year?
8. The mass of a single hydrogen atom is found by dividing the mass of one mole of
hydrogen by the number of atoms it contains. If the mass of one mole of hydrogen is
1.008 g, and there are 6.02 x 1023 atoms in a mole, find the mass of a single hydrogen
atom, giving your answer both in grams and kilograms.
126
Answers Exercise 1
1.21 100 2.350 000 000 3.0.004 2
4. 0.065 4 5. 8 000 6. 12 000 000
7. 149 500 000km 8.0.000 011
9. (a) 57 000 (b) (i) 2.080 5 x 107 tyres
(ii) twenty million, eight hundred and five thousand tyres.
10. (a) 0.000 089 9, 0.000 178 5
(b) Helium (c) Yes; refer to section starting on page 6.
Exercise 2
1.1.2x102 2. 5.63x 104 3.1.83x10 1 4.6.7x10 -5
5.3.625x10-1 6.8x10 1 7.6x105 8.3.5x10-2
9. 7x10-3 10.5x10 0 11.1.6x107 12.3 x10-1
13.3x1010 14.3.8x105, 4.2x10 10
15. 1.67x 10-24, 3.95 x 10-22, uranium.
Exercise 3
1.(a) heart muscles (b) heart muscles
2.(a) Sun (b) Daily Express (c) Guardian and Times
3. electron, proton, neutron.
127
Exercise 4
1.6.16x 104(3s.f.) 2. 1.31 x103 3. 1.08x10 -4
4. 5.55 x 101 5. 1.62 x 106 (3 S.f.) 6. 8.87 x 10-3 (3 s.f.)
7. 1.04 x 1012(3s.f.) 8. 2.48 x 1013(3s.f.)
9. 7.5 x 106, 2.9 x 104 10. 5.9 x 1012 miles (2 S.f.)
1. (a) 3.65 x 10s (b) 1.49 x 10~3 (c) 5.421 x 103
2. (a) 2 500 000 (b) 0.000 003 24 (c) 0.07
3. 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 160 2
4. 1.73x 107, 1.25x 106, £1.605x 107
5. 2.39 x 107, 110%.
6. 1.7x105, 7.5 x 108, 7.498 3 x 108, 7.5 x108.
When corrected to 2 s.f., the increase is the same as the number in 1991.
7. 3.294x 1010 calls. (Did you remember that 1992 was a leap year?)
8. 1.67x 10-24g, 1.67x 10-27 kg (both to 3 S.f.).
128
Basic Algebraic expressions
Algebra involves using letters instead of numbers in mathematical expressions. We can

carry out the same operations on letters as we can on numbers: we can add or subtract
them; we can multiply or divide them. Exactly the same rules apply when dealing with letters
as when dealing with numbers (including those rules relating to directed numbers), but you
do need to be very careful. If you are in any doubt about carrying out operations on
algebraic expressions while working through this or future units then ask a tutor.
Addition and subtraction of algebraic terms
It may be helpful to think first of physical objects.
3 tomatoes + 4 tomatoes = 7 tomatoes
But if we try to add 4 cucumbers to 3 tomatoes it cannot be done:
3 tomatoes + 4 cucumbers = 3 tomatoes + 4 cucumbers.
Cucumbers and tomatoes are different things; they cannot be added or subtracted. We can
think about algebraic terms in the same way.
We can only add or subtract algebraic terms if they are of the same form, or they are like
terms.
We can add 4t to 3t because they are like terms: 4t means 4 x t or 4 lots of t; 3t

means 3 x t or 3 lots of t. Therefore 3t + 4t = 7t
We cannot add 4t to 3t2 because they are unlike terms.
We can add 4t2 to 3t2 as they are like terms. Therefore 4t2 + 3t2 = 712
We cannot subtract 5mn from 8m3.
We can subtract 5mn from 8mn as they are like terms. Therefore 8mn – 5mn = 3mn
Other Examples
1) 5t - 2t = 3t
2) 3mn + 4mn = 7mn
3) 8y2 - 3y2 = 5y2
4) 4ab - 3ab = ab
N.B. 'ab' means '1ab'. The 1 before the ietter(s) is usually left off.
5) 3t + 7t - 6t = 4t
129
6) 3ab + 4a + 2ab-3a = 5ab + a
N.B. In this example we add or subtract only the like terms. It is helpful to collect the
like terms before carrying out the operations, as in this example:
= 3ab + 4a + 2ab - 3a
= 3ab + 2ab + 4a - 3a
= 5ab + a (or a + 5ab)
7) 4y + 2y2 + 3y = 7y + 2y2
N.B. In this and the next example we can only add or subtract some, but not all, of the
terms. Some terms remain unchanged.
8) 3t 2 + 5t - 8t2 = 5t - 5t2
N.B. Notice that the minus sign in front of the 8 stays there when the terms are re-
ordered, as follows.
3t2 + 5t - 8t2
= 3t2 - 8t2 + 5t
= -5t2 + 5t
= 5t - 5t2 which is neater
You should remember that the sign applies to the term immediately following it, even when
the order is changed.
9) 8m -5n = 8m-5n
N.B. There are no like terms so this expression cannot be simplified.
10) 5x 3 - 9x 3 = -4x3
Exercise 1
Simplify these expressions:
1) 4f + 11f 2) 8g - 6g
3) 7xy + 8xy 4) 7b - 4b + 3b
5) 5x - 9x + 2x 6) 7t - 3s + 8s
7) 2m + 7n - 5n - m 8) 7x 2 - 4xy - 3x 2
9) 9ab3 + 2a2b - 5ab3 10) 3x3 - 5xy + 8xy -4x3
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Multiplication and division of algebraic terms
The same rules apply when dealing with letters as when dealing with numbers. Any
combination of numbers and letters can be multiplied or divided by any other combination
(so this is easier than addition or subtraction). Great care must be taken, however, when
establishing the sign of the product or quotient.
Examples
1) a times b = ab
2) m times m2 = m times m x m = m x m x m = m 3
3) 2a x 3b = 6ab
N.B. When terms involve both numbers and letters, multiply the numbers first and then the
letters. It is conventional to put numbers before letters, and to put letters in alphabetic
order. But 6ba would also be an acceptable answer to this question.
4) a x a = a2
5) 3s x 4s = 3 x 4 x s x s = 12s 2
6) - 3y x 2z = - 6yz
N.B. In this example, first establish the sign of the product. Multiplying a negative term
by a positive term gives a negative result. Then multiply the numbers and finally the
letters.
7) a x 4a = 1 x 4 x a x a = 4a 2
8) -7b x -2b = 14b 2
N.B. Remember that multiplying a negative term by a negative term gives a. positive term.
9) 5t3 x 3t = 5 x 3 x t x t x t x t = 15t 4
10) 2a ÷ a = 2a = 2
a
N.B. All operations involving division can be expressed, as in this example, as a fraction.
The fraction can then be simplified by dividing both the numerator and denominator by a
common factor. In this example the common factor is 'a'.
131
11)
N.B. In this example, there are 2 common factors: '2' and 'x1. The fraction is simplified by
dividing the numerator and denominator by 2 and then by x. The same result is achieved
by dividing through by the single factor '2X1.
12)
N.B. The common factor here is '- 4'. Dividing a negative number by another negative
number in both the numerator and denominator gives a positive number.
i.e. -8 ÷ -4 = 2 and -4 ÷ -4 = 1
13)
14)
Exercise 2
Simplify these expressions
132
Simplifying terms involving brackets
When an expression includes a bracket there are 2 very important rules to remember:
a)Multiply out the bracket first, before doing any other operation.
b)Everything inside the bracket must be multiplied by the term outside the bracket.
N.B. Remember that 2(a + b) means 2 times (a + b) or 2 x (a + b). So you first multiply the 'a'
by 2, giving 2a; and you then multiply the 'b' by 2, giving 2b. Therefore:
2(a + b) = 2a + 2b
Examples of multiplying out brackets
1) 3(x+y) becomes 3x+3y
2) a(2 —t) becomes 2a —at
3) 3(2z + 5y) becomes 6z + 15y
4) 5t(2t-3s) becomes 10t 2-15st
N.B. The rules for multiplying directed numbers or letters are exactly the same when using
brackets. This means you have to be very careful when the term outside the bracket is
negative. This has the effect of changing the signs of the terms inside the bracket when the
bracket is removed, as shown in the following examples:
5) - 3(a + b) becomes - 3a - 3b
6) -4(2-x) = -8 + 4x
7) -a(a + b) = -a 2 -ab
8) -(x + y) = -x-y
N.B. In this example the 1 in front of the bracket has been left out. Thus — (x + y) could be
rewritten as —1 (x + y).
9) - (4 - xy) = -1(4 – xy) = -4 + xy (or xy - 4 which is neater)
Exercise 3
Multiply out the brackets.
1) 3(y + 2) 2) a(4 + b)
3) 5(x-y) 4) 4(3s-2t)
133
5) - (m + n) 6) - 2(7z + 3)
7) -5(5t - 3) 8) 5x(2x - 3y)
Removing brackets and simplifying
When simplifying an expression including a bracketed term, multiply out the bracket(s)
first and then collect all the 'like' terms together.
Examples
1) 3a - 2b + 4(a + b)
= 3a - 2b + 4a + 4b
= 3a + 4a - 2b + 4b
= 7a + 2b
2) 5x - 4(3 - x)
= 5x - 12 + 4x
= 5x + 4x - 12
= 9x - 12
3) 3(t + 2) + 5(t + 3)
= 3t + 6 + 5t+15
= 3t + 51 + 6 + 15
= 8t + 21
4) 7(y - 2) + (y + 5)
= 7y - 14 + y + 5
= 7y + y - 14 + 5
= 8y – 9
N.B. In the term '+(y + 5)' in this example the '1' in front of the bracket has been left out.
The expression could have been written '7(y – 2) + 1(y + 5)'.
Exercise 4
Simplify these expressions.
1) 8t - 7 + 3(4 + t) 2) 2(5 + y) + (y-1)
3) 5(2z - 3) - 3(4 + z) 4) 2(3m + 2) -5(m2 - m)
5) 7(a + 2b) - 3(2a - b) 6) 3(x + y) + 5 (x - y) - 2(2x - y)
134
ANSWERS
Exercise 1
1) 15f 2) 2g 3} 15xy 4) 6b 5) -2x
6) 7t + 5s 7) m + 2n 8) 4x 2 - 4xy 9) 4ab3 + 2a2b 10) 3xy - x3
Indices
When a number is multiplied by itself, the result is known as the square of the number. You
met this in an earlier unit.
Example 1 5 x 5 is written as 52 and is read as "five squared".
So 5 2 = 5 x 5 .= 25
(Notice the difference between 5 2 = 5 x 5 = 25 and 5 x 2 = 10.) Similarly 5 x 5

x 5 is written 53 and is read as " five cubed"
5 3 = 5 x 5 x 5 = 125
These are examples of "indices" (singular: "index") or "powers" of a number. Here are
some more examples:
Example 2
135
104 is read as "ten to the power of four" and means 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 10000.
Note that for powers of ten the number of zeros is the same as the power; here the
power is 4 and we have 4 zeros.
Also, for example, 106 = 1000000 : power of 6 and 6 zeros.
Example 3
26 is read as "two to the power of six" and means 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 64.
Note that we can use "to the power of" with any number, but that with two and three it is more
common to use the words "squared" and "cubed" respectively.
136
Example 4 Evaluate (a) (-3)2 (b) -3 2
(a)(-3)2 = -3 x -3 = 9 (Remember that multiplying two minuses gives a plus.)
(b) In this case, since there is no bracket, only the 3, (not the negative), is squared.
-3 2 = - 3 x 3 = -9
Example 5 Find 2 4 x 3 2
24x32 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 3x 3
= 16 x 9
= 144
Exercise 1 Calculate the value of the following, using your calculator to help with the
arithmetic where necessary:
1. 34 2. 25 3. 43 4. 105 5. 73
6. 92 7. 54 8. 108 9. 83 10. (-2)3
11.63 12. 36 13.(-2)4 14.-24 15.(1.1)2
16. 43 x 23 17. 27 + 42 18. 33 x 22 19. (-3)3 x 22
Products of Primes
Powers can be used to express certain answers in a shorter form.
For example, when you are asked to express a number as a product of its prime
factors, you can write the answer neatly using powers of the prime factors.
Once again you met some simple examples of this in an earlier unit; here is a reminder
of the method.
137
Example 1 Express 540 as a product of its prime factors.
We divide the number 540 by each of the prime numbers in turn; we start with 2 and continue
to divide until 2 will no longer go into the number exactly, at which stage we try 3 and repeat
the process:
We are now able to collect the numbers by which we have divided, to give
540=2x2x3x3x3x 5 or 540 = 2 2 x 3 3 x 5
Example 2 Express 686 as a product of primes.
Thus 686 = 2 x 7 3
Exercise 2
Express the following numbers as products of primes:
1.252 2.315 3.275 4.792
5. 416 6. 306 7. 1 200 8. 1 470
138
If you find any problems with the rest of this unit, please consult a tutor without
delay; it may be possible to omit some sections.
Zero and Negative Indices
These may at first seem strange (!), but the definitions given below for zero and negative
indices are such that the methods of dealing with indices remain consistent throughout.
First of all, can you continue the following number pattern:

100 000 10 000 1 000 100 …………….?
Did you find that each number was the previous number divided by 10?
So if we continue the pattern we have:
100000 10000 1000 100 10 1
Do we have to stop at this point? What happens if we continue to divide by 1 0?
100000 10000 1000 100 10 1
Now let us look at the first part of the pattern as powers of 10:
100000 10000 1 000 100
105 104 103 102
The powers of 10 are decreasing by 1 each time and so if we continue we have:
This gives us
The above process can be carried out with numbers other than 10:
e.g.
139
This leads to the following general results:
Zero Index
Any number to the power zero is 1
Examples: 20 = 1 60 = 1 1 470 = 1 560 = 1
140
Negative Indices
Example 1
Remember! When you see a negative index, think "One Over"
141
Reciprocals
Note that 5-1 or 1 is sometimes referred to as the reciprocal of 5.

5
5
Since 5 can be written , the reciprocal can be obtained by "turning the fraction upside
1
down."
Here are some more examples:
Example 1 The reciprocal of 2 is 1 (or 2-1 or 0.5 depending on the form you require).
2
Exercise 4 (Do not use a calculator.)
Remember: if you are finding this difficult, ask a tutor for advice.
142
Find the values of the following without your calculator, giving your answers as whole
numbers or fractions, as appropriate:
1. 33 2. 3-3 3. 3 0 4. (-3)3 5. (-3) -3
6. 17 7. 1-7 8. (-1)7 9. -5 2 10. 5-2
11. 22 x 23 12. 22 x 2-3 13. 32 x 23
14. the reciprocal of 9 15. the reciprocal of 2/3
Find the values of the following, giving your answers exactly, or as decimals corrected to
3 significant figures where appropriate:
143
144
Summary
1. When a number is multiplied by itself, the result is the square

145
of the number
e.g. 3 x 3 = 3 2
2. If a number is multiplied together three times, the result is the

cube of the number
e.g. 4 x 4 x 4 = 43
3.Any number to the power of zero is 1
e.g. 5 0 = 1
4.A negative index is 1 over the corresponding positive index
5.The reciprocal of a number is that number to the power of -1.

It is obtained by "turning the fraction upside down".
6.To calculate indices using a calculator, use the key xy, (or yx).
7.To calculate reciprocals using a calculator, use the key 1/x.
146
Indices 2
In Unit 15 (AT2), you studied indices. Here is a short revision exercise to try before we
extend our study of the topic. If you find the exercise difficult, ask a tutor for advice. It is
possible to miss out this unit completely and still achieve an acceptable grade in the
GCSE examination.
Revision Exercise
Find the values of the following, without using your calculator:

1. 24 2. 2-4 3. 20 4. (-2)4
5. -24 6. the reciprocal of 4⁄5
Use your calculator to find the values of the following, giving your answers exactly, or as
decimals corrected to 3 significant figures where appropriate:
7. 93 8. 3-3 9. (0.3)2 10. (0.3)5
11. (0.2)3 12. (-0.2)3 13. 42 x 4-2 14. 42 ÷ 4-2
Fractional Indices
We have looked at the meaning of positive, negative and zero powers, and now we
examine what happens when the index, or power, is a fraction.
You will remember that 5 x 5 is written as 5 2 and is read as "five squared".
So 5 2 = 5 x 5 = 25
Alternatively, we can say that 5 is the "square root" of 25. We write this as
√25 = 5, but we can also write 251/2 = 5. The fraction, 1/2, is used to mean that
we are taking the square root.
You know, also, that 5 x 5 x 5 is written 53 and is read as" five cubed".
53 = 5 x 5 x 5 = 125
147
Alternatively we can say that 5 is the "cube root" of 125,
which we write as 3√125 = 5
N.B. Write the 3 carefully; it should be small and "sit" on the root sign.
3√125, with a normal size of 3, means 3 times the square root of 125.
We can also use the power of one third to mean that we are taking a cube root
i.e. 1251/3 = 3√125 = 5.
Here are some further examples:
Example 1 8 1/3 which means the cube root of 8

3
√8 = 2 (Check 2 x 2 x 2 = 8)
Example 2 641/ 6 which means the sixth root of 64

6
√64 = 2 (Check 26 = 64)
Example 3 811/4 which means the fourth root of 81

4
√81 = 3 (Check 34 = 81)
Example 4 What is the fifth root of 32?

5
The fifth root of 32 = √32 = 2 (Check 25 = 32)
(Note that this example could also have been set as: find 321/ 5)
Now let us consider what happens when the top of the fraction (numerator) is not 1.
In this case we take the root corresponding to the denominator of the fraction and then square,
cube, raise to the fourth power etc. according to the numerator.
Example 5 642/3 = 3
√642
Firstly we work out the cube root of 64, which is 4. (4 x 4 x 4 = 64) Then we square
the 4 to give 16.
So 642/3 = 3√642 = 42 = 16
148
Notice that we could obtain the same answer by squaring first and then taking the cube root,
but the method shown gives a much easier calculation.
Here is another example:
Examples 163/4 = 4
√l63 = 23 = 8
Here we have firstly written down the fourth root of 16 which is 2 and then cubed it to give 8.
Now try the following exercise, without using your calculator:
Exercise 1 Simplify:
1. 91/ 2 2. 32 1/5 3. 82/3 4. 1252/3
5. 1003/2 6. 1 0002/3 7. 27 4/3 8. 813/4
Fractional and Negative Indices
There will be times when the indices will be both negative and fractional. In this case the
methods which you have already learned must be combined.
Notice that we have dealt with the negative index first in each of the examples. This is
usually the simplest route to the answer.
149
Exercise 2 Find, without using a calculator:
1. 100-1/2 2. 16-1/4 3. 32-3/5 4. 27-4/3
5. 8 -2/3 6. 1 000-2/3 7. 1 000 -2/3 x 10 8. 8 -2/3 x 4 3
150
Summary
151
1. Fractional Indices
(a) The denominator of the fraction tells us which root to find:
e.g. a power of ½ means a square root;
a power of ¼ means a fourth root.
(b) The numerator of the fraction raises to a power as normal,

and is carried out after the root is taken.
e.g. 642/3 = 3√642 = 42 ( 3√64 = 4)
= 16
2. Fractional and Negative Indices
Deal with the negative index before the fractional one
3. Become familiar with the most effective method of calculating with

indices, on your own calculator.
152
Number Systems
The Binary Number System
The base 2 number system, called binary is based on powers of 2 and contains only two
digits, 0 and 1. By now the pattern should be pretty clear ...
Binary Digit Positions and Values
In base 2, each digit occupies a position worth two times the position to its right, instead of
ten times as in base 10, eight times as in octal, or 16 as in hex. So if 1101001 is a binary
number, it can be read as:
1101001 = 1000000 (bin) = 1 * 26 = 1 * 64 (decimal) = 64 (decimal)

+ 100000 (bin) = 1 * 25 = 1 * 32 (decimal) = 32 (decimal)
TOTAL = 105 (decimal)
We total the decimal values of each binary digit to get the decimal equivalent. So 1101001
(binary) is 105 (decimal).
Converting Decimal to Binary

We can convert a decimal to binary using the same procedure we used to convert decimal
to octal or hex. The difference this time is that we divide by 2 each time since we are
working in base 2. In the following steps we convert 105 from decimal to binary:
153
Step Divide Equals Remainder Digits
(1) 105 / 2 = 52 1 1
(2) 52 / 2 = 26 0 01
(3) 26 / 2 = 13 0 001
(4) 13 / 2 = 6 1 1001
(5) 6/2= 3 0 01001
(6) 3/2= 1 1 101001
(7) 1/2= 0 1 1101001
So 105 in decimal is written as 1101001 in binary.

Decimal, hexadecimal and binary
Decimal Hexadecimal Binary

0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
10 A 1010
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
13 D 1101
14 E 1110
15 F 1111
e.g. CA3 16 = 1100 1010 00112 (11002 = C16 , 10102 = A16, 00112 = 3 16).
Logarithms
154
In mathematics, a logarithm of a given number to a given base is the power to which you
need to raise the base in order to get the number. For example, the logarithm of 1000 to
the common base 10 is 3, because 10 raised to a power of 3 is 1000.
More formally, the logarithm base b of a number x is the exponent y that satisfies x = by. It
is written logb(x) or, if the base is implicit, as log(x).
In other words
is equivalent to
The base b must be neither 0 and is typically 10, e, or 2. When x and b are
further restricted to positive real numbers, logb(x) is a unique real number.
For example, since
or, in words, the base-3 logarithm of 81 is 4, or the log base-3 of 81 is 4.
Before we can deal with logarithms we need to revise indices. This is because logarithms
and indices are closely related, and in order to understand logarithms a good knowledge of
indices is required.
We know that
16 = 24
Here, the number 4 is the power. Sometimes we call it an exponent. Sometimes we call it
an index. In the expression 24, the number 2 is called the base.
Example
We know that 64 = 82.
In this example 2 is the power, or exponent, or index. The number 8 is the base.
Use of Logarithms
Consider the following:
We know that 16 = 24. We also know that 8 = 23
155
Suppose that we wanted to multiply 16 by 8.
One way is to carry out the multiplication directly using long-multiplication and obtain 128.
But this could be long and tedious if the numbers were larger than 8 and 16. Can we do
this calculation another way using the powers ? Note that
16 × 8 can be written 24× 23
This equals
27
using the rules of indices which tell us to add the powers 4 and 3 to give the new power, 7,
what was a multiplication sum has been reduced to an addition sum.
Similarly if we wanted to divide 16 by 8:
16 ÷ 8 can be written 24 ÷ 23
This equals
21 or simply 2
using the rules of indices which tell us to subtract the powers 4 and 3 to give the new
power, 1.
If we had a look-up table containing powers of 2, it would be straightforward to look up 27

and obtain 27 = 128 as the result of finding 16 × 8.
Notice that by using the powers, we have changed a multiplication problem into one
involving addition (the addition of the powers, 4 and 3).
Historically, this observation led John Napier (1550-1617) and Henry Briggs (1561-1630)
to develop logarithms as a way of replacing multi-plication with addition, and also division
with subtraction.
What is a logarithm ?
Consider the expression 16 = 24. Remember that 2 is the base, and 4 is the power. An
alternative, yet equivalent, way of writing this expression is log2 16 = 4. This is stated as
‘log to base 2 of 16 equals 4’. We see that the logarithm is the same as the power or index
156
in the original expression. It is the base in the original expression which becomes the base
of the logarithm.
The two statements
16 = 24 and log2 16 = 4
are equivalent statements. If we write either of them, we are automatically implying the
other.
Example
If we write down that 64 = 82 then the equivalent statement using logarithms is log8 64 =
2.
Example
If we write down that log3 27 = 3 then the equivalent statement using powers is 3 3 = 27.
So the two sets of statements, one involving powers and one involving logarithms are
equivalent.
In the general case we have:
if x = an then equivalently loga x = n
Let us develop this a little more.

Because 10 = 101 we can write the equivalent logarithmic form log10 10 = 1.
Similarly, the logarithmic form of the statement 21 = 2 is log2 2 = 1.
In general, for any base a, a = a1 and so loga a = 1.
Hence,
loga a = 1
e.g
,log22 = 1, log44 = 1, log66 = 1
We can see from the Examples above that indices and logarithms are very closely related.
In the same way that we have rules or laws of indices, we have laws of logarithms.
Exercises
1. Write the following using logarithms instead of powers
a) 82 = 64 b) 35 = 243 c) 210 = 1024 d) 53 = 125 e) 106 = 1000000 f) 10−3 =

0.001 g) 3−2 = 1
157
2. Determine the value of the following logarithms
a) log3 9 b) log2 32 c) log5 125 d) log10 10000

e) log4 64 f) log25 5
The first law of logarithms
Suppose
x = an and y = am
then the equivalent logarithmic forms are
loga x = n and loga y = m (1)
Using the first rule of indices
xy = an × am = an+m
Now the logarithmic form of the statement xy = an+m is loga xy = n + m. But n = loga x
and
m = loga y from (1) and so putting these results together we have
loga xy = loga x + loga y
So, if we want to multiply two numbers together and find the logarithm of the result, we can
do this by adding together the logarithms of the two numbers..
The second law of logarithms
Suppose x = an, or equivalently loga x = n. Suppose we raise both sides of x = a n to the

power m:
Xm = (an)m
Using the rules of indices we can write this as
Xm = anm
Thinking of the quantity xm as a single term, the logarithmic form is

loga xm = nm = mloga x
The second law states that when finding the logarithm of a power of a number, this
can be evaluated by multiplying the logarithm of the number by that power.
loga xm = mloga x
The third law of logarithms
As before, suppose
x = an and y = am
158
with equivalent logarithmic forms
loga x = n and loga y = m
Consider x ÷ y.
x
y
= an ÷ am
= an-m
using the rules of indices.
In logarithmic form
Loga x = n - m
y
which from (2) can be written
loga x = loga x − loga y

y
The logarithm of 1
Recall that any number raised to the power zero is 1: a0 = 1. The logarithmic form of this is
loga 1 = 0
The logarithm of 1 in any base is 0.
Examples
Example
Suppose we wish to find log2512.
This is the same as being asked ‘what is 512 expressed as a power of 2 ?’
Now 512 is in fact 29 and so log2 512 = 9.
Example
Suppose we wish to find log8 1

64
.
This is the same as being asked ‘what is
1
64
159
expressed as a power of 8 ?’
Now
1
64
can be written 64−1. Noting also that 82 = 64 it follows that
1
64
= 64−1 = (82)−1 = 8−2
using the rules of indices. So log8 1 = -2

64
Example
Suppose we wish to find log5 25.
This is the same as being asked ‘what is 25 expressed as a power of 5 ?’
Now 52 = 25 and so log5 25 = 2.
Example
Suppose we wish to find log25 5.
This is the same as being asked ‘what is 5 expressed as a power of 25?’
We know that 5 is a square root of 25, that is 5 = √25. So 251/2 = 5 and so log25 5 = 1.
Notice from the last two examples that by interchanging the base and the number
log25 5 = 1
log525
logb a = 1
loga b
To illustrate this again, consider the following example.
Example
Consider log2 8. We are asking ‘what is 8 expressed as a power of 2 ?’ We know that 8 =

23 and so log2 8 = 3.
160
What about log8 2 ? Now we are asking ‘what is 2 expressed as a power of 8 ?’ Now 2 3 =
8
and so 2 = 3√ 8 or 81/3. So log8 2 = 1/3
.
We see again
log8 2 = 1
log2 8
161
1.3 Geometry
162
MENSURATION (1)
Simple Perimeters , Areas & Volumes
Perimeter This is the distance all the way round the edge of a shape.
Example 1
Suppose we walked around the four sides of the
football pitch shown. The distance we would
travel is 100 m + 80 m + 100 m + 80 m so the
perimeter of the pitch is 360 m.
Example 2
If the perimeter of the rectangle shown is 32 yards,
find its width.
The given length is 10 yards which tells us that 2 of

the sides make 20 yards which leaves 32 - 20 = 12
yards for the other 2 sides.
This means that the width is 6 yards.
(Check 10 + 6 + 10 + 6 = 32 yards)
Example 3
The diagram shows a rectangular area
measuring 50 metres by 40 metres. Part
of this area consists of a lawn (the
shaded part) and the other part is a
square flower bed of side 25 metres.
Find the perimeter of the lawn.
The starting point of the measurement

has been marked with a black dot...see
top left - hand corner of the rectangle.
Now tracing round the edge of the lawn we record

the edges as 50 m + 15 m + 25 m + 25 m + 25 m + 40 m.
So the perimeter of the lawn = 180m
A.A.A. 163
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Luchthavenlei 1 pb 34 2100 Antwerp (Deurne) Belgium
Tél : +32(0)3 321 72 27 Fax : +32(0)3 322 33 58 – email: info@aaa147.be web: www.aaa147.be
Exercise 1
1. Find the perimeter of each of the following shapes:
2. The perimeter of the rectangle is 22 metres. Find its length.
3. The perimeter of a square is 100 km. Find the length of each side.
4. The diagram shows a patio made up of white and black

stone flags (some of the white ones have obviously been cut in
half).
If each flag measures 3 feet by 3 feet, find the perimeter of the

black pattern on the patio.
A.A.A. 164
Area This is a measure of the amount of surface within a shape.
The units we use to measure area depend to some extent on the size of the
shape. In the metric system the common units of area are:
The centimetre square (cm )......for small areas
The metre square (m )………... for larger areas
For very large areas the kilometre square (km2) would

be appropriate.
Some Imperial units for areas are: ...... the inch square
............................................................ in2
the foot square
...................ft2
the yard square yard2
and for very large area…………………the mile square mile2
Example 1
Suppose we wanted to find the area of the

playing card shown.
To find how many centimetre squares (cm2)
are contained within the shape we can draw
a grid of lines 1 cm apart and then count how
many squares there are within the perimeter
of the shape.
The shape is made up of 48 centimetre
squares and therefore we say that the area
= 48 cm2
On the other hand we could measure each
side of the card and this would show that the
length is 8 cm and the width is 6 cm so
therefore its area is 8 x 6 = 48 cm 2. ("48
square centimetres")
This latter method is obviously easier than
the grid method. However the grid method is
useful when dealing with irregular areas later
in the unit.
A.A.A. 165
Area of Squares and Rectangles
For both of these shapes: Area = Length x Width
Example To find the area of the shape on the left below we can add an extra line to
obtain a rectangle. Hence the area we require is the rectangle area less the
area of the square which is the shaded part.
Required area = (20 x 40) - (10 x 10) = 800 - 100 = 700 cm2
Exercise 2 Calculate the areas of the following shapes.

(Draw lines on each shape to produce rectangles or squares.)
A.A.A. 166
A.A.A. 167
2. The diagrams below represent flooring tile patterns, each square tile measuring 1
foot by 1 foot. For each pattern find the area of (i) the shaded part
(ii) the unshaded part.
Area Estimates
Some shapes are not nice and regular like squares, rectangles and triangles etc. and
therefore there is no simple formula we can employ to find the exact areas of these
shapes. However, using the grid method (see page 3), we can obtain area estimates
of these irregular shapes, sometimes to quite a high degree of accuracy.
Example The diagram shows an irregular shape and to estimate its area grid lines 1
centimetre apart have been drawn on it.
The full squares are labelled with the letter "f" and the parts round the edge which are
more than a half are labelled with a "p".There are 25 full squares and 20 part
squares which we count as whole squares and therefore our area estimate is:
25 + 20 = 45 cm2 ("45 square centimetres")
Note that we include parts which are more than a half and ignore the others.
(By using smaller squares a better estimate can be obtained but in this course such a level
A.A.A. 168
of accuracy is not required.)
A.A.A. 169
Exercise 3 Estimate each irregular area below by drawing a grid of lines 1 cm apart. Each
estimate should be based on the technique of counting only whole squares and part squares
which are obviously larger than one half....just like the last example.
A.A.A. 170
Simple Volumes The diagrams below show a 1 cm cube and a cubical box which
measures 4 cm by 4 cm by 4 cm.
To find the volume of the box we need to find how many 1 cm cubes are needed to fill
the box.
Firstly
consider placing just one layer of centimetre cubes in the box. This layer is shown in the
diagram.
This layer has 4 x 4 = 16 cubes in it.
It should be clear that we need 4 layers to
exactly fill the box hence we require
4 x 4 x 4 = 64 cubes.
We say that the volume of the box = 64 cm 3.

("64 cubic centimetres")
In general, to find the volume (capacity) of any square or rectangular box, we can say:
Volume = Length x Width x Height
cases it might be c
metre cubes, m3 ("cu
cubes, in3 ("cubic
cubes, ft3 ("cubic feet
volume units are
Alternatively, because Length x
Width = Area of the base, we can
express the volume as: Volume =
Area of base x Height
In the above illustration we have

used centimetre cubes as the
volume units however in other
A.A.A. 171
Exercise 4
1. Find the volume (capacity) of the following containers:
2. The diagram represents a storage

tank for holding a very volatile industrial
solvent. Regulations specify that the
container must 1.5 m never be more
than half - full of solvent. Find the
maximum volume of solvent the tank is
allowed to hold.
3. The diagram represents the

trailer of an articulated lorry.
(a) How many boxes in the shape

of 1 foot cubes could you stack
inside the trailer?
(b) If the boxes were 2 foot cubes how

many could you stack in the trailer?
A.A.A. 172
4. The diagram shows a 1 metre cubical box. How many
1 centimetre cubes would fit into the box?
(This question is really asking you to find now many
cubic centimetres there are in a cubic metre consider
just one layer first and remember that 100 cm = 1 m).
5. The diagram below represents a small fish tank and its dimensions are given in
centimetres. The tank actually holds 40 litres of water. Calculate the volume of the tank in
cubic centimetres and hence state how many cubic centimetres there are in one litre.
6. The shaded area in the diagram represents the

driveway up to the house. This is a rectangular area
measuring 50 metres long by 7 metres wide
The driveway is to be covered in concrete to a depth

of 0.1 metres.
If ready - mixed concrete delivered to the house costs £50 per cubic metre, estimate how
much it will cost to concrete the driveway.
A.A.A. 173
Volumes of 3 dimensional objects with constant cross-section
In the previous section we found that the volume of a rectangular box (described
mathematically as a cuboid) is found from
Volume = Length x Width x Height.
We now look at how we find the volumes of some other objects.
Consider the diagram below which shows the letter H from a child's toy alphabet. The H has
measurements as shown and is made of plastic 1.5 cm thick.
What volume of plastic is used to make the letter H?
To find the volume of plastic, we first calculate the area of the face of the H.
Area = 4 x 3 - 1 x1 . 5 - 1 x 1.5 = 9 cm 2
Then since the letter has a thickness of 1.5 cm we multiply the area by 1.5 to give the
volume in cubic centimetres.
So volume of plastic = 9 x 1.5 cm3 = 13.5cm3
A.A.A. 174
The letter H is an example of an object with constant cross-section. This means that when
you 'slice' the object, the face you obtain is always the same (in the above example, always
an H).
In general the volume of an object with constant cross-section is found from
Volume = Area of cross-section x thickness
or alternatively
Volume = Area of cross-section x length.
Exercise 5
1. Find the volume of plastic used to make the letter E shown below. Once again the letter is
1.5 cm thick.
2. The cross-section of a beam has (cubes) and

the dimensions shown (in cm). (cuboids). Look
Calculate the volume of a beam 3m diagrams and c
long. (Hint: work in metres produce sketche
throughout.) you were asked t
three
Cylinders and Spheres
Earlier in the unit there were

diagrams showing cubical boxes
A.A.A. 175
objects in greater detail in later units but at this point in the course it is sufficient for you
to be able to recognise and sketch cubes and cuboids and also cylinders and spheres.
Figure 1 shows a sketch of a cylinder. Notice that 2 measurements are shown : the
height of the cylinder is 12 cm and the radius i.e. the distance from the centre of the top
to the outside is 3 cm.
Figure 2 shows a sketch of a sphere with several radii (r) drawn in.
Exercise 6 Ask a tutor to check your sketches for questions 2 and 3.
1. Write down (i) the height (ii) the radius of this cylinder
2.Sketch a sphere of radius 50 mm.
If this represents an orange which is lying on a table what distance is the highest point of
the orange above the table?
3. Sketch a cylinder of width 15 metres and height 2 metres. What is the radius of this
cylinder?
A.A.A. 176
Answers Exercise 1
1. (a) 42m (b) 81km (c) 24ft (d) 96 in (e) 442 cm
2. 6m
3. 25 km
4. 60ft
Exercise 2
1. (a) 1400mm2 (b) 1280ft 2 (c) 425m 2

(d) 216cm2 (e) 2300 in2 (f) 675km2
1. (a) shaded = 2ft 2; unshaded = 17ft 2
(b) shaded = 2ft 2; unshaded = 18ft 2
Exercise 3
1. 74 - 78cm2
2. 53 - 57cm2 .
Exercise 4
1. (a) 30m3 (b) 216 in3 (c) 980cm3 3. 7.5 m.
2. 5.625 m3
3. (a) 4800 boxes (b) 600 boxes
4. 1 000 000 cubes i.e. one million cubic centimetres = one cubic metre
5. 40 000 cm3 and therefore 1 litre = 1 000 cm3
6. £1 750
Exercise 5
1. 13.2 cm3
2. 0.3075 m3
Exercise 6 1. (i) 16cm. (ii) 4cm
A.A.A. 177
VOLUMES AND SURFACE AREAS
Any Solid Having a Uniform Cross-section and Parallel End Faces (prism)
Volume = Cross-sectional area x Length of solid
Surface area = Longitudinal surface + Ends
i.e. (Perimeter of cross-section x Length of solid) + (Total area of ends)
Sphere
4
Volume = /3 π r3
Surface area = 4 π r2
Spherical Cap
(Total surface area) = (Curved surface area) + (Flat surface area)
= 2 π Rh + πr2
or π(r2 + h2) + πr2
πh2 πh
Volume = (3R +h) or (3r2 + h 2)
3 6
Pyramid
Volume = ?
Surface area = Sum of the areas of the triangles

forming the sides plus the area of
the base
Cylinder
Volume = πr2h
Surface area = 2πrh + 2πr(h+r)
A.A.A. 178
Cone
1
Volume = ⁄3 πr2h
(h is the vertical height)
Curved surface area = πrl
(l is the slant length)
Frustum of a Cone
A frustum is the portion of a cone or pyramid between the base and a horizontal slice
which removes the pointed portion.
1
Volume = ⁄3 πh (R2 + Rr = r2)
(h is the vertical height)
Curved surface area = πl (R + r)
Total surface area = πl(R + r) + πR2 + πr2)
(l is the slant length)
Frustum of a Pyramid
Volume = ?
Surface area = Sum of the area of the

trapeziums forming the sides
plus the areas of the top and
the base
A.A.A. 179
Rectangle
Area = l x b
Perimeter = 2l + 2b
Parallelogram
Area = b x h
Triangle
Area = ½ x b x h
Trapezium (or Trapezoid)
Area = ½ x h x (a + b)
A.A.A. 180
Circle
πd2
Area = πr2 =
4
Circumference = 2πr = πd
Sector of a Circle
Length of arc = 2πr x θo

360
2 θo
Area of sector = πr 360 x
If θ is in radians
Length of arc = rθ
Area of sector = ½ r2 θ
The Ellipse
Area = π a b exactly
Perimeter = π(a + b) approximately
A.A.A. 181
Areas
2. In each of the following find the shaded area.
A.A.A. 182
3. An annulus has an outside diameter of 49.0 mm and an inside diameter of 15.0 mm.
Find its area.
4. A hollow shaft has a cross-sectional area of 868 mm2. If its inside diameter is 75 mm,
calculate its outside diameter
5. A rectangular garden measures 50 m by 20 m. There is a flowerbed 15 m wide along

each of the longer sides and one of the shorter sides. A circular fish pond of diameter 7 m
is constructed in the middle of the garden. Find, to the nearest m 2, the area remaining.
Area of Triangles
Find the area for each.
1. 2.
i = 33 m a = 28 m
j = 65 m c = 53 m
h = 56 m f = 90 m
e = c
924 m2 ________________
4. s = 15 m
3. s = 51 m
r = 8 m
r = 24 m
t = 17 m
n = 45 m
q = 16 m
v = 29 m
________________
________________
5.
i = 20 cm 6. s = 37 yd
j = 29 cm r = 12 yd
h = 21 cm n = 35 yd
________________ ________________
7. s = 15 ft 8.
r = 8 ft a = 5 cm
t = 17 ft c = 13 cm
q = 12 ft f = 24 cm
v = 26 ft e=c
________________
A.A.A. 183
Cones,Pyramids,andSpheres
Find the volume of each solid to the nearest tenth. (use = 3.14)
1. 2. 3.
a = 6.7 cm a = 8 ft a = 2 yd
b = 7.3 cm b = 8 ft b = 9 yd
c = 9 ft c = 5 yd
4. 5. 6.
a = 3m a = 3.2 km a = 4 in
b = 7m b = 6.1 km
c = 6m
7. 8. 9.
a = 6.1 km a = 9 ft a = 2 in
b = 9.5 km b = 6 ft b = 6 in
c = 9 ft c = 6 in
10. 11. 12.
a = 5m a = 6 yd a = 1.3 cm
b = 7m b = 5.5 cm
A.A.A. 184
Summary- Mensuration
2. Perimeter = the distance all the way round the edge of a shape.
3. Area = Length x Width for squares and rectangles.
4. Area Estimates
draw a grid of lines 1 cm apart and count whole squares and parts greater than a
half.
4. Volume = Length x Width x Height for square and rectangular boxes.
5. Volumes of 3 dimensional objects with constant cross-section
Volume = Length x Width x Height.
A.A.A. 185
BASIC TRIGONOMETRY
THE RIGHT TRIANGLE
For a triangle to be called a right triangle, one of the interior angles must be 90 degrees.
The sum of the interior angles must be 180 degrees, as with all triangles.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
Given the length of the side opposite and the side adjacent of a right triangle, the
hypotenuse can be calculated by the following formula:
You can actually find any third side of a triangle, if the other two sides are known.
SUM OF INTERIOR ANGLES
A.A.A. 186
If "n" is the number of vertices (corners) of a closed shape, the sum of the interior angles is
What is the sum of the interior angles for the fourth shape above?
Because it has four vertices, (4-2) * 180 = 360 degrees, like any four-sided shape.
GRADE AND PERCENT GRADE

To calculate the grade, use the following formula:
For this example, the grade equals (25/500) = 0.05

The percent grade equals (25/500) * 100 = 5%
A.A.A. 187
Pythagoras theorem recap
For a right triangle with legs and and hypotenuse ,

(1)
Examples
1) There is a building with a 12 ft high window. You want to use a ladder to go up to the
window, and you decide to keep the ladder 5 ft away from the building to have a good
slant. How long should the ladder be?
2) Consider a right angled triangle ABC with a right angle at C.
a) Calculate BC given AB = 10m and AC = 7m

b) Calculate AB given AC=6mm and BC=9mm
c) Calculate AC given AB=15cm and BC=12cm
A.A.A. 188
APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY
1)
At a certain time of day, the angle of elevation of the sun is 57 degrees. Find the height of
the tree if its shadow length is 45 feet. What is the distance from the top of the tree to the
point in the ground made by the shadow?
2)
The figure above shows a 58 degree angle of elevation from a point on the ground that is
130 feet from the base of a radio tower to its top. How tall is the radio tower?
A.A.A. 189
3)
The jet shown in the picture has just taken off from the airport. The angle of elevation from
an observer on the ground at point A to the jet is 15 degrees. If the 2500-foot runway
extends from point A to point C, what is the jet's altitude? How far is the jet from the
observer?
4)
The roadway in the picture is inclined at an angle of 7 degree (called a 7 degree grade).
After driving 3500 feet along the road, find the driver's increase in altitude. What is the
distance from point C to point A?
A.A.A. 190
5)
To find the distance across the lake, a surveyor at point A took the measurements shown
in the picture. How far is it across the lake from point B to point C? How far is it from the
surveyor to point C?
6)
A 300-meter cliff drops vertically into the ocean. If the angle of depression from the top of
the cliff to a ship off shore is 68 degrees, how far is the ship to the shore, to the nearest
meter? (Draw a picture to help visualize the situation.)
7)
A kite flies at a height of 300 feet when 450 feet of string is let out. If the string is in a
straight line, what is the angle of elevation with the ground? ? (Draw a picture to help
visualize the situation.)
A.A.A. 191
Graph plotting-
Plotting a straight line graph:
 Use graph paper or grid paper for accuracy.
 Use X and Y as variables.
 Give values to X and work out the values of Y, set these values in a table.
 Place the axes in the most suitable position, to give the best presentation of
the graph.
 Choose a suitable scale.
 Plot the points from your table of values.
 Join the points to give a straight line.
Sketching a straight line graph:
 Graph paper or grid paper are not necessary.
 Only two points are necessary to sketch a straight line graph.
 Join the two points to give a straight line.
There are different ways of writing a linear equation or an equation of a straight line.
 y = mx + c , where m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept.
 ax + by + c = 0, where a, b, c are constants.
 y-y1 = m (x - x1), where m is the gradient and x1 and y1 are co-ordinates of a
given point.
Key facts about the gradients and the shape of

the straight line graphs:
A.A.A. 192
A.A.A. 193
A.A.A. 194
Examples
Example 1: Example 2: Example 3:

Draw the graph of the Sketch the linear Rearrange the linear
linear equation y = 2x equation y = 2x +3 , equation, 3y + 4x = 12 to
+3 using the x- and y- y= mx + c form and find
intercepts. the y- intercept .
Example 1.
Draw the graph of the linear equation y = 2x +3
First make a table. Let's choose x values between -3 and +3
row1 x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
(1) 2×row1 2x -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
(2) add 3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3 +3
(1)+(2), y = 2x+3 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9
Plot these points on a number plane as

shown below.
A.A.A. 195
Example 2.
Sketch the linear equation y = 2x +3 , using the x- and y- intercepts.
To find the x-intercept, let y =0
When y =0, 2x + 3 = 0
2x = -3
x = -3 ÷ 2 = -1.5
Now we can write the co-ordinates of the x-intercept as (-1.5,0)
To find the y- intercept, let x =0
When x = 0, y = 2×0 +3
y=3
Now we can write the co-ordinates of
the y-intercept as (0,3)
We can join (-1.5, 0) and (0, 3) to sketch the graph.
Example 3.
A.A.A. 196
Rearrange the linear equation, 3y + 4x = 12 to y= mx + c form and find
the
y- intercept .
Leave the y term on the left hand

side(L.H.S), and take all the other
3y+4x =12
terms to the right hand
side(R.H.S.), now you have
3y = -4x + 12
3y = -4x +12
y = (-4x +12) ÷ 3
Then divide the whole equation by
3 to give
y = (-4x ÷ 3) +(12 ÷ 3)
y by itself.
Now you have rearrange the

equation to
y = mx + c form.
So the gradient is m = -1.33

y-intercept , which is c =4
Practice Questions
A.A.A. 197
Question 1 Question 2
Find the gradient between A(1,-4) and B(-1,4) State the gradient and y-intercept of
2y = 6 x - 8
Question 3 Question 4
Find the gradient between A(4,2) and B(-3,2) Sketch 3y = -6 x +15

and hence find the equation of line AB.
Graphical representation of functions

A.A.A. 198
Equation of a straight line
y = mx + c
where c = intercept(cross) on y axis
m = gradient (slope) of line
= change in y
change in x
Exercise: Linear equations & graph plotting
Attempt the following questions:
Example 1:
Draw the graph of the linear equation y = 2x +3
Example 2:
Sketch the linear equation y = 2x +3 , using the x- and y- intercepts.
Example 3:
Rearrange the linear equation, 3y + 4x = 12 to y= mx + c form and find the y- intercept
.
A.A.A. 199
Exponential and logarithm functions
Any function in the form f(x) = abx, where a > 0, b > 0 and b not equal to 1 is called an
exponential function with base b. Below are a couple of simple exponential graphs
,f(x) = 2x
x f(x)
3 8
2 4
1 2
0 1
-1 1/2
-2 1/4
-3 1/8
The domain is all real numbers and the range is y > 0. As x gets larger (right), y gets very
large. As x gets smaller(left), y approaches zero asymptotically. Notice also that the
graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 1). The above is the general shape of an exponential with
b > 1. This is an example of exponential growth.
A.A.A. 200
f(x) = (1/2)x
x f(x)
3 1/8
2 1/4
1 1/2
0 1
-1 2
-2 4
-3 8
This graph is the reflection about the y-axis of the first graph. The domain is still all real
numbers and the range is y > 0. The y-intercept is (0, 1). This is the general form of an
exponential graph if 0 < b < 1. It is an example of an exponential decay.
The following graphs illustrate the general properties of exponentials:
A.A.A. 201
Quadratic equations (parabolas )
A quadratic equation of the form y = ax2 + bx + c is plotted as a parabola
2
This is a graph of y = x
A quadratic only has one turning point.
Cubics
A.A.A. 202
These are curves that have two turning points. They are of the form y = x3
TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS
Sine curve
The sine curve always begins at zero.
A.A.A. 203
Cosine Curve
The cosine curve always begins at 1.
It has a phase difference of 90 ̊ compared with the sine curve
Peak to peak is known as a cycle of a given wavelength.
Peak to trough is known as the amplitude
Tangent curve
The tan curve is an asymptote, that is never touches the y – axis.

A.A.A. 204
RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
The rectangular coordinate system is also known as the Cartesian coordinate system after
Rene Descartes, who popularized its use in analytic geometry. The rectangular coordinate
system is based on a grid, and every point on the plane can be identified by unique x and
y coordinates, just as any point on the Earth can be identified by giving its latitude and
longitude.
Axes
Locations on the grid are measured relative to a fixed point, called the origin, and are
measured according to the distance along a pair of axes. The x and y axes are just like the
number line, with positive distances to the right and negative to the left in the case of the x
axis, and positive distances measured upwards and negative down for the y axis. Any
displacement away from the origin can be constructed by moving a specified distance in
the x direction and then another distance in the y direction. Think of it as if you were giving
directions to someone by saying something like “go three blocks East and then 2 blocks
North.”
A.A.A. 205
Coordinates, Graphing Points
We specify the location of a point by first giving its x coordinate (the left or right
displacement from the origin), and then the y coordinate (the up or down displacement
from the origin). Thus, every point on the plane can be identified by a pair of numbers
(x, y), called its coordinates.
Examples:
A.A.A. 206
POLAR CO-ORDINATES
.
Modules:
Definition. A point P in the plane has polar coordinates (r, θ) if the line segment
OP has length r and the angle that OP makes with the positive axis is θ
(measured in a counter clockwise direction).
This definition requires that r > 0. If r < 0, then we consider the point Q which
has polar coordinates (-r, θ). Then the point P has polar coordinates (r, θ) if P is
the point on the straight line containing O and Q which is -r units from O on the
opposite side of O from Q.
Theorem.1 If a point P has polar coordinates (r, θ) then the rectangular coordinates of P is
(r cos(θ), r sin(θ)). In other words,
x = r cos(θ)
y = r sin(θ)
Theorem.2 If a point P has rectangular coordinates (x, y) then the polar coordinates of P
is (r, θ) where
r2 = x2 + y2
q =inverse tan(y/x).
We choose the positive square root of x2 + y2 for r if x > 0 and the negative square root
otherwise.
A.A.A. 207
Worked examples
1) Change (3, 4) to polar coordinates.
Solution: Placing x =3 and y = 4 , find r using theorem 1. 32 + 42 = 25 and take the square
root.
Therefore, r = 5
Using Theorem 2 from above, tan 0 = (4/3). Use your calculator set to degree mode, the
answer is: 53.1 degrees. (Rounded to nearest tenth).
Therefore, the point is ( 5, 53.1o)
2) Change ( 4, 150o) to rectangular coordinates
Solution: Using theorem 1 from above x = 4 cos 150. Using your calculator you get x = -
3.46 rounded to hundredths.
From above y = 4 sin 150. Using your calculator you get y = 2

Therefore, the point is ( -3.46, 2)
A.A.A. 208

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Module 1

1.2 Algebra 101

1.3 Geometry 163

Numbers Place Value

Millions Hundred Ten Thousands Hundreds Tens Units

It can also be written as 80 hundreds, 800 tens or 8 000 units.

Write 2 004 in words.

Note the importance of the zeros.

Write one hundred thousand and six in figures.

Millions Hundred Ten Thousands Hundreds Tens Units

One hundred thousand and six is 100 006.

1. What is the value of the underlined digit in each of the following

2. Complete the following statements 10 000 = thousands

a) 2 084 b) 27 284 c) 40 315 d) 620 797 e) 1 209 005

5. Write the following in figures.

a)four thousand nine hundred and twenty three

Have you checked your answers?

You can use numbers in four different ways :

WAYS SIGNS AND WORDS USED

Addition + adding, sum of, total

Subtraction - subtract, take - away, difference between, minus

Multiplication x multiply, times, product

Division ÷ divide, sharing, quotient

1.Add 274 to 648.

2.Find the total of 362 and 479.

3.Find the sum of 462, 87 and 8.

1.What is the difference between 1 741 and 3 100?

2.How many more than 2 975 is 6 428?

3.How many less than 7 000 is 285?

4.Take ninety seven from two thousand and thirty.

2.Double four hundred and eighty six.

3.Which number is 3 times greater than 207?

4.What is the product of 6 and 4?

5.325 times 16.

2. How many sixes are there in 912?

3. Divide nine hundred and forty five by nine.

4. Divide five thousand five hundred and fifty five by five.

If a calculation involves a mixture of operations the correct order is

then b) Multiplication / Division

and lastly c) Addition / Subtraction

As an aid to memory you may find the word BODMAS helpful.

Brackets Of , Divide,Multiply Add,Subtract

N.B. In Maths "of" means "multiply" .

Complete this magic square.

Item Page Nos.

Wall Clocks ...... ………216-217

Waste Bins ........……….125 , 129

The above is part of the index of an Argos Catalogue.

a)How many pages feature waste bins?

b)How many pages feature watches?

π sin cos tan x2 √ and a b/c

as well as the usual keys for +, -, x and *.

1. 1 753 + 237 - 279 + 32 222 2. 563 x 23 - 792

3. 1 863 - 675 ÷ 27 4. 7 + 321 x 73

5. 54 + 3 (116 - 43) 6. (1 372 - 727) x 23

7. (3 456 + 189) x (3 456 - 189) 8. 25 270 x 3 723 ÷ 51 + 987

9. 12 635 - (2 734 - 1 325) 10. 272 x 33 x (6 231 + 324 - 6 157)

1. a) 7 tens 70 b) 4 thousand 4 000 c) 40 thousand 40 000

2. 10 thousands or 100 hundreds or 1 000 tens or 10 000 units

3.largest = 87 621 smallest = 12 678

4.a) two thousand and eighty four

5.a) 4 923 b) 20 005 c) 632 020 d) 1 029 000 e) 4 000 005

1. 922 2. 841 3. 557 4. 2 711 5. 8 699

1. 1 359 2. 3 453 3. 6 715 4. 1 933 5. 23 114