162 A Primer of Special Relativity

9.5 MAGNETISM AS A RELATIVISTIC PHENOMENON

Magnetism is often introduced in an ad hoc manner as if magnetic forces are totally distinct from electric
forces. Our intention here is to show that magnetism is a relativistic phenomenon, that is when relativity
is applied to Coulomb’s law of electrostatics, magnetic
forces emerge as a natural consequence of going from Y S Y ¢ S¢
v
one inertial frame to another inertial frame. v
Q Q
In fact magnetism can be ‘discovered’ by applying
transformation of forces to Coulomb force for stationary
q q
electric charges. v
Consider the two inertial frames S and S¢ shown in X
O O¢ X¢
Fig. 9.4. Frame S¢ moves to the right with velocity v as
shown. Charges Q and q are a distance r apart and sta- Fig. 9.4 Magnetism as a relativistic
tionary in frame S¢. By Coulomb’s law, they repel each phenomenon
other and tend to move apart along Y¢ axis. In particular,
the force exerted on charge Q is
®
® ® j qQ
F ¢ = j Fy = ... (1)
4 pÎ0 r 2
®
The force on charge q is – F ¢.
When observed from frame S¢, the two charges are still a distance r apart. However, now they are
®
observed to have a velocity v along X-axis as shown.
In frame S, the force experienced by the charge Q can be found by making use of equations of trans-
formation of force which in the present case are given by Fx = Fx¢; Fy = Fy¢/G and Fz = Fz ¢/G.
®
Since Fx¢ = Fz ¢ = 0, the net force acting on the upper charge is j Fy where
æ qQ ö 1
Fy = Fy¢/G = ç ÷ ... (2a)
è 4 pÎ0 r 2 ø G
æ qQ ö
2 2 1/2
= ç ÷ (1 – v /c ) ... (2b)
è 4 pÎ0 r 2 ø
æ qQ ö
which is less than the static force of repulsion ç ÷.
è 4 pÎ0 r 2 ø
We attribute this to a ‘new force’, the magnetic force of attraction which reduces the Coulomb force of
repulsion.
Fy = F¢y = normal Coulomb force only when v = 0. Thus magnetic force makes its appearance only when
v ¹ 0 or when charges are in motion. This is the reason why magnetic force is not present in frame S¢ where
the charges are stationary i.e. when there is no relative motion between the observer and the charges.
Magnetism is thus a relativistic phenomenon. It is in effect a second order relativistic effect because it
depends upon (v/c)2, the square of charge velocity to the velocity of light.

9.6 INVARIANCE OF MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

The simplest way to establish invariance of Maxwell’s equations would be to show that a spherical light
wave spreads uniformly with velocity c in all inertial frames. The student may easily do this by using L.T.
to show that x2 + y2 + z2 – c2t2 = x¢2 + y¢2 + z¢2 – c2t ¢2. We shall proceed here in a more formal way.
 Relativity and Electromagnetism 163

The student is assumed to be familiar with Maxwell’s equations which in the usual notation are
® r
Ñ× E = ... (1a)
Î0
®
Ñ× B = 0 ... (1b)
®
® ¶B
Ñ´ E =– ... (1c)
¶t

æ ®ö
®
ç
® ¶E÷
and Ñ ´ B = m0 j + Î0 ... (1d)
çè ¶t ÷
ø
® ®
The simplest of these containing only the fields E and B viz. (1b) and (1c) written in component forms
are
¶Bx ¶B y ¶Bz
+ + =0 ... (2)
¶x ¶y ¶z

¶E z ¶E y ¶Bx
- =– ... (3)
¶y ¶z ¶t

¶E x ¶Ez ¶B y
- =– ... (4)
¶z ¶x ¶t
¶E y ¶E x ¶Bz
and - =– ... (5)
¶x ¶y ¶t
The L.T. are x¢ = G(x – vt); y¢ = y, z¢ = z and t¢ = G(t – vx/c2)
¶ ¶x ¢ ¶ ¶y ¢ ¶ ¶z ¢ ¶ ¶t ¢ ¶x
Also = + + + ... (6)
¶x ¶x ¶x ¢ ¶x ¶y ¢ ¶x ¶z ¢ ¶x ¶t ¢

¶ ¶ ¶
, and can be obtained similarly by replacing x by y, z and t respectively.
¶y ¶z ¶t
From L.T.;
¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ¶t ¢
= G; = = 0 and = –Gv/c2 ... (7)
¶x ¶x ¶x ¶x

¶ æ ¶ v ¶ ö
\ = Gç - ... (8a)
¶x è ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶t ¢ ÷ø

¶ ¶
Similarly = ... (8b)
¶y ¶y ¢

¶ = ¶ ... (8c)
¶z ¶z ¢
164 A Primer of Special Relativity

¶ = G æ ¶ - v¶ ö
and çè ÷ ... (8d)
¶t ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ ø

¶E z ¶E y ¶Bx
Consider first equation (3) viz. - =-
¶y ¶z ¶t

¶ ¶ ¶ ¶ ¶ æ ¶ v¶ ö
= = = Gç -
è ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ ÷ø
Substituting ; and
¶y ¶y ¢ ¶z ¶z ¢ ¶t

¶E z ¶E y
¶ v¶ ö
- = –G çæ -
è ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ ÷ø x
we get B.
¶y ¢ ¶z ¢

¶E z ¶E y ¶GBx Gv¶Bx
\ - =– +
¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢
Substituting Ez = G( E z¢ – v By¢), Ey = G( Ey¢ + v Bz¢ ) and Bx = Bx¢, we get

é ¶ ¶ ù æ ¶Bx¢ ¶Bx¢ ö
Gê ( E z¢ - vB y¢ ) - ( E y¢ + vBz¢ ) ú = –G ç -v
ë ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ û è ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ ø÷

¶E z¢ ¶E y¢ ¶Bx¢ æ ¶Bx¢ ¶B y¢ ¶Bz¢ ö

\ - = - +vç + + ÷
¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ¶t ¢ è ¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ø

¶Bx¢ ¶B y¢ ¶Bz¢ 1 æ ¶E z¢ ¶E y¢ ¶Bx¢ ö

or + + = - ç - + ÷ ... (9)
¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ v è ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ¶t ¢ ø

¶Bx ¶By ¶Bz

Consider next equation (2) viz. + + =0
¶x ¶y ¶z
Substituting as above we get

æ ¶Bx v ¶Bx ö ¶By ¶Bz

G ç - ÷ + + =0
è ¶x ¢ c ¶t ¢ ø ¶y ¢
2 ¶z ¢

æ ö æ ö
Substituting Bx = B x¢; By = G ç B y¢ - v E z¢ ÷ and Bz = G ç Bz¢ + v E y¢ ÷
è c 2 ø è c 2 ø

é æ ¶Bx¢ ¶Bx¢ ö ¶B y¢ ¶E z¢ ¶Bz¢ ¶E y¢ ù

we get G ê ç + v ÷ + - v + + v ú =0
ëê è ¶x ¢ c ¶t ¢ ø ¶y ¢ c ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ c 2 ¶z ¢ úû
2 2

æ ¶Bx¢ ¶B y¢ ¶Bz¢ ö v æ ¶E z¢ - ¶E y¢ + ¶Bx¢ ö

\ ç ¢ + + ÷ = ç ÷ ... (10)
è ¶x ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ø c 2 è ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ¶t ¢ ø
 Relativity and Electromagnetism 165

From equations (9) and (10) we see that

¶Bx¢ ¶By¢ ¶Bz¢ ¶E z¢ ¶E y¢ ¶Bx¢
+ + = 0 and - + =0
¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ¶t ¢
®
\ Ñ . B¢ = 0 ... (11)

æ ® ö
® ¶ B ¢÷
and (Ñ ´ E ¢)x = - ç ... (12)
çè ¶t ¢ ø÷
x

¶E x ¶Ez ¶B y
Consider now equation (4) viz. - = -
¶z ¶x ¶t
Proceeding as above, we get
¶E x æ ¶ v ¶ ö ¶ v¶ ö
- Gç - ( E ) = –G çæ -
è ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ ÷ø y
B
¶z ¢ è ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶t ¢ ÷ø z

¶E x ¶ ¶ é æ v öù
\ - [G(Ez + vBy)] = - êG ç By + 2 Ez ÷ ú
¶z ¢ ¶x ¢ ¶t ¢ ë è c øû
From the equations of transformation Ex = E x¢
æ v ö
E z¢ = G (Ez + vBy) and By¢ = G ç By + Ez ÷
è c 2 ø

¶E x¢ ¶Ez¢ ¶
\ - =– By
¶z ¢ ¶x ¢ ¶t ¢

æ ® ö
® ¶ B ¢÷
\ (Ñ ´ E ¢)y = – ç ... (13)
¶ ¢
èç t ø÷ y

¶E y ¶E x ¶Bz
Consider next, equation - = -
¶x ¶y ¶t

æ ¶ v ¶ ö ¶E x ¶ v¶ ö
We now get G ç - ÷ Ey - = –G çæ - ÷ Bz
è ¶x ¢ c ¶t ¢ ø
2 ¶y ¢ è ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ ø

¶ ¶E x ¶ é æ v öù
\ [G (Ey – vBz)] – =– ê G ç Bz - 2 E y ÷ ú
¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶t ¢ ë è c øû
From the equations of transformation Ex = E x¢
æ v ö
Ey¢ = G(Ey – vBz) and Bz¢ = G ç Bz - 2 E y ÷
è ø c
166 A Primer of Special Relativity

¶E y¢ ¶E x¢ ¶
\ - =– B z¢
¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶t ¢

æ ®ö
® ¶ B ¢÷
\ (Ñ ´ E ¢)z = – ç ... (14)
çè ¶t ¢ ø÷
z

From equations (11), (12), (13) and (14) we see that

®
Ñ×B¢ = 0 ... (15)
®
¶B¢
®
and Ñ ´ E¢= – ... (16)
¶t ¢
Remaining Maxwell’s equations are

r æ ®ö
® ® ® ¶E÷
Ñ× E = and Ñ ´ B = m0 ç j + e 0
e0 çè ¶t ÷
ø
Consider first the equation
¶E x ¶E y ¶E z r
+ + =
¶x ¶y ¶z e0

æ v ¢ ö , on substituting for ¶ ¶ and ¶ , we get

Since r = G ç r ¢ + jx ÷ ,
è c2 ø ¶x ¶y ¶z

æ ¶ v ¶ ö ¶E y ¶Ez G æ v ö
Gç - ÷
è ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶t ¢ ø
E x +
¶y ¢
+
¶z ¢
=
e0 çè r ¢ + 2 j x¢ ÷ø
c

æ ¶ v ¶ ö ¶ ¶ G æ v ¢ö
\ Gç - E¢x + G(E¢y + vB¢y) + G(E¢z – vB¢y) = r¢+ jx ÷
è ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶t ¢ ÷ø ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ A 0 èç c2 ø

¶E x¢ ¶E y¢ ¶E z¢ r ¢ v æ ¶E x¢ - ¢ /A ö + æ ¶B y¢ - ¶Bz¢ ö
+ + - = ç jx 0 ÷ v ç ÷
¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ e0 c 2 è ¶t ¢ ø è ¶z ¢ ¶y ¢ ø

Using c2 = 1/m0e0 and rearranging we get

¶E x¢ ¶E y¢ ¶E z¢ r ¢ æ ¶Bz¢ ¶B y¢ ¶E x¢ ö
+ + - = -vç - - m0 e0 - m 0 j x¢ ÷ ... (17)
¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ e0 è ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ¶t ¢ ø

® æ ®ö
® ¶E÷
From the last M.E. (Ñ ´ B )x = m0 ç j + e 0
çè ¶t ÷
øx
 Relativity and Electromagnetism 167

¶Bz ¶By æ ¶E x ö
\ - = m0 ç j x + e0
¶y ¶z è ¶t ø÷
since jx = G(j¢x + r¢v), we get

¶ é æ ¢ v öù ¶ é æ ¢ v öù æ ¶ ¶ ö ¢
ê G Bz + 2 E y¢ ÷ ú - ê G ç By - 2 Ez¢ ÷ ú = m0G(j¢x¢ + r¢v) + m0 e0G èç -v ÷ Ex
¶y ¢ ë èç c ø û ¶ z ¢ ë è c ø û ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ø

¶Bz¢ ¶B y¢ æ ¶Ex¢ ö
\ - - m 0 ç j x¢ + e0
¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ è ¶t ¢ ø÷

= -
v æ ¶Ex¢ + ¶E y¢ + ¶Ez¢ - m 2 r ¢ö
ç 0 c ÷
c 2 è ¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶z ¢ ø

= -
v æ ¶E x¢ + ¶E y¢ + ¶E z¢ - r ¢ ö
ç ÷ ... (18)
c 2 è ¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶ z ¢ e0 ø
From equations (17) and (18) we see that

æ® ® ö
®
ç ¢ ¶ E ¢÷
(Ñ ´ B ¢)x = m 0 j + e 0 ... (19)
¶t ¢ ÷
èç øx
®
and Ñ × E ¢ = r¢/e0 ... (20)

®
æ ®ö
® ¶E÷
Consider next (Ñ ´ B )y = m 0 ç j + e0
çè ¶t ÷
øy

¶Bx ¶Bz æ ¶E y ö
Hence - = m 0 ç j y + e0 ÷
¶z ¶x è ¶t ø

¶Bx æ ¶ v ¶ ö
L.H.S. = - Gç - B
¶z ¢ è ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶t ¢ ø÷ z

¶Bx G¶ Bz Gv ¶Bz
= - +
¶z ¢ ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶t ¢
¶Bx¢ G2 ¶ æ v ö G2 v ¶ æ v ö
=
¶z ¢
-
¶x ¢ çè Bz¢ + 2 ÷ø E y¢ + 2 ¶t ¢ çè Bz¢ + 2 E y¢ ÷ø
c c c

¶Bx¢ G 2 ¶Bz¢ G 2 v ¶E y¢ G 2 v ¶Bz¢ G 2 v 2 ¶E y¢

= - - + +
¶z ¢ ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶t ¢ c 4 ¶t ¢
168 A Primer of Special Relativity

¶ v¶ ö
R.H.S. = m0 j¢y + m0e0G æç -
è ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ ø÷ y
E

¶ v¶
= m0 j¢y + m0e0G2 (E¢y + vB¢z) – m0e0G2 (E¢y + vB¢z)
¶t ¢ ¶x ¢
¶E y¢ ¶Bz¢ ¶E y¢ ¶Bz¢
= m0 j¢y + m0e0G2 + m0e0G2v – m0e0G2v – m0e0G2v2
¶t ¢ ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ ¶x ¢

¶Bz¢ ¶E y¢
On inspection we find that coefficients of and are the same on either side. The two sides
¶t ¢ ¶x ¢
can now be combined to give.
¶Bx¢ ¶Bz¢ ¶E y¢ æ G 2 v 2 G 2 ö
- (G2 – G2v2/c2) + - ÷ = m0 j¢y
¶z ¢ ¶x ¢ ¶t ¢ çè c 4 c2 ø
¶Bx¢ ¶Bz¢ G2 ¶E y¢
\ - G2 (1 – v2/c2) = m0 j¢y + (1 – v2/c2)
¶z ¢ ¶x ¢ c2 ¶t ¢

¶Bx¢ ¶Bz¢ ¶E y¢ 1
\ - = m0 j¢y + m0e0 Q c2 =
¶z ¢ ¶x ¢ ¶t ¢ m0 e0

æ® ® ö
®
ç ¢ ¶E ¢÷
\ (Ñ ´ B ¢)y = m 0 j + e0 ... (21)
¶t ÷
èç øy

®
æ ®ö
® ¶E÷
Finally consider (Ñ ´ B )z = m 0 ç j + e 0
¶t ÷
èç øz

¶B y ¶Bx æ ¶Ez ö
Then - = m0 ç jz + e0
¶x ¶y è ¶t ÷ø

æ ¶ v ¶ ö ¶Bx G¶B y Gv ¶B y ¶Bx

L.H.S. = G ç - ÷ By - = - -
è ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶t ¢ ø ¶y ¢ ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶t ¢ ¶y ¢

¶ æ v ö G2 v ¶ æ v ö ¶Bx¢
= G2
¶x ¢ çè By¢ - 2 Ez¢ ø÷ - 2 ¶t ¢ èç By¢ - 2 Ez¢ ø÷ - ¶y ¢
c c c

¶B y¢ G 2 v ¶E z¢ G 2 v ¶B y¢ G 2 v 2 ¶E z¢ ¶Bx¢
= G2 - - + -
¶x ¢ c 2 ¶x ¢ c 2 ¶t ¢ c 4 ¶t ¢ ¶y ¢

¶E z ¶ ¶ ö
R.H.S. = m0 jz + m0e0 = m0 jz + m0e0G çæ -v ÷ Ez.
¶t è ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ ø
 Relativity and Electromagnetism 169

¶ ( E ¢ - vB ¢ ) ¶
= m0 jz + m0e0G2 z y – m0e0G v
2
( E z¢ – v By¢)
¶t ¢ ¶x ¢
¶E z¢ ¶B y¢ ¶E z¢ ¶B y¢
= m0 jz¢ + m0e0G2 – m0e0G2v – m0e0G2v + m0e0G2v2
¶t ¢ ¶t ¢ ¶x ¢ ¶x ¢
Canceling common quantities on either side, we get
¶B y¢ G 2 æ v 2 ö ¶Bx¢ ¶E z¢ G 2 æ v2 ö
ç1- ÷ - = m0 jz¢ + ç 1- ÷
¶x ¢ è c 2 ø ¶y ¢ ¶t ¢ c 2 è c2 ø

¶B y¢ ¶Bx¢ ¶E z¢ 1
\ - = m0 j¢z + m0e0 since c2 =
¶x ¢ ¶y ¢ ¶t ¢ m0 e0

æ® ® ö
® ¶ E ¢÷
\ (Ñ ´ B ¢)z = m 0 ç j ¢ + e 0 ... (22)
¶t ¢ ÷
èç øz
From equations (12), (16), (20) and equations (19), (21) and (22) taken together we have shown that
®
Ñ × E ¢ = r¢/e°
®
Ñ× B¢= 0
®
® ¶B¢
Ñ ´ E¢= -
¶t ¢

æ® ® ö
® ¶ E ¢÷
and Ñ ´ B ¢ = m 0 ç j ¢ + e0
çè ¶t ¢ ÷
ø
Thus Maxwell’s equations are invariant.

SUMMARY
Charge density is the charge per unit volume. Current density is the current per unit crossectional area. Their
equations of transformation are
j¢x = G(jx – rv); j¢y = jy; j¢z = jz
r¢ = G(r – vjx /c2)
Their inverses are easily written down.
What is observed as a pure electric (or pure magnetic) field by one observer, is observed as a combi-
nation of electric and magnetic fields by another observer. In other words whether an electromagnetic field
is purely electric or purely magnetic is not absolute but depends on the inertial frame in which the field is
observed.
The equations of transformation of electric and magnetic fields are
E¢x = Ex; E¢y = G(Ey – vBz); E¢z = G(Ez + vBy)
æ v ö æ v ö
B¢x = Bx; B¢y = G ç By + Ez ÷ ; B¢z = G ç Bz - Ey ÷
è c 2 ø è c 2 ø
170 A Primer of Special Relativity

Their inverses can be written down by changing the sign of v and interchanging the primed and unprimed
quantities.
Electric and magnetic fields produced by a uniformally moving charge are given by
®
q (1 - b 2 ) r
E=
4 pe o r 2 (1 - b2 sin 2 q ) 3/ 2 r

® ®
® v ´E
and B =
c2
When relativity is applied to Coulomb’s law in electrostatics, magnetic forces appear merely as a
consequence of going from one inertial frame to another. Magnetism is therefore a relativistic phenomenon.
Maxwell’s equations in electromagnetism viz.
®
® ® ® ¶B
Ñ × E = r/e0; Ñ × B = 0; Ñ´ E = – and
¶t

æ® ®ö
®
ç ¶E÷
Ñ ´ B = m 0 j + e0 are found to be invariant.
çè ¶t ÷
ø

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Show that c2r2 – ( jx2 + j y2 + jz2 ) = c r0
2 2
Example 1
Solution We know that
r0 r0 u x r0 u y r0 u z
r= ; jx = ; jy = and jz =
1 - u2 /c2 1 - u 2 /c2 1 - u 2 /c2 1 - u2 /c2

c 2 r02 r02
\ c r – ( jx2 + j y2 + jz2 ) =
2 2
- ( u x2 + u 2y + u z2 )
(1 - u 2 / c 2 ) (1 - u 2 / c 2 )

c 2 r02 r02 u 2 r20

= - = ( c2 - u 2 )
1 - u2 /c2 1 - u 2 /c2 1 - u 2 / c2

r02 c 2 (1 - u 2 / c 2 )
= = r20 c 2 which is an invariant since r0 is the charge density in a frame in which the
1 - u 2 / c2
charge is at rest.
Example 2 Show that E2 – c2B2 is invariant under a L.T.
® ®
Solution We know that under a L.T., E and B transform as follows:
 Relativity and Electromagnetism 171

Ex = E x¢; Ey = G( Ey¢ + vB¢z); Ez = ( E z¢ – vB¢y)

æ v ¢ö ; B = G æ ¢ v ¢ ö
Bx = B x¢; By = G ç By¢ - Ez ÷ B + E
è c2 ø z
èç z c 2 y ø÷

\ E2 – c2B2 = E x2 + E y2 + E z2 - c 2 ( Bx2 + B y2 + Bz2 )

= E x¢ 2 + G 2 (E y¢ 2 + 2 E y¢ vBz¢ + v 2 Bz¢2 ) + G 2 ( E z¢ 2 - 2 E z¢ vB y¢ + v 2 B y¢2 ) - c 2 Bx¢2

æ v ¢ v 2 ¢2 v ¢ v 2 ¢2 ö
– G 2 c 2 ç By¢2 - 2 B y¢ Ez + Ez + Bz¢2 + 2 Bz¢ Ey + Ey ÷
è c 2
c 4
c2 c4 ø

æ v2 ö æ v2 ö æ c2 ö æ c2 ö
= E x¢2 - c 2 Bx¢ 2 + G 2 E y¢2 ç1 - ÷ + G E z¢
2 2
çè1 - 2 ÷ø + G v B y¢
2 2 2
çè1 - 2 ÷ø + G v Bz¢
2 2 2
çè1 - 2 ÷ø
è c2 ø c v v

æ v2 - c2 ö æ v2 - c2 ö
= E x¢ - c 2 Bx¢ 2 + E y¢ 2 + E z¢2 + G 2 v 2 B y¢ 2 ç ÷ + G v Bz¢
2 2 2 2
ç ÷
è v2 ø è v2 ø

æ v2 ö æ v2 ö
= ( E x¢2 + E y¢ 2 + E z¢ 2 ) - c 2 Bx¢ 2 + G 2 c 2 ç - 1÷ B y¢ 2 + G 2 c 2 - 1÷ Bz¢2
è c2 ø èç c 2 ø

= ( Ex¢ + E y¢ + Ez¢ ) - c ( Bx¢ + By¢ + Bz¢ )

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
\ G2 = 1 – v2/c2
= E¢2 – c2B¢2.
® ®
Example 3 Given that (E2 – c2B2) and ( E × B ) are invariant under a L.T., show that for any given
® ®
electromagnetic field, it is possible to find an inertial frame in which either E = 0 (if E < cB) or B = 0
® ®
(if E > cB) at a given point in the electromagnetic field if and only if E × B = 0 at that point.
® ®
Solution Let E ¢ and B ¢ denote the electric and magnetic fields respectively in a frame S¢. For any other
® ®
frame S with corresponding fields E and B , the fields must fulfill the conditions.
® ® ® ®
E¢2 – c2B¢2 = E2 – c2B2 and E ¢ × B ¢ = E × B
®
If E¢ < cB¢ or E¢2 – c2B¢2 is negative, it is possible to find a frame S in which E = 0 because then E < cB
®
or E2 – c2B2 is negative as required. However, when E = 0, the fields in frame S¢ are
E x¢ = Ex = 0 B x¢ = Bx
æ v ö
Ey¢ = G(Ey – vBz) = –GvBz By¢ = G ç By + 2 Ez ÷ = GBy
è c ø

æ v ö
E z¢ = G(Ez + vBy) = GvBy Bz¢ = G ç Bz - E y ÷ = BzG
è c 2 ø
172 A Primer of Special Relativity

® ®
Then E ¢ × B ¢ = E x¢ Bx¢ + E y¢ B y¢ + E z¢ Bz¢ = (–GvBz)GBy + GvBy(GBz) = 0.
® ® ®
Hence it is possible to find the frame S with E = 0 if and only if E × B = 0.
On the other hand when E¢ > cB¢ or E¢2 – c2B¢2 is positive in frame S¢, it is possible to find a frame S
® ®
in which B = 0, because then E > cB or E2 – c2B2 is positive as required. However, when B = 0, the fields
in frame S¢ are
E x¢ = Ex B x¢ = Bx = 0
æ v ö Gv
Ey¢ = G(Ey – vBz) = GEy By¢ = G ç B y + 2 E z ÷ = 2 E z
è c ø c

æ v ö Gv
E z¢ = G(Ez + vBy) = GEz B z¢ = G ç Bz - Ey ÷ = - Ey
è c 2 ø c2
® ® æ Gv ö æ Gv ö
Then E ¢ × B ¢ = E x¢ Bx¢ + E y¢ B y¢ + E z¢ Bz¢ = (GEy) ç 2 Ez ÷ + (GEz) ç - 2 E y ÷ = 0
èc ø è c ø
® ® ®
Hence it is possible to find the frame S in which B = 0 if and only if E . B = 0.
® ®
Example 4 A charge q at rest in frame S¢ experiences a force F ¢ = q E ¢ . If the frame S¢ is moving with
velocity v to the right along X-X¢ axis, use the equations of force and field transformations to show that as
observed in frame S, the force is given by the Lorentz force viz.
® ® ® ®
F = q(E+ v ´ B)

®
Solution In frame S¢, the force F ¢ has components Fx¢ = q E x¢; Fy¢ = q Ey¢ and Fz ¢ = q E z¢.
®
In frame S, the force F experienced by the charge has components
qE y¢ qE z¢
Fx = Fx¢ = q E x¢; Fy = Fy¢/G = and Fz = Fz ¢/G =
G G
From the transformations of field components
Fx = q E x¢ = qEx
qG
Fy = q Ey¢ /G = (Ey – vBz) = qEy – qvBz
G
qG
Fz = q E z¢/G = (Ez + vBy) = qEz + qvBy
G
®
If E is the electric field in frame S, the electric force is
® ® ® ® ®
Fe = q( i Ex + j Ey + k Ez) = q E
The remaining force, is the magnetic force which is seen from above equations to be
® ®
Fmag = ®
j (–qvBz) + k (qvBy)