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BASIC MATHS IN
PHYSICS & VECTORS
INDEX
1.1 QUADRATIC EQUATION 1.8 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
1.2 BINOMIAL EXPRESSION 1.8.1 Definite Integration
1.2.1 Binomial Theorem 1.8.2 Area under a curve and definite
1.2.2 Binomial Approximation integration
1.3 LOGARITHM 1.8.3 Average value of a continuous function
1.4 ANGLE in an interval
1.4.1 System of measurement of an angle 1.9 GRAPHS
1.5 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS (T-RATIOS) 1.10 GEOMETRY
1.5.1 Trigonometric Identities 1.10.1 Formula for determination of area
1.5.2 Four Quadrants and ASTC Rule
1.10.2 Formula for determination of volume
1.5.3 Trigonometrical Ratios of General Angles
1.11 VECTORS
(Reduction Formulae)
1.11.1 Scalar Quantities
1.5.4 Some Important Trigonometric Formula
1.11.2 Vector Quantities
1.5.5 Small Angle Approximation
1.11.3 Addition of two Vectors
1.5.6 Maximum and Minimum Values of Some
useful Trigonometric Functions 1.11.4 Parallelogram law of Addition of Two
Vectors
1.6 CALCULUS
1.11.5 Addition and Subtraction in Component
1.7 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Form
1.7.1 Average rate of change
1.11.6 Addition of More Than Two Vectors (Law
1.7.2 Instantaneous rate of change
of Polygon)
1.7.3 Secant and Tangent to a Curve
1.11.7 Subtraction of two Vectors
1.7.4 First Derivatives of Commonly used
1.11.8 Resolution of vectors into rectangular
Functions
components
1.7.5 Method of Differentiation or Rules of
1.11.9 Rectangular Components of a Vector in
Differentiation
Three Dimensions
1.7.6 Sum or Subtraction of Two functions
1.11.10 Multiplication or Division of a Vector by
1.7.7 Product of two functions : Product rule
a Scalar
1.7.8 Division of two functions : Quotient rule
1.11.11 Scalar Product of Two Vectors
1.7.9 Function of Functions : Chain rule
1.11.12 Vector Product of Two Vectors
1.7.10 Derivative of Logarithm and Exponential
1.11.13 Geometrical Meaning of Vector Product
Functions
of Two Vectors
1.7.11 Double Differentiation
EXERCISE-1
1.7.12 Maximum and Minimum value of a
Function EXERCISE-2
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1.1 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
1.1.1 Degree or index of a polynomial
The highest power appearing in polynomial is called its degree. For example, ƒ(x) = x 3 + 8x + 3 is a polynomial
of degree 3.
1.1.2 Quadratic Equations
Equations of second degree are called quadratic equations. The general form of a quadratic equation is
ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ¹ 0.
Roots of quadratic equation
The solutions to a quadratic equation are called its roots. Roots are those values of a variable such as x for which
the given quadratic equation reduces to zero.
As a rule, a quadratic equation always has two roots, which may or may not be equal.
The roots of a quadratic equation are generally represented by a and b. Let ax2 + bx + c = 0 be a quadratic
equation.
- b + b 2 - 4ac - b - b 2 - 4ac
1. Its roots are a = , b=
2a 2a
- b ± b 2 - 4ac
Hence, its solution is given by x =
2a
-b
2. Sum of its roots is given by a + b =
a
c
3. Product of its roots is given by ab = .
a
b2 - 4ac
4. Difference of its root is given by a - b =
a
Examples
Examples 1: Find roots of equation 2x2 – x – 3 = 0.
Solution : Compare this equation with standard quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,
we have a=2, b=–1, c=–3.
- b ± b 2 - 4ac x = - ( -1) ± ( -1)2 - 4 ( 2) (-3)

Now from x = ;
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2a 2 ( 2)
1 ± 1 + 24 1 ± 5 6 -4 3
x= = Þx= Þx= Þx= or x = –1
4 4 4 4 2
1.2 BINOMIAL EXPRESSION

An algebraic expression containing two terms is called a binomial expression.
æ 1ö
For example (a+b), (a+b)3, (2x––3y)–1, ç x + ÷ etc. are binomial expressions.
è yø
1.2.1 Binomial Theorem
n ( n - 1) n ( n - 1)
( a + b)
n
= an + na n -1 b1 + a n-2 b2 + .... , (1 + x) n = 1 + nx + x 2 + ....
2 ´1 2 ´1
1.2.2 Binomial Approximation
If x is very small, then terms containing higher powers of x can be neglected so (x <<<1)
(1+x)n = 1 + nx
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TIM BATCH ALLEN
1.3 LOGARITHM
A logarithm is the “power” to which a number must be raised in order to “get” some other number. The two
most common logarithms are base 10 logarithms (the base unit is the number being “raised to a power”) and
natural logarithms.
Base Ten Logarithms
We saw above that base ten logarithms are expressions in which the number being raised to a power is ten. The
base ten log of 1000 is three :
log 1000 = 3
103 = 1000
So far, we’ve worked with expressions that have whole numbers as solutions. Here’s one that does not. What is
the log of 4 ?
log 4 = x
log 4 » 0.602
because
100.602 » 4
Natural Logarithms
Logarithms with a base ‘e’ are called natural logarithms. What is ‘e’ ?
‘e’ is a very special number approximately equal to 2.718. ‘e’ is a little bit like pi in that it is the result of an
equation and it’s a big long number that never ends. For those of you who have had calculus, you might
remember that ex is special because its derivate is itself.
Common formulae
m
• log mn = log m+log n • log =logm-log n • log mn = n log m • loge m = 2.303 log10m
n
log c b 1
• log a b = log a • log an b = log a b
c n
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l Logarithms to the base 10 are known as common logarithms.

l If no base is given, the base is always taken as 10. i.e. log 5 = log 10 5; log 8 = log10 8; log a = log10 a and so on.
l Remember :
log a m
¹ log a m - log a n
log a n
Examples
Examples 2: If log 2 = 0.3010 and log 3 = 0.4771, find the value of log 24 .
1
Solution : log 24 = log(24)1 / 2 = log (23 ´ 3)
2
1 1
= [3 log 2 + log 3] = [3 ´ 0.3010 + 0.4771] = 0.69005
2 2
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CHECK YOUR LEARNING-1
QUESTIONS BASED ON ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA

1. Solve for x :
(i) 10x2 – 27x + 5 = 0 (ii) pqx2 – (p2 + q2) x + pq = 0
2. Expand (1 + x)6.
3. Find the square root of 98 correct to 3 decimal places.
4. If log 3 = 0.48 and log 7 = 0.84, find the value of log 63 .
TRIGONOMETRY
1.4 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE & RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEGREES &
RADIAN
In navigation and astronomy, angles are measured in degrees, but in calculus it is best to use units called radians
because of they simplify later calculations.
Let ACB be a central angle in circle of radius r, as in the figure B
Then the angle ACB or q is defined in radius as -
q A
r
Arc length AB C
q= Þq=
Radius r
If r = 1 then q = AB
1.4.1 System of Measurement of an Angle
Sexagesimal system
In this system, angle is measured in degrees.
In this system , 1 right angle = 90°, 1° = 60' (arc minutes), 1' = 60'' (arc seconds)
Circular system
In this system, angle is measured in radian.
if arc = radius then q=1 rad
Relation between degrees and radian
2p rad = 360°
180°
p rad = 180° Þ 1 rad = = 57.3°
p
p
To convert from degree to radian multiply by
180°
180°
To convert from radian to degree multiply by
p
Examples
Examples 3: A circular arc of length p cm. Find angle subtended by it at the
6cm
centre in radian and degree.
q p cm
arc p cm p 6cm
Solution : q= = = rad=30°
radius 6 cm 6
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Examples 4: When a clock shows 4 o'clock, how much angle do its minute and hour needles make?
p 2p
(1) 120° (2) rad (3) rad (4) 160°
3 3
2p
Solution : From diagram angle q = 4 ´ 30° = 120° = rad
3
12
11 1
10 2
q
9 3
8 4
7 5
6
1.5 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS (T-RATIOS)

Following ratios of the sides of a right angled triangle are known as
trigonometrical ratios.
Perpendicular (P)
P B P 1 H
sin q = cos q = tan q = cosecq = =
H H B sin q P
1 H 1 B
sec q = = cot q = =
cos q B tan q P
q
1.5.1 Trigonometric Identities Base(B)
2 2
æ Pö æ Bö 2 2
In figure , P + B = H
2 2 2
Divide by H , ç ÷ + ç ÷ = 1 Þ sin q + cos q = 1
2
è Hø è Hø
2 2
æ Pö æ Hö 2 2
Divide by B , ç ÷ + 1 = ç ÷ Þ 1 + tan q = sec q
2
è Bø è Bø

2 2
æBö æHö
Divide by P2, 1 + ç ÷ = ç ÷ Þ 1 + cot2 q = cosec2 q
P
è ø èPø
Values of Trigonometrical Ratios of Some Standard Angles
angle q 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 270° 360°
1 1 3 3 1 1
sin q 0 1 0 -1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 1 1 3
cos q 1 0 - - - -1 0 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
tan q 0 1 3 ¥ - 3 -1 - 0 -¥ 0
3 3
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1.5.2 Four Quadrants and ASTC Rule
In first quadrant, all trigonometric ratios are positive.
In second quadrant, only sinq and cosecq are positive.
In third quadrant, only tanq and cotq are positive. In
fourth quadrant, only cosq and secq are positive
1.5.3 Trigonometrical Ratios of General
Angles (Reduction Formulae)
(i) Trigonometric function of an angle 2np + q
where n=0, 1, 2, 3,.... will remain same.
æ np ö
(ii) Trigonometric function of an angle ç + q÷
è 2 ø
will remain same if n is even and sign of
trigonometric function will be according to value
of that function in quadrant.
æ np ö
(iii) Trigonometric function of an angle çè + q÷ will be changed into co-function if n is odd and sign of
2 ø
trigonometric function will be according to value of that function in quadrant.
(iv) Trigonometric function of an angle – q (negative angles)
sin(–q)=–sinq cos(–q)=+cosq tan(–q)=–tanq
T-ratios of Allied Angles
sin ( -q ) = - sin q cosec ( -q ) = - cosecq

cos ( -q ) = cos q sec ( -q ) = sec q
tan ( -q ) = - tan q cot ( -q ) = - cot q
sin ( 90° - q ) = cos q cosec ( 90° - q ) = sec q
cos ( 90° - q ) = sin q sec ( 90° - q ) = cosec q
tan ( 90° - q ) = cot q cot ( 90° - q ) = tan q
sin ( 90° + q ) = cos q cosec ( 90° + q ) = sec q
cos ( 90° + q ) = - sin q sec ( 90° + q ) = - cosec q
tan ( 90° + q ) = - cot q cot ( 90° + q ) = - tan q
sin (180° - q ) = sin q cosec (180° - q ) = cosec q
cos (180° - q ) = - cos q sec (180° - q ) = - sec q
tan (180° - q ) = - tan q cot (180° - q ) = - cot q

sin (180° + q ) = - sin q cosec (180° + q ) = - cosecq
cos (180° + q ) = - cos q sec (180° + q ) = - sec q
tan (180° + q ) = tan q cot (180° + q ) = cot q
sin ( 270° - q ) = - cos q cosec ( 270° - q ) = - sec q
cos ( 270° - q ) = - sin q sec ( 270° - q ) = - cosec q
tan ( 270° - q ) = cot q cot ( 270° - q ) = tan q
sin ( 270° + q ) = - cos q cosec ( 270° + q ) = - sec q
cos ( 270° + q ) = sin q sec ( 270° + q ) = cosec q
tan ( 270° + q ) = - cot q cot ( 270° + q ) = - tan q
sin ( 360° - q ) = - sin q cosec ( 360° - q ) = -cosec q
cos ( 360° - q ) = cos q sec ( 360° - q ) = sec q
tan ( 360° - q ) = - tan q cot ( 360° - q ) = - cot q
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Examples
Examples 5: The two shorter sides of right angled triangle are 5 cm and 12 cm. Let q denote the angle opposite
to the 5 cm side. Find sinq, cosq and tanq.
P 5cm 5
Solution : sin q = = =
H 13cm 13
m
3c
=1 H
5 cm
2
B 12cm 12 2 1 2
cos q = = = 5+ P
H 13cm 13
q B
P 5cm 5 12 cm
tan q = = =
B 12cm 12
Examples 6: Find x, y and perimeter of the triangle
5cm
53°
y
x
y 4 x 3
Solution : = sin 53° = Þ y = 4 cm and = cos 53° = Þ x = 3 cm
5 5 5 5
Perimeter of the triangle = x + y + 5 =3 + 4 + 5 = 12 cm
1 1
Examples 7: The values of sin q1, cos2 q2 and tan q3 are given as ,– and 3 (not in order), for some angles
2 2
q1, q2 and q3. Choose incorrect statement.
1
(1) The value of tanq3 could be – (2) The value of sinq1 can not be 3.
2
1
(3) The value of cos2q2 can't be – (4) The value of cos2q2 could be 3.
2
Solution : -1 £ sin q1 £ 1 , 0 £ cos2 q2 £ 1 , -¥ < tan q3 < ¥
1.5.4 Some Important Trigonometric formula node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65
1. (a) sin2 q + cos2 q = 1

(b) 1 + tan2 q = sec2 q
2. Addition and subtraction formulae
(a) sin (A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
(b) cos (A ± B) = cos A cos B ± sin A sin B
tan A ± tan B
(c) tan (A ± B) =
1 m tan A tanB
3. Multiple formulae
(a) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A (b) cos2A = cos2A – sin2A
2 tan A
(c) cos2A = 1 – 2 sin2A = 2 cos2A – 1 (d) tan 2A =
1 - tan2 A
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Examples
Examples 8: Find the value of :
(i) sin 74° (ii) cos 106° (iii) sin 15° (iv) cos 75°
æ 3 ö æ 4 ö 24
Solution : (i) sin 74° = sin (2× 37°) = 2 sin 37 cos 37° =2 ç ÷ ç ÷ =
è 5 ø è 5 ø 25
2 2
æ 3ö æ 4ö 9 - 16 7
(ii) cos 106° = cos (2×53°) = cos 53° sin 53° = ç ÷ - ç ÷ =
2 2 =-
è 5ø è 5ø 25 25
1 3 1 1 3 -1
(iii) sin 15° = sin (45°–30°) = sin 45° cos 30° – cos 45° sin 30° = ´ - ´ =
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 3 1 1 3 -1
(iv) cos 75° = cos (45°+30°) = cos 45° cos30° – sin 45° sin 30° = ´ - ´ =
2 2 2 2 2 2
1.5.5 Small Angle Approximation

If q is small (say < 5°) then sin q » q, cos q » 1 and tanq » q
Note : here q must be in radian.
Examples
Examples 9: Find the approximate values of (i) sin 1° (ii) tan 2° (iii) cos 1°.
æ p ö p p æ p ö p p
Solution : (i) sin1° = sin èç1° ´ ÷
ø
= sin » (ii) tan2° = tan çè 2° ´ ÷
ø
= tan »
180° 180 180 180° 90 90
æ p ö p
(iii) cos1° = cos ç 1° ´ ÷ = cos =1
è 180° ø 180
1.5.6 Maximum and Minimum Values of Some useful Trigonometric Functions
• -1 £ sin q £ 1 • -1 £ cos q £ 1 - a2 + b2 £ a cos q + b sin q £ a2 + b2
Examples
Examples 10: Find maximum and minimum values of y :

(i) y = 2 sinx (ii) y = 4 – cosx (iii) y = 3sinx + 4 cosx
Solution : (i) ymax =2(1)=2 and ymin=2(–1)=–2 (ii) ymax = 4 – (–1)=4+1=5 and ymin = 4–(1)=3
(iii) ymax = 32 + 42 =5 and ymin = – 32 + 42 = – 5

Examples 11: The position of a particle moving along x-axis varies with time t according to equation
x= 3 sinwt – coswt where w is constants. Find the region in which the particle is confined.
Solution : Q x = 3 sin wt - cos wt
( 3) ( 3)
2 2
+ ( -1) = 2 and x min = + ( -1) = -2
2 2
\ x max =
Thus, the particle is confined in the region -2 £ x £ 2
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TIM BATCH ALLEN
QUESTION BASED ON TRIGNOMETRIC RATIO

5
1. If sec q = , find all the other T-ratios.
3
2. Find the values of :
(i) tan (–30°) (ii) sin 120° (iii) sin 135° (iv) cos 150° (v) sin 270° (vi) cos 270°
1.6 CALCULUS
Calculus is the study of how things change. In this we study the relationship between continuously varying
functions.
Quantity : Anything that can be measured is called a quantity.
Constants and Variables : A quantity whose value remains constant throughout the mathematical operation
is called a constant, e.g., integers, fractions, p, e etc. On the other hand, a quantity which can have any
numberical value within certain specific limits is called a variable. A variable is usually representesd by u, v, w,
x, y, z etc.
Dependent and independent variables : A variable which can have any arbitary value within specific limits
is called an independent variable whereas a variable whose value depends upon the numerical values assigned
to the independent variable is defined as a dependent variable.
Function
Function is a rule of relationship between two variable in which one is assumed to be a dependent variable and
the other independent variable
Example : The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of time the investment is held. Here
time is the independent and interest is the dependent variable.
In each of the above examples, value of one variable quantity (dependent variable), which we might call y,
depends on the value of another variable quantity (independent variable), which we might call x. Since the value
of y is completely determined by value of x, we say that y is a function of x and are represent in mathematically
as y = f(x). Here f represents the fuction, x the independent variable, and y the dependent variable.
All possible values of independent variable (x) are called domain of function. All possible value of dependent
variable (y) are called range of function.
Think of a function f as a kind of machine that produces an output value f(x) in its range whenever we feed it an
input value x from its domain (fig.)
x f(x) node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65
f
Input Output
(Domain) (Range)
We usually denote functions in one of the two ways :
(1) By giving a formula such as y = x2 that uses a dependent variable y to denote the value of the function.
(2) By giving a formula such as f(x) = x2 that defines a function symbol f to name the function.
Strictly speaking, we should call the function f and not f(x), y = sin x. Here the function is sine and x is the
independent variable.
Examples
Examples 12 : A function f(x) is defined as f(x) = x2 + 3. Find f(0), f(1), f(x2), f(x + 1) and f(f(1)).
Solution : f(0) = 02 + 3 = 3
f(1) = 12 + 3 = 4; f(x)2 = (x2)2 + 3 = x4 + 3
f(x + 1) = (x + 1)2 + 3 = x2 + 2x + 4
f(f(1)) = f(4) = 42 + 3 = 19
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1.7 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
The purpose of differential calculus to study the nature (i.e., increase
or decrease) and the amount of variation in a quantity when another
quantity (on which first quantity depends) varies independently.
1.7.1 Average rate of change
Let a function y = f(x) be plotted as shown in figure. Average rate
of change in y w.r.t. x in interval [x 1, x2] is
change in y Dy y -y
Average rate of change = change in x = D x = x - x
2 1
2 1
= slope of chord AB.

1.7.2 Instantaneous rate of change
It is defined as the rate of change in y with x at a particular value
of x. It is measured graphically by the slope of the tangent drawn
to the y-x graph at the point (x,y) and algebraically by the first
derivative of function y =f(x).
dy
Instantaneous rate of change = = slope of tangent = tanq
dx
1.7.3 Secant and Tangent to a Curve
Secant : A secant to a curve is a straight line, which intersects the curve at any two points.
y
q
Secant
p
x
Tangent : A tangent is straight line, which touches the curve a particular point. Tangent is limiting case of secant
which intersects the curve at the two overlapping point.
In the figure shown, if value of Dx is gradually reduced then the point Q will y+Dy Q
move nearer to the point P. If the process is continuously repeated value of Dx
will be infinitely small and secant PQ to the given curve will become a tangent Dy
at point P. P q
y R
Dx
æ Dy ö dy
Therefore ç ÷=
Dx ® 0 è D x ø
= tan q
x
dx x+Dx
æ dy ö
we can say that differentiation of y with respect to x, i.e. ç ÷ is equal to slope of the tangent at point P (x, y)
è dx ø
dy
or tan q = (From fig. the average rate of y from x to x + Dx is identical with the slope of secant PQ)
dx
1.7.4 First Derivatives of Commonly used Functions
dy dy dy
• y = constant Þ =0 • y = xn Þ = nxn-1 • y=ex Þ = ex
dx dx dx
dy 1 dy dy
• y = ln x Þ = • y = sinx Þ = cosx • y = cosx Þ = –sinx
dx x dx dx
dy dy
• y = tan x Þ = sec2 x • y = cotx Þ = –cosec2x
dx dx
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TIM BATCH ALLEN
1.7.5 Method of Differentiation or Rules of Differentiation
dy
(i) Function multiplied by a constant i.e., y = kf(x) Þ = kf ¢ ( x )
dx
Examples
Exampless 13: Find derivatives of the following functions :
4
(i) y = 2x3 (ii) y = (iii) y = 3ex (iv) y = 6 ln x (v) y = 5 sin x
x
dy 4 dy 4
Solution :
3
(i) y = 2x Þ = 2 ëé3x 3 -1 ûù = 6x 2 (ii) y = = 4x -1 Þ = 4 ëé(-1) x -1 -1 ûù = - 2
dx x dx x
dy dy æ 1ö 6
(iv) y = 6 ln x Þ = 6ç ÷ =
x
(iii) y = 3e Þ = 3e x
dx dx è xø x
dy
(v) y = 5 sin x Þ = 5 (cos x ) = 5 cos x
dx
dy
1.7.6 Sum or Subtraction of Two functions i.e., y = f(x) ±g(x) Þ = f ¢ ( x ) ± g¢ ( x )
dx
Examples
Exampless 14: Find differentiation of y w.r.t x.
(i) y = x2 – 6x (ii) y = x5 + 2ex (iii) y = 4 ln x + cos x
dy dy
Solution : (i) = 2x2 -1 - 6 (1) = 2x - 6 (ii) = 5x5 -1 + 2e x = 5x 4 + 2e x
dx dx
dy æ 1ö 4
(iii) = 4 ç ÷ + (- sin x ) = - sin x
dx è x ø x
1.7.7 Product of two functions : Product rule
dy
= f (x) × g¢ (x) + f¢ (x) × g (x)
y = f(x) · g(x) Þ
dx
Examples
Examples 15: Find first derivative of y w.r.t. x. (i) y = x2 sin x (ii) y =4(ex)cos x
dy
Solution : (i) = x2 (cos x ) + (2x )(sin x ) = x 2 cos x + 2x sin x
dx
dy
(ii)
dx
( ) ( )
= 4 ëé e x (cos x ) + e x (- sin x )ùû = 4e x [cos x - sin x ]
1.7.8 Division of Two Functions : Quotient Rule
f (x) dy f ¢ ( x ) g ( x ) - f ( x ) g ¢ ( x )
y= Þ =
g (x) dx éëg ( x )ùû
2
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Examples
sin x 4x3
Examples 16: Find differentiation of y w.r.t. x. (i) y = (ii) y =
x ex
Solution : (i) Here f(x) = sinx, g(x) = x So f'(x) = cos x,, g'(x) =1
dy (cos x )( x ) - (sin x )(1) x cos x - sin x

Therefore = =
dx x2 x2
(ii) Here f(x) = 4x3, g(x) = ex So f ¢ ( x ) = 12x 2 ,g ¢ ( x ) = e x
2 x 3
dy 12x e - 4x e
=
x
=
( )
12x2 - 4x3 ( )
Therefore,
( )
2
dx ex ex
1.7.9 Function of Functions : Chain rule

Let f be a function of x, which in turn is a function of t. The first derivative of f w.r.t. t is equal to the product of
df dx df df dx
and Therefore = ´
dx dt dt dx dt
1.7.10 Derivative of Logarithm and Exponential Functions
d 1 d x
(log e x) = , (e ) = e x
dx x dx
Examples
Examples 17: Find first derivative of y w.r.t. x. :
2
- 2x
(i) y = e–x (ii) y = 4 sin 3x (iii) y = 4ex
dy dy dz
Solution : (i) y = e- x = e z where z = –x so = ´
dx dz dx
( )
= e z (-1) = - e z = - e - x
dy dy dz
(ii) y = 4 sin 3x = 4 sinz where z = 3x so = ´ = 4 (cos z )(3 ) = 12 cos 3x
dx dz dx
dy dy dz
= 4 (z ) (2x - 2) = (8x - 8 ) e x -2 x
2
= ´
2
(iii) y = 4e x -2 x
= 4e z where z = x2 – 2x so
dx dz dx
Examples 18: The position of a particle moving along x-axis varies with time t as x=4t –t2 +1. Find the time
interval(s) during which the particle is moving along positive x-direction.
Solution : If the particle moves along positive x-direction, its x-coordinate must increase with time t.
dx
x-coordinate will increase with time t if >0.
dt
dx
= 4 - 2t
dt
dx
> 0 Þ 4 - 2t > 0 Þ t < 2
dt
Hence, the particle moves in positive x-direction during time-interval 0 < t < 2.
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Example 19 : y = ex.loge(x)
dy d x d
Solution : = (e ).log(x) + [loge(x)]ex
dx dx dx
dy ex
Þ = e x .log e (x) +
dx x
1.7.11 Double Differentiation

If f is differentiable function, then its derivative f' is also a function, so f' may have a derivative of its own,
denoted by (f')' = f". This new function f" is called the second derivative of f because it is the derivative of the
derivative of f. Using Leibniz notation, we write the second derivative of y = f(x) as
d æ dy ö d 2 y
ç ÷=
dx è dx ø dx 2
Another notation is f"(x) = D2f(x).
Examples
Example 20 : If f(x) = x cos x, find f"(x).
Solution : Using the product rule, we have
d d
f' (x) = x (cos x) + cos x (x) = –x sin x + cos x
dx dx
To find f"(x), we differentiate f'(x) :
d
f"(x) = (–x sin x + cos x)
dx
d d d
= –x (sin x) + sinx (–x)+ (cos x)
dx dx dx
= –xcos x – sin x – sin x = –x cos x – 2 sin x
y
1.7.12 Maximum and Minimum value of a Function
Suppose a quantity y depends on another quantity x and a manner shown in figure.
It becomes maximum at x1 and minimum at x2. At these points the tangent to the

curve is parallel to the x-axis and hence its slope is tan q = 0. Thus, at a maxima or
a minima slope
x1 x2 x
dy
Þ =0
dx
Maxima : Just before the maximum the slope is positive, at the maximum
y
dy
it is zero and just after the maximum it is negative. Thus, decrease at a
dx 2
3 4
q4
q2
dy 1 5
maximum and hence the rate of change of is negative at a maximum q1 q5
dx
slope = m1 = tanq1
d æ dy ö d æ dy ö m1 > m2 > (m3 = 0) > m4 > m5
i.e., ç ÷ < 0 at maximum. The quantity dx çè dx ÷ø is the rate of change x
dx è dx ø For maxima, as x increases
d2y dy the slope decreases
of the slope. It is written as . Conditions for maxima are : (a) =0
dx 2 dx
d2y
(b) <0
dx 2
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Minima : Similarly, at a minimum the slope changes from negative to
positive, Hence with the increasing that means the rate of change of y slope = m1 = tan q1
m1 > m2 > (m3 = 0) > m4 < m5
slope with respect to x is positive.
q1
q2 q5
d æ dy ö 1 5
Hence ç ÷>0
dx è dx ø 2 4 q4
3 q3= 0
Conditions for minima are :
x
dy d2y For minima, as x increases
(a) =0 (b) >0
dx dx 2 slope, increases
Quite often it is known from the physical situation whether the quantity is a maximum or a minimum. The test
d2y
on may then be omitted.
dx 2
Examples
Examples 21: The minimum value of y = 5x2 – 2x + 1 is :
1 2 4 3
(1) (2) (3) (4)
5 5 5 5
dy 1
Solution : For maximum/minimum value = 0 Þ 5 ( 2x ) - 2 (1) + 0 = 0 Þ x =
dx 5
1 d2 y 1
Now at x= , =10 which is positive so minima at x = .
5 dx2 5
2
æ 1ö æ 1ö 4
Therefore y min = 5 ç ÷ - 2 ç ÷ + 1 =
è 5ø è 5ø 5
Examples 22: The radius of a circular plate increases at the rate of 0.1 cm per second. At what rate does the area
5
increase when the radius of plate is cm ?
p
(1) 1 cm2/s (2) 0.1 cm2/s (3) 0.5 cm2/s (4) 2 cm2/s
Solution : Area of disk, A = pr2 (where r = radius of disk)
dA æ dr ö dr dA 5
= p ç 2r ÷ = 2pr so = 2p ´ ´ 0.1 = 1 cm 2 / s
dt è dt ø dt dt p
Examples 23: A particle moves along the curve 12y = x 3. Which coordinate changes at faster rate at x=10 ?
(1) x–coordinate (2) y–coordinate
(3) Both x and y–coordinate (4) Data insufficient
2
dy æ x ö æ dx ö
Solution : 12y = x Þ 12dy = 3x dx Þ
3 2 =
dt çè 2 ÷ø çè dt ø÷
2
æ xö
Therefore for ç ÷ >1 or x >2, y– coordinate changes at faster rate.
è 2ø
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Examples 24: Water pours out at the rate of Q from a tap, into a cylindrical vessel of radius r. The rate at which the
height of water level rises when the height is h, is
Q Q Q Q
(1) (2) (3) (4)
prh pr 2 2pr 2 pr 2 h
dV dh dV dh Q
Solution : Q Volume : V = pr2h \ = pr 2 But = Q so = 2
dt dt dt dt pr
Examples 25: If y = 3x4 – 8x3 – 6x2 + 24x. Find values of x where function is maximum or minimum.
Solution : To find values of x for maximum & minimum.
dy
=0
dx
dy
= 12x 3 - 24 x 2 - 12x + 24
dx
x =1 ù
= 12(x3 – 2x2 – x + 2) x = -1úú
= 12(x – 1) (x + 1) (x – 2) = 0 x = +2úû
d2y
To check maxima / minima = (+) Þ minima or (–) Þ maxima
dx 2
d2y
at x = –1 = 12(3 + 4 - 1) = (+) minima
dx 2
d2y
at x = 1 2
= 12(3x 2 - 4x - 1) = 12(3 – 4 – 1) = (–) maxima
dx
d2y node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65

at x = +2 = 12(12 - 8 - 1) = (+) minima
dx 2
Examples 26: If surface area of a cube is changing at a rate of 5 m 2/s, find the rate of change of body diagonal at
the moment when side length is 1 m.
5 5
(1) 5 m/s (2) 5Ö3 m/s (3) 3 m/s (4) m/s
2 4 3
Solution : Surface area of cube S=6a2 (where a = side of cube)
Body diagonal l = 3a . Therefore S=2l2
dS dl dl 1 dS 5
Differentiating it w.r.t. time = 2 (2l ) Þ = = m/s
dt dt ( )
dt 4 3a dt 4 3
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QUESTION BASED ON DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
dy
1. Find for the following :
dx
(i) y = x7/2 (ii) y = x–3
(ii) y=x (iv) y = x5 + x3 + 4x1/2 + 7
(v) y = 5x4 + 6x3/2 + 9x (vi) y = ax2 + bx + c
1 ds
(vii) y = 3x5 – 3x – (viii) Given s = t2 + 5t + 3, find .
x dt
1 2 ds
(ix) If s = ut + at , where u and a are constants. Obtain the value of .
2 dt
(x) The area of a blot of ink is growing such that after t seconds, its area is given by
A = (3t2+7) cm2 . Calculate the rate of increase of area at t=5 second.
(xi) The area of a circle is given by A = p r2 , where r is the radius. Calculate the rate of increase of area w.r.t.
radius.
2. Obtain the differential coefficient of the following :
(i) (x – 1) (2x + 5) (ii) (9x3 – 8x + 7) (3x5 + 5)
1 3x + 4 x2
(iii) (iv) (v)
2x + 1 4x + 5 x3 + 1
1.8 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. By help of integration we can find a function whose derivative
is known. Consider a function F(x) whose differentiation w.r.t. x is equal to f(x) then
ò f ( x ) dx = F (x ) + c
here c is the constant of integration and this is called indefinite integration.
Few basic formulae of integration are :
x n +1 1
ò x dx = n + 1 + c
n
ò x dx = ln x + c
ò sin xdx = - cos x + c ò cos xdx = sin x + c

ò sec ò e dx = e
2 x x
xdx = tan x + c +c
(ax + b)
n +1
dx ln (ax + b)
ò (ax + b) dx = a (n + 1)
n
+c
ò ax + b = a
+c
- cos (ax + b) sin (ax + b)

ò sin (ax + b) dx = a
+c ò cos (ax + b) dx = a
+c
tan (ax + b) e ax + b
ò sec (ax + b) dx = ò e dx =
ax + b
2
+c +c
a a
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Examples
Examples 27: Integrate the following w.r.t. x :
1 1
(i) 4x3 (ii) x - (iii) (iv) cos (4x+3) (v) cos2x
x 2x + 3
æ x 3 +1 ö 4x4
(i) ò = + = + c = x4 + c
3
Solution : 4x dx 4 çè 3 + 1÷ø c
4
æ 1ö 1 x2
(ii) ò çè x - ÷ø dx = ò xdx - ò dx = - ln x + c
x x 2
dx ln (2x + 3)
(iii) ò 2x + 3 = 2
+c
sin (4x + 3)
(iv) ò cos ( 4x + 3) dx = +c
4
2 cos2 x (1 + cos2x )dx = 1 dx + 1 cos2xdx

(v) ò cos2 xdx = ò dx = ò
2 2 2ò 2ò
x 1 sin 2x x 1
= + + c = + sin2x + c
2 2 2 2 4
1.8.1 Definite Integration

When a function is integrated between a lower limit and an upper limit, it is called a definite integral.
Consider a function F(x) whose differentiation w.r.t. x is equal to f(x), in an interval a £ x £ b then
b
y
ò f (x) dx = F (b) - F (a)
a
y=F(x)
1.8.2 Area Under a Curve and Definite Integration

Area of small shown element = ydx = f(x) dx y
If we sum up all areas between x=a and x= b then
x node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65

b
x=a x=b
ò f ( x ) dx = shaded area between curve and x-axis. x
a dx
Examples
5
ò x dx
2
Examples 28: The integral is equal to :
1
125 124 1
(1) (2) (3) (4) 45
3 3 3
5 5
é x3 ù é 5 3 13 ù 125 1 124
ò1 = = ê - 3ú= 3 -3= 3
2
Solution : x dx ê3ú
ë û1 ë 3 û
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1.8.3 Average value of a continuous function in an interval
Average value of a function y = f(x), over an interval a £ x £ b is given by
b b
ò ydx ò ydx
y av = a
= a
b
b-a
ò dx
a
Examples
Examples 29: Determine the average value of y = 2x +3 in the interval 0 £ x £ 1.
(1) 1 (2) 5 (3) 3 (4) 4
ò ydx 1
é æ x2 ö ù
1
Solution : y av = 0
= ò ( 2x + 3) dx = ê 2 ç ÷ + 3x ú = 12 + 3 (1) - 0 2 - 3 (0 ) = 1 + 3 = 4
1- 0 0 ë è 2ø û0
Examples 30: The velocity-time graph of a car moving along a Velocity(m/s)

straight road is shown in figure. The average velocity
of the car is first 25 seconds is : 20
(1) 20 m/s
(2) 14 m/s
(3) 10 m/s
(4) 17.5 m/s
0 Time(s)
Solution : Average velocity 10 20 25
25
ò vdt Area of v-t graph between t=0 to t = 25 s 1 éæ 25 + 10 ö ù

= = = ÷ø ( 20) ú = 14 m/s
0
ê çè
25 - 0 25 25 ë 2 û

QUESTION BASED ON INTERGRAL CALCULUS

1. Evaluate the following integrals :
ò ò x - 2 dx ò
3
(i) x15 dx (ii) (iii) (3x -7 + x -1 ) dx
2
æ 1 ö æ 1ö æ a bö
(iv) ò ç x+
è
÷ dx
xø
(v) ò ç x + ÷ dx
è xø
(vi) ò ç 2 + ÷ dx
èx xø
(a and b are constant)
2. Evaluate the following integrals

¥ GMm r2 q 1 q2 v ¥ -1
òR ò òu ò0
2
(i) dx (ii) -k dx (iii) Mv dv (iv) x dx
x2 r1 x
2
p p p
2 2 2
(v) ò0 sin x dx (vi) ò0 cos x dx (vii) ò- p

2
cos x dx
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1.9 GRAPHS
l Some Standard graphs and their equations
y y A y
-c
Straight line c
x
x+
m
q
=m
=
O x
y
y = mx y
c Straight line
Straight line
c
q x q x
O O
y
y y
2
y = - mx + c x = ky x = -ky
2
Straight line x
x
O O
Parabola
q Parabola
x
O
y y Hyperbola
y O 1
x x y
Parabola
y = -kx2
y = kx2 xy = constant
Parabola
x x
O O
y Ellipse y x 2 y2
2 2 2 + =1
x+y=a a2 b 2
b
O a x
x O
Circle
a a = semi major axis
b = semi minor axis
1.10 GEOMETRY

1.10.1 Formulae for determination of area
1. Area of a square = (side)2
2. Area of rectangle = length × breadth
1
3. Area of a triangle = base × height
2
1
4. Area of trapezoid = (distance between parallel side) × (sum of parallel side)
2
5. Area enclosed by a circle = p r2 (r = radius)
6. Surface area of a sphere = 4p r2 (r = radius)
7. Area of a parallelogram = base × height
8. Area of curved surface of cylinder = 2p rl (r = radius and l = length)
9. Area of ellipse = p ab (a and b are semi major and semi minor axes respectively)
10.Surface area of a cube = 6(side) 2
11.Total surface area of cone = pr2 + prl where prl = pr r2 + h2 = lateral area
ea
12.Area of ellipse = pab (a = semi major axis and b = semi minor axis)
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1.10.2 Formulae for determination of volume
1. Volume of a rectangular slab = length × breadth × height = abt t
2. Volume of a cube = (side) 3
a
4 b
3. Volume of a sphere = p r3 (r = radius)
3
4. Volume of a cylinder = p r2l (r = radius and l is length)
1 2
5. Volume of a cone = pr h (r = radius and h is height)
3
22 1
Note : p = = 3.14 ; p2 = 9.8776 » 10 and = 0.3182.
7 p
Examples
Examples 31: Calculate the shaded area. 4
Solution : Shaded area = Area of ellipse = pab 3
Here a = 6 – 4 = 2 and b = 4 – 3 = 1 2
r Area = p × 2 × 1 = 2p units 1
2 4 6
Examples 32: Calculate the volume of given disk. R=1m

t=1mm
Solution : Volume = pR2t = (3.14) (1)2 (10–3) = 3.14 × 10–3 m3
1.11 VECTORS
1.11.1 Scalar Quantities
A physical quantity which can be described completely by its magnitude only and does not require a direction
called scalar.
It obey the ordinary rules of algebra.
Ex : Distance, mass, time, speed, density, volume, temperature, current etc.
1.11.2 Vector Quantities

A physical quantity which requires magnitude and a particular direction, when it is expressed.
Ex. : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force etc.
Representation of vector :
Tail Head
Length
(magnitude)
A vector is represented by a line headed with an arrow. Its length is proportional to its magnitude.
r
A is a vector.. Y
Q
® ® A
A = PQ
q
® ® P
Magnitude of A =|A|or A
X
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Angle between two vectors :
Angle between two vectors means smaller of the two angles between the vectors when they are placed tail to tail
by displacing either of the vectors parallel to itself (i.e. 0 £ q £ p).
B B
B
Þ
q
q q
A A
A
l Equal Vectors
Vectors which have equal magnitude and same direction are called
equal vectors.
ˆ then ® ®
r r
If A = B and A ˆ =B A= B
l Opposite (or Negative) Vectors
Vectors which have equal magnitude but opposite direction are called opposite vectors.
® ®
AB and BA are opposite vectors
® ®
AB = - BA
l Coplanar Vectors
Three (or more) vectors are called coplanar vectors if they lie in the same plane or are parallel to the same
plane. Two (free) vectors are always coplanar.
l Null or Zero Vector
A vector having zero magnitude and arbitrary direction is called null vector.
® ® ® ® ®
Ex :- Sum of two vectors is always a vector so, (A)+ ( - A) = 0 [Note : (A)+ ( - A) ¹ 0 ]
®
0 is a zero vector or null vector..
l Unit Vector
A vector having unit magnitude is called unit vector. It is used to specify direction. A unit vector is represented
by Â (a cap or a hat or a caret).

®
® A Vector
Unit vector in the direction of A is Â = (unit vector = )
® Magnitude of the vector
|A|
® ® ®
ˆ
A = AA or ˆ
A =| A | A
Collinear vectors
Any two vectors are co-linear than one can be express in the term of other.
r r
A = lB (where l is a constant)
l Co-initial vector
c
Co-initial vectors are those vectors which have the same initial point. b
® ® ®
a, b and c are co-initial vectors. a
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l Base Vectors Y
In an XYZ co-ordinate frame there are three unit vectors $i , $j and k$ , Ù

j Ù
these are used to indicate X, Y and Z directions respectively. i X
These three unit vectors are mutually perpendicular to each other. Ù
k
l Position Vector Z
Position vector for a point is vector for which tail is origin & head is the given point itself.
Position vector of a point defines the position of the point w.r.t. the origin. y
uuur r
OP = r P(x,y)
r r
r = xiˆ + yjˆ
Displacement Vector x
l O
Change in position vector of particle is known as displacement vector.
Q(x2,y 2)
uuur r
OP = r1 = x1î + y1ˆj
r2
uuuur r
OQ = r2 = x2î + y2ˆj
r1 P(x ,y )
uuur r r 1 1
PQ = r 2 - r1 = ( x 2 - x1 ) î + ( y2 - y1 ) ˆj
Thus we can represent a vector in space starting from (x1, y1) & ending at (x2, y2) as ( x2 - x1 ) î + ( y2 - y1 ) ˆj .
1.11.3 Addition of two vectors

l Triangle Law of Addition of Two Vectors
If two vectors are represented by two sides of a triangle in same order then their sum or 'resultant vector' is
given by the third side of the triangle taken in opposite order of the first two vectors.
Steps for vector addition
(i) Keep vectors such that tail of one vector coincides with tail of other.
®
(ii) Shift one vector ( B ), without changing its direction, such that its tail coincide with head of the other
®
vector ( A ).
® ®
(iii) Now complete the triangle by drawing third side, directed from tail of A to head of B
® ®
(it is in opposite order of A and B vectors).
(iv) This new vector is the sum of two vecotrs. (also called reultant)
® ® ®
(v) Sum of two vectors is also called resultant vector of these two vectors. Resultant (R ) = A + B
Bsin q
R
B
a q
A Bcos q
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1.11.4 Parallelogram Law of Addition of Two Vectors D C
If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram which b
+ B
are directed away from their common point then their sum (i.e. resultant B =A
R
vector) is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing away through b
that common point. a
q
A B
Steps for vector addition A
(i) Keep two vectors such that there tails coincide.
(ii) Draw parallel vectors to both of them considering both of them as sides of a parallelogram.
(iii) Then the diagram drawn from the point where tails coincide represents the sum of two vectors, with its tail
at point of coincidence of the two vectors.
D A
C
B
B B uuur r r
(a) (b) (c) B AC = A + B
A A B
A A
uuur r r uuur r r r r r r
Note : AC = A + B and AC = B + A thus A + B = B + A [Commutative law]
Note : Angle between 2 vectors is the angle between their positive directions.
r r
Suppose angle between these two vectors is q, and A = A, B = B
(AD)2 = (AE)2 + (DE)2 C A

D
= (AB + BE) + (DE) 2 2
B B
A+ B
= (A + B cos q)2 + (B sin q)2 q a q
A E
= A2 + B2 cos2q + 2AB cosq +b2 sin2q A B
= A2 + B2 + 2AB cosq
r r
Thus, AD = 2 2
A + B + 2AB cos q or A+B = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos q
angle a with vector A is

DE B sin q
tan a = =
AE (A + B cos q)
here q=a+b
b =q -a
tan b = tan ( q - a )
tan q - tan a
tan b =
1 + tan q tan a
B sin q
tan q -
tan b = A + B cos q
B sin q
1 + tan q
A + B cos q
sin q B sin q
-
tan b = cos q A + B cos q A sin q
sin q B sin q Þ tan b =
1+ B + A cos q
cos q A + B cos q
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1.11.5 Addition and Subtraction in Component Form :
Suppose there are two vectors in component form. Then the addtion and subtraction between these two are
r
A = A xî + A yˆj + A z kˆ
r
B = B xî + B yˆj + B z kˆ
r r
A ± B = (A x ± B x )iˆ + (A y ± B y )jˆ + (A z ± B z )kˆ
Also if we are having a third vector present in component form and this vector is added or subtracted from the
addition or subtraction of above two vectors then
r
C = C î + C ˆj + C kˆ
x y z
r r r
A ± B ± C = (A x ± B x ± C x )iˆ + (A y ± B y ± C y )jˆ + (A z ± B z ± C z )kˆ
Examples
r r r r
Examples 33: Obtain the magnitude of 3A + 2B if A = î + ˆj - 2kˆ and B = 2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
r r
Solution : ˆ + 2(2iˆ + ˆj + k)
3A + 2B = 3(iˆ + ˆj - 2k) ˆ
= 3iˆ + 3ˆj - 6kˆ + 4iˆ + 2jˆ + 2kˆ
= 7iˆ + 5ˆj - 4kˆ

r r
Magnitude of 3A + 2B = (7)2 + (5)2 + (-4)2
= 49 + 25 + 16 = 90
r r r r
Examples 34: Two vectors A and B are shown in the figure. Find angle between A and B .
x
30°
A
B
30°
x
Solution : To find the angle between two vectors we connect the tails of the two
r r r A
vectors. We can shift B such that tails of A and B are connected
30°
x
as shown in figure. 30°
r r
Now we can easily observe that angle between A and B is 60°. B
Examples 35: Two forces of magnitudes 3N and 4N respectively are acting on a body. Calculate the resultant force
if the angle between them is :
(i) 0° (ii) 180° (iii) 90°
Solution : (i) q = 0°, both the forces are parallel, R = A + B
\ Net force or resultant force R = 3 + 4 = 7N
Direction of resultant is along both the forces
(ii) q = 180°, both the forces are antiparallel,R = A – B
\ Net force or resultant force R = 4 – 3 = 1N

Direction of net force is along bigger force means along 4N.
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TIM BATCH ALLEN
(iii) q = 90°, both the forces are perpendicular
then R = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos 90o
= A 2 + B2 = 32 + 42 = 5N
3 -1 æ 3 ö
or a = tan çè ø÷ = 37
o
tan a =
4 4
magnitude of resultant is 5N which is acting at an angle of 37° from 4N force.

Examples 36: Two vectors having equal magnitude of 5 units, have an angle of 60° between them. Find the
magnitude of their resultant vector and its angle from one of the vectors.
Solution : a = 5 unit and q = 60°
2 2
R = a + a + 2a.a cos 60o = a 3 = 5 3 unit
3
a sin 60o 1
tan a = = 2 = = tan 30o \ a = 30o
+
a a cos 60 o
3 3
2
® ®
Examples 37: A vector A and B make angles of 20° and 110° respectively with the X-axis. The magnitudes of
these vectors are 5 and 12 respectively. Find their resultant vector.
® ®
Solution : angle between the A and B = 110°– 20° = 90°
2 2 o 2 2 = 13m R
R = A + B + 2AB cos90 = 5 + 12
B
® ®
Let angle of R from A is a
° A
110 20°
B sin q 12 sin 90o X-axis
tan a = =
A + Bcos q 5 + 12 cos90
o

12 ´ 1 12
= =
5 + 12 ´ 0 5
-1 12 ®
or a = tan ( ) with vector A or (a + 20°) with X-axis
5
® ® ®
Examples 38: Figure shows a parallelogram ABCD. Prove that AC + BD = 2 BC
® ® ® ® ® ®
Solution : AC = AB+ BC BD = BC+ CD [applying triangle law of vectors]
D C
® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®
Now AC + BD = AB + BC + BC + CD = AB + 2BC + CD
® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®
But CD = - AB \ AC + BD = AB + 2BC - AB = 2BC A B
24
Physics
ALLEN
Examples 39: Two forces each numerically equal to 10 dynes are acting as shown in the figure, then find resultant
of these two vectors.
Solution : The angle q between the two vectors is 120° and not 60°.
ne
dy
10
\ R = (10)2 + (10)2 + 2(10)(10)(cos120 o )
60° 10 dyne
= 100 + 100 - 100 = 10 dyne
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l Vector addition is commutative ® ® ® ®

A+ B = B+ A
® ® ® ® ® ®
l Vector addition is associative A+ ( B + C) = ( A+ B ) + C
l Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when they are parallel i.e. angle between them is zero.
® ® ® ® ® ®
2
R
max
=| A + B |
max = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos 0 = (A + B) = A + B or |A+ B|
max
=| A |+| B |
l Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when they are antiparallel angle between them is 180°.
® ®
Rmin =| A + B | = A2 + B2 + 2ABcos180o = (A - B)2 = A – B (Bigger — smaller)
® ® ® ® ® ®
or R min =| A |- | B | or | A + B |min =| A |-| B |
l Resultant of two vectors of unequal magnitude can never be zero.

l If vectors are of unequal magnitude then minimum three coplanar vectors are required for zero resultant.
l Resultant of two vectors of equal magnitude will be at their bisector.
® ® ® ®
If |A|=|B| But if |A|>|B| then angle b > a
B
B
A+
+B
B R=
A
q b
R=
q a
A A
®
R will incline more towards the vector
of bigger magnitude.
® ®
l If two vectors have equal magnitude i.e. |A|=|B| = a and angle between them is q then resultant will be at the
® ® q
bisector of A and B and its magnitude is equal to 2acos
2
|B
q/2
|=
® ® ® q a
cos
|R|=|A + B| = 2acos
2
2a
R=
120o
Special Case : If q = 120° then R = 2a cos =a q/2
2 q/2 |A|=a
® ® ® ® ®
i.e. If q = 120° then |R|=|A + B|=|A|=|B|= a
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TIM BATCH ALLEN
l If resultant of two unit vectors is another unit vector then the angle between them (q) = 120°.
or
If the angle between two unit vectors (q) = 120°, then their resultant is another unit vector.
l To a vector, only a vector of same type can be added that represents the same physical quantity and the
resultant is also a vector of the same type.
l The resultant of three non-coplanar vectors can never be zero, or minimum number of non coplanar vectors
whose sum can be zero is four.
1.11.6 Addition of More Than Two Vectors (Law of Polygon)

D D
If some vectors are represented by sides of a
C+D
C
B+
polygon in same order, then their resultant
+B+
C C
A+
vector is represented by the closing side of
R=A
B
polygon in the opposite order. B A+
B
® ® ® ® ® A
A
R = A+ B + C+ D
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l In a polygon if all the vectors are in same order then their

C
resultant is a null vector. D
® ® ® ® ® ®
A+ B + C+ D+ E = 0
E B
l If n vectors of equal magnitude are arranged at equal angles of A
separation then their resultant is always zero.
1.11.7 Subtraction of two vectors
® ® ® ® ®
Let A and B are two vectors. Their difference i.e. A – B can be treated as sum of the vector A and

®
vector (– B ). B
® ® ® ®
A - B = A + (- B )
q A
® ® ® a
To subtract B from A , invert the direction of B and add to vector
® –B
A-
A according to law of triangle.

B
–B
® ®
|A- B|= A + B - 2AB cos q
2 2
® ®
q the angle between A and B .
® B sin q
Let angle of difference vector from vector A is a then tana =
A - B cos q
26
Physics
ALLEN
POINTS TO REMEMBER
® ® ®
l If three vectors A , B and C are represented both in magnitude and direction by the sides of a triangle taken
in the same order, then g
S B
A B C Q
= = a
sin a sin b sin g
A
® ® C
a = angle between B and C .
b
® ® P
b = angle between C and A .
® ®
g = angle between A and B
® ® ® ®
l The vector subtraction doesn't follow commutative law i.e. A – B ¹ B – A
l The vector subtraction doesn't follow associative law i.e.
r r r r r r
( )
A-B -C ¹ A- B-C ( )
® ®
l If two vectors have equal magnitude, i.e. |A|=|B|= a and q is the angle between them, then
® ® q
2 2 2
|A - B| = a + a - 2a cos q = 2a sin
2
q ® ® ® ®
Special case : If q = 60o then 2a sin = a i.e. |A - B|=|A|=|B|= a at q = 60°
2
l If difference of two unit vectors is another unit vector then the angle between them is 60° or
If two unit vectors are at angle of 60°, then their difference is also a unit vector.
l In physics whenever we want to calculate change in a vector quantity, we have to use vector subtraction. For
® ® ®
example, change in velocity (D V ) = V - V
2 1
l If two vectors are such that their sum and their difference vectors have equal magnitude then angle between
® ® ® ®
the given vectors (q) = 90°. |A + B| = |A - B|
or A2 + B2 + 2AB cos q = A2 + B2 – 2AB cos q or cos q = 0 or q = 90°
® ® ® ® ® ®
l If A+ B = A- B then B = 0 ( null vector)
1.11.8 Resolution of vectors into rectangular components

When a vector is splitted into components which are at right angle to each other then the compenents are called
rectangular or orthogonal components of that vector.
® ®
(i) Let vector a = OA in X - Y plane, makes a angle from X-axis.
Draw perpendiculars AB and AC from A on the X-axis and Y-axis
respectively.
®
(ii) The length OB is called projection of OA on X-axis or component
®
of OA along X-axis and is represented by ax. Similarly OC is the
®
projection of OA on Y-axis and is represented by a y.
According to law of vector addition.
® ® ® ®
a = OA = OB+ OC
27
TIM BATCH ALLEN
r
Thus a has been resolved into two parts, one along OX and the other along OY, which are mutually perpendicular..
OB
In DOAB, = cos a or OB = OA cos a or ax = a cos a
OA
AB
and = sina or AB = OA sin a = OC or ay = a sin a
OA
If $i and $j denote unit vectors along OX and OY respectively then

® ®
OB = a cos a $i and OC = a sin a $j
So that according to rule of vector addition
® ® ® ® ®
OA =OB + OC or a = a x $i + a y $j or a = a cos a $i + a sin a $j
ay
( a x )2 + ( a y )
2
a= and a = tan -1
ax
1.11.9 Rectangular Components of a Vector in Three Dimensions
r ®
(i) Consider a vector a represented by OA , as shown in figure. Consider O as origin and draw a rectangular
parallelopiped with its three edges along the X, Y and Z axes.
r Y
(ii) Vector a is the diagonal of the parallelopiped whose projections on x, y C
r r r ay
and z axis are a x , a y and a z respectively. These are the three rectangular
r A
components of A .
® ® ® a
Using triangle law of vector addition OA =O E+ EA
ax B
O
® ® ® X
Using parallelogram law of vector addition OE = (OB+ OD)
D az
® ® ® ® E
\ OA = (O B+ OD) + EA Z
® ® ® ® ® ®
EA = OC \ OA = OB + OD + OC
® ® ® ® ® ®
Now ˆ \
OA = a , OB = a xî, OC = a yˆj and OD = a z K a = a x $i + a y $j + a z k$
Also (OA)2 = (OE)2 + (EA)2 But (OE)2 = (OB)2 + (OD)2

and EA = OC \ (OA)2 = (OB)2 + (OD)2 + (OC)2
2 2 2
or a2 = a x + a y + a z
2 2 2
a = a x + a y + az
Directional Cosines
r
Let A makes angle : a with x axis, b with y axis and g with z axis
Ax Y
cos a = Ax = A cos a
A A
Ay
cos b = Ay = A cos b b
A a ax
g X
A Z
cos g = z Az = A cos g
A
cos a, cos b and cos g are directional cosines of the vector.
28
Physics
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Putting the value of Ax, Ay and Az in eq. (1) we get
A2 = A2 cos2 a + A2 cos2 b + A2 cos2 g
or or ( 1 - sin2 a ) + ( 1 - sin2 b ) + ( 1 - sin2 g ) = 1
or 3 - (sin2 a + sin2 b + sin2 g ) = 1 or sin2 a + sin2 b + sin2 g = 2
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l A vector can be resolved into maximum infinite number of components.
For example 10$i = $i + $i + $i............10 times

$i $i $i
=
+ + ............20 times
2 2 2
l Maximum number of rectangular components of a vector in a plane is two. But maximum number of rectangular
components in space (3-dimensions) is three which are along X, Y and Z axes.
l A vector is independent of the orientation of axes but the components of that vector depends upon the orientation
of axes.
l The component of a vector along its perpendicular direction is always zero.
Examples
® ®
Examples 40: If P = 3$i + 4$j + 12k$ then find magnitude and the direction cosines of the P .
® 2 2 2
Solution : magnitude P is = Px + Py + Pz = 32 + 42 + 122 = 169 = 13
Px 3 Py 4 Pz 12
cos a = = , cosb = = , cos g = =
P 13 P 13 P 13
Examples 41: Find out the angle made by ( $i + $j ) vector from X and Y axes respectively..
2 2
Y i+ Ù
Solution : a = a x + a y = 12 + 12 = 2 j
= Ù
a
ax 1
°
=
5°
45
cos a = \ a = 45° =4
b=
a 2 a
X
ay 1
cos b = = \ b = 45° $i + $j is at bisector of X and Y axes.
a 2
®
Examples 42: Find out the angle made by A = $i + $j + k$ vector from X, Y and Z axes respectively..
2 2 2
Solution : Given Ax = Ay = Az = 1 so A = Ax + Ay + Az = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
Ax = 1 a = cos -1
1
cos a = or
A 3 3
Ay 1 1
cos b = = or b = cos -1
A 3 3
Az 1 1
cos g = = or g = cos -1
A 3 3
29
TIM BATCH ALLEN
Examples 43: A force of 4N is inclined at an angle of 60° from the vertical.
Find out its components along horizontal and vertical directions.
Solution : Vertical Component = 4 cos 60° = 2N
Horizontal component = 4 sin 60° = 2 3 N
Examples 44: A force is inclined at an angle of 60° from the horizontal. If the horizontal component of the force is
40N, calculate the vertical component.
Solution : Ax = 40N, Ay = ?, q = 60°
A
Q Ax = A cosq \ 40 = A cos 60° = or A = 80N
2
A 3 80 3
Now Ay = A sin 60° = = = 40 3 N = 40 × 1.732 = 69.28 N
2 2
®
Examples 45: Determine that vector which when added to the resultant of P = 2$i + 7$j - 10k$ and
®
Q = $i + 2$j + 3k$ gives a unit vector along X-axis.
® ® ®
Solution : Resultant R = P + Q = (2$i + 7$j - 10k$ ) + ($i + 2$j + 3k$ ) = 3$i + 9$j - 7k$
®
But R + required vector = $i
®
or required vector = $i – R = $i - (3$i + 9$j - 7k$ ) = -2$i - 9$j + 7k$
Examples 46: Resolve a weight of 20 N in two directions which are parallel and perpendicular to a slope inclined at
30° to the horizontal.
Solution : Component perpendicular to the plane
W^ = W cos30°
30°
3 W||
= ( 20 ) = 10 3 Ans. W^
2 W=20N

and component parallel to the plane 30°
æ1ö
W|| = W sin 30° = (20 ) ç ÷ = 10N
è2ø
®® ® B Y
Examples 47: Add vectors A, B and C which have equal magnitude of A
50 unit and are inclined at angles of 45°, 135° and 315°

5°
13
respectively from x-axis. 45°

18 X
0°
® ®
Solution : Angle between B and C =315°-135°= 180°
They balance each other C
\
®
so sum these three is A = 50 unit at 45° from X-axis
30
Physics
ALLEN
Examples 48: The sum of three vectors shown in figure, is zero. C
®
(i) What is the magnitude of vector OB ? D 45° B
® O
(ii) What is the magnitude of vector OC ?
® A = 10N
Solution : Resolve OC into two rectangular components.
OD = OC cos 45° and OE = OC sin 45°
For zero resultant OE = OA or OC sin 45° = 10N
1 C E
OC ´ = 10N or OC = 10 2N
2
45° B
and OD = OB or OC cos 45° = OB
D O
1
or 10 2 ´ = OB or OB = 10N
2 A = 10N
\ OC = 10 2N and OB = 10N
QUESTION BASED ON ADDITION OF VECTORS

r r r
1. Two vectors a and b inclined at an angle q w.r.t. each other have a resultant c which makes an angle b with
r r r
a . If the directions of a and b are interchanged, then the resultant will have the same :
(1) Magnitude (2) Direction
(3) Magnitude as well as direction (4) Neither magnitude nor direction
2. The resultant of two vectors of magnitudes 2A and 2 A acting at an angle q is 10 A . Find the value of q ?
3. Two vectors acting in the opposite directions have a resultant of 10 units. If they act at right angles to each other,
then the resultant is 50 units. Calculate the magnitude of two vectors.
4. The following sets of three vectors act on a body, whose resultant can not be zero :
(1) 10, 10, 10 (2) 10, 10, 20 (3) 10, 20, 20 (4) 10, 20, 40
5. The vector sum of 6 coplanar forces, each of magnitude F, when each force is making an angle of p/3 with the
preceding it, is :
(1) F (2) 6F (3) 3F/2 (4) zero

6. Which of the following sets of displacements might be capable of returning a car to its starting point ?
(1) 4, 6, 8 and 15 km (2) 10, 30, 50 and 120 km
(3) 5, 10, 30 and 50 km (4) 40, 50, 75 and 200 km
1.11.10 Multiplication or Division of a Vector by a Scalar

®
® ® ® ® A
If there is a vector A and a scalar K and if B = KA and C = then
K
(a) In multiplication of a vector by a scalar the magnitude becomes K times while the direction remains same.
® ®
So that angle between A and B is zero..
(b) In division of a vector by a scalar,the magnitude becomes (1/K) times and the direction remains same. So
® ®
that angle between A and C is zero..
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TIM BATCH ALLEN
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l A scalar or a vector, can not be divided by a vector.

l Vectors of different types can be multiplied to generate new physical quantities which may be a scalar or a
vector. If, in multiplication of two vectors, the generated physical quantity is a scalar, then their product is called
scalar or dot product and if it is a vector, then their product is called vector or cross product.
1.11.11 Scalar Product of Two Vectors

Definition
The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors is defined as the product of their magnitudes with cosine of
the angle between them.
® ®
Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle q between them then their scalar product is written as
® ®
A . B = AB cos q
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l It is always a scalar, which is positive if angle between the vectors is acute (i.e.q < 90°) and negative if angle
between them is obtuse (i.e. 90° < q < 180°).
®® ®®
l It is commutative A. B = B.A
® ® ® ®® ®®
l It is distributive A .( B + C ) = A . B + A . C
®®
l According to definition A . B = AB cos q B
A.B = AB cos q
é® ®ù q
q = cos -1 ê A .B ú
The angle between the vectors X
ê AB ú A
ë û
l Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when cos q = max =1, i.e. q =0°,
®®
i.e, vectors are parallel. (A. B) = AB
max
l Scalar product of two vectors will be zero when cos q = 0, i.e. q =90°
® ®
( A . B ) =0

if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors is zero then vectors are orthogonal or perpendicular to each other.
l In case of orthogonal unit vectors $i, $j and k$

$i. $j = $j. k$ = k$ . $i = 1 ´ 1 ´ cos 90o = 0
l The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self dot product and is given by
®® ® ® ®
A . A = A A cos0o = A2 Þ | A| = A . A
l In case of unit vector n$
n$ . n$ = 1 ´ 1 ´ cos 0o = 1 so n$ . n$ = $i . $i = $j . $j = k$ . k$ = 1
l In terms of components
®® ˆ ˆ
A . B = (A xî + A yˆj + A z k).(B xî + B yˆj + B z k) = (A x B x + A y By + A z Bz )
rr
l Work W = F.d
rr
l Power P = F.v
32
Physics
ALLEN
1.11.12 Vector Product of Two Vectors
Definition C =A× B Ù
n
Ù
The vector product or cross product of two vectors is defined as n
a vector having magnitude equal to the product of their

magnitudes with the sine of angle between them, and its A B
q
direction is perpendicular to the plane containing both the vec-
tors according to right hand screw rule or right hand thumb rule.
® ®
If A and B are two vectors, then their vector product
® ® ® ® ® ®
i.e. A × B is a vector C defined by C = A ´ B = AB sin q n
ˆ
Here q is the angle between the vectors and the direction of the thumb gives the direction of n̂ .
Right Hand Thumb Rule
® ®
Place the vector A and B tail to tail.
® ®
Now place stretched fingers and thumb of right hand perpendicular to the plane of A and B such that the
® ®
fingers are along the vector A . If the fingers are now closed through smaller angle so as to go towards B , then
® ® ®
the thumb gives the direction of A ´ B i. e. C
Right Hand Screw Rule
® ® ®
The direction of A ´ B i.e., C is perpendicular to the plane containing vectors A×B
® ®
A and B and towards the advancement of a right handed screw rotated from
® ®
A (first vector) to B (second vector) through the smaller angle between them.
Thus, if a right handed screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane formed by
A B
® ® ® ® q
A and B is rotated from A to B through the smaller angle between them, then
® ®
the direction of advancement of the screw gives the direction A ´ B .
Examples of Vector Product
® ® ® ® ® ®
(i) Torque t = r ´ F (ii) Angular momentum J = r ´ p
® ® ® ® ® ®
(iii) Velocity v = w ´ r (iv) Acceleration a = a ´ r
® ®®® ®
Here r is position vector and F , p , w and a are force, linear momentum, angular velocity and
angular acceleration respectively.
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TIM BATCH ALLEN
1.11.13 Geometrical Meaning of Vector Product of Two Vectors
® ® ® ®
(i) Consider two vectors A and B which are represented by OP and OQ and ÐPOQ = q
(ii) Complete the parallelogram OPRQ. Join P with Q. Here OP = A and OQ = B.
Draw QN ^ OP.
® ®
(iii) Magnitude of cross product of A and B
Q R
® ®
|A ´ B | = ABsinq
B
= (OP) (OQ sin q)

q
= (OP) (NQ) (Q NQ = OQ sin q) O N P
A
= base × height
= Area of parallelogram OPRQ
base ´ height (OP) (NQ) 1 ® ®

Area of DPOQ = = = | A ´ B|
2 2 2
® ®
\ Area of parallelogram OPRQ = 2[area of D OPQ] = | A ´ B|
Formulae to Find Area
® ® 1 ® ®
If A and B are two adjacent sides of a triangle, then its area = | A ´ B|
2
® ® ® ®
If A and B are two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then its area =| A ´ B |
® ® 1 ® ®
If A and B are diagonals of a parallelogram then its area = | A ´ B |
2
POINTS TO REMEMBER
l Vector product of two vectors is always a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors, i.e.,
® ® node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65
orthogonal (perpendicular) to both the vectors A and B A×B=C
l Vector product of two vectors is not commutative i.e.

B
® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® A
A´ B ¹ B ´ A But |A ´ B| = |B ´ A|= AB sin q
® ® ® ®
Note : A´ B = - B ´ A
B
A
® ® ® ®
i.e., in case of vectors A ´ B and B ´ A magnitudes are equal but
B × A = –C
directions are opposite [See the figure]
l The vector product is distributive when the order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.
® ® ® ® ® ® ®
A ´ ( B + C ) = A´ B + A´ C
34
Physics
ALLEN
® ®
l According to definition of vector product of two vectors A ´ B = A B sin qn
ˆ
é ® ® ù
® ® -1 ê | A ´ B | ú
So |A ´ B|= A B sin q i.e. q = sin ê® ® ú
ê|A|| B |ú
ë û
l The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when sin q = max. = 1, i.e., q =90°
® ®
|A ´ B|max = ABsin90o = AB
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular).
l The vector product of two non-zero vectors will be zero when sinq = 0,
® ®
i.e. q = 0° or 180° and |A ´ A|= 0
Therefore if the vector product of two non-zero vectors is zero, then the vectors are collinear.
l The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself is a zero vector or a null vector.
® ® ®
i.e. A ´ A =(AA sin0o )n
ˆ= 0
r r
l In case of unit vector n$ ˆń
n ˆ = 1 ´ 1 ´ sin 0o ˆn = 0 so that î ´ î = ˆj ´ ˆj = ˆk ´ kˆ = 0
l In case of orthogonal unit vectors $i, $j and k$ ; according to right hand thumb rule
î ´ ˆj = kˆ , ˆj ´ ˆk = î , ˆk ´ î = ˆj and ˆj ´ î = -kˆ , ˆk ´ ˆj = -î , î ´ ˆk = -ˆj
j j
k i
i
k
(A) (B)
l In terms of components
î ˆj kˆ
® ® Ax Ay Az ˆ B -A B )
A´ B = = î(A y B z - A z B y ) - ˆj(A x B z - A z B x ) + k(A x y y x
Bx By Bz
® ®
® A´ B ®
l Unit vector perpendicular to A as well as B is n̂ = .
® ®
|A´ B|
® ® ®
If A , B and C are coplanar, then ® ® ®
A .( B ´ C ) = 0 .
Angle between (® ® ® ® o
A + B ) and ( A ´ B ) is 90 .
35
TIM BATCH ALLEN
Examples
® ® ® ® ® ®
Examples 49: If | A + B| = | A - B|, then find the angle between A and B .
Solution : Q |® ® ® ®
A + B| =| A - B| Þ A2 + B2 + 2AB cos q = A2 + B2 - 2AB cos q
or A2 + B2 + 2AB cos q = A2 + B2 – 2AB cos q or cos q = 0 \ q = 90°
® ® ® ®
Examples 50: If A = 4$i + nj$ - 2k$ and B = 2$i + 3$j + k$ , then find the value of n so that A ^ B .
®®
Solution : Dot product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero A . B = 0
\ ˆ ˆ + 3ˆj + k)
(4iˆ + njˆ - 2k).(2i ˆ =0 Þ (4 ´ 2) + (n ´ 3) + (-2 ´ 1) = 0
Þ 3n = – 6 Þ n = – 2
® ®
Examples 51: If F = (4î - 10ˆj) and r = (5iˆ - 3j)
ˆ , then calculate torque.
Solution : Here ® and ®

r = 5 î - 3 ˆj + 0kˆ F = 4 î - 10 ˆj + 0 kˆ
î ˆj kˆ
® ® ® ˆ ˆ
\ t = r ´ F = 5 -3 0 = î(0 - 0) - ˆj(0 - 0) + k(-50 + 12) = -38k
4 -10 0
Examples 52: ˆ and (iˆ - ˆj + 2k)

Find a unit vector perpendicular to both the vectors (2iˆ + 3ˆj + k) ˆ .
® ®
Solution : Let A = 2iˆ + 3ˆj + kˆ and B = î - ˆj + 2kˆ
r ® ®
r A´ B
unit vector perpendicular to both A and B is n̂ = ® ®
| A´ B |
î ˆj kˆ
® ® ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
A ´ B = 2 3 1 = i(6 + 1) - j(4 - 1) + k(-2 - 3) = 7i - 3 j - 5k
1 -1 2
1 ˆ
\ ® ® 2 2 2 unit \ n̂ = (7iˆ - 3jˆ - 5k)
| A ´ B | = 7 + ( -3) + (-5) = 83 83

® ®
Examples 53: The diagonals of a parallelogram are expressed as A = 5iˆ - 4ˆj + 3kˆ and B = 3iˆ - 2jˆ - kˆ .
Calculate the magnitude of area of this parallelogram.
r r
Solution : When A and B are the diagonals of a parallelegram, then its
1 ® ®
Area = | A ´ B|
2
î ˆj kˆ
® ® ˆ -4 3 ˆ 5 3 ˆ 5 -4
A ´ B = 5 -4 3 = i -2 - 1 - j 3 - 1 + k 3 -2
3 -2 -1
= î {(-4)(-1) - (3)(-2)} - ˆj {(5)(-1) - (3)(3)} + kˆ {(5)(-2) - (-4)(3)} = 10iˆ + 14ˆj + 2kˆ

® ®
| A ´ B| = (10)2 + (14)2 + (2)2 = 300 area of parallelogram
1 ® ® 1
= | A ´ B|= ´ 10 3 = 5 3
2 2
36
Physics
ALLEN
uur ur
Examples 54: Find angle between A = 3iˆ + 4jˆ and B = 12iˆ + 5ˆj ?
cos q =
uur ur
A.B
=
( )(
3iˆ + 4ˆj . 12iˆ + 5ˆj)
Solution : We have
AB 32 + 42 122 + 52
36 + 20 56 æ 56 ö
cos q = = q = cos -1 ç ÷
5 ´ 13 65 è 65 ø
r r
Examples 55: A physical quantity (m = 2 kg) is multiplied by a vector a such that F = mar . Find the magnitude
r
and direction of F is
r
(i) a = 2 m/s2 East wards
r
(ii) a = –8 m/s2 North wards
r r
Solution : (i) F = ma = 3 ´ 2ms -2 East wards
= 6 N East wards
r r
(ii) F = ma = 3 ´ ( -8 ) N North wards
= –24 N North wards

= 24 N South wards
QUESTION BASED ON MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS

r r r r
1. If a = 2iˆ + 3ˆj + 4kˆ and b = 4iˆ + 3jˆ + 2kˆ , find the angle between a and b .
If P = 2iˆ - 3jˆ + kˆ and Q = 3iˆ + 2ˆj , then P · Q is :

® ® ® ®
2.
(1) zero (2) 6 (3) 12 (4) 15
A force F = 3iˆ - 2jˆ + 4kˆ displaces a body from a point A (8, – 2, – 3) to the point B (–2, 0, 6). The work done
®
3.
is :
(1) 1 unit (2) 2 units (3) 3 units (4) 4 units

® ® ® ® ® ®
4. If A = î + ˆj + kˆ and B = 2iˆ + ˆj find (a) A × B (b) A ´ B
® ® ® ® ® ®
5. If | A | = 4,|B| = 3 and q = 60º in the figure, find (a) A × B (b) | A ´ B|
®
B
q ®
A
® ® ® ur ur ur
6. Given : C = A + B Also, the magnitude of A , B and C are 12, 5 and 13 units respectively. The angle
ur ur
between A and B is :
p p
(1) 0º (2) (3) (4) p
4 2
37
TIM BATCH ALLEN
ANSWERS
CHECK YOUR LEARNING–1
5 1 p q
1. (i) , ; (ii) , 2. 1 + 6x + 15x2 + 20x3 + 15x4 + 6x5 + x6
2 5 q p
3. 9.899 4. 0.90
4 3 4 3 5
1. sinq = , cosq = , tanq = , cotq = , cosecq =
5 5 3 4 4
1 3 1 3
2. (i) - , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) – , (v) –1, (vi) 0
3 2 2 2
7 5/2 1
1. (i) x , (ii) – 3x– 4, (iii) 1, (iv) 5x4 + 3x2 + 2x–1/2 , (v) 20x3 + 9x1/2 + 9, (vi) 2ax + b, (vii) 15x4 – 3 +
2 x2
(viii) 2t + 5, (ix) u + at, (x) 30 cm2 s –1, (xi) 2 pr
2 1 2x - x 4
2. (i) 4x + 3, (ii) 216 x – 144 x + 105 x + 135 x – 40, (iii) –
7 5 4 2
, (iv) – , (v) 3
(2x + 1)2 (4x + 5)2 (x + 1)2

x16 x -6 x2 x2
1. (i) + c, (ii) – 2x –1/2 +c, (iii) – + loge x + c, (iv) + 2x + loge x + c, (v) + loge x + c
16 2 2 2
a
(vi) – + b loge x + c
x

GMm æ 1 1ö 1
2. (i) , (ii) kq1q2 ç - ÷ , (iii) M (v2 – u2), (iv) ¥ , (v) 1, (vi) 1, (vii) 2
R è r2 r1 ø 2

1. (1) 2. 45° 3. P = 40; Q = 30 4. (4) 5. (4) 6. (1)
-1 æ 25 ö
1. q = cos çè ø÷ 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. éë a = 3, b = -î + 2jˆ - kˆ ùû 5. éëa = 6, b = 6 3 ùû
29
6. (3)
38
Physics
ALLEN
EXERCISE-1
ALGEBRA AND GRAPHS
1. Find sum and product of roots of equation 2x2 – 3x + 5 = 0
3 5 2 5 5 2
(1) , (2) , (3) , (4) 3, 5
2 2 3 2 2 5
Find the value of (0.996 )

1/ 4
2.
(1) 0.992 (2) 0.996 (3) 0.249 (4) 0.999
44
3. The value of is
[4 + 0.01]4
(1) 3.96 (2) 0.99 (3) 4.01 (4) 16.02
-2
æ hö
4. Find ç 1 + ÷ if h << R
è Rø
h2 2h 2h 2h h
(1) 1 + - (2) 1 + (3) 1 - (4) 1 -
R2 R R R R
5. The value of log10 (36) is [given log102 = 0.30 log103 = 0.48]

(1) 1.26 (2) 1.08 (3) 0.78 (4) 1.56
6. The expression a = b is equivalent to–
x
(1) log a x = b (2) log x a = b (3) log a b = x (4) log b a = x

7. Graph of equation 3x – 2y + 4 = 0 is–
y y y y
(1) (2) (3) x (4) x

x
x
node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01-Exe.p65
8. Given that x = t2, y = 3t, then the relation between x and y is given by–
(1) parabola (2) circle (3) ellipse (4) straight line
9. The graph between x and y is given in the figure then, x and y are related as–
parabola
1
(1) y 2 µ x (2) y µ x 2 (3) y µ x (4) y µ
x
39
TIM BATCH
ALLEN
10. Velocity of a body is given by v = 4t 2 – 2t then the correct a-t graph is–
a a a a
(1) t (2) t (3) t (4) t
11. The graph of equation y = 2x – 4x2 is–
y y y y
x
(1) x (2) x (3) (4)
x
12. If x = a cos t and y = b sin t then the relation between x and y is given by (a ¹ b)
(1) circle (2) ellipse (3) parabola (4) hyperbola
TRIGONOMETRY
13. Find A if 3 sin q + 4 cos q = A sin(q + f)
(1) 7 (2) 1 (3) 5 (4) 25
2
14. If sin q = then find tan q
5
2 5 14 2
(1) (2) (3) (4)
14 14 5 21
15. The value of sin 480° is–
1 1 node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01-Exe.p65

3 3
(1) (2) (3) - (4) -
2 2 2 2
CALCULUS
dy
16. Find if y = sin(4x – 3)
dx
cos(4x - 3) sin(4x - 3)
(1) - cos(4x - 3) (2) (3) (4) 4 cos(4x - 3)
4 4
dy
17. If y = x sin x then find
dx
(1) x sin x + cos x (2) sin x + x cos x (3) x cos x (4) cos x
40
Physics
ALLEN
æ df ö
18. Magnetic flux is given by f = 2t2 – 3t + 4, then find induced emf at t = 2 çèQ e = - ÷ø
dt
(1) –5 unit (2) 5 unit (3) 6 unit (4) 3 unit
19. For the given graph the point of minima is/are–
x2 x3 x5
x
x1 x4
(1) only at x3 (2) only at x2 (3) at both x3 and x5 (4) only at x5

20. Radius of circle is given by r = 2t 2, then the rate of change of area at t = 1s is given by
(1) 4p (2) 8p (3) 12p (4) 16p
21. In which part slope of graph is continously increasing–
A E
D
B
C x
o
(1) only in OA (2) only in AB (3) in BCD (4) only at E
1
22. Find ò 2x - 3 dx
(2x - 3)-2 log e (2x - 3) (2x - 3)
(1) +c (2) +c (3) log e (2x - 3) + c (4) 2e
2 2
¥
23. Find ò0
e- x dx
(1) 1 (2) –1 (3) ¥ (4) 0
24. ò sin 4x dx is–
cos 4x tan 4x
(1) -4 cos 4x + c (2) -4 sin 4x + c (3) - +c (4) +c
4 4
ò cos
2
25. Find qdq
q sin 2q sin 2q q cos 2q q sin 2q

(1) + +c (2) +c (3) - +c (4) -
2 4 4 4 4 2 4
41
TIM BATCH
ALLEN
VECTORS
r r r r
26. Given that P + Q = P - Q . This can be true when :
r r r r
(1) P = Q (2) Q = 0
r r r r
(3) Neither P nor Q is a null vector (4) P is perpendicular to Q
27. The direction cosines of a vector î + ˆj + 2 kˆ are :-
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(1) , ,1 (2) , , (3) , , (4) , ,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
r r r r r
28. Two vectors A and B are such that A + B = C and A2 + B2 = C2. Which of the following statements, is
correct:-
r r r r
(1) A is parallel to B (2) A is anti-parallel to B
r r r r
(3) A is perpendicular to B (4) A and B are equal in magnitude
29. e
A vector perpendicular to 4$i - 3$j may be :j
r
(1) 4$i + 3 j (2) 7k$ (3) 6$i (4) 3$i - 4 $j
r r r r
30. If A = 3î + 4 ˆj and B = 6î + 8 ˆj and A and B are the magnitudes of A and B , then which of the following is
not true ?
r r r A 1 r r
(1) A ´ B = 0 (2) = (3) A.B = 48 (4) A = 5
B 2
31. A force (3î + 2ˆj) N displaces an object through a distance (2î - 3ˆj) m. The work done is :
(1) zero (2) 12 J (3) 5 J (4) 13 J

r r r
32. A vector F1 is along the positive X-axis. If its vector product with another vector F2 is zero then F2 may be :
(1) 4ˆj (2) – (ˆ

i + ˆj ) (3) (î + kˆ) (4) (-4î )
r r node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01-Exe.p65
33. The magnitude of the vector product of two vectors A and B may not be :
(1) Greater than AB (2) Less than AB (3) Equal to AB (4) Equal to zero
r r r
34. If P ´ Q = R , then which of the following statements is not true :
r r r r r r r r r r
(1) R ^ P (2) R ^ Q (3) R ^ (P + Q) (4) R ^ (P ´ Q)
r r
35. The vector B = 5î + 2ˆj - Skˆ is perpendicular to the vector A = 3î + ˆj + 2kˆ if S =
(1) 1 (2) 4.7 (3) 6.3 (4) 8.5
36. The unit vector along î + ˆj is :
î + ˆj î + ˆj
(1) k̂ (2) î + ˆj (3) (4)
2 2
42
Physics
ALLEN
r r r
37. ˆ and A
What is the angle between A and the resultant of ( A + B ˆ
) ( - B) ?
1æ Aö 1æ Bö 1æ A- Bö
(2) tan (3) tan (4) tan
- - -
(1) 0° ç
è B ÷ø ç
è A ÷ø ç
è A + B ÷ø
38. A bird moves from point (1 m, –2 m, 3 m) to (4 m, 2 m, 3 m). If the speed of the bird is 10 m/s, then the velocity
vector of the bird in m/s is:
(1) 5 ( î - 2jˆ + 3kˆ ) (2) 5 ( 4iˆ + 2jˆ + 3kˆ ) (3) 0.6iˆ + 0.8ˆj (4) 6iˆ + 8ˆj
r r
39. If vectors A = î + 2jˆ + 4kˆ and B = 5iˆ represent the two sides of a triangle, then the third side of the triangle can
have length equal to
(1) 6 (2) 56 (3) Both of the above (4) None of the above
40. The sum and difference of two perpendicular vector of equal length are
(1) Perpendicular to each other and of equal length
(2) Perpendicular to each other and of dirrerent lengths
(3) Of equal length and have an obtuse angle between them
(4) Of equal length and have an acute angle between them
41. From fig. the correct relation is
C N
O
B
D A
P
M E
r r r r r r r r
(1) A + B + E = 0 (2) C - D = - A (3) B + E - C = - D (4) All of the above
42. Choose the correct statement
Vector
(1) Scalar + vector = scalar/vector (2) = Scalar
Vector
Scalar
(3) = Scalar or Vector (4) Vector – Vector = Vector
Vector
r r
43. The unit vector parallel to the resultant of the vectors A = 4iˆ + 3jˆ + 6kˆ and B = - î + 3jˆ - 8kˆ is
1 é ˆ ˆ ˆù 1 é ˆ ˆ ˆù 1 é ˆ ˆ ˆù 1 é ˆ ˆ ˆù
(1) ë 3i + 6 j - 2k û (2) ë 3i + 6 j + 2k û (3) ë 3i + 6 j + 2k û (4) ë 3i + 6 j - 2k û
7 7 49 49
44. If a vector ( 2iˆ + 3ˆj + 8kˆ ) is perpendicular to the vector (4ˆj - 4î + a
ˆ , then the value of a is
k)
(1) –1 (2) 1/2 (3) –1/2 (4) 1
43
TIM BATCH
ALLEN
45. If î, ˆj and k̂ represent unit vectors along the x, y and z-axes respectively, then the angle q between the vectors
( î + ˆj + kˆ ) and ( î + ˆj ) is equal to :
1æ 1 ö æ 2ö 1æ 1 ö
(1) sin (3) cos
1
(2) sin
- -
(4) 90°
-
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
è 3 ø è 3ø è 3 ø
r
46. Vector P makes angle a , b and g with the X, Y and Z axes respectively..
Then sin2 a + sin2 b + sin2 g =
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3
r r r r
47. If A + B is a unit vector along x-axis and A =
î - ˆj + kˆ , then what is B ?
(1) ĵ + kˆ (2) ĵ - kˆ (3) î + ˆj + kˆ (4) î + ˆj - kˆ
48. The angle between two vectors given by (6iˆ + 6ˆj - 3k) ˆ is :
ˆ and (7iˆ + 4ˆj + 4k)
1æ 1 ö 1æ 5 ö 1æ 2 ö 1
æ 5ö
(1) cos (2) cos (3) sin (4) sin
- - - -
ç ÷
ç
è 3
÷
ø
ç
è 3
÷
ø
ç
è 3
÷
ø
ç
è
3 ø÷
r r r
49. Let A = ACosq î + ASinq ˆj , be any vector. Another vector B which is normal to A is :
(1) BCosq î + BSinq ˆj (2) BSinq î + BCos q ˆj (3) BSinq î - BCosq ˆj (4) ACos q î - ASinq ˆj
50. A vector of length l is turned through the angle q about its tail. What is the change in the position vector of its
head ?
(1) l cos ( q / 2 ) (2) 2l sin ( q / 2 ) (3) 2l cos ( q / 2 ) (4) l sin( q / 2 )
ANSWERS
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 1 4 2 3 4 3 1 1 2 1 2 2 3 4 2
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 4 2 1 3 4 3 2 1 3 1 2 3 3 2 3
Que. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 1 4 1 4 4 3 1 4 3 1 2 4 1 3 1
Que. 46 47 48 49 50
Ans. 3 2 4 3 2
44
Physics
ALLEN
EXERCISE-2
MORE THAN ONE CORRECT
1. Which of the following has value 1
(A) tan 45° (B) sin 90° (C) cos 90° (D) cos 0°
2. Which of the following has value zero?
(A) sin 0° (B) tan 0° (C) cos 0° (D) cot 0°
3. Which of the following statements is/are correct(fig.)? y
r r
(A) The sign of x-component of d1 is positive and that of d 2 is negative. d2
r r
(B) The signs of the y-components of d1 and d 2 are positive and negative, respectively.. d1
r r x
(C) The signs of the x- and y-components of d1 + d 2 are positive.
(D) None of these.

r r
4. If A = 2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ and B = î + ˆj + kˆ are two vectors, then the unit vector is
r - ĵ + ˆk r 2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
(A) Perpendicular to A is (B) Parallel to A is
2 6
r æ - ĵ + kˆ ö r î + ˆj + kˆ
(C) Perpendicular to B is ç ÷ (D) Parallel to A is
ç
è
2 ÷
ø
3
r r r r
5. If v1 + v 2 is perpendicular to v1 - v 2 , then
r r r r
(A) v1 is perpendicular to v 2 c (B) v1 = v2
r r r
(C) v1 is a null vector (D) The angle between v1 and v 2 can have any value
r r r r r r
6. Two vectors A and B lie in one plane. Vector C lies in a different plane. Then, A + B + C
(A) Cannot be zero
(B) Can be zero
r r
(C) Lies in the plane of A or B
(D) Lies in a plane different from that of any of the three vectors
MATCH THE COLUMN

7. Column-I Column-II
3
(A) sin 37° (P) -
5
3
(B) cos 127° (Q)
5
4
(C) tan 307° (R) -
3
4
(D) cos 307° (S)
3
3
(E) cos (53°) (T)
4
45
TIM BATCH
ALLEN
8. In Column-I some straight lines graphs are given and in Column-II corresponding signs of slopes and intercepts
are given. Match the type of graphs of Column-I corresponding to signs of slopes and intercepts in Column-II.
Column-I Column-II
(A) (P) Positive slope

x
(B) (Q) Negative slope

x
(C) (R) Positive intercept

x
(D) x (S) Negative intercept

(T) Zero intercept
(U) Zero slope
9. In Column-I some straight lines graphs are given and in Column-II corresponding signs of slopes and intercepts
are given. Match the type of graphs of Column-I corresponding to signs of slopes and intercepts in Column-II.
Column-I Column-II
30°
(A) W E (P) 30° East of North
46
Physics
ALLEN
N
30
°
(B) W E (Q) 30° North of East
N
°
30
(C) W E (R) 30° West of North
(D) W E (S) 60° South of West

60°
COMPREHENSION BASED QUESTIONS

Comprehension-1
If a particle starts moving along a straight line with initial velocity u under constant acceleration a, its displacement
is given by the relation
1 2
x = ut + at
2
10. Differentiation of ‘x’ w.r.t. ‘t’ will be
at ut 2 at 3
(A) y = (B) u + at (C) u + 2at (D) +
2 2 6
11. Differentiation of above result w.r.t. ‘t’ will be
(A) a (B) u + a (C) u (D) non

Comprehension-2
If charge flown through a wire is given by q = 3 sin(3t), then
æ p ö
12. Find out the amount of charge flow through the wire at t = ç ÷
seconds.
è 6ø
æ p ö
(A) 3 coulombs (B) 6 coulombs (C) 1 coulomb (D) 0 coulomb ç ÷
è 6ø
p
13. Find out the current flown through the wire at t = second.
9
3
(A) 4.5 Amp (B) 4.5 3 Amp (C) Amp (D) 9 Amp
2
47
TIM BATCH
ALLEN
Comprehension-3
If a = (3t2 + 2t + 1) m/s2 is the expression according to which the acceleration of a particle varies. Then -
a = (3t2 + 2t + 1) m/s2
14. The expression for instantaneous velocity at any time ‘t’ will be (if the particle was initially at rest)-
(A) t3 + 2t + 1 (B) t3 + t + 1 (C) t3 + t2 + t (D) t3 + t2 + 1 + C
15. The change in velocity after 3 seconds of its start is
(A) 30 m/s (B) 39 m/s (C) 3 m/s (D) 20 m/s
16. Find displacement of the particle after 2 seconds of start.
(A) 26 m (B) 26/3 (C) 30/7 m (D) 26/7 m
ANSWERS
More than one correct

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ans. A,B,D A,B A,C A,B,C B,D A,D
Match the Column

7. A-Q; B-P; C-R; D-Q; E-Q 8. A-P,T; B-Q,R; C-P,R; D-P,S 9. A-Q; B-R; C-P; D-S
Comprehension based
Comprehension-1
10. B 11. A
Comprehension-2
12. A 13. A
Comprehension-3
14. C 15. B 16. B
48
ALLEN
IMPORTANT NOTES
Physics
49

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BASIC MATHS IN

PHYSICS & VECTORS

- b ± b 2 - 4ac x = - ( -1) ± ( -1)2 - 4 ( 2) (-3)

1.2 BINOMIAL EXPRESSION

l Logarithms to the base 10 are known as common logarithms.

node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65

CHECK YOUR LEARNING-1

QUESTIONS BASED ON ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA

1.5 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS (T-RATIOS)

node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65

Values of Trigonometrical Ratios of Some Standard Angles

sin ( -q ) = - sin q cosec ( -q ) = - cosecq

tan (180° - q ) = - tan q cot (180° - q ) = - cot q

Solution : -1 £ sin q1 £ 1 , 0 £ cos2 q2 £ 1 , -¥ < tan q3 < ¥

1. (a) sin2 q + cos2 q = 1

1.5.5 Small Angle Approximation

1.5.6 Maximum and Minimum Values of Some useful Trigonometric Functions

• -1 £ sin q £ 1 • -1 £ cos q £ 1 - a2 + b2 £ a cos q + b sin q £ a2 + b2

Examples 10: Find maximum and minimum values of y :

(iii) ymax = 32 + 42 =5 and ymin = – 32 + 42 = – 5

Solution : Q x = 3 sin wt - cos wt

Thus, the particle is confined in the region -2 £ x £ 2

CHECK YOUR LEARNING-2

QUESTION BASED ON TRIGNOMETRIC RATIO

= slope of chord AB.

1.7.7 Product of two functions : Product rule

1.7.8 Division of Two Functions : Quotient Rule

dy (cos x )( x ) - (sin x )(1) x cos x - sin x

(ii) Here f(x) = 4x3, g(x) = ex So f ¢ ( x ) = 12x 2 ,g ¢ ( x ) = e x

1.7.9 Function of Functions : Chain rule

1.7.10 Derivative of Logarithm and Exponential Functions

1.7.11 Double Differentiation

Another notation is f"(x) = D2f(x).

node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65

d2y node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65

Solution : Surface area of cube S=6a2 (where a = side of cube)

Body diagonal l = 3a . Therefore S=2l2

CHECK YOUR LEARNING-3

QUESTION BASED ON DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

1.8 INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Few basic formulae of integration are :

ò sin xdx = - cos x + c ò cos xdx = sin x + c

- cos (ax + b) sin (ax + b)

2 cos2 x (1 + cos2x )dx = 1 dx + 1 cos2xdx

1.8.1 Definite Integration

1.8.2 Area Under a Curve and Definite Integration

x node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65

Examples 30: The velocity-time graph of a car moving along a Velocity(m/s)

ò vdt Area of v-t graph between t=0 to t = 25 s 1 éæ 25 + 10 ö ù

CHECK YOUR LEARNING-4

QUESTION BASED ON INTERGRAL CALCULUS

2. Evaluate the following integrals

(v) ò0 sin x dx (vi) ò0 cos x dx (vii) ò- p

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Solution : Shaded area = Area of ellipse = pab 3

Examples 32: Calculate the volume of given disk. R=1m

1.11.2 Vector Quantities

by Â (a cap or a hat or a caret).

node05\B0AI-B0\CBSE\TIM Modules\9th\Physics\01-Basic Maths in Phyiscs And Vector\01 Theory.p65

In an XYZ co-ordinate frame there are three unit vectors $i , $j and k$ , Ù

1.11.3 Addition of two vectors

(AD)2 = (AE)2 + (DE)2 C A

angle a with vector A is