University of Zakho

College of Engineering
Petroleum Department

LECTURE ON HOLE PROBLEMS & SOLUTIONS

Drilling Engineering – 4th Stage

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Introduction of Drilling Problems and Solutions

In well planning, the key to achieving objectives successfully is to design

drilling programs on the basis of expectation of possible hole problems rather
than on caution and control (keeping something harmful under control or
within limits). Drilling problems can be very costly

It is almost certain that problems will occur while drilling a well, even in very
carefully planned wells. For example, in areas in which similar drilling practices
are used, hole problems may have been reported where no such problems
existed previously because formations are nonhomogeneous. Therefore, two
wells near each other may have totally different geological conditions.

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Why can Hole Cleaning be a Problem?
Just because solids are present in a well doesn’t mean that stuck pipe
problems are inevitable. After all, many wells have been drilled with much less
consideration for hole cleaning in the past than we currently give wells
(probably because wells used to be restricted to 45 degrees or so).

As the angle of the well increases above 45°, the likelihood of a solids bed
existing increases. Remedial action usually taken. This action may be to alter
the mud properties, circulate faster, rotate the drill pipe faster or make a
wiper trip.

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This has given rise to the following rules and procedures:
▪ If you’re going to get stuck it will be in the first ten stands of trips
▪ If you pull into a problem while tripping out, go back down and circulate
▪ The Tool Pusher must be on the drill floor while pulling out of open hole
▪ The DSV must be on the drill floor for the first ten stands of a trip

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An event which causes the drilling operation to stop is described as a Non-
Productive Time (NPT) event. Pipe sticking and lost circulation are the two
main events which cause NPT in the drilling industry. Well kicks, of course,
require operations to stop and when they occur can result in a large NPT. The
average NPT in the drilling industry is 20%.

There are many events which cause NPT in the drilling industry. These
problems are: differential sticking, mechanical sticking and lost circulation.

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Types of Borehole problems
The most predominant drilling problems include:

▪ Borehole instability e.g unconsolidated formation

Mechanical Pipe Sticking
▪ Loss of circulation The causes of mechanical pipe sticking are incapable removal
▪ Pipe sticking of drilled cuttings from the annulus borehole instabilities, such
as
▪ Hole deviation
▪ Pipe failures ▪ Unconsolidated formations
▪ Mobile Formations
▪ Mud contamination ▪ Fractured & Faulted Formations
▪ Formation damage ▪ Naturally Over-Pressured Shale Collapse
▪ Hole Cleaning
▪ Hole cleaning ▪ Cement Blocks
▪ Equipment and personnel-related ▪problems
Junk

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Unconsolidated formations
An unconsolidated formation falls into the well bore because it is loosely packed with
little or no bonding between particles.

The collapse of the formation is caused by removing the supporting rock as the well is
drilled.
It happens in a well bore when little or no filter cake is present.

This mechanism normally occurs:

• While drilling shallow unconsolidated formations.
Preventative Action
▪ Avoid excessive circulating time with the BHA opposite
unconsolidated formations to reduce hydraulic erosion.
▪ Spot a gel pill before POOH.
▪ Slow down tripping speed when the BHA is opposite
unconsolidated formations to avoid mechanical damage.
▪ Start and stop the pumps slowly to avoid pressure surges
being applied to unconsolidated formations.
▪ Use sweeps to help keep the hole clean
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Figure Collapse of unconsolidated formations
Mobile Formations
The mobile formation squeezes into the well bore because it is being compressed by the overburden forces.
Mobile formations behave in a plastic manner, deforming under pressure. The deformation results in a decrease
in the well bore size, causing problems running BHA’s, logging tools and casing.
A deformation happens because the mud weight is not sufficient to prevent the formation squeezing into the
well bore.

This mechanism normally occurs:

• While drilling salt.
Definition
Preventative Action
Plastic or Mobile formation is caused by overburdened pres
▪ Maintain sufficient mud weight. shale and/or salt into a wellbore. The squeezed formation
▪ Select an appropriate mud system that will not worsen the mobile formation.
diameter; therefore, the drill string/BHA gets stuck due to unde
▪ Plan repeated reaming/wiper trips mainly for this section of the hole.
▪ Consider bi-centre PDC bits
▪ Minimise the open hole exposure time of these formations.
Freeing
▪ Spot a fresh water pill if in a salt formation.
▪ If moving up, apply torque and jar down with maximum trip load.
▪ If moving down, jar up with maximum trip load.
Mobile Formation Causes Stuck Pipe
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Fractured & Faulted Formations
A natural fracture system in the rock can often be found near faults. Rock near faults can be broken into
large or small pieces. If they are loose, they can fall into the well bore and jam the string in the hole. Even if
the pieces are bonded together, impacts from the BHA due to drill string vibration can cause the formation
to fall into the well bore. There is a risk of sticking in fractured / faulted formation when drilling through a
fault and when drilling through fractured limestone formations.
This mechanism can occur:
▪ In tectonically active zones.
▪ As the formation is drilled.
Preventative
▪ Minimise drill string vibration. Change the BHA configuration if high shock vibrations are observed.
▪ Slow the trip speed before the BHA enters a suspected fractured/faulted area.
▪ Circulate the hole clean before drilling ahead.
Freeing
▪ JAR UP in an effort to break up formation debris.
▪ Use every effort to maintain circulation.
▪ Circulate high density viscous sweeps to clean debris.
▪ Spot acid if stuck in limestone.

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Naturally Over-Pressured Shale Collapse
A naturally over-pressured shale is one with a natural pore pressure greater than the normal hydrostatic
pressure gradient.
Using insufficient mud weight in these formations will cause the hole to become unstable and collapse.

Preventative
▪ Ensure planned mud weight is sufficient.
▪ Plan to minimise hole exposure time.

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• A circulation loss:

• One of the major causes of down time in the

drilling industry is that of mud losses to the
formation. It's so widespread that hardly a well is
drilled without some form of loss. Such losses
occur under varied conditions and the cause can
often be difficult to identify. This occurs because
of higher pressures in the well bore than those
that the formation can bear. The ability to
maintain a column of drilling fluid in the well
and ideally circulate it as well is key to keeping
the well under control. If losses occur in drilling
or well servicing operations, the drilling fluid level
may drop. The hydrostatic pressure in the well
and thus the bottom hole pressure will drop.
Primary control will be lost if the Bottom Hole
Pressure or BHP falls below the reservoir pressure
Lost circulation can lead to other drilling
problems like stuck pipe, well control situation
or even damaging the production zone. Curing
the losses quickly and effectively is very
important to carry on drilling operations
A circulation loss:
▪ Occurs when the volume of returned mud is less than the volume of mud
pumped. Circulation losses are unplanned events that usually must be
resolved before drilling can continue.
▪ Circulation losses also may lead to loss of well control, resulting in a
blowout, or lead to difficulty in cleaning the borehole, which may
eventually lead to a stuck drill string.
▪ One remedy is to reduce the mud weight.

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Losses can be categorised according to severity in 3 separate groups, each of which
requires different methods to correct. These are

1- Seepage losses
2- Partial losses
3- Complete losses (often called Total Losses by drillers).

A loss can lead to a lack of well control if a reservoir is exposed in the well bore, because
of the drop in hydrostatic pressure to below the reservoir pressure allows hydro carbons
into the wellbore. A low density Fluid then has to be pumped in to the annulus to quickly
compensate for the lost drilling fluid . Often water is used as the low density fluid.
Classification of Loss Severity - by Loss Rate

Here is an example below:

1. Seeping (minor) - less than 10bbls/hour

2. Partial (medium) - 10 to 500 bbl/hr
3. Complete (severe) - total losses, unable to keep the hole full
Seepage loss is a situation when the mud volume loses into formation at very minimal and
this will have no or little effect for a drilling operation.

Partial loss is a situation when some volume of drilling fluid loses into the well and you get
some drilling mud volume back on surface. However, this type of fluid loss will not lead to
well control situation because the total hydrostatic pressure does not decrease.

Total loss is the worst situation because there is no mud returning back to surface and the
mud level will drop to any level down hole. Losing a lot of fluid into the well will directly
affect hydrostatic pressure at the bottom. If you cannot keep the hole full, it might be a time
when the hydrostatic pressure is less than the reservoir pressure. Eventually, a well control
situation will be happened.
Total loss
If drilling were to continue with a complete loss of circulation, it would
normally be referred to as blind drilling. Drilling blind is not a common practice
in the field, but can be carried out provided the following preconditions are in
place i.e. that:

➢The wellbore above the loss zone is stable

➢There is no fluid production from the formation
➢The fluid circulated is clear water
➢It is economically viable and safe to drill blind
Classification of Loss Severity - by Circulating Conditions

Losses can also be classified as follows:

➢Static losses - down hole losses which occur under static hole condition, e.g.
no circulation or string movement.
➢Dynamic losses - down hole losses which occur during circulation. The
difference between drilling fluid volume in/out will indicate the level of the
losses.
➢Total losses or lost circulation - no returns will be observed.
The major consequences of lost circulation include the following:

➢The possibility of a blowout because of a drop in the mud level.

➢The possibility of sticking the drill pipe because of poor cuttings removal.
➢Excessive cost because of loss of mud, increased rig time,
➢Losses to the producing zone resulting in extensive formation damage.
➢The loss of the well
Loss Circulation - Prevention / Cure

Lost circulation is easier to prevent than to cure. Total prevention of lost circulation is almost
impossible to achieve, because some formations, such as naturally fractured, cavernous, or
high permeability zones, are not avoidable if the target zone is to be reached. Indeed,
sometimes the target zone is the loss zone! However, limiting circulation loss is possible if
certain precautions are taken, especially those related to induced fractures. These
precautions include:

➢ Maintaining a proper mud weight

➢ Minimising annular friction pressure losses during drilling and tripping in
➢ Sufficient hole cleaning and avoiding restrictions in the annular space
➢ Setting casing to protect upper weaker formations within a transition zone
➢ Updating formation pore pressure and fracture gradient data while drilling, for better
accuracy with log and drilling data
lost-circulation material

The collective term for substances added to drilling fluids when drilling fluids
are being lost to the formations downhole.
A variety of LCM is available and combining several types and particle sizes for
treatment purposes is common practice. Conventional—and relatively
inexpensive—materials include:
• Sized calcium carbonate
• Fiber
• Mica
Lost Circulation Decision Tree

Lost Circulation

12¼" Hole 8½" Hole 6" Hole

LC < 10 bbl/hr LC < 10 bbl/hr LC < 60 bbl/hr

- 2.5 ppb CaCO3 F - 2.5 ppb CaCO3 F
DRILL AHEAD WITH
- 2.5 ppb CaCO3 M - 2.5 ppb CaCO3 M DRILLING MUD.
1 - DRILL AHEAD 1 - DRILL AHEAD
2 - MONITOR FOR LOSSES 2 - MONITOR FOR LOSSES

LC < 50 bbl/hr
- 15 ppb CaCO3 UC
- 10 ppb SuperSeal C
- 10 ppb CaCO3 C
- 15 ppb Mica C
1 - HOMEGENEOUS BLEND.
2- REMOVE SURFACE
STRAINERS.
3- PUMP THROUGH BIT, DRILL
AHEAD AND MONITOR FOR
LOSSES.
4 - DO NOT STOP PUMPING
WHILST DISPLACING.
LC > 60 bbl/hr
LC < 50 bbl/hr DRILL AHEAD WITH
- 10 ppb CaCO3 UC INHIBITED WATER
- 5 ppb SuperSeal C
- 5 ppb CaCO3 C
- 10 ppb Mica C
1 - HOMEGENEOUS BLEND.
2 - REMOVE SURFACE
STRAINERS.
3 - PUMP THROUGH BIT,
DRILL AHEAD AND
MONITOR FOR LOSSES.
4 - DO NOT STOP PUMPING
WHILST DISPLACING.

LC > 50 bbl/hr LC > 50 bbl/hr

- 50 ppb CaCO3 UC - 50 ppb CaCO3 UC
- 50 ppb SuperSeal C - 50 ppb SuperSeal C
- 25 ppb CaCO3 C - 25 ppb CaCO3 C
- 25 ppb Mica C - 25 ppb Mica C
1 - HOMEGENEOUS BLEND. 1 - HOMEGENEOUS BLEND
2 - PUMP THROUGH PBL. 2 - PUMP THROUGH PBL
Mechanical borehole collapse:
▪ Often occurs at low borehole pressures, such as happens with too low mud
weight or during circulation losses or if the well is swabbed in while tripping
pipe.
▪ The remedy is often to increase wellbore pressure, usually by increasing the
mud weight.

Hole enlargement or collapse

▪ Mainly in shales, chemical effects may induce hole enlargement or collapse.
▪ When water-based drilling fluids are used, the shale may react with the
mud filtrate (fluid that penetrates the wellbore wall), Weakening the
borehole.
▪ Oil-based muds are often better on hole collapse, but more difficult if
circulation losses arise.
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SWABBING AND SURGING

Swabbing is when bottom hole pressure is reduced below formation pressure

due to the effects of pulling the drill string, which allows an influx of formation
fluids into the wellbore.

When pulling the string there will always be some variation to bottom hole
pressure. A pressure loss is caused by friction, the friction between the mud
and the drill string being pulled. Swabbing can also be caused by the full gauge
down hole tools (bits, stabilisers, reamers, etc.) being balled up. This can create
a piston like effect when they are pulled through mud. This type of swabbing
can have drastic effects on bottom hole pressure.
The factors affecting swabbing and surging are:

➢ Pulling speed of pipe.

➢ Mud properties.
➢ Viscosity.
➢ Hole geometry.
➢ The effect of balled equipment
If the well is flowing during the flow check, then the following actions
should be taken:

➢ Install a non-return valve

➢ Shut the well in
➢ Prepare for stripping
➢ Strip the string to the bottom
➢ Circulate the well, and check mud for contamination
Surging

Surging is when the bottom hole pressure is increased due to the

effects of running the drill string too fast in the hole. Down hole mud
losses may occur if care is not taken and fracture pressure is
exceeded while RIH. Proper monitoring of the displacement volume
with the trip tank is required at all times.
Stuck Pipe
During drilling operations, a pipe is considered or believe stuck if it cannot be freed from the hole without damaging
the pipe, and without exceeding the drilling rig’s maximum allowed hook load. Pipe sticking can be classified under
two categories:

1. Differential pressure pipe sticking

2. Mechanical pipe sticking.

Differential-pressure pipe sticking occurs when a portion or part of the drillstring becomes embedded in a mudcake
that forms on the wall of a permeable formation during drilling. Definition of Mud cake (also mudcake) is the layer of
particulates from drill mud coating the inside of a borehole after the suspension medium has seeped through a porous geological
formation.

If the mud pressure, pm , which acts on the outside wall of the pipe, is greater than the formation-fluid pressure, pff ,
which generally is the case , then the pipe is said to be differentially stuck (see Fig. below).

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Indicators of differential stuck pipe

Some of the indicators of differential-pressure-stuck pipe while drilling permeable zones or

known depleted-pressure zones are:

• An increase in torque and drag

• An inability to move backward and forward the drillstring and, in some cases, to rotate it
• without a break in continuity drilling-fluid circulation

Differential-pressure pipe sticking can be prevented or its occurrence mitigated or reduced if

some or all of the following precautions are taken:

• Maintain the lowest level of drilled solids in the mud system, or, if economical, remove all
drilled solids.
• Select a mud system that will yield smooth mudcake .
• Maintain drillstring rotation at all times, if possible.

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Stuck Pipe Decision Tree
Back off is the first action to perform after trying all the solutions to unstuck
the pipe. There are many approach to perform the back off due to its difficulty.

Backing off means separating the free part of the drill string from the stuck
part at the threaded connection above the free point. Drill pipe can be
unscrewed down hole by exploding charges inside the drill string at a selected
connection.

Free Point Locating

There is one method to estimate the depth where the string is stuck
▪ Running free point indicator (FPI)
Free Point Indicator (FPI)

The free point indicator is a tool that gives readings of tension and torque and can transmit
them to surface. It is run inside the drill string using the wire line. The determination of the
free point using this tool is performed by applying surface torque and tension, then the
tool measures these two parameters in the string. The part of the string which is free
reacts to loading (torque and tension), the point where the string does not react, it is
considered as the stuck point. The back off can be performed at the first connection above
the stuck point.
Hole Cleaning
In deviated wells cuttings and cavings settle to the low side of the hole and form layers
called solids beds or cuttings beds. The BHA becomes stuck in the solids bed.
OR
Cuttings and cavings slide down the annulus when the pumps are turned off and pack-off
the drill string.
Hole Cleaning
Throughout the last decade, many studies have been conducted to gain
Good hole understanding
cleaning meansonremoval of sufficient
hole cleaning solids from the
in directional-well well Laboratory
drilling. bore to allow
workthe
has
reasonably demonstrated that drilling at an inclination angle greater than approximately 30°
unrestrictedfrom vertical poses problems in cuttings removal that are not encountered in
passage of the drill string and the casing.
vertical wells. Fig below illustrates that the formation of a moving or stationary
cuttings bed becomes an apparent problem if the flow rate for a given mud
There are several
rheologymain reasons
is below for solids
a certain not
critical being cleaned out of the well bore. These
value.
are:
▪ A low annular flow rate.
▪ Inappropriate mud properties.
▪ Insufficient circulation time.

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 Preventative Action

• Maximise the annular velocity.

- Consider using larger drill pipe.
• Ensure circulation times are sufficient.
- Monitor the cuttings returns at the shakers.
• Optimise mud properties.
- increase YP in near vertical wells.

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Inappropriate hole cleaning can lead to costly drilling problems, such as:

• Mechanical pipe sticking

• Premature bit wear
• Slow drilling
• Formation fracturing
• Excessive torque and drag on drillstring
• Difficulties in logging and cementing
• Difficulties in casings landing

The most prevalent problem is excessive torque and drag, which often leads to the
inability of reaching the target in high-angle/extended-reach drilling.

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CEMENT BLOCKS
Stuck pipe can be caused by cement blocks falling from the rat hole beneath the casing
shoe or from cement plugs.

This problem may be prevented by minimising the rat hole to a maximum of 5 ft and also
by ensuring a good tail cement is placed around the shoe.

The drillstring can also be stuck in green cement which has not set properly. This usually
occurs after setting a cement plug inside the casing or open hole. If the drillstring is run too
fast into the top of the cement and if the cement is still green, then the cement can flash
set around the pipe and cause the pipe to be permanently stuck.

JUNK
Several recorded incidents of pipe sticking occurred as a result of junk falling into the hole.
This include junk falling into the wellbore from the surface or from upper parts of the hole.
Typical junks dropped from surface include pipe wrenches, spanners, broken metal, hard
hats etc. This problem can be minimised by keeping the hole covered when no tools are
run in the hole. ALI ILIAS
Definition
Packoff in oil drilling : To plug the wellbore around a drillstring. This can happen
for a variety of reasons, the most common being that either the drilling fluid is not
properly transporting cuttings and cavings out of the annulus or portions of the
wellbore wall collapse around the drillstring. When the well packs off, there is a
sudden reduction or loss of the ability to circulate, and high pump pressures follow.
If fast remedial or cure is not successful, an expensive episode or event
of stuck pipe can result.

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In mechanical sticking, the pipe is usually completely stuck with little or no circulation.
In differential sticking, the pipe is completely stuck but there is full circulation.

Mechanical sticking can occur as result of the hole packing off

Hole pack off can be caused by any one or a combination of the following processes:
1. Settled cuttings due to insufficient hole cleaning
2. Shale instability
3. Unconsolidated formation
4. Fractured and faulted formations
5. Cement blocks
6. Junk falling in the well

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Example
This is the real example of how to determine stuck depth using the stuck depth calculation.
Well Information:
• TD = 8,900’MD/5,600’ TVD
• Bit Size = 8.5”
• Drilling fluid = water based mud (PHPA system)
• Formation: sand shale sequence
• BHA: 7” mud motor + 9 stands of 5” HWDP S-135, 4-1/2” IF connection
• Drillstring: 5” DP S135, 4-1/2” IF connection
• Neutral weight @ 6,850’MD = 175 Klb
While tripping out of hole to 6,850’MD, observe over pull 40 Klb over pick up weight. Stop tripping out and attempt
to go down no issue. Attempt to rotate, pipe is able to rotate at 30K ft-lb. Attempt to circulate, observe restricted
flow.

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Based on the information, we would expect the cutting load bed issue. We attempt to determine where the stuck
point is using the stuck depth formula.
Stuck Depth (ft) = (735,294 x e x Drill Pipe Weight (ppf)) ÷ (Differential Pull, lb)
Where;
e = drill pipe stretch, inch (Note: e = Final drill pipe stretch – Initial drill pipe stretch )

Drill Pipe Weight (ppf) = 23.52 ppf adjusted weight

Pipe Stretch Information
Pull the stuck string to 300 Klb and the stretch measurement is 29.4 inch from the neutral point. (Initial )
Pull the stuck string to 350 Klb and the stretch measurement is 49.2 inch from the neutral point. (Final )

Solution:
Differential pull = 350,000 – 300,000 = 50,000 lb (Note :Conversion from Klb to lb)
e = final drill pipe stretch – inital drill pipe stretch
e = 49.2 – 29.4 = 19.8 inch
Drill Pipe Weight (ppf) = 23.52 ppf adjusted weight

Stuck Depth (ft) = (735,294 x 19.8 x 23.52) ÷ (50,000)

Stuck Depth (ft) = 6,784 ft

Based on this calculation, the drill string is stuck at the BHA.

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Mud Contamination
Definition A mud is said to be contaminated when a foreign material enters the
mud system and causes undesirable or unwanted changes in mud properties, such
as density, viscosity, and filtration. Generally, water-based mud systems are the
most susceptible to contamination. Mud contamination can result from
overtreatment of the mud system with additives or from material entering the
mud during drilling.

Common Contaminants, Sources, and Treatments

The most common contaminants to water-based mud systems are
solids (added, drilled, active, inert);
anhydrite (Ca ++ );
cement/lime (Ca++ );
makeup water (Ca++ , Mg++ );
soluble bicarbonates and carbonates (HCO3−, CO3—);
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− —
soluble sulfides (HS , S ); and
Solids Contamination. Solids are materials that are added to make up a mud
system (bentonite, barite) and materials that are drilled. Excess solids of any type
are the most undesirable contaminant to drilling fluids. They affect all mud
properties. The removal of drilled solids is achieved through the use of mechanical
separating equipment (shakers, desanders) Shakers and desanders remove solids
in the size of cuttings

H2S Contamination. The contaminant ions (HS−, S—) generally are from drilling an
H2S-bearing formation. H2S is the most deadly ion to humans and is extremely
corrosive to steel used during drilling operations.

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OTHER HOLE PROBLEMS

Other hole problems which may not cause the pipe to stick but will nevertheless result in
downtime.

▪ Bit balling
▪ Tight hole
▪ Hole Washout and Erosion

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Bit Balling
Usually this type of problems occurs when drilling soft sticky formations. There are some formations which
react with water considerably and become sticky. In other cases, the drilled cuttings generated from shales
and clays stick to the drilling bit and the weight on bit cannot be transmitted to the formation that means the
cutters will be isolated to dig in the formation. In this last case the rate of penetration will decrease
dramatically.

The water ways on drilling bit can be also plugged and the lifting of the cuttings to the surface will be
inefficient which can increase the SPP and causing the mud losses.
The bit balling is described characterized by low torque, low rate of penetration ROP and increased
standpipe pressure SPP.

Balled Drilling Bit

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In practice bit balling can be recognised by:
• Reduced ROP as the bit cutting face is completely covered with a cake
• Increased pump pressure due to reduced annular diameter
• Blocked shaker screens with soft clays
• Overpull on trips

There are some actions which can be applied to solve this problem:
▪ Increasing the flow rate to maximum
▪ Increase the rotation off bottom as high as possible
▪ Pull the sting off bottom and shake it to get rid of this sticky formation
▪ Pump lost circulation material to get the erosion effect on the balled bit

After performing the last actions, it is recommended to tag bottom with high level of flow
rate and rotary speed with reduced weight on bit till getting an acceptable progress.

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Tight Hole
Increased drag while drilling or pulling out of hole is a clear indication that the hole is
becoming tight.

Tight hole is usually observed across sections containing reactive clays or salt. The swelling
of the clays results in a reduced wellbore diameter eventually causing increased drag when
pulling out of hole.

Other symptoms of tight hole include:

▪ Increased torque and
▪ Higher pump pressures

Tight hole is more of a problem in deviated wells and in long reach wells than vertical wells.
The following methods are usually applied to cure tight hole:
▪ Increase mud weight to force the wellbore from moving in
▪ Add lubricant to the mud

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Hole Washout and Erosion
A hole washout occurs when the diameter of the hole drilled is greater than the bit size used
to drill the hole. Hole erosion and washout occur across weak and soft formations as a result
of using large flow rates resulting in excessive mud annular velocities.
Signs of washouts at surface include:

• Increased volume of cuttings on shale shakers

• Large cuttings
• Difficulty in running into the hole
• Bottoms up time increase

Hole washouts cause several problems including difficulty in cleaning the hole, poor
directional control, difficulty in running into the hole and most importantly result in very
poor cement jobs.
Preventing washouts should be planned ahead of drilling the well. In the field, if washouts
are suspected then mud inhibition should be increased, lifting capacity of mud improved by
increasing the mud yield point (YP) and annular velocities reduced to the absolute minimum
consistent with effective hole cleaning. ALI ILIAS
Issues Related to Drilling Bit
There are many issues which have to be studied when running a drill bit , starting from
▪ Lost nozzles
▪ Cutters damage
▪ Bearing failure
▪ Bit balling to plagued

All these last issues can affect the overall drilling performance till getting to costly
operations like fishing.

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Issues Related to Drilling Bit
Lost Nozzle
Losing a nozzle causes a sudden decrease in standpipe pressure (SPP). The drilling can be
carried out with lost nozzle with acceptable rate of penetration, but the nozzle can
damage the cutter structures leading to other problems as bit gauge decrease.

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Issues Related to Drilling Bit
Plugged Nozzle
Bit nozzle can be plugged by many materials such as formation, lost circulation materials
and motor rubbers. The increase of the standpipe pressures can be the main indication of
the plugged nozzle. The drilling in this case can be continued.

If many nozzles are plugged which can be checked by comparing the standpipe pressure and
simulation, the bit has to be unplugged if not it has to be pull out of the hole.

In order to unplug the nozzles, some actions can be applied with precautions:
▪ Increase the flow rate off bottom to the maximum allowed flow rate for at least 5
minutes.
▪ Lift the drill string off bottom and drop it without touching the bottom of the hole to
avoid damaging the bit cutters or blades. Also, it has to take in consideration the surge
effect.
▪ Due to the reduction in the flow area the bit can be balled in soft formation and get
cutters wear in abrasive formations. ALI ILIAS
Drillpipe failures is a widespread drilling problems. It can be put into one of the following groups:

▪ Twistoff caused by excessive torque

▪ Parting because of excessive tension
▪ Burst or collapse because of excessive internal pressure or external pressure, respectively
▪ Fatigue as a result of mechanical cyclic loads with or without corrosion

Pipe failure prevention

Although pipe failure cannot be eliminated totally, there are certain measures that can be taken to minimize it.

▪ Fatigue failures can be mitigated by minimizing induced cyclic stresses and insuring a noncorrosive
environment during the drilling operations. Cyclic stresses can be minimized by controlling dogleg severity
and drillstring vibrations. (cyclic stresses:This happens when the drill string is bent along the curve of the
well, so that one side experiences compression and the other tension. This type of structural stress can
dramatically shorten a drill pipe's life expectancy.

▪ Corrosion can be mitigated by corrosive scavengers and controlling the mud pH in the presence of H2S.

▪ The proper handling and inspection of the drillstring on a routine basis are the best measures to prevent
failures.
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Bottom Hole Temperatures
Extremely high bottom hole temperatures can occur in deep wellbores or in areas of
abnormally high geothermal gradient. These excessively high bottom hole temperatures
(greater than temperature 250 deg) can cause drilling problems because of the accelerated
thickening of water-based drilling fluids. The increase in viscosity and density of the drilling
can may result in the following:

• Reduction in penetration rates

• Lost circulation
• The well-being swabbed when drill pipe is pulled
• Stuck tools
This problem can be mitigated by using oil-based muds.
Swabbed: To reduce pressure in a wellbore by moving pipe, wireline tools or rubber-
cupped seals up the wellbore. If the pressure is reduced sufficiently, reservoir fluids may
flow into the wellbore and towards the surface. Swabbing is generally considered harmful in
drilling operations, because it can lead to kicksALIand
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wellbore stability problems.
Equipment and Personnel-Related Problems
Equipment
The integrity of drilling equipment and its maintenance are major factors in minimizing
drilling problems. The following are all necessary for reducing drilling problems:
▪ Proper rig hydraulics (pump power) for efficient bottom and annular hole cleaning
▪ Proper hoisting power for efficient tripping out
▪ Proper derrick design loads and drilling line tension load to allow safe overpull in case of
a sticking problem
▪ Well-control systems that allow kick control under any kick situation
▪ Ram preventers
▪ Annular preventers
▪ Internal preventers

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Equipment and Personnel-Related Problems
Also necessary are:
• Proper monitoring and recording systems that monitor trend changes in all
drilling parameters and can retrieve drilling data at a later date
• Proper tubular hardware specifically suited to accommodate all anticipated
drilling conditions
• Effective mud-handling and maintenance equipment that will ensure that
the mud properties are designed for their intended functions

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Personnel
Given equal conditions during drilling/completion operations, personnel are
the key to the success or failure of those operations. Overall well costs as a
result of any drilling/completion problem can be extremely high; continuing
education and training for personnel directly or indirectly involved is essential
to successful drilling/completion practices.

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QUESTIONS ON LOSSES
There are a number of reasons for losses occurring.

List as many as you can.

The mud loss happens due to several reasons, some of them are geological and the others are drilling factors.

Drilling fluid loss problem has been evident since the first time of being to drill oil and gas wells. This issue becomes
serious when drilling deeper or drained wells were placed on the agenda.

Lost circulation is carried out through one of two basic mechanisms:

• Invasion
• Fracturing

Lost circulation is the complete or partial loss of drilling mud into a formation. The loss occurs when the total pressure
exerted against the formation exceeds the total pressure of the formation. Formations susceptible to lost circulation have
the following characteristics:

• Cavernous and open fissured

• Very coarse, permeable, and shallow, such as loose gravel
• Naturally or intrinsically fractured
• Easily fractured
• Under pressured or depleted
Considering your previous answers, what two main categories of losses can you identify?
(Hint: __seepage_____ Losses and ___partial___ Losses)

Losses can be classified according to severity in 3 separate groups, each of which requires
different methods to correct. These are
• Seepage losses
• Partial losses
• Catastrophic losses or complete losses (often called Total Losses by drillers).
Give a comprehensive list of material that can be used for curing losses and give the typical
loss rate when you would use such materials.

Lost circulation materials (LCM’s) have been widely used to avoid or stop losses. Due to a
large number of current available LCM’s and their different applications, classification of
LCM’s is very important.
A variety of LCM is available and combining several types and particle sizes for treatment
purposes is common practice. Conventional—and relatively inexpensive—materials include:
• Sized calcium carbonate
• Paper
• Cottonseed hulls
• Nutshells
• Mica
• Cellophane
Creation of a Cutting
A cutting is a piece of rock which has been broken from the surrounding rock by the drill bit. The size and
shape of the cutting depends on the type of drill bit, type of formation and the drilling parameters. The faster
the drill bit cuts into the rock, the more cuttings are produced each minute.

Hole Cleaning
Hole cleaning is defined as the removal of solids from the well bore.

Solids
Solids are the debris present in the wellbore. It is made up mainly of the following:
Cuttings - rock cut away during the drilling operation.
Cavings – pieces of rock that have fallen away from the well bore.
Fines – a mixture of ground cavings and cuttings. Also known as Low Gravity Solids (LGS).
Swarf – pieces of metal cut away from casing or other metal present in the well.
Junk – anything in the well bore which should not be there.
Cement – cement which has owed into the wellbore and set.
Removal of cuttings from the well bore is an essential part of the drilling operation. Efficient
hole cleaning must be maintained in all wells. Failure to effectively transport the cuttings
can result in a number of drilling problems including:

▪ Excessive overpull on trips.

▪ High rotary torque.
▪ Stuck pipe.
▪ Hole pack-off.
▪ Formation break down.
▪ Slow ROP.
▪ Lost Circulation.

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Explain how Differential Sticking occurs using diagrams

For differential sticking to occur, all four conditions must be present. Pipe left stationary i.e.,
no movement, permeable zone, overbalance, and contact to wellbore.
When a string is left stationary the filter cake builds up and the string is embedded in the
filter cake.
List the 3 main sticking mechanism categories and explain how you would identify the
mechanism including any factors that enable you to differentiate these.

Solids: Problem mainly occurs when pulling out, affects motion in one direction, is often
associated with inadequate hole cleaning and often results in restriction of circulation.

Geometry: Problem occurs when moving the string, affects motion in one direction only
and does not affect circulation.

Differential Sticking: String becomes stuck while stationary, sometimes after a very brief
time. Circulation is unaffected.
Explain how using bigger drill pipe can assist the hole cleaning ability.

▪ As we know the recommended minimum AV is 150 ft/min

▪ If AVs are likely to be lower than 150 ft/min due to high pressure losses, consider using
larger DP which will allow higher flowrates to be used.
▪ To increase AV in such situation for efficient hole cleaning we can use a bigger drill pipe
which will make the Annuli narrower which in turn increases AV also lowers system
pressure losses.

What are the two primary causes of solids sticking (pack-offs)?

Collapse and hole cleaning.