HISTORY

EASY TO LEARN

LESSON 1. THE RISE OFNATIONALISM IN EUROPE

 In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist prepared a series of four print visualising his dream of world –
’democratic and social republic’.
 A long train of people marching towards the Statue of Liberty, offering homage.
 Above we can see Christ and angels also giving their blessings for the fulfillment of their vision and
spreading the feeling of fraternity,
 on the earth in the foreground lie the shattered remains of the symbol of absolutists institutions.
 Leading the procession are the USA and Switzerland (already nation states) followed by France.
 The people of Germany carrying black, red and gold flag, who yet did not exist as nation state.

DEVELOPMENT OF NATION STATES IN EUROPE

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 So,19 century saw the emergence of nationalism in Europe,
 bringing about political and mental changes in European world. It led to :
 A)emergence of nation- states.
 B) Nation-states-was one in which majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to
develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.

Ernst Renan, ‘What is a Nation?’

 In a lecture delivered at the University of Sorbonne in 1882, the French philosopher Ernst
Renan (1823-92) outlined his understanding of what makes a nation
 ‘A nation is the culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic
past, great men, glory, that is the social capital upon which one bases a national idea.
 A nation is therefore a large-scale solidarity ... Its existence is a daily plebiscite
 A province is its inhabitants; if anyone has the right to be consulted, it is the inhabitant.
 A nation never has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will.
 The existence of nations is a good thing, a necessity even.
 Their existence is a guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the world had only one
law and only one master.’

IMPORTANT TERMS
Absolutist – Literally, a government or system of rule that has no restraints on the power
exercised. In history, the term refers to a form of monarchical government that was centralised,
militarised and repressive

Utopian – A vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist

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Plebiscite – A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a
proposal

Suffrage – The right to vote

Conservativism – A political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, established
institutions and customs, and preferred gradual development to quick change.

Feminist – Awareness of women’s rights and interests based on the belief of the social,
economic and political equality of the gender.

Ideology- System of ideas reflecting particular social and political vision.

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THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEA OF THE NATION
 The French Revolution started in 1789,and was the first expression of nationalism in
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Europe in the 18 century.
 French people demanded abolition of monarchy and establishment of democracy.
 Initially, France was under the absolute monarchy.
 However, the French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the Monarchy to
the Body of French Citizens.

Changes that took place during 1789 in France

 Transfer of ruling power from monarchy to the French people.
 Ideas like ‘La Patrie’ (the fatherland) and ‘Le Citoyen’(the citizen) were adopted.
 New French flag.
 The Estates General was elected and renamed as the National Assembly.
 French became the spoken language.
 Centralised administrative system with uniform laws.
 Internal custom duties abolished.
 Uniform system of weights and measures.
 New national anthem composed, and oath taken.
 The idea of nationalism taken abroad.

Napoleon
 In1799, Napoleon seized political power.
 He gave the Civil Code of 1804 also known as Napoleonic
Code.
It envisaged:
 Equality before law.
 Right to property.
 Abolishment of all privileges based on birth rights
Napoleonic Code or Civil Code of 1804
 Simplification of administrative law.
 Uniform laws, standardized weights and measures and a common national
currency.
 Removed restrictions on guilds in towns.
 Abolishment of feudal system and serfdom.
 Freed the peasants from manorial dues.
 Improvement in transport and communications.

o ‘Napoleonic Code’ soon turned to hostility,

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 The new administrative arrangements did not go hand in
hand with political freedom
o Increased taxes.
o Censorship.
o Forced to join French army.

Prussia, Russia, Austria and Britain, the collectively defeated Napoleon in the Battle
of Waterloo in 1815,
restored the Bourbon dynasty.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
The making of Nationalism in Europe

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o Till the mid 18 century, no nation-states in Europe.
o Germany, Italy, and Switzerland all divided into duchies, kingdoms, and cantons.
o Eastern Europe and Central Europe-autocratic rulers.
THE HAPSBURG EMPIRE-(A Patchwork Empire)
 Ruled over Austria-Hungary-a patchwork of different regions and people,
 It included –the Tyrols, Austria and Sudetenland- Bohemia –aristocracy German
speaking
 It also included Italian speaking provinces-Lombardy and Venetia.
 Included mass of subject peasant people. The only binding tie was the common
allegiance to the emperor.
Aristocracy

Aristocracy
 The land-owning class.
 Numerically small, but dominated Europe, both socially and politically.
 Spoke French which was considered the language of the high society.
 Families were connected through marriage.

Peasantry
 Tenants and small landowners who worked as serfs.
 Cultivated the lands of the aristocratic lords.
The New Middle Class
 Besides the aristocracy and the peasantry a new class emerged in the Western and
Central Europe due to the development- industrial growth.
 Comprised of industrialists, businessmen, Professionals and educated liberal middle
class.
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 Though their number was small till 19 century but their ideas of national unity and
abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity.

LIBERAL NATIONALISM
 The term liberalism derived from the Latin word’ liber’, meaning free.
 The new middle class in fact demanded

Political Liberalism:

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  equality of all before the law .
 freedom for the individuals.
 Not against the private property
 Government by consent.[Representative government through parliament and a
constitution.]
 Revolutionary France –right to vote and get elected exclusively to property owning men.
 Men without property and all women excluded from political rights.
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 Sothroughout 19 and 20 century women and non-propertied men organised opposition
movements demanding equal political rights.

Economic Liberalism
 Stood for freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the
movement of goods and capital.
 In German speaking regions during Napolean’s rule,there were 39 states each of it
possessed its own currency and weights and measures...creating lot of problems.

 ‘Zollverein’a customs union

 1834-saw the formation of ‘Zollverein’a customs union formed in Prussia and joined by
most of the German states.
 It abolished tariff barriers.
 Reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
 Network of railways stimulated mobility harnessing economic interest to national
unification.
A New Conservatism after 1815
 Emergence of Conservatism-believed in traditional institutions of state and society,
wanted to continue with monarchy as it gave them more powers and privileges.
 1815-after the defeat of Napoleon- representatives from –Prussia, Russia, Austria and
Britain met at Vienna to draw up settlement for Europe.
  The Congress was hosted by Duke Metternich, the Austrian Chancellor -Congress of
Vienna.
CONGRESS OF VIENNA -1815
Hosted by Duke Metternich, the Austrian Chancellor. Recreated the map of Europe
TERMS :
 The Bourbon dynasty restored.
 France lost its territories annexed under Napolean
 A series of states set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French extension.
 Kingdom of the Netherlands ,included Belgium was set up.
 Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers.

CONGRESS OF VIENNA
 Austria got control of Northern Italy.
 German confederation of 39 states remained untouched.
 Russia given a part of Poland, Prussia was given a part of Saxony.
 Main objective of Congress of Vienna: To restore the monarchies ,create a new
conservative order in Europe.
CONSERVATIVE REGIMES
 Established autocracies.
 Did not tolerate dissent and criticism.
 Censorship laws to curb the news.
 Curb activities which questioned legitimacy of autocratic government.
 So, one of the foremost issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists-Freedom of press.

The Revolutionaries
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  The years following 1815-fear of repression, many liberal –nationalists underground.
 Secret societies sprang up in many parts of Europe to train revolutionaries to oppose
monarchy.
 To fight for liberty and freedom-Importance of nation-states in the freedom struggle.

Giuseppe Mazzini
 An Italian revolutionary.
 Born in Genoa in 1807,member of the secret society-Carbonari.
 Exiled in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria.
 Founded Young Italy in Marseilles &Young Europe in Berne.
 Believed that God had intended nations to be the natural unit of mankind
 So Italy could not continue as a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be
forged into a single unified republic.
 His opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republic frightened the
conservatives.
 Metternich described him as ’the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

July Revolution
 The Bourborn dynasty overthrown.
 Constitutional monarchy set up under Louis Philippe at its head.
 Metternich once remarked ’When France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold.’

REVOLUTION OF BRUSSELS
 The July revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led Belgium breaking away
from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

The Greek War of Independence

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 Greece had been a part of Ottoman Empire since the 15 century.
 Greeks wanted freedom from Ottoman empire so started a revolution in 1821.
 Greece supported by Greeks living in exile, west Europeans, poets and artists who
mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Ottoman empire.
 The English poet Lord Byron also fought for their cause ,died of fever in1824.
 The Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

The Romantic Imagination and National

 Culture played an important role in creating the idea of nation, art and poetry, stories
and music. Helped to express and shape nationalists feeling.
 Romantic artist criticised reason and science, instead focussed on emotions, intuitions
and mystical feelings.
 The German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder popularised(das volk and
volksgeist) the true spirit of nation (volksgeist) through folksongs ,folk poetry and folk
dance.
 Even though Poland has been partitioned but the feeling of nationalism was kept alive
through music and language.
 Karol Kurpinsiki ,celebrated the national struggle through his operas and
music,turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbol.

Language :
 Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
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 After the Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the
Russian language was imposed.
 1831 an armed rebellion against the Russian, suppressed.
 Now language used as a weapon of national resistance.
 Polish used for church gatherings and all religious instructions.
 Many priest and bishop punished and banished also.
 So the use of Polish, seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.
Grimm brothers(Jacob and Wilhelm Grim):
 born in Hanau, a German city, wrote 'Fairy Tales' which became popular
among children and adults.
 Encouraged the feelings of the people to achieve freedom of the press.
 The Grimm brothers tried to oppose French domination that was a danger
to German culture.
 They did a lot of work for the development of German language and
creation of German Nationality in reference to identity.
 They also published a 33 volume dictionary of German language which was
also a wider effort to oppose French domination.

Condition of France in 1848

 1830---Year of hardships
 increase in population,
 unemployment,
 industrialisation(replacing men to machines)
 rise in food prices and
 peasantry overburdened with feudal dues and obligations.
1848- again saw ------food shortage +unemployment.
 Due to which population on the streets of Paris
 Louis Philippe forced to flee.
 National Assembly proclaimed REPUBLIC,
 Granted suffrage to all adult male above 21
 Guaranteed the right to work.

SILESIAN UPRISING
 1845-Weavers revolted against the contractors who supplied raw material and gave the
orders to finish textiles because of less payments.
 4 June at 2 p.m ----a large crowd of weavers marched to the mansion of the contractors
demanding high wages.
 Damaging the property, contractor fled with his family to a neighbouring village which however
refused to give shelter.
He returned 24 hours later, called the army ,eleven weavers shot.

The LIBERALS demanded

 Seeing the unrest in the country in 1848,
 The LIBERALS demanded the creation of a nation state on parliamentary principles-a
constitution, freedom of press and association.

FRANKFURT PARLIAMENT
IN GERMANY:
 Political associations of middle classes came together in the city of Frankfurt and
voted for all-GERMAN NATIONAL ASSEMBLY.

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  18 MAY 1848- 831 elected representatives took their place in the Frankfurt parliament
convened in the church of St.Paul.
 Drafted a constitution for a German nation, headed by a constitutional monarchy.
 The crown was offered to Fredrich Wilhelm IV ,King of Prussia, he rejected it.
 Opposition of aristocracy and military increased.
 Parliament dominated by the middle classes, resisted the demands of the workers
soon lost the support .
 Women were denied the political rights.
 Women admitted just as observers in the visitors’ gallery.
 Liberal suppressed by the Conservatives, however the old order of
monarchy understood ,that changes required now:
 Serfdom and bonded labour abolished.
 The Hapsburg rulers granted more freedom to the Hungarians in1867.

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GERMAN UNIFICATION

 After 1848,nationalism in Europe moved away from democracy and revolution.

 AS liberals lost their objective.
 Conservatives often mobilised nationalist sentiments, promoting state power, gained
political domination in Europe.
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 Nationalist feeling were dominant in the middle class Germans in 19
century.
 1848-they tried to unite the different regions of the German
Confederation in to a nation-state governed by an elected Parliament.
 This effort of liberals however suppressed by the combined forces of the
monarchy +military
 supported by big landowners (JUNKERS).
Otto von  The leadership for the unification came in the hands of Bismarck, who
Bismarck took the help of Prussian army and bureaucracy.

 Fought 3 wars within 7 years---Austria, Denmark and France.

 Prussia won, completed unification, proclaimed in January 1871,the Prussian king, Kaiser
William I, as the German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

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UNIFICATION OF ITALY
Architects of Italian Unification:
 Giuseppe Mazzini----Young Italy(Marseilles) and Young Europe(Berne)-Soul
 Count Camillo de Cavour---- Prime Minister - Led to unification.
 Giuseppe Garibaldi---also known as Bismarck of Italy-Formed armed volunteers.
 Victor Emmanuel II- Proclaimed king of Italy.

PROCESS OF UNIFICATION

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  Political Fragmentation-Italy also fragmented like Germany.
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 During the middle of 19 century it was divided into 7 states, of which only Sardinia-
Piedmont ruled by an Italian prince.
 North----Austrian Hapsburg.
 Centre----Pope.
 Southern regions----Bourborn kings of Spain.
 Regional languages spoken.
 1830-Mazzini made efforts to unite Italian Republic, formed secret societies like Young
Italy to achieve his goal.
Process
 Cavour who was the chief minister led the movement to unify Italy.
 He formed a tactful alliance with France ,Sardinia-Piedmont and defeated Austrian forces
in 1859.
 Garibaldi also joined with huge armed forces.
 In 1860 marched into South Italy and the kingdom of Two Sicilies and succeeded in
driving out the Spanish rulers.
 1861-Victor Emmanuel proclaimed the king of united Italy.
 …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
UNIFICATION OF BRITAIN
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 No British nation before the 18 century.
 The British Isles comprised of English, Welsh, Scot and Irish ethnic groups.
 Due to industrialisation ,concentration of wealth English dominated other groups.
 National symbols like English language, British flag and National Anthem were promoted.
 Unlike French revolution, in Britain was the result of long drawn dissatisfaction amongst
the ethnic groups.
 Britain achieved this by Parliamentary Acts.
THE ACT OF UNION - 1707
 The English Parliament seized power from monarchy in 1688(Glorious Revolution).
 1707 –Act of Union formed by SCOTLAND AND ENGLAND, resulted in the formation of
the ‘UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN’
 Meant that (England + Scotland) England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.
 However, the Scottish culture and political institution was suppressed.
 Ireland too suffered the same fate,
 Deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants.
 The English helped the Protestants of Ireland
 Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed.
 1798- a failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen
 incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
 …………………………………………………………………………………………………..
VISUALISING THE NATION
ALLEGORY- When an abstract idea (like greed, envy, love ,nation)is expressed through a
person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meanings one literal and one symbolic.
 Nations portrayed as female figures.
Personification- did not stand for any particular woman in real life.
 E.g during the French Revolution artists used the female allegory to show LIBERTY,
EQUALITY AND FRATERNITY.
Marianne
• A popular Christian name
• The idea of a people’s nation.
• Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic
• Statues of Marianne -to remind the public of the national symbol of unity
• Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.

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 Germania
 Germania became the allegory of the German nation
 Germania wears a crown of oak leaves
 The German oak stands for heroism.

Meanings of the Symbols

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NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM
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 By the end of the 19 century the feeling of Nationalism started changing into
Imperialism.
 Imperialism-The policy of expanding countries power by military or any other means is
known as Imperialism.
 The most serious nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called Balkans.
Balkan tension
 BALKANS(Slavs)-region of geographical and ethnic diversities.
 Comprised of---Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
 These all were under the control of Ottoman Empire.
 However ,with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire all these nationalities started
declaring themselves independent,
 but this region of Balkan became a source of intense rivalries and jealousies.
 At the same time intense rivalry between the great European powers for trade and
colonies as well as naval and military might.
 This led these powers –Russia, Germany, England and Austria-Hungary to jump in the
Balkan problems thus flaring the entire situation in the
First World War.
 Thus Nationalism with Imperialism led Europe to disaster in 1914.
 Anti-imperial movements developed and many colonies declared themselves
independent .
IMPORTANT YEARS
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1688- British parliament seizes power from the monarchy 1707 Act of Union between Scotland
and England
1785& 1786 - Grimm Brothers Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm were born
1789 - The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution 1797
Napoleon invades Italy; Napoleonic wars begin
1804 - Civil Code or Napoleonic Code removed all privileges based on birth & established
equality
1807 - Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini was born
1812 - Grimm brothers published their first collection of tales
1813 - Napoleon lost the battle of Leipzig
1814- 1815 - Fall of Napoleon; the Vienna Peace Settlement
1815- The defeat of Napoleon by Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria 1821 Greek struggle for
independence begins
1821- Nationalism sparked off amongst the Greeks
1824 - English poet Lord Byron died of fever
1824 - Massacre at Chios, Eugene Delacroix
July 1830 - The first upheaval took place in France
1831 - Giuseppe Mazzini was sent to exile for attempting a revolution in Liguria
1831 = An armed rebellion took place against Russian rule
1832 - Treaty of Constantinople recognised Greece as an independent nation
833 - The founding of Young Europe in Berne
1834 - A Customs Union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia
1845 Weavers in Silesia led a revolt against contractors
1848 - French artist named Frédéric Sorrieu prepared a series of four prints visualising
‘Democratic and social Republics’ Revolutions in Europe; artisans, industrial workers and
peasants revolt against economic hardships; middle classes demand constitutions and
representative governments; Italians, Germans, Magyars, Poles, Czechs, etc. demand nation-
states
18 May 1848- 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places
in the Frankfurt parliament
1859 - Tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont
succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces
1859- 1870 – Unification of Italy
1861 - Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy Unification of Germany
1866- 1871 - Unification of Germany
1867 - Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians
January 1871 - Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held
at Versailles

Lesson 2. Nationalism in India

The First World War
The First World War helped in the growth of the nationalist movement in India
 The war created a new economic and political situation.
 It led to an increase in defence expenditure and increasing taxes
 The war led to a price rise and hardship for common people.
 The war led to the forced recruitment of people.
 Acute shortage of food led to famine and misery.
 This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic.
 Indians began to realize that they were drawn into the war unnecessarily. This feeling united
Indians against the British.

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The Idea of Satyagraha
 The idea of satyagraha emphasized the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
 The struggle was against injustice,
then physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor.
 A satyagrahi could win the battle through nonviolence.
 Forced to accept the truth through the use of violence.

Mahatma Gandhi successfully organized satyagraha movements(Local Satyagrahas):

1. Champaran: In 1917 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar
to inspire the peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
2. Kheda: In 1917, he organized a satyagraha to support the peasants of the Kheda
district of Gujarat.
Affected by crop failure and a plague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not pay the
revenue
and were demanding that revenue collection be relaxed.
3. Ahmedabad: In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad
to organize a satyagraha movement among cotton mill workers.

The Rowlatt Act:

Gandhiji, in 1919, decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha against the proposed Rowlatt Act
of 1919.
Provisions of the Rowlatt Act:
 It gave the government the power to repress any political activity or demonstration.
 It allowed the detention of political prisoners without trial for two years.
 The British government could arrest anyone and search any place without a warrant.
The Rowlatt Act was opposed by Indians in the following ways:
 A non-violent civil disobedience against the unjust law began.
 Rallies were organized in various cities.
 Workers went on strike in railway workshops.
 Shops were closed down in protest.

Jallianwalla Bagh incident:

 On 13 April, the Jallianwalla Bagh incident took place.
 On that day a crowd of villagers who had come to Amritsar to attend a fair gathered in the
enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh.
 They were unaware of the martial law that had been imposed.
 Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and opened fire on the crowd, killing
hundreds.

The reasons for starting the Khilafat Movement

 With the defeat of Ottoman Turkey in the First World War, there were rumors that a harsh
peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor (the Khalifa).
 Muslims all over the world began to support the temporal powers of the Khalifa.
 In India, too Khilafat Committee was formed under the leadership of Muhammad Ali and
Shaukat Ali.
 At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920 he convinced other leaders
of the need to start a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat and Swaraj.

Non-cooperation movement:
 At the Congress session at Nagpur in December 1920, the Non-Cooperation program
was adopted.
 It should begin with the surrender of titles that the government awarded,

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 and a boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and
foreign goods.
 Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921.
 All of them responded to the call of Swaraj,
but the term meant different things to different people.

The Non-Cooperation Movement in the Towns

 The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities.
 Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges
 Headmasters and teachers resigned.
 Lawyers gave up their legal practices.
 The council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras.
 Foreign goods were boycotted,
liquor shops picketed,
and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires.
 Merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods.
 Production of Indian textile mills and handlooms went up.

The Non-Cooperation Movement in the cities gradually slowed down

 Khadi cloth was more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth
and poor people could not afford to buy it.
 The boycott of British institutions failed
because Indian institutions could not be set up in place of the British ones.
 Students and teachers began trickling back to government schools.
 The lawyers too joined back work in government courts.

Rebellion in the Countryside (The Non-Cooperation Movement)

Awadh Peasants(The Non-Cooperation Movement):

 Peasants of Awadh were led by Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi.
 The movement was against talukdars and landlords.
 The landlords and talukdars demanded high rents and other cesses.
 Peasants had to do beggar (unpaid work)
and work at landlords’ farms without any payment.
 The peasant movement demanded a reduction of revenue,
the abolition of beggar,
and a social boycott of oppressive landlords.
 Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up and headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra, and
a few others.
 In 1921, the houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked,
bazaars were looted
and grain hoards were taken over.

Tribal Peasants- Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh (The Non-Cooperation Movement):

Causes or Reasons
 The colonial government had closed large forest areas
preventing people from entering the forests to graze their cattle, or to collect fuelwood
and fruits.
This angered the hill people.
 Not only were their livelihoods affected
but they felt that their traditional rights were being denied.
 When the government began forcing them to contribute beggar (work without
payment) for road building, the hill people revolted.
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Role of Alluri Sitaram Raju:
 Alluri Sitaram Raju was a tribal leader in the Gudem hills.
 He started a militant guerrilla movement in the Gudem Hills.
 The tribal people were against colonial policies.
 Their livelihood was affected and their traditional rights were denied.
 Raju was inspired by Gandhiji’s Non-Cooperation movement
 He claimed that he had a variety of special powers like making astrological predictions,
healing people, and surviving bullet shots.
 He persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking.
 He asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence.
 Raju was captured and executed in 1924
 He became a folk hero.

Swaraj in the Plantations(The Non-Cooperation Movement)

Meaning of Swaraj for Plantation Workers:
 For plantation workers in Assam, Swaraj meant the right to move freely in and out of the
confined space in which they were enclosed
 Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not permitted to leave
the tea gardens without permission,
and in fact, they were rarely given such permission.
 When they heard of the Non-Cooperation movement, thousands of workers defied the
authorities, left the plantations, and headed home.
 They believed that Gandhi Raj was coming,
and everyone would be given land in their own villages.
 They, however, never reached their destination.
 Stranded on the way by a railway and steamer strike,
they were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.

Called off Non Cooperation Movement(Chauri Chaura Incident)

 At Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, a peaceful demonstration in a bazaar turned into a
violent clash with the police.
 This incident led to the death of 3 civilians and 22 policemen.
 Hearing of the incident, Mahatma Gandhi called a halt to the Non-Cooperation
Movement.

Reason: Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922

 The movement was turning violent in many places.
 He felt that the satyagrahis needed to be properly trained before
they would be ready for mass struggles.

Two factors again shaped Indian politics in the late 1920s.

1. The first was the effect of the worldwide economic depression.
 Agricultural prices began to fall from 1926 and collapsed after 1930.
 As the demand for agricultural goods fell and exports declined,
 peasants found it difficult to sell their harvests and pay their revenue.
2. Simon Commission:
 The commission was to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India
and suggest changes.
 The problem was that the commission did not have a single Indian member.
 They were all British.
 Lala Lajpat Rai was lathi charged by the British police during a peaceful
demonstration against the Simon Commission.
 Lajpat Rai died.
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‘Purna Swaraj’(Complete Freedom)
 In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress
formalized the demand for ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India.
 It was declared that 26 January 1930, would be celebrated as Independence Day
people were to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence.

The Salt March(Dandi march) and the Civil Disobedience Movement

 On 31 January 1930, Gandhiji sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating 11 demands,
One important demand was to abolish the salt tax.
 Salt was one of the most essential items of food.
Tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production
Irwin was unwilling to negotiate and so,
Mahatma Gandhi started his famous Salt March
accompanied by 78 of his trusted volunteers.
 The march was over 240 miles,
from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmati to Dandi.
 On 6 April he reached Dandi,
and ceremonially violated the law,
manufacturing salt by boiling seawater.

Features of the Civil Disobedience Movement:

 The movement started with Salt March.
 Thousands broke salt law.
 Foreign clothes were boycotted.
 Liquor shops were picketed.
 Peasants refused to pay taxes.

Reason: Gandhiji relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement after the Second Round
Table Conference
1. Back in India, he discovered that the government had begun a new cycle of
repression.
2. Ghaffar Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru were both in jail
3. The Congress had been declared illegal.
4. A series of measures had been imposed to prevent meetings, demonstrations,
and boycotts.

The reasons for the participation of various social classes and groups in the Civil
Disobedience Movement
1. Rich peasants:
 Rich peasant communities like the Patidars of Gujarat & the Jats of Uttar Pradesh
joined the movement
because being producers of commercial crops
they were hard hit by the trade depression and falling prices.
 The refusal of the government to reduce the revenue demand made them fight against
high revenues.

2. Poor peasants:
 Joined the movement because they found it difficult to pay rent.
 They wanted the unpaid rent to the landlord to be remitted.

3. Business class:
 They reacted against colonial policies that restricted activities

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  because they were keen on expanding their business and for this,
 they wanted protection against imports of foreign goods.
 They thought that Swaraj would cancel colonial restrictions and that trade would
flourish without restrictions.
 They also wanted protection against the rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio.
 They formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920
and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in
1927.

4. Industrial working class:

 They did not participate in large numbers except in the Nagpur region.
 Some workers did participate,
selectively adopting some of the Gandhian programs, like boycotts of foreign goods,
as a part of their own movements against low wages
and poor working conditions.

5. Women:
 There was large-scale participation of women in the movement.
 They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt,
and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops.
Many went to jail.

6. Merchants and Industrialists:

 Indian merchants and industrialists were keen on expanding their businesses
and reacted against colonial policies
that restricted business activities.
 They wanted protection against imports of foreign goods,
and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio
that would discourage imports.
 To organize business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial
Congress in 1920
and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.
 Led by prominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G. D. Birla,
the industrialists attacked colonial control over the Indian economy
and supported the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 They gave financial assistance
and refused to buy or sell imported goods.
 Most businessmen wanted to flourish in trade without constraints.

MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

• Civil Disobedience Movement was the first struggle to win Poorna Swaraj or Complete
Independence.
• It was based on nonviolent Satyagraha.
• Gandhian ideas were widely followed.
• Women participated in large numbers in this movement.
• It was a real mass movement.
• Different social groups participated.
• It was an open challenge to the British rule.
• The people openly disobeyed laws.

The limitations of the Civil Disobedience Movement

 Dalits did not participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement,
because the Congress did not give importance to their demands.
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  Many Muslims did not participate in it. They thought that the Congress was moving close
to the Hindu Maha Sabha.
 Communal riots occurred in many places. Disunity between Hindus and Muslims started.
 Industrial workers participation was minimum.

Untouchability (Efforts Made By Gandhiji For The Upliftment Of Dalits )

 Mahatma Gandhi was against untouchability.
 He declared that Swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not
eliminated.
 He called the ‘Untouchables’ harijan or the children of God.
 He organized satyagraha to secure their entry into temples,
and access to the public wells, tanks, roads, and schools.
 He himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of the sweepers.
 He persuaded the upper caste to change their heart and give up ‘the sin of
untouchability’.

Poona Pact of September 1932:

 It was signed between Gandhiji and Ambedkar in September 1932.
 It gave the Depressed Classes (Schedule Castes) reserved seats in provincial and
central legislative councils,
 Gandhiji accepted the demand for reservation of seats for dalits in the legislatures.
 Ambedkar agreed to give up the demand for separate electorates.

Reason: Some of the Muslim political organizations in India were lukewarm(not showing
interest) in their response to the Civil Disobedience Movement:
 The decline of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movements led to the alienation of Muslims
from Congress.
 From the mid-1920s, the Congress was seen to be visibly associated with Hindu
nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
 Relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened and communal riots took place.
 The Muslim League gained prominence with its claim of representing Muslims and
demanding a separate electorate for them.

The Sense of Collective Belonging

 The identity of the nation is most often symbolized by the image of Bharat Mata.
 Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ as a hymn to the motherland.
 Abanindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata and portrayed it as an ascetic figure.
She is shown as calm, composed, divine, and spiritual.
 Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive Indian folklore.
 Icons and symbols in unifying people and inspire in them a feeling of nationalism.
 During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolour flag (red, green, and yellow) was
designed.
 Reinterpretation of history to instil a sense of pride in the nation.

Reinterpretation of history created a sense of collective belongingness among the

different communities of India:
 By the end of the nineteenth century many Indians began feeling that to instil a sense of
pride in the nation,
 Indian history had to be thought about differently.
 The British saw Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves.
 In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India’s great achievements.
 They wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times

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 when art and architecture, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and
philosophy, and crafts and trade flourished.
 These nationalist histories urged the readers to take pride in India’s great achievements in
the past
and struggle to change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.

Revolutionaries(HSRA)
 Many nationalists thought that the struggle against the British could not be won through
non-violence.
 In 1928, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) was founded
 Its leaders were Bhagat Singh, Jatin Das and Ajoy Ghosh.
 In a series of dramatic actions in different parts of India,
the HSRA targeted some of the symbols of British power.
 In April 1929, Bhagat Singh and Dutta threw a bomb in the Legislative Assembly.
 In the same year there was an attempt to blow up the train that Lord Irwin was travelling
in.
Bhagat Singh
 Bhagat Singh was 23 when he was tried and executed by the colonial government.
 During his trial, Bhagat Singh stated that he did not wish to glorify ‘the cult of the bomb
and pistol’ but wanted a revolution in society:
“Revolution is the inalienable right of mankind.
Freedom is the imprescriptible birth right of all.
We await the advent of revolution. Inquilab Zindabad!”

Quit India Movement

 The failure of the Cripps Mission and the effects of World War II created widespread
discontentment in India.
 14 July 1942, passed the historic ‘Quit India’ resolution
 demanding the immediate transfer of power to Indians and quit India.
 A non-violent mass struggle on the widest possible scale throughout the country.
 Gandhiji delivered the famous slogan ‘Do or Die’.
 People observed hartals,
and demonstrations and processions were accompanied by national songs and slogans.
 The movement was truly a mass movement
which brought into its ambit thousands of ordinary people, namely students, workers and
peasants.
 The British responded with much force,
yet it took more than a year to suppress the movement.

Important Years:
January 1915- Mahatma Gandhi returned to India from South Africa
1917- Champaran and Kheda satyagraha
1918- Ahmedabad Mill Strike
1919- Gandhiji launched satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act
13 April 1919- Jallianwala Bagh incident
March 1919- Khilafat Committee formed
September 1920- Gandhiji convinced Congress for a non-cooperation movement
December 1920- Non-Cooperation program was adopted by Congress in Nagpur
January 1921- Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began

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October 1920- Oudh Kisan Sabha
6 January 1921- Police firing at peasants in Rae Bareli
1920- The militant guerrilla movement spread in Gudem Hills, Andhra Pradesh
1922- Chauri Chaura violence
11 February 1922- Gandhiji decided to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement
1928- “Go Back Simon” movement
Nov 1930 – Jan 1931- First Round Table Conference
Sept-Dec 1931- Second Round Table Conference
Nov – Dec 1932- Third Round Table Conference
December 1929- The “Purna Swaraj” was formalized
26 January 1930- Declared to be celebrated as the Independence Day, but got very little attention
31 January 1930- Gandhiji sent a letter of Viceroy Irwin stating 11 demands
12 March 1930- Salt March or Dandi March or Dandi Satyagraha or Civil Disobedience Movement started
6 April 1930- Salt March ended
April 1930- Abdul Ghaffar Khan got arrested
May 1930- Mahatma Gandhi got arrested
5 March 1931- Gandhi-Irwin Pact
23 March 1931- Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were sentenced to death
December 1931- Gandhiji went to London for a conference but returned disappointed
26 September 1932- Poona Pact
Jan 1932- Civil Disobedience Movement started again
1920- Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress
1927- Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI)
1906- Muslim League established
1928- Death of Lala Lajpat Rai
1935- The government of India Act
8 August 1942- Quit India movement launched

Lesson 3. The Making of a Global World

Globalization
 Globalization is a long-term process, not just a recent phenomenon.
 Trade, migration, the movement of capital, and the spread of ideas
and diseases have all contributed to globalization.
 Evidence of globalization can be found as far back as 3000 BCE.
 Cowries from the Maldives were used as currency in China
and East Africa for over a millennium.
 The long-distance spread of disease-carrying germs can be traced back to the seventh
century.
 By the thirteenth century, globalization was an unmistakable link between different parts
of the world.

Silk Routes Link the World

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The silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between
distant parts of the world:
 Historians have identified several silk routes over land
and by sea connecting vast regions of Asia with Europe and northern Africa.
 The name ‘silk routes’ points out the importance of West-bound Chinese silk cargoes
along this route.
 Chinese pottery also travelled the same route,
as did textiles and spices from India and Southeast Asia.
 In return, precious metals (gold and silver) flowed from Europe to Asia.
 Early Christian missionaries and Muslim preachers travelled this route to Asia.
 Buddhism from Eastern India spread in several directions through intersecting points on
the silk routes.

Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato

 Traders and travellers introduced new crops to the lands they travelled.
 Even ‘ready’ foodstuff in distant parts of the world might share common origins like
spaghetti and noodles
 Arab traders took pasta to 5th century Sicily, an island now in Italy.
 Similar foods were also known in India and Japan,
so the truth about their origins may never be known.
 Many of our common foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes,
chilies, sweet potatoes, and so on were not known to our ancestors until about five
centuries ago.
 These foods were only introduced in Europe and Asia after Christopher Columbus
accidentally discovered the vast continent that would later become known as the
Americas.

Sometimes the new crops could make the difference between life and death:
 Europe’s poor began to eat better
and live longer with the introduction of the humble potato.
 Ireland’s poorest peasants became so dependent on potatoes
that when disease destroyed the potato crop in the mid-1840s,
hundreds of thousands died of starvation.

European Trade from America

 After the discovery of America,
its vast lands and abundant crops and minerals
began to transform trade and lives everywhere.
 Precious metals, particularly silver, from mines located in present-day Peru and Mexico
also enhanced Europe’s wealth
and financed its trade with Asia.

European conquest was not just a result of superior firepower(Biological Warfare) :

The Spanish conqueror’s most powerful weapon was not a conventional military weapon
because
 They used germs like smallpox which spread deep into the continent
before any European could reach there.
 America's original inhabitants had no immunity against these diseases that came from
Europe.
 This disease erased the whole community, leading to conquest.
 This biological warfare in the mid-sixteenth century made it easy for the Spanish to
overpower the Americans.

European flee to America in the 19th century:

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  Poverty and hunger were common in Europe.
 Cities were crowded and deadly diseases were widespread.
 Religious conflicts were common
and religious dissenters were persecuted.
 Therefore, thousands fled Europe for America
where plantations were worked by slaves captured in Africa
for growing cotton and sugar for European markets.

Europe emerged as the centre of world trade.

• From the 15th C., China is said to have restricted overseas contacts
and retreated into isolation.
• China’s reduced role
• The rising importance of the Americas gradually moved the centre of world trade
westwards.
• Europe now emerged as the centre of world trade.

Lesson 5. Print Culture and the Modern World

Print in China :
 The earliest kind of print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea.
 From AD 594 onwards books in China were printed by rubbing paper against the inked surface of
woodblocks. Earliest Chinese books were made in ‘accordion’ style.
 Textbooks for the recruitment in civil service examinations were the major producer of this printed
material.
 By the seventeenth century, as urban culture bloomed in China, the uses of print diversified.
 Merchants used printed material in their everyday life.
 Shanghai became the hub of the new print culture.

Print in Japan :
 Buddhist missionaries of China introduced hand -printing technology into Japan around AD 768-
770.
 The oldest Japanese book printed in AD 868 is the Buddhist ‘Diamond Sutra’.
 The late 18th C Urban circles at Edo (Tokyo)
 Illustrated collections of paintings depicted -urban culture, involving artists, courtesans, and
teahouse gatherings.
 Kitagawa Utamaro:
Born in Edo(Tokyo) in 1753,
It was widely known for his contributions to an art form called ukiyo (‘pictures of the floating world’)
or depiction of ordinary human experiences, especially urban ones.

Print comes to Europe

 In the eleventh century Chinese paper reached Europe through silk route.
 In 1295 Marco polo brought the knowledge of woodblock printing technology to Italy.
 To meet the increasing demand of books booksellers started giving employement to scribs and
skilled hand writers.
 But the production of handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the ever increasing deman for
books.

Reasons for the arrival of wood block printing in Europe after 1295:
Wood Block Printing came to Europe after 1295 because:
 This technique was with China first.
 Marco Polo returned to Italy and brought this knowledge with himself.
 Now Italian began producing books with Wood Block.

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 Soon the technology spread in other parts of world.

Limitations of manuscripts:
 Manuscripts were highly expensive and fragile.
 They have to be handle carefully.
 They could not be read easily.

Reasons Why Couldn’t the production of handwritten manuscripts satisfy the ever increasing
demand for books:
 Copying was an expensive, laborious and time consuming business.
 Manuscripts were fragile and difficult to handle.
 Not easily carried around or read easily.

Factors that helped in the rise of print culture in Europe:

 Handwritten manuscripts could not satisfy the ever increasing demand for books.
 copying was an expensive, laborious and time consuming business.
 manuscripts were fragile that’s why circulation was limited.
 Woodblock were used for printing by early 15th century
but this couldn’t cater to the ever increasing demand for print materials.
 Need for quicker and cheaper reproduction of books.

Gutenberg:
 Gutenberg was the son of a merchant and grew up on a large agricultural estate.
 From his childhood he had seen wine and olive presses.
 Subsequently he learnt the art of polishing stones became a master goldsmith
 and also acquired the expertise to create lead moulds used for making trinkets.
 Drawing on this knowledge he used to design his new innovation.

Gutenberg’s Printing Press :

 The olive press provided the model for the printing press
 and the moulds were used for casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet.
 By 1448 he perfected this system and the first book he printed was the Bible.
 About 180 copies were printed and it took three years to produce them.
 By the standards of the time this was fast production.
 Printed books at first closely resembled the written manuscripts in appearance and layout.
 Between 1450- 1550 printing presses were setup in most countries of Europe.

The Print Revolution and its impact:

A New Reading Public:
 With the printing press a new reading public emerged.
 The time and labour required to produce each book came down.
 Cost of books also reduced.
 Books flooded the market reaching out to an ever growing reader- ship.
 Due to print technique a new reading public emerged in place of hearing public.
 Now books could reach out to wider sections of people.

Religious Debates and the fear of Print :

 Many feared that if there was no control over what was printed and reading
then rebellious and irreligious thoughts might spread.
 Religious reformer Martin Luther criticised many practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic
Church,
 Luther’s translation of the New Testament lead to the division within the church and to the
beginning of the Protestant reformation.
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 Translation of the New Testament sold 5,000 copies within a few weeks
 2nd edition appeared within 3 months.
 Luther said, ‘Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one.’
 Roman Church began Inquisition to repress heretical ideas.
 In 1558 Roman Church began to maintain an index of Prohibited Books.

Effect of Print Revolution:

 Printing reduces the cost of books, the time and labour required to produce each book came
down.
 Multiple copies could be produce easily.
 Circulation of ideas and open new world of debate and discussion.
 Brought new intellectual atmosphere, helped spread the new ideas that led to reformation.
 Individual interpretation of faith even among little educated people.
 The writing of enlightened thinkers helped in French revolution.

Reason of printed books became popular among less literate people:

 Those who could not read at least can listen and enjoy.
 Folk songs and folk lore were published.
 Illustrated books were published.
 These were read out at rural meetings pubs etc.

The Reading Mania

 Churches of different denominations set up schools in villages carrying literacy to peasants and
artisans.
 In some parts of Europe literacy rate were as high as 60-80%.
 In England, penny chapbooks were carried by petty paddlers known as Chapman.
 In France there was ‘Biliotheque bleue’ which were low priced small books printed on poor
quality paper and bound in cheap blue covers.
 Newspapers and journals carried information about wars and trade, as well as news of
developments in other places.

Role of print culture in bringing about the French Revolution:

 Many historians have argued that print culture created the conditions within which French
Revolution occurred.
 Three types of arguments:
1. Print popularised the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers.
2. Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate.
3. Mocked the royalty and criticised their morality
 Print popularized the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers .
 Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate.
 By the 1780 there was on outpouring of literature that mocked the royalty
and criticized their morality.

Print did not directly shape their minds, but it did open up the possibility of thinking
differently.
• There can be no doubt that print helps the spread of ideas.
• People did not read just one kind of literature.
• People Read the ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau
• People Read monarchical and Church propaganda also
• They were not influenced directly by everything
• They read or saw.
• They accepted some ideas and rejected others.
• They interpreted things their own way.

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 19th Centaury:
Children
• Late 19th C- Primary education became compulsory
• Children became an important category of readers.
• Production of school textbooks became critical for the publishing industry.
• A children’s press was set up in France in 1857.
• Published new works as well as old fairy tales and folk tales.
• The Grimm Brothers in Germany(1812) – Published rural folk tales of children version.
• Print recorded old tales but also changed them.
Women:
• Women became readers as well as writers.
• Penny magazines were especially meant for women
• Teaching proper behaviour and housekeeping.
• Novels(19th C)-women were seen as important readers.
• Novelists were women: Jane Austen, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot.
• Their writings became important in defining a new type of woman:
a person with will, strength of personality, determination and the power to think.
Workers, artisans and lower-middle-class people
• Lending libraries in England became instruments for educating white-collar workers,
artisans and lower-middle-class people.
• Sometimes, self-educated working-class people wrote for themselves.
• After the working day was gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century,
• workers had some time for self-improvement and self-expression.
• They wrote political tracts and autobiographies in large numbers.

Printing Press- Innovations

• By the late 18th C- The press came to be made out of metal.
• 19th C- A series of further innovations in printing technology.
• Mid 19th C- Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power-driven cylindrical
press.
• This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour.
• Useful for printing newspapers.
• Late 19th C- The offset press was developed (six colours at a time)
• 20th C- Electrically operated presses.
• Methods of feeding paper improved.
• The quality of plates became better.
• Automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.
• The accumulation of several individual mechanical improvements transformed the
appearance of printed texts.

India- Manuscripts Before the Age of Print

 India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscripts- in Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian
as well as in various vernacular languages.
 Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper.
 They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation.

 Even though pre-colonial Bengal had developed an extensive network of village primary schools,
 students very often did not read text.
 They only learnt to write.
 Teachers dictated portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down.
 Many of them became literate without ever actually reading any kind of texts.

Print comes to India

 The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century.
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 By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in kanara language.
 Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin
 In 1713 the first Malayalam book was printed by them.
 From 1780 James Augustus Hicky began to edit a weekly magazine-The Bengal Gazette.
 Gangadhar Bhattacharya began to publish Bengal Gazette.
 1822- a Gujarati newspaper - the Bombay Samachar

India - Religious Reform and Public debates

 From the early nineteenth century, there were intense debates around religious issues.
 Different groups offered a variety of new interpretations of the beliefs of different religions.
 Ram Mohan Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi from 1821
 and the orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika to oppose his opinion.
 From 1822, two Persian newspapers: Jam-i-Jahan Noma and Shamsul Akhbar were
published.
 The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867 published thousands upon thousands of fatwas
 telling Muslim readers how to conduct themselves in everyday lives
 and explaining the meaning of Islamic doctrines.
 The first printed edition of the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth-century text, came out
from Calcutta in 1810.

Women and Print

 The status of women improved in the Indian society.
 Women’s reading, increased in middle-class homes.
 Liberal husbands and fathers began educating their womenfolk at home,
 and sent them to schools when women’s schools were set up.
 In 1876 Rashsundari Debi published her autobiography-Amar Jiban.
 In the 1880s Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the
miserable lives of upper caste Hindu women, especially widows.
 Many journals began carrying writings by women,
 and explained why women should be educated.
 They also carried a syllabus and attached suitable reading matter,
 which could be used for home-based schooling.
 Ram Chaddha published the fast selling Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women how to be obedient
wives.
 Printed books helped women to emerge as rebels.
 Many women began writing and tried to highlight the poor condition of women.

Impact of Print Culture on Indian Women:

 Print enabled women to read in silence, discuss and debate among the like-minded persons.
 Women express themselves and shape their ideas.
 It connects women across caste religion or class.
 many women writes their experiences and stories .
 Many liberal husband and fathers allowed their wife and daughters to study.

Print and the Poor People

 In the 19th century, very cheap and small books were brought to markets.
 Cheap books were being sold at Madras so that poor people were also buy read.
 Lending library were setup.
 Paperback edition of novels were printed to make them affordable to the masses.
 Literacy Rate was increased in Labour Class.
 It helps to send the message of Nationalism to masses.
 In 1871 Jyotiba Phule wrote about the injustice of the caste system in his book Gulamgiri.

24
 Kashibaba, a Kanpur Mill worker, wrote and published Chote aur Bade ka Saval in 1938 to show
the links between caste and class exploitation.

How did printing work to connect communities and people living in different part of India?
 It created new platform for expression of ideas.
 It is the cheapest and most simplest way of communication.
 It brought about the problems of Indian Masses.
 A large number of religious book were being transmitted to Indian Masses.

The role of print culture in encouraging the role of Nationalism in India:
 Despite repression nationalist newspaper were reaching every nook and corner of the country.
 They brought to light the misrule of the British.
 Revolutionary Bal Gangadhar Tilak started the newspaper named Kesari.
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak was imprisoned in 1908 which led to widespread protest all over India.

British control the Press in India

 After the revolt of 1857 ,enraged Englishmen demanded a clamp down on the native press.
 The Vernacular Press Act, 1878 was passed.
 It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports in the vernacular press.
 Government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers.
 When a report was judged as seditious, newspaper was warned
 and if the warning was ignored the press was liable to be seized
 and the printing machinery confiscated.

New Words:
Calligraphy: The art of beautiful and stylised writing is called Calligraphy.
Vellum: A parchment made from the skin of animals.
Manuscripts: Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper.
Platen: It is a board which is pressed onto the back of paper to get the impression from the type.
Ballad: A historical account or folk tale in verse, usually sung or recited.
Taverns: Places where people gathered to drink alcohol, to be served food, and to meet friends
and exchange news.

Despotism: A system of governance in which absolute power is exercised by an individual,

unregulated by legal and constitutional checks.

Ulama: Legal scholars of Islam and the sharia (a body of Islamic law)
Fatwa: A legal pronouncement on Islamic law usually given by a mufti (legal scholar) to clarify
issues on which the law is uncertain.

Protestant Reformation:
 A sixteenth-century movement to reform the Catholic Church dominated by Rome.
 Martin Luther was one of the main Protestant reformers.
 Several traditions of anti-Catholic Christianity developed out of the movement.

Prepared by Shyam Moahan

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