THE RISE OF

NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
CBSE: CLASS 10: HISTORY

Dr. Birendra Prasad

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEAS OF THE NATION

The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. It brought political and
constitutional changes that led to the transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to a body of French citizens.
From its earliest days the revolutionaries in France introduced various measures and practices that could
create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.

These ideas included:

• The concepts of the fatherland or la patrie and citizen or le citoyen that emphasized the notion of a
united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
• The new French Flag
• An Estates General elected by a body of citizens
• A centralized administrative system
• Uniform system of weights and measures
• Uniform laws
• One language (French)
• Hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated all in the name of the nation.

Revolutionaries declared that it would liberate people of Europe from despotic rule. These ideas inspired
students as well as the middle class in different cities of Europe to set up revolutionary organizations. With
the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the ideas of nationalism abroad.

REFORMS INITIATED BY NAPOLEON

Under Napoleon Bonaparte democracy was destroyed in France but he introduced various reforms that helped
to unite the people. Reforms included:
• Civil Code of 1804 or the Napoleonic Code- did away with privileges based on birth, established
equality before law and secured right to property. This code was also implemented in areas
under French control (Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany)
• Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, freed peasants from
serfdom and manorial dues.
• In towns guild restrictions were removed.
• Transport and communication systems were improved.

Effects of Reforms initiated by Napoleon:

• Peasants, artisans and the new middleclass enjoyed their new freedom.
• Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods began to realize that uniform laws, uniform weights
and measures and a common currency would facilitate trade.
• In areas under French control reactions were mixed. Some cities as well as places welcomed the
French armies as they liberated them from despotic rule and ushered in an era of freedom. Later
however they were disillusioned as increased taxation, censorship and forced conscription into French
armies seemed to outweigh the administrative advantages.

THE MAKING OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

In the mid-18th century, there were no nation states as we know them today. Germany, Italy and Switzerland
were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose rulers had complete control over their territories.
East and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies who ruled over territories inhabited by diverse
cultures. Such differences did not promote a sense of political unity. The only commonality was their allegiance
to the emperor. How did nationalism and the idea of a nation state emerge?

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STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY
The landed aristocracy was a dominant class on the continent. Its members were united by the fact that they
owned town houses and vast estates, they spoke French, held high posts in the government and army and
their families were connected through matrimonial alliances. This group was numerically small.

The majority of the population was made up of peasants. In Western Europe the land was farmed by tenants
and small owners and in eastern and central Europe there were vast estates cultivated by serfs.

Industrialization began in England in the 18th century and gradually spread to France and Germany. With
industrialization and creation of a market economy new social groups emerged (working class, businessmen
and professionals). It was among the liberated middle class that the ideas of national unity gained popularity.

LIBERAL NATIONALISM
The idea of national unity in early 19th century Europe was closely allied to the ideology of liberalism.
Liberalism is derived from the Latin root, liber, meaning free. For the new middle-class liberalism meant
freedom for the individual and equality before law.

Politically it meant end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and a representative government
through Parliament. In the 19th century liberals stressed on private property. However in France except for
the Jacobin government suffrage was limited.

In the economic sphere liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and abolition of state-imposed restrictions
on the movement of goods and capital.

CONSERVATISM
A wave of conservatism emerged after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Conservatives believed in Monarchy,
Church, Social hierarchy and Preservation of property and family.

However, after 1815 most conservatives accepted the changed introduced by Napoleon and believed that
modernization could strengthen institutions like the monarchy, it could make the state effective and strong, a
modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, abolition of feudalism and serfdom could further
strengthen the autocratic monarchies of Europe.

In 1815 the representatives of Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria who had defeated Napoleon met at Vienna
to draw up a settlement for Europe. This came to be known as THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA and it was presided
over by the Austrian Chancellor DUKE METTERNICH.

CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND ITS IMPACT

• The Bourbon dynasty which had been deposed was restored to power.
• France lost the territories that it had annexed under Napoleon.
• A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future. The
kingdom of Netherlands which included Belgium was set up in the north and Genoa added to
Piedmont in the south. Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers. Austria
was given control of northern Italy.
• The German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
• In the east Russia was given a part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
• Thus, conservative regimes came to power. They did not tolerate criticism and dissent. Most of them
imposed censorship laws to control what was said in the newspaper, plays and songs. Ideas of liberty
and freedom were not tolerated.

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However, the ideas of the French Revolution continued to inspire liberals. Fear of repression drove many to
form secret societies in many European states. They were committed to oppose the monarchic forms of
government and fought for liberty and freedom. One such individual was GIUSEPPE MAZZINI. He would go on
to play an important role in the Unification of Italy.

THE AGE REVOLUTIONS 1830-1848

As conservative regimes tried to consolidate their power, liberalism and nationalism came to be increasingly
associated with revolution in many regions of Europe. These revolutions were led by liberal nationalists
belonging to the educated middle-class elite, among whom were professors, school teachers, clerks and
members of the commercial middle classes.

The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbons were overthrown by the liberal
revolutionaries who installed a constitutional monarchy with LOUIS PHILIPPE as its head. The July revolution
sparked an uprising in BRUSSELS which led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the
Netherlands.

THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE also played an important role in mobilizing nationalist feelings among the
educated elite. Greece had been a part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century. The growth of
nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence among the Greeks. This began in 1821.
Nationalists in Greece got support from the other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans
who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists mobilized public opinion to support its
struggle against the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the TREATY OF CONSTANTINOPLE was signed in 1821 and it
recognized the independence of Greece.

ROMANTIC IMAGINATION AND NATIONAL FEELING

• Culture too played an important role in the development of nationalism.
• ROMANTICISM was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist
sentiment.
• Romantic artists and poets criticized the glorification of reason and science and focused instead on
emotions, intuition and mystical feeling.
• Their effort was to create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis
of a nation.
• German philosopher JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER claimed that true German culture was to be
discovered among the common people. His focus was on folk culture as essential to nation building.
• In Poland, language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments especially as
Poland was occupied by Russia and Polish almost disappeared from schools. The use of Polish came
to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.

HUNGER, HARDSHIP AND POPULAR REVOLT

• The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.
• There was large scale unemployment.
• Migration of people from villages to cities where they lived in overcrowded slums.
• Small producers faced stiff competition from imports of cheap machine made goods coming from
England.
• In those regions in Europe which was still under the aristocracy, peasants struggled under the burden
of feudal dues and obligations.
• The rise of food prices or a bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in towns and country.
• In 1848, food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris out on the
roads. Louis Philippe was forced to flee.

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 • A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21 and
guaranteed the right to work. National workshops to provide employment to all were set up.

THE REVOLUTION OF THE LIBERALS, 1848

• The Revolution in France had a direct impact on other nations in Europe. The Liberal Middle class in
Germany, Italy, Poland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire demanded constitutionalism and unification.
• In the German regions a large number of political associations whose members were middle class
professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans came together in FRANKFURT and voted for an
all-German National Assembly.
• On 18th May1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their place in
the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul.
• They drafted a Constitution for a German nation to be headed by a Constitutional monarch whose
powers were limited by the Parliament.
• When this was offered to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined hands with
the other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
• In the end, the opposition of the aristocracy and the military became stronger, troops were called in
and the assembly was forced to disband.
• Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political
meetings and demonstrations. Despite this they were denied suffrage rights during the election of the
assembly. When the assembly convened at Frankfurt women were only admitted as observers and
made to stand in the visitor’s gallery at the church.

• Finally, though the conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could
not restore the old order. Thus, the autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to
introduce reforms. Serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in Russia and the Habsburg dominions.

UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
• The newly emerged middle class in Germany in 1848 tried to unite several German kingdoms which
were suppressed by monarchies and large landowners into one nation state governed by an elected
body.
• Prussia, a German kingdom, took the leadership in uniting various German states. Otto von Bismarck,
the Chief Minister of Prussia, aimed to achieve the goal of unification with the help of the Prussian
army and the bureaucracy.
• Spread over seven years, the Prussian army with the help of the Austrian, French and Danish armies
fought three wars and successfully incorporated all the small German kingdoms. This marked the
process of completion of German unification.
• In 1871, William I was declared as the emperor of Germany at the Palace of Versailles. The process of
the unification of Germany exhibited the power of the Prussian state. Many new reforms were
initiated in banking, currency, administration and judiciary in Germany.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY
• Italy was also politically fragmented into various small states which were ruled by monarchies.
• During the mid-nineteenth century, only the state of Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by the Italian
monarchy. The northern states were under the Austrian monarchy, Central Italy was under the control
of the Pope and the states in the south were under the control of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
• Giuseppe Mazzini was a revolutionary who actively supported the unification of the Italian states. For
achieving this aim, he formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’.
• The state of Sardinia-Piedmont took the responsibility of fulfilling this task after the failed uprisings in
1831 and 1848. The king of Sardinia-Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel II, was actively helped by his Chief
Minister Cavour. Cavour led the process of the unification of Italy.

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 • In 1859, the state of Sardinia-Piedmont defeated the Austrians. In 1860, the Italian forces helped by
Giuseppe Garibaldi and his volunteers marched into southern Italy and unified it with Italy.
• King Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the king of united Italy. The complete unification of Italy
was achieved in 1871.

GREAT BRITAIN – A NATION STATE

• The transformation of Great Britain into a nation state was not a sudden process. There was no one
British nation before the eighteenth century.
• People residing in the British Isles were mainly English, Welsh, Scots and Irish. These ethnic groups
had distinct political and social traditions.
• As the English nation grew in wealth and power, it began to dominate the other islands.
• In 1688, the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy. The Parliament passed the Act of
Union, 1707, by which England and Scotland were unified resulting in the formation of the ‘United
Kingdom of Great Britain’.
• The Parliament was dominated by the English, and the political and cultural identities of the Scots
were systematically suppressed. The Catholics in Scotland were brutally suppressed whenever they
wanted to regain their independence.
• Ireland was inhabited by the Protestants and the Catholics. The English supported the Protestants and
established their rule with their help and support. Catholics, who constituted a majority in Ireland,
revolted against the British on numerous occasions but were suppressed.
• Ireland forcibly became a part of Britain in 1801. The English language dominated. Both Scotland and
Ireland were subordinate to England.

VISUALISING THE NATION

• Artists in the 18th and the 19th century found out different ways to personify the nation.
• The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not represent any particular woman in
real life; rather it sought to give an abstract idea of the nation a concrete form.
• French artists used allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the Republic.
• Female allegories were invented by artists to represent the nation. In France she was called
MARIANNE. Red cap, tricolour and the cockade were used as her features. Her images were marked
on coins and stamps.
• In Germany she was called GERMANIA. She wore a crown of oak leaves as in Germany oak stands for
heroism.

NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM

• Nationalism which is the feeling of love for one’s own nation became intense and narrow minded in
the mid-nineteenth century. Many nations became intolerant of each other and competed with one
another for the control of territories.
• Imperialism is territorial control of a region or a country by another country by using military control.
• This feeling of nationalism became intense in the Balkan region. The Balkan region formerly comprised
the present-day territories of Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Croatia, Greece, Bosnia, Herzegovina,
Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. The people in these countries were called Slavs.
• The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire in the region made the situation very explosive in the region
as every state was jealous of one another and hoped to gain independence at the cost of the other.
• One by one, the European nationalities in the Balkan broke away from the control of the Ottoman
Empire and declared independence.
• As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan
area became an area of intense conflict.

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• During this time, many powerful European nations such as England, France, Russia and Germany
competed to gain control in the Balkan region. This competition for gaining prominence in the region
finally led to the First World War in 1914.
• Later, several Asian and African countries which were colonised by the European nations began to
oppose imperial domination. Anti- imperial movements that began in colonies were nationalist in
nature as people were fighting to form independent nation states.

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 NCERT SOLUTIONS
Question 1(a)
Write a note on Guiseppe Mazzini.
Solution:
• Giuseppe Mazzini (1807-1872) was an Italian politician, journalist and activist for the unification of
Italy and spearheaded the Italian revolutionary movement. His efforts helped bring about the
independent and unified Italy in place of several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers.
• He also helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state.
• Mazzini was a fervent advocate of republicanism and envisioned a united, free and independent Italy.
• Unlike his contemporary Garibaldi, who was also a republican, Mazzini never compromised his
republican ideas and refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the House of Savoy.
• Mazzini was the spiritual force of the Italian resurrection. He joined the Carbonari, a revolutionary
organisation and was arrested in 1830. He was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in
Liguria. He subsequently founded two more underground societies, first – Young Italy in Marseilles
and then Young Europe in Berne, whose members were like- minded young men from Poland, France,
Italy and the German states.
• Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could not
continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It had to be forged into a single unified
republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.
Mazzini was in favour of a republic because he thought sovereignty resides essentially in the people
and can only completely express itself in that form. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and
his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as ‘the most
dangerous enemy of our social order’.
• Young Italy’ attempted many insurrections but were unsuccessful. Mazzini failed in his objects because
he himself lacked some of the qualities of practical leadership. He underestimated the strength of the
opposition. But in spite of these drawbacks, he is one of the chief makers of Italy. He was responsible
for the growth of patriotism for a country that existed as yet only in the imagination.

Question 1(b)
Write a note on Count Camillo de Cavour.
Solution:
• Cavour was a realist who practiced realistic politics. He allied with France when necessary and with
France’s key enemy, Prussia, was necessary.
• Cavour used international power to achieve his domestic goals.
• He devoted himself to the liberation of northern Italy from Austrian domination. A brilliant and
steadfast diplomat, he played a leading role in the unification of Italy.
• He was distrustful of the reactionary politics in force throughout Europe, particularly their
manifestation in the repressive rule of Austria over a large area of Italy.
• He became Prime Minister of Piedmont in 1852. He reorganized its army and it achieved rapid growth
in material prosperity. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded
in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
• Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe
Garibaldi joined the fight. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies and
with the support of the local peasants drove out the Spanish rulers. Thus, Cavour was ultimately
successful in the unification of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II. He, however, died on June 6, 1861,
before the completion of the unification of Italy in 1870. Although Cavour was neither a revolutionary
nor a democrat, he played an important role in the unification of Italy.

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Question 1(c)
Write a note on The Greek war of independence.
Solution:
The Greek war of independence, also known as the Greek Revolution was a successful war of independence
waged by the Greek revolutionaries between 1821 and 1832 against the Ottoman Empire. The Greeks were
later assisted by the Russian Empire, Great Britain, France and several other European powers, while the
Ottomans were aided by their vassals, Egypt, Algeria etc.

Events: Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century. The growth of revolutionary
nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.
The object of the struggle was to expel Turks from Europe and to establish old Greek eastern empire.
Nationalists in Greece were supported by other Greeks living in exile and many West European countries.
Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation. They mobilised public opinion to
support its struggle against a Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to
fight in the war.

Ultimately, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation. Its
independence was guaranteed by Russia, England and France.

Question 1(d)
Write a note on Frankfurt parliament.
Solution:
• Frankfurt Parliament (1848-49) was convened at Frankfurt on May 18, 1848 as a result of the liberal
revolution that swept the German states early in 1848.
• The parliament was called by a preliminary assembly of German liberals in March 1848 and its
members were elected by the direct manhood suffrage. They represented the entire political
spectrum and included the foremost German figures of that time.
• Its purpose was to plan the unification of Germany.
• The conflict among the traditionally separate German states, notably Austria and Prussia made
progress difficult.
• In March 1849 the parliament adopted a federal constitution of German states, excluding Austria, with
a parliamentary government and a hereditary emperor. Frederick William IV of Prussia was chosen
emperor but he refused to accept the crown from a popularly elected assembly and the entire scheme
failed.
• Most of the representatives withdrew and the remainder were dispersed. The parliament, therefore,
accomplished nothing as troops were called and the assembly was forced to disband.

Question 2.
What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French
people?
Solution:
From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could
create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people.
• The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united
community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
• A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
• The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
• New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.
• A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens
within its territory.

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 • Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was
adopted.
• Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the
common language of the nation.

Question 3.
Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?
Solution:
• In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, artists represented the country as if it were a person.
• Nations were portrayed as female figures that sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete
form.
• The female form that was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in a
real life.
• Thus, in France, she was christened Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of
a people’s nation.
• Her characteristics were drawn from those of liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the tricolour, the
cockade.
• Statues of Marianne were installed in public squares to remind the public of the national symbols of
unity and to persuade them to identify with it.
• Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps too.
• Similarly, Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual representations, Germania
wears a crown of oak leaves, because the German oak stands for heroism.
• The importance of the way in which they were portrayed was to remind the public of their national
symbols of unity and to persuade them to identify with them.

Question 4.
Briefly trace the process of German unification.
Solution:
Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different
regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament.
• This liberal initiative to nation-building was, however, repressed by the combined forces of the
monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
• From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification.
• Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process carried out with the help of
the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory and
completed the process of unification.
• In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at
Versailles.

Question 5.
What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories
ruled by him?
Solution:
The following changes were introduced by Napoleon to make the administrative system more efficient in the
territories ruled by him:
• Civil Code of 1804 or the Napoleonic Code was issued. It abolished all privileges based on birth. It
established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
• Napoleon simplified administrative divisions in the Dutch Republic, in Switzerland, in Italy and
Germany. ,
• The feudal system was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues.

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 • Guild restrictions were removed in towns.
• Improvements were made in the transport and communication systems.
• Uniform laws, standardized weights, and measures, and a common national currency was introduced.
It facilitated the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
In view of the above reforms it is stated that through a return to monarchy, Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed
democracy in France, but in the administrative field, he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to
make the whole system more rational and efficient.

Question 6.
Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic
ideas supported by the liberals?
Solution:
Since the French Revolution, liberalism had stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a
constitution and representative government through parliament. Nineteenth-century liberals also stressed
the inviolability of private property. The memory of the French Revolution nonetheless continued to inspire
liberals. One of the major issues taken up by the liberal-nationalists, who criticised the new conservative
order, was freedom of the press.

Parallel to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in many European
countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle classes was under way. Events of
February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal
male suffrage had been proclaimed. In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not yet
exist – such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle
classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. They took advantage of the
growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles
– a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.

Question 7.
How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Solution:
In Britain, the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the
result of a long-drawn-out process. There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century.

• The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as
English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political
traditions.
• But as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its
influence over the other nations of the islands.
• In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution.
• The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones - such as English,
Welsh, Scot or Irish.
• The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the 'United
Kingdom of Great Britain' meant that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. Scotland's
distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed.
• The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress and
large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
• The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic
country. Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed. Ireland was forcibly incorporated
into the United Kingdom in 1801.
• The symbols of the new Britain - the British flag, the national anthem, the English language were actively
promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

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Question-8
Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Solution:
The most serious source of nationalist tension in Europe after 1871 was the area called the Balkans.

• The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania,
Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro
whose inhabitants were broadly known as the Slavs.
• A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
• The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the
Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.
• All through the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen itself through
modernisation and internal reforms but with very little success.
• One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared
independence.
• The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used
history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by
foreign powers.
• Hence the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back
their long-lost independence.

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 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Who, among the following, hosted the Congress at Vienna in 1815.

(a) King of the Netherlands (b) Giuseppe Mazzini
(c) Duke Metternich (d) Otto von Bismarck

2. Which one of the following is true about the ‘Treaty of Constantinople’ in 1832.
(a) It recognised Turkey as an independent nation.
(b) It recognised Greece as an independent nation.
(c) It recognised Germany as an independent nation.
(d) It recognised France as an independent nation.

3. Who among the following formed the secret society called ‘Young Italy’.
(a) Otto von Bismarck (b) Giuseppe Mazzini
(c) Metternich (d) Johann Gottfried Herder

4. Which one of the following types of government was functioning in France before the revolution of 1789?
(a) Dictatorship (b) Military (c) Body of French Citizen (d) Monarchy

5. Which one of the following statements is false regarding the Act of Union 1707?
(a) It was an agreement between England and Scotland.
(b) It was an agreement between England and Ireland.
(c) It resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’.
(d) It gave England control over Scotland.

6. Which one of the following states was ruled by an Italian princely house before the unification of Italy?
(a) Kingdom of Two Scillies (b) Lombardy
(c) Venetia (d) Sardinia-Piedmont

7. Which one of the following statements is not true about Giuseppe Mazzini?
(a) He wanted the united Italian Republic.
(b) He founded an underground society called ‘Young Italy’.
(c) He wanted Italy to be a monarchy.
(d) He was exiled for attempting a revolution in Liguria.

8. Who said, “when France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold”?
(a) Garibaldi (b) Mazzini (c) Metternich (d) Bismarck

9. Which treaty recognised Greece as an independent nation?

(a) Treaty of Versailles (b) Treaty of Vienna
(c) Treaty of Constantinople (d) Treaty of Lausanne

10. Who was responsible *for the Unification of Germany?

(a) Bismarck (b) Cavour (c) Mazzini (d) Garibaldi

11. Which area was known as the powder keg of Europe?

(a) Germany (b) Italy (c) Balkans (d) Ottoman Empire

12. Elle, the measuring unit in Germany was used to measure

(a) cloth (b) thread (c) land (d) height

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13. Zolleverin started in 1834 in Prussia refers to a
(a) Trade Union (b) Customs Union (c) Labour Union (d) Farmer’s Union

14. The Ottoman Empire was ruled by the emperor of

(a) Turkey (b) Russia (c) Britain (d) Prussia

15. At which of the following places was the Frankfurt Assembly convened
(a) at the church of St. Paul. (b) at the church of St. Peters.
(c) at the palace of Prussia. (d) at the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.

16. What did the crown of oak leaves symbolise?

(a) Courage (b) Heroism (c) Peace (d) Tolerance

17. By which of the following treaties was the United Kingdom of Great Britain formed?
(a) Treaty of Versailles (b) Act of Union
(c) Treaty of Paris (d) Treaty of Vienna

18. Who was Wolfe Tone?

(a) A French revolutionary.
(b) An Irish Catholic who revolted against British dominance.
(c) A German rebel who revolted against Kaiser William IV
(d) A British protestant leader.

19. Which of the following best explain Utopian society?

(a) A society where everybody is equal. (b) A democratic society.
(c) An idealist society that can never be achieved. (d) A society with a comprehensive Constitution.

20 After the French Revolution (1789) the right to vote was given to
(a) all adult population of the country.
(b) all property-owning male citizens of the country.
(c) all property-owning males and women of the country.
(d) all adults excluding women of the country.

21. The main function of the Prussian Zollverein was to

(a) impose a custom duty on imported goods. (b) abolish the tariff barrier.
(c) reduce custom duties. (d) impose new rules for trade.

22. Which of the following group of powers collectively defeated Napoleon?

(a) England, France, Italy, Russia. (b) England, Austria, Spain, Russia.
(c) Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain. (d) Britain, Prussia, Russia, Italy.

23. Which of the following countries is considered as the ‘cradle of civilization’?

(a) England (b) France (c) Greece (d) Russia

24. The Treaty of Vienna signed in 1815

(a) brought the conservative regimes back to power. (b) destroyed the conservative powers of Europe.
(c) introduced democracy in Austria and Prussia. (d) set up a new Parliament in Austria.

25. Romanticism refers to a

(a) cultural movement (b) religious movement
(c) political movement (d) literary movement

26. In Prussia, who was referred to as ‘Junkers’?

(a) Military officials (b) Large landowners (c) Factory owners (d) Aristocratic nobles

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27. Which of the following is an allegory/attribute for ‘liberty’?
(a) Crown of Oak (b) Red Cap (c) Olive Branch (d) Sword

28. What does a blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales symbolise?
(a) Peace (b) Equality (c) Justice (d) Liberty

29. Who among the following was proclaimed the first King of United Italy?
(a) Nicholas II (b) King George II (c) Wilhelm IV (d) Victor Emannuel II

30 A nation-state is a state where

(a) people of all groups enjoy equal rights.
(b) where the nation has its own emblem and flag.
(c) a state which has a contiguous territory.
(d) a state where people live in a common territory, develop a sense of identity and share a common history.

31. Most important outcome of the French Revolution of 1789 was

(a) the abolition of absolute monarchy.
(b) making of a new Constitution.
(c) transfer of sovereignty from the monarch to the French citizens.
(d) Formation of the National Assembly.

32. Identify and mark the incorrect response. The Napoleonic Code
(a) did away with all the privileges based on ‘birth and established equality.
(b) destroyed feudalism in France.
(c) formulated codes for the army.
(d) ensured right to property for the privileged class.

33. A large number of people were hostile to the Napoleonic code because
(a) it was not suitable for all.
(b) it destroyed the special privileges of the rulers.
(c) administrative changes did not go hand-in-hand with political freedom.
(d) none of the above.

34. For the middle class of Europe, the most important feature of Liberalism was
(a) abolition of conservatism. (b) right to be liberal and educated.
(c) individual freedom and equality before law. (d) representative government.

35. Why did the Frankfurt Parliament fail to achieve its goal?
(a) Women were excluded from the membership.
(b) Did not have the support of the peasants.
(c) Kaiser William refused to accept the crown and opposed the assembly.
(d) None of the above.

ANSWERS

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 CBSE PREVIOUS YEARS SOLUTIONS

Very Short Answer Questions (VSA) 1 Mark

Question 1.
What was the major change that occurred in the political and constitutional scenario due to the French
Revolution in Europe? (2015 D)
Answer:
It led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens. The revolution
proclaimed that it was the people who would henceforth constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
Question 2.
What was the main aim of the French revolutionaries? (2015 OD)
Answer:
The main aim of the French revolutionaries was to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French
people. They proclaimed that it was the people who would constitute the nation and shape its decisions.
Question 3.
What is the meaning of concentration camps? (2015 OD)
Answer:
Concentration camps are prisons where people are detained and tortured without due process of law.
Question 4.
Name the Treaty of 1832 that recognised Greece as an independent nation. (2016 D)
Answer:
Treaty of 1832: Constantinople
Question 5.
Name the event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe in 1830-1848?
(2016 D)
Answer:
The Greek War of Independence in 1821.
Question 6.
What was the main aim of revolutionaries of Europe during the years following 1815? (2016 D)
Answer:
The main aim of revolutionaries of Europe was to oppose monarchial forms of government.
Question 7.
Who remarked “when France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold”. (2016 OD)
Answer:
Duke Metternich
Question 8.
Who was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871? (2016 OD)
Answer:
Kaiser William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871.
Question 9.
Who was proclaimed the King of United Italy in 1861? (2016 OD)
Answer:
Victor Emmanuel-II

Short Answer Questions (SA) 3 Marks

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Question 10.
Explain any three beliefs of the conservatism that emerged after 1815. (2011 D)
Answer:
Three beliefs of conservatism that emerged after 1815 were:
Established and traditional institutions of state and society like monarchy, the Church, property and family
should be preserved.
They believed in the modernization of the traditional institution to strengthen them, rather than returning to
the society of pre-revolutionary days.
Also they believed that abolition of feudalism and serfdom and replacing it with a modern army, an efficient
bureaucracy and a dynamic economy could strengthen autocratic monarchies of Europe.
Question 11.
Explain the contribution of Otto von Bismarck in German unification. (2011 D)
Answer:
Contribution of Otto von Bismarck in German unification. Nationalist feelings started spreading amongst the
middle class Germans, who in 1848, tried to unite different parts of German confederation into a nation
state to have an elected parliamentarian government. However, this liberal movement was repressed by the
combined forces of monarchy and military supported by Prussian landowners.
Prussian Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck, took the responsibility of national unification with the help of
Prussian army and bureaucracy. Under his leadership he fought three wars over seven years with Austria,
Denmark and France. Prussia was victorious in all these wars and the process of unification of Germany was
completed as a result of Prussia’s victory over France.
Question 12.
Explain any three ways in which nationalist feelings were kept alive in Poland in the 18th and 19th centuries.
(2011 OD)
Answer:
The three ways in which nationalist feelings were kept alive in 18th and 19th centuries in Poland:
(i) Emphasis on vernacular language. Language played an important role in developing nationalist
sentiments. The use of the Polish language came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian
dominance. For example, In Poland, following armed rebellion against Russian rule, Polish was used for
church gatherings and religious instruction. As a result, a number of priests and bishops were put in jails or
sent to Siberia as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian.
(ii) Emphasis on collection of local folklore. It was not just to recover an ancient national spirit, but also to
carry the modern nationalist message to the large audience who were mostly illiterate.
(iii) Use of music to keep the nationalist feeling alive. For example, Karol Kurpinski, celebrated the national
struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist
symbols.
Question 13.
Explain the contribution of Giuseppe Mazzini in spreading revolutionary ideas in Europe. (2011 OD)
Answer:
The year following 1815, was the period of revolutionaries. Most of the revolutionaries were committed to
oppose monarchical forms and to fight for liberty and freedom
One such prominent revolutionary was “Giuseppe Mazzini”, an Italian revolutionary. Mazzini also saw the
creation of nation-states as a necessary part in the struggle for freedom. Ele strongly believed in the
unification of Italy as a single unified republic which could be the basis of Italian liberty.

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Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of a democratic republic frightened the
Conservatives. His ideas also influenced the revolutionaries of Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.
Question 14.
Describe any three reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories he conquered. (2011 D)
Answer:
Three reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories he conquered were:
The Napoleonic Code —It finished all the privileges based on birth and established equality before law and
secured the right to property.
He simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and
manorial dues.
He introduced uniform laws, standardized weights and measures and common national currency to facilitate
the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one place to another.
Question 15.
Explain any three causes of conflict in the ‘Balkan area’ after 1871. (2011 OD)
Answer:
The nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans due to the following reasons:
(i) Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria,
Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro whose
inhabitants were known as the Slavs. A large part of Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman empire.
(ii) After the decline of the Ottoman empire and the growth of romantic nationalism in the Balkans, the
region became very explosive. Its European subject nationalities broke away from its control and declared
independence.
(iii) As the different nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area
became an area of intense conflict. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to
gain more territory at the expense of others.
(iv) Balkan also became the scene of big power rivalry. Russia, Germany, England, Austria, Hungry — all big
powers were keen in countering the hold of other powers. This ultimately turned Balkan into a war region
which eventually provided a minor cause for the First World War.
Question 16.
How did the local people in the areas conquered by Napoleon react to French rule? Explain. (2014 D)
Answer:
The reactions of the local population to the French rule were mixed.
Initially, in many places such as Holland and Switzerland, as well as in cities like Brussels, Mainz, Milan and
Warsaw, the French armies were welcomed as harbingers of liberty. As new administrative arrangements
did not go hand in hand with political freedom, enthusiasm turned into hostility. Increased taxation,
censorship, forced conscription into the French armies to conquer the rest of Europe, outweighed the
advantages of the administrative changes.
Question 17.
Explain the conditions that were viewed as obstacles to the economic exchange and growth by the new
commercial classes during the nineteenth century in Europe. (2014 OD)
Answer:
In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed
restrictions on movement of goods and capital.

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But in the 19th century Napoleon’s administrative measures had created out of countless small principalities
a confederation of 39 states. Each possessed its own currency, and weights and measures.
A merchant travelling from Hamburg to Nuremberg had to pass through 11 custom barriers and pay 5% duty
at each one of them.
As each region had its own system of weights and measures this involved time-consuming calculations.
Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic growth and exchange by the new commercial classes
who argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing free movement of goods, people and
capital.
Question 18.
Describe the events of French Revolution which had influenced the people belonging to other parts of
Europe. (2015 D)
Answer:
The first clear-cut expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. In 1789, France was
under the rule of an absolute monarch.
When the revolutionaries came to power in France, they were determined to create a new sense of unity
and nationhood. For this, they emphasized the concept of France being the father land (La Patrie) for all
French people, who were from now on addressed as citizens (citoyen). They were given the tri-colour flag,
the three colours representing liberty, equality and fraternity.
French revolutionaries introduced various other measures such as:
i. The Estate General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
ii. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated all in the name of the nation.
iii. A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens
within its territory.
iv. Internal customs, duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures
was adopted.
v. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the
common language of the nation.
vi. They further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the
people of Europe from despotism and help them to become nations.
Question 19.
How did nationalism develop through culture in Europe? Explain. (2015 OD, 2013 OD)
Or
Describe the role of culture in shaping the feelings of nationalism in Europe from 1830 to the end of
19th century.
Answer:
Culture, music, dance and religion played an important role in the growth of nationalism.
(i) Culture. Role of culture was important in creating the idea of the nation. Art, poetry, music etc. helped in
developing and expressing nationalist feelings. Romanticism was a cultural movement that led to the
development of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets criticized the glorification of reason and
science and instead focussed on emotions and intuition.
(ii) Language. Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian
occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian language was imposed everywhere. In
1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately crushed. Following this, many
members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.

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(iii) Music and Dance. Romantics such as the German philosopher Herder claimed that true German culture
was to be discovered among the common people —das volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk
dances that the true spirit of the nation was popularised.
Question 20.
How had the female figures become an allegory of the nation during nineteenth century in Europe? Analyse.
(2016 D)
Answer:
Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries portrayed nations as female figures. The female form,
that was chosen to personify the nation, did not stand for any particular woman in real life. Rather it sought
to give the abstract idea of the nation in concrete form. That is, the female figure became the allegory of the
nation.
In France, she was named Marianne —a popular Christian name and in Germany, Germania. Germania wears
a crown of oak leaves as the German oak stands for heroism. The characteristics of Marianne were drawn
from those of Liberty and Republic —the red cap, the tricolour and cockade.
Question 21.
Describe any three steps taken by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst
the French people. (2017 D)
Answer:
The first clear-cut expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. In 1789, France was
under the rule of an absolute monarch.
When the revolutionaries came to power in France, they were determined to create a new sense of unity
and nationhood For this, they emphasized the concept of France being the father land (La Patrie) for all
French people, who were from now on addressed as citizens (citoyen). They were given the tri-colour flag,
the three colours representing liberty, equality and fraternity.
French revolutionaries introduced various other measures such as:
i. The Estate General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
ii. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated all in the name of the nation.
iii. A centralized administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens
within its territory.
iv. Internal customs, duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures
was adopted.
v. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the
common language of the nation.
vi. They further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the
people of Europe from despotism and help them to become nations.
Question 22.
Describe any three economic hardships faced by Europe in the 1830s. 2017OD
Answer:
Following are the causes of economic hardships in Europe during 1830s:
i. Europe had come under the grip of large scale unemployment. In most of the countries there were
more seekers of jobs than employment. Cities had become overcrowded and slums had emerged as
population from the rural areas migrated to the cities.
ii. Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-
made goods from England where industrialization was more advanced specially in the field of textile
production.

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 iii. In those regions of Europe, where aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the
burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food prices and bad harvests added to the
hardships of the peasants.

Long Answer Questions 5 Marks

Question 23.
What did Liberal Nationalism stand for? Explain any four ideas of Liberal Nationalists in the economic sphere.
(2011 OD)
Answer:

i. Liberalism or Liberal Nationalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality of all before the
law. Lour ideas of Liberal Nationalists in the economic sphere are:
ii. Liberalism stood for freedom of markets and abolition of state imposed restriction. For example,
Napoleon’s administration was a confederation of 29 states, each of these possessed its own
currencies, weight and measures. Such conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchange.
iii. Liberal Nationalists argued for the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered
movement of goods, people and capital.
iv. In 1834, a customs union or ”zollverein” was formed. The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced
the number of currencies from 30 to 2.
v. The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interest to
national unification.
Question 24.
“Napoleon had, no doubt, destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had
incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.”
Support the statement. (2016 OD, 2014 OD, 2012 D)
Or
Explain any five social and administrative reforms introduced by Napolean in regions under his control.
Answer:

i. Napoleon had brought revolutionary changes in the administrative field in order to make the whole
system rational and efficient. The Civil Code of 1804 is usually known as the Napoleonic Code.
ii. The first major change was doing away with all privileges based on birth, establishing equality before
law and securing the right to property.
iii. Administrative divisions were simplified.
iv. Feudal system was abolished and peasants were freed from serfdom and manorial dues (abuse of
manorial lords).
v. In towns, guild restrictions were removed.
vi. Transport and communication systems were improved.
vii. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed a new found freedom.
viii. Businessmen and small-scale producers of goods in particular began to realize that uniform laws,
standardised weights and measures and a common national currency would facilitate the movement
and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
Question 25.
How did culture play an important role in creating idea of ‘nation’ in Europe? Explain with example. (2013 D)
Answer:

i. Culture, music, dance and religion played an important role in the growth of nationalism.
Role of culture was important in creating the idea of the nation. Art, poetry, music etc. helped in

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 developing and expressing nationalist feelings. Romanticism was a cultural movement that led to the
development of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets criticized the glorification of
reason and science and instead focussed on emotions and intuition.
ii. Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries portrayed nations as female figures. The female
form, that was chosen to personify the nation, did not stand for any particular woman in real life.
Rather it sought to give the abstract idea of the nation in concrete form. That is, the female figure
became the allegory of the nation.
In France, she was named Marianne—a popular Christian name and in Germany, Germania.
iii. Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian
occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and Russian language was imposed
everywhere. In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place which was ultimately
crushed. Following this, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon
of national resistance.
iv. Romantics such as the German philosopher Herder claimed that true German culture was to be
discovered among the common people – das volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk
dances that the true spirit of the nation was popularized.
Question 26.
Explain any five economic hardships that Europe faced in the 1830s. (2016 OD, 2013 OD, 2011 D)
Or
“The decode of 1830 has brought great economic hardship in Europe”. Support the statement with
arguments.
Answer:
Following are the causes of economic hardships in Europe during 1830s:
i. Europe had come under the grip of large scale unemployment. In most of the countries there were
more seekers of jobs than employment.
ii. Cities had become overcrowded and slums had emerged as population from the rural areas
migrated to the cities.
iii. Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-
made goods from England where industrialization was more advanced specially in the field of textile
production.
iv. In those regions of Europe, where aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the
burden of feudal dues and obligations.
v. The rise of food prices and bad harvests added to the hardships of the peasants.
Question 27.
Describe any five measures which were introduced by the French Revolutionaries to create a sense of
collective identity amongst the French people. (2016 D, 2015 OD, 2012 OD)
Answer:
The first clear-cut expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789. In 1789, France was
under the rule of an absolute monarch.
When the revolutionaries came to power in France, they were determined to create a new sense of unity
and nationhood. For this, they emphasized the concept of France being the father land (La Patrie) for all
French people, who were from now on addressed as citizens (citoyen). They were given the tri-colour flag,
the three colours representing liberty, equality and fraternity.
French revolutionaries introduced various other measures such as:
i. The Estate General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
ii. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated all in the name of the nation.

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 iii. A centralized administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens
within its territory.
iv. Internal customs, duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures
was adopted.
v. Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the
common language of the nation.
vi. They further declared that it was the mission and the destiny of the French nation to liberate the
people of Europe from despotism and help them to become nations.
Question 28.
How had revolutionaries spread their ideas in many European States after 1815? Explain with examples.
(2014 OD)
Answer:
i. During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal nationalists underground.
ii. Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
Revolutionary ideas were spread by opposing monarchical forms and to fight for liberty and
freedom.
iii. Most of the revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle
for freedom.
iv. Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary bom in Geneva in 1807. He was a member of the
Secret Society of the Carbonari. He attempted a revolution in 1831 and was sent into exile.
v. He had set up two more underground societies, namely, Young Italy (1832) in Marseilles and then
Young Europe in Berne. The members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and
Germany.
vi. He opposed monarchy and small states and kingdoms and dreamt of a Democratic Republic. He
believed the unification of Italy alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.
Question 29.
Describe the process of unification of Germany. (2015 D, 2013 D, 2012 D)
Answer:
Unification of Germany:

i. In the 18th century, Germany was divided into a number of states. Some of these states ceased to
exist during the Napoleonic wars. At the end of the war, there were still 39 independent states in
Germany. Prussia was most powerful, dominated by big landlords known as Junkers.
Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle class Germans who had tried to unite the
different regions of the German federation into a nation-state governed by an elected Parliament.
ii. In May 1848, a large number of political associations came together to vote for an All German
National Assembly. Their representatives met at Frankfurt and the Frankfurt Assembly proposed the
unification of Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the King of Prussia as emperor.
iii. The King of Prussia rejected the offer and the liberal initiative of nation building was repressed by
combined forces of the monarchy, the military and the ‘Junkers’.
iv. Then on, Prussia under its Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck led the movement for unification of
Germany. Bismarck carried out this process with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy.
He fought three wars over seven years with Denmark, Austria and France. Prussia was victorious in
all these wars and the process of unification was completed as a result of Prussia’s victory over
France.
v. Consequently, on 18th January 1871, an assembly comprising of princes of German states,
representatives of the army, important Prussian ministers and Bismarck gathered in the Palace of
Versailes and proclaimed the Prussian King, Kaiser William, the new German Emperor.

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Question 30.
Explain the process of unification of Italy. (2015 D, 2013 D, 2012 OD)
Answer:
i. Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over dynastic states
and the multinationals Hamsburg Empire.
ii. Italy was divided into seven states. Italian language did not have one common form.
iii. Guiseppe Mazzini had played an important role in the unification of Italy. He formed a secret society
called ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles, to spread his goals. He believed Italy could not continue to be a
patchwork of small states and had to be forged into a single unified republic. During 1830s, Mazzini
sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. As uprisings in 1831 and
1848 had failed, the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler Emmanuel II to unify Italy.
iv. Under Chief Minister Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
He was the chief minister, who led the movement to unify Italy. He formed a tactful diplomatic
alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces.
v. Even Guiseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched towards South Italy and the Kingdom
of the two Sicilies, and with the help of the local peasants, drove out the Spanish rulers. In 1861,
Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as King of United Italy.
Question 31.
Describe the process of Unification of Britain.
Or
How has Britain come into existence? Explain.
Answer:
Nationalism in Britain was different from the rest of Europe.
i. Nationalism in Britain was not the result of a sudden uprising or revolution. It was the result of a
long drawn-out process.
ii. There was no British nation prior to 18th century. The inhabitants of British Isles were ethnic ones —
English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. Though each had their own culture and political traditions, the English
nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power and expanded its influence over other
nations, such as Scotland.
iii. The British Parliament was dominated by its English members. They tried to suppress Scotland’s
distinct culture and political institutions. They could neither speak their language nor could they
wear their national dress. A large number of them were driven out of their homeland.
iv. In 1688, through a bloodless revolution the English Parliament seized power from the monarchy and
became the instrument to set up a nation-state at its centre.
v. By the Act of Union in 1707, Scotland was incorporated in the United Kingdom. Though the Irish
Catholics were against a union with England, Ireland was forcibly incorporated in United Kingdom in
1801.
vi. Thus it was parliamentary action and not revolution or war that was the instrument through which
the British nation was formed.
vii. A new ‘British Nation’ was formed through propagation of English culture. The symbols of the New
Britain—”the British Flag (Union Jack), National Anthem (God save our noble King) and the English
language” were promoted, and the older nations became the subordinate partners in the Union.

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