CLI

Lesson 6
Curriculum Development in
school contexts
Recap from previous sessions

 What is curriculum?
 What stages are involved in the process of curriculum
development?
 What are the differences between syllabus and
curriculum?
 What is Curriculum?

“Curriculum can include a consideration of the

purposes of schooling, ______ we teach,
_______ we teach, both what is _________and
__________, and it can focus on the
__________ of schooling or on its __________.”
Morris (1996) pp.1-2

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 What is Curriculum?

“Curriculum can include a consideration of the

what we teach,
purposes of schooling, ______
how planned
_______ we teach, both what is _________and
u__________,
n p l a n n e d and it can focus on the
processes product
__________ of schooling or on its __________.”
Morris (1996) pp.1-2

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Curriculum Development Process

Needs
Analysis

Aims /
Program / objectives
course for a
evaluation program /
course

Teaching
methods & Syllabus
assessment
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Richards (2001)
 What are the Differences
between Syllabus and Curriculum?
Syllabus Curriculum
List of content to be A more comprehensive
taught and examined for term encompassing aims /
a particular subject in objectives, suggested
consideration of the teaching methods, design
scope and sequence of pedagogical materials
and evaluation methods

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Our objectives today:

 Curriculum innovations – 6Ws

 Examples of curriculum innovations in the local
context
What is Curricular Innovation?
“Curricular innovation is a managed
process of development whose principal
products are teaching (and/or testing)
materials, methodological skills, and
pedagogical values that are perceived as
new by potential adopters.”

Markee (1997) p.46

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 Discussion time

Based on Markee’s (1997) definition,

can you name a curricular innovation you
experienced in your teaching / learning
context?

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 Innovation Management
❖ Innovation is a lengthy and complex process,
with three different phases.

❖ Fullan (1991) outlines three phases:

Phase I: Initiation
Phase II: Implementation
Phase III: Institutionalisation

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Innovation Management

A simplified overview of the change process

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Fullan (2001); Waters (2009)
 Six Wh-question Words about
Curricular Innovation
Wh-question Explanation
Word
What? Types of change
Who? Social roles played by different
participants
Where? Sociocultural context of innovation
When? The issue of diffusion
How? Approaches to effecting change
Why? Reasons for adoption
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 What?: Types of Change

I. Immanent change

II. Selective contact change

III. Induced immanent change

IV. Directed contact change

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 I. Immanent Change

❖ Also known as self-motivated change

❖ Recognise a need for change and propose

solutions to a perceived problem by the
same party in the school system

❖ Promote ownership

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 II. Selective Contact Change

❖ Insiders select an innovation that comes

from outside their school system. (e.g.
adopt a textbook originally designed for
native speakers of English in an ESL
class)

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 III. Induced Immanent Change

❖ Problem identification by outsiders

❖ Development of the solution by insiders

for improvement

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 IV. Directed Contact Change

❖ New ideas / practices introduced into the

school system by outsiders to achieve
their goals

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Who?: Social Roles of Different
Participants
Change The party which initiates an
agent innovation

Decide if the innovation

Adopter
should be adopted

Implementer Put the innovation into practice

Provide the resources needed for the

Supplier implementation of the innovation

Intend to be the primary

Client
beneficiaries of the innovation

Resister Oppose the innovation 18

 Where?: Sociocultural Context of
Curricular Innovation
Curriculum changes generally happen at the school
context but there are different sociocultural factors to
consider:
❖ Cultural

❖ Administrative

❖ Educational

❖ Institutional
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 Where?: Sociocultural Context of
Curricular Innovation
Consider the importance of socio-cultural
factors:
(e.g. Confucianism in the Asian context)
❖ Cultural
(e.g. Administrative support from the
❖ Administrative change agent and the adopter)

❖ Educational (e.g. Educational practices)

❖ Institutional (e.g. Characteristics of individual schools)

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How?: Approaches to Effecting Change

❖ Social interaction model

❖ Centre-periphery model
❖ Research, development and diffusion
(RD&D) model
❖ Problem-solving model
❖ Linkage model
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 Social Interaction Model

❖ Spread of an innovation between two communication

networks via various channels of communication
(e.g. e-mail, informal networking, conferencing, etc.)
A D E H

B C F G

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 Centre-periphery Model

❖ The use of prestige / power / authority

to influence the adoption of an
innovation
❖ In association with power-coercive
strategy (the use of rewards or
sanctions to force change to occur)

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Research, development and diffusion (RD&D)
model
❖ Based on the assumption that developing
good innovations depends on research
efforts
❖ Rational, systematic and theory-based
❖ In association with both power-coercive and
rational-empirical strategies
❖ Change agent as an expert
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 Problem-solving Model

❖ Innovation process from ‘problem-

owner’ rather than a change agent

outside the system

❖ bringing about change through

collaborative problem-solving and reflection

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 Linkage Model

❖ The synthesis of the models discussed

in previous slides
❖ ‘Contingent’ view of innovation → a
change agent’s decision to use a model
depends on the problem to be solved

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Why?: Reasons for Adoption

3 Good Reasons
❖To improve teaching and learning
❖To enhance educational opportunity /
equity
❖To keep up to date with the latest
developments
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 Why?: Reasons for Adoption

2 Not So Good Reasons

❖ Tocreate an illusion that something is
being done

❖ Toplease or placate relevant

stakeholders

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Criteria for Evaluating Innovations
❖ Relative advantage: The degree to which the
adoption is advantageous to potential users

❖ Compatibility: The degree to which an

innovation is perceived as being consistent with
the existing values, past experiences and needs
of potential adopters …

Rogers (2003)
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 Criteria for Evaluating Innovations
❖ Complexity: The degree to which an innovation
is perceived as difficult to understand and use …

❖ Trialability: The degree to which an innovation

may be experimented with on a limited basis …

❖ Observability: The degree to which the results of

an innovation are visible to others

Rogers (2003)
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Examples of curriculum innovations (1)
Case1
Your school has just bought 100 new I-pads to facilitate student learning. The English panel is discussing what
English teachers can do to infuse the use of I-pads into the English curriculum to enhance learning
effectiveness.

Case2
The TSA report reflected that students in your school are rather weak compared with the general population
in English speaking, elaboration of ideas in particular. Your principal has decided to hire English speaking
tutors to hold Saturday classes for some weaker learners.

Case 3
Parents in your school reflected that students have not been given much room to read and there is a need to
cultivate interest in reading. The English panel is introducing the DEAR (ie. Drop Everything and Read)
programme to motivate students to read English materials in your school.

Case 4
The PTA of your school has just sponsored the English panel to subscribe an online English learning
programme. Every student will be given an account and there is plenty of exercise for students to do on this
platform. The English panel is discussing how this platform can be best utilized.
Examples of curriculum innovations (2)
Case 5
In this academic year, your school has started to introduce LAC (ie. English Language across the
Curriculum). Different projects will be initiated to invite the English teachers to work with
teachers from other subject areas to facilitate collaboration. The English panel is discussing how
to go about this.

Case 6
Your school has just received a lumpsum from a local non-profitmaking charity group (eg. Jockey
Club). The money has to be used to help children of lower socio-economic status to improve
English learning. The principal now invites the English team to discuss how the money can best
be spent.

Case7
A sister school from the neighbourhood has established a network and would like to invite your
school to join an upcoming event they will host – An English fun day. Teachers in your school are
discussing how collaboration can be done.
Discussion task

 The previous slide shows seven cases of curricular

innovation. Work with your group members and
analyze your case. You may follow the framework
introduced in Slide12.
References

 Markee, N. (1997). Managing Curricular Innovation. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. (Chapter 3 Issues and definitions)
 Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. (Chapter 1: The origins of language curriculum
development)
 Waters, A. (2009). Managing innovation in English language education. Language
Teaching, 42(4), 421-458.