Plant structure 17.1.2023.

Flowering plants have a basic structure:

Leaves, stems and roots are organs consisting of different types of tissues Plant leaves are the
main organ for photosynthesis.

Functions of leaves
The function of a leaf is photosynthesis. Leaves are the source of all of food on Earth.

Leaves are adapted in several ways to help

them perform their function.
Features of leaves
Adaption Purpose
Large surface area To absorb more light
Thin Short distance for carbon dioxide to diffuse into leaf cells
Chlorophyll Absorbs sunlight to transfer energy into chemicals
Network of veins To support the leaf and transport water and sugars
Stomata Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf and oxygen to diffuse out

Inside the leaf

The internal structure of the leaf is also adapted to promote efficient photosynthesis:
Structure of leaves
Adaption Purpose
Epidermis is thin and
To allow more light to reach the palisade cells
transparent
To protect the leaf from infection and prevent water loss
Thin cuticle made of wax
without blocking out light
Palisade cell layer at top of leaf To absorb more light and increase the rate of photosynthesis
Spongy layer Air spaces allow carbon dioxide to diffuse through the leaf
Palisade cells contain many
To absorb all the available light
chloroplasts

questions

1 Which of these is the correctly balanced equation for photosynthesis?

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

CO2 + H2O → CH2O + O2

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

2 What is the name of the storage carbohydrate found in plants?

Glycogen

Cellulose

Starch

3 What is a limiting factor?

A factor which, if in short supply limits or reduces the rate of photosynthesis

An enzyme which increases the rate of the reaction

An inhibitor of an enzyme which decreases the rate of the reaction

4 Which organisms can photosynthesise?

Plants and algae

Plants and animals

Fungi and plants

5 Photosynthesis is what kind of reaction?

Exothermic

Endothermic

Phototropic

6 Which of these is a limiting factor of photosynthesis?

Oxygen

Carbon dioxide
Methane

7 Which of these supplies carbon dioxide to pondweed in photosynthesis experiments?

Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Sodium carbonate

Sodium hydroxide
Specialised plant cells

Key points

 Cells are the fundamental unit of all living things.

 Specialised plant cells have components that allow them to complete a
specific purpose.
 Specialised plant cells include root hair cells, palisade cells, xylem cells and
phloem cells.

Root hair cells

Roots hold plants in place as they grow and also absorb water and minerals from
the soil. Roots divide into smaller and smaller branches as they travel into the soil.
The outside surface of roots are covered with root hair cells, which have tiny 'hairs'
which poke into the soil. This massively increases the surface area for the root hair
cell to absorb more water and minerals.

Tiny hairs on the roots of water cress

Palisade cells

When the Sun shines,

in plant cells makes sugar for growth, reproduction and other life processes.
Photosynthesis occurs in a special chemical called , which is found in parts of plant
cells called

. Palisade cells are the major site of photosynthesis. They are well adapted for this
function because:

 they are towards the tops of leaves for maximum light

 they have lots of chloroplasts

These plant cells are packed with green chloroplasts

Xylem and phloem cells

 Xylem cells transport water from the roots to other parts of the plant.
 Phloem cells transport sugary water from the leaves to the rest of the plant.

Xylem

Xylem cells run inside stems of plants from their roots to their leaves. Xylem cells
die and their ends break down. This allows them to form long tubes to carry water
upwards for photosynthesis. They have thick cell walls to provide support to the
plant. This holds the leaves up for photosynthesis and the flowers up for
reproduction.

The xylem cells in this stick of celery are carrying the red inky water up to the
leaves
Phloem

Phloem cells are often found near to xylem cells in the stem. Unlike xylem cells,
phloem cells are alive. They carry sugary water from the leaves to the rest of the
plant. Next to the phloem cells are companion cells which have many
mitochondria. Here respiration occurs to release energy from glucose to transport
sugar and other substances in the phloem.

Test questions.

1. Describe the adaptations of root hair and palisade cells.

 Root hair cells have tiny 'hairs' which poke into the soil. These massively
increase the surface area to absorb more water and minerals.
 Palisade cells are the major site of photosynthesis. They have many
chloroplasts in which photosynthesis occurs.
 They are found towards the tops of leaves to absorb maximum light.

2. Describe the purpose and adaptations of xylem and phloem cells.

 Xylem cells carry water from roots to leaves.

 Xylem cells are dead with broken down ends to form tubes.
 Xylem cells have strong walls to hold the stem upright.
 Phloem cells carry sugary water from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
 Phloem cells are alive.
 Phloem cells have companion cells with lots of mitochondria to provide
energy.

3. What are the three main components of plant cells?

4. What are the three components of plant cells that are not found in animal
cells?
Specialised animal cells
Key points

 Specialised animal cells have components that allow them to complete a specific purpose.
 Specialised animal cells include red blood cells, sperm, eggs, nerve cells, muscle cells,
ciliated cells, and villi.
 Most cells share features such as having a nucleus, a cell membrane, cytoplasm and
mitochondria.
 Each type of cell has its own job to do. These cells have special features that allow them
to perform their functions effectively.

Red blood cells

Red blood cells carry oxygen around the body, which is needed for respiration.

They are well suited to this function because:

 They contain haemoglobin, which carries oxygen molecules.

 They don't have a nucleus, allowing more space to carry oxygen.

 They are a flat disc shape with dips on both sides (biconcave). This gives them a large
surface area, and the best chance of absorbing as much oxygen as they can in the lungs.

Sperm cells

Sperm are the male sex cell. They are made in the testes after puberty. They join with an egg cell
during fertilisation to form an embryo which can then develop into a new life. The following
features make them well suited to this function:

 A tail moves them towards an egg cell.

 Many mitochondria release energy for movement.
 Part of the tip of the head of the sperm, called the acrosome, releases enzymes to digest
the egg membrane to allow fertilisation to take place.
 The haploid nucleus contains the genetic material for fertilisation.
 Sperm are produced in large numbers to increase the chance of fertilisation.

Egg cell

Eggs are the female sex cell. They are made in the ovaries before birth. Usually, one egg is
released each month during the menstrual cycle, but sometimes this number may be higher. They
join with a sperm cell during fertilisation to form an embryo which can then develop into a new
life. They are well suited to this function because:

 The egg cell’s cytoplasm contains nutrients for the growth of the early embryo.
  The haploid nucleus contains genetic material for fertilisation.
 The cell membrane changes after fertilisation by a single sperm so that no more sperm
can enter.

Nerve cells

Nerve cells transmit electrical signals in the nervous system. They are well suited to their
function because:

 They are thin, and can be more than one metre long in your spinal cord. This means they
can carry messages up and down the body over large distances very quickly.
 Nerve cells have branched connections at each end. These join to other nerve cells,
allowing them to pass messages around the body.
 They have a fatty (myelin) sheath that surrounds them. The fatty sheath increases the
speed at which the message can travel.

Muscle cells

Muscles cells are found in bundles which make up our muscles. These cells are able to contract
(get shorter) and relax (return to original length). There are different types of muscle cell, each
perfectly adapted to its function:

 Cardiac (heart) muscle cells contract and relax to pump blood around our bodies for our
entire lives. They never get tired.
 Smooth muscle cells make up thin sheets of muscle, such as the stomach lining. They can
also be arranged in bundles, or rings, like that in the anus.
 Skeletal muscle is joined to bones. Its cells contract to make bones move and joints bend.

Find out how a sports therapist uses his knowledge of specialised cells to help his clients

It's really important to know about different types of muscle cells because this allows us to
understand how to best use them. I'm Ruben Tabares, strength and conditioning coach,
nutritionist and sports therapist. My job is to make people stronger, faster - to make them
healthier.

Specialised cells are cells designed to carry out a particular role in the body, such as red blood
cells which are designed to carry oxygen. Nerve cells help contraction of muscles or the
relaxation of muscles according to what specific job you need them to do. The type of muscle
that helps with digestion is called smooth muscle. Cardiac muscle pumps blood around the body.
Skeletal muscle is made out of specialised skeletal muscle cells.
It's not all about having big muscles. I personally like everyone I work with to have muscle fit
for purpose. There's absolutely no difference between an elite level sports person, such as Usain
Bolt, as opposed to a person who's never really trained before. If they're both running, they're
using these same muscles. The only difference is, someone like Usain Bolt, they've trained their
muscles over a longer period of time and when they push, they have more power in their
muscles.

It's really important to keep our muscles healthy because we want to be able to do the same
things when we're young as when we're old. By having strong muscles, you ensure that as you
get older you can still run, you can still walk up and down the stairs. You can do all of the things
that you did when you were younger.

The best thing about my job is watching people achieve their goals. I do that with many different
athletes across many different sports, and that is for sure the best thing about my job.

Ciliated cells

Ciliated cells are found in the airways. They have tiny hairs on their tops called

which beat in a rhythm. These hairs move mucus containing dust and other particles upwards and
out of the airways. Ciliated cells are also found in the . Here the tiny hairs beat to move the egg
from the ovaries to the

.
Villi

Villi are structures about one millimetre long in the small and large intestines. Millions of them
poke out to absorb digested food and water into the blood. They are well suited to this function
because:

 They have a large surface area.

 They have thin walls which are only one cell thick.
 The cells of the lining have tiny hairs to absorb more food and water.

Test questions

1. What are the adaptations of red blood cells?

 Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, which carries oxygen molecules.

 They don't have a nucleus, allowing more space to carry oxygen.
 They are a flat disc shape with dips on both sides (biconcave) which gives them a large
surface area.

2. What are the adaptations of nerve cells?

 Nerve cells are thin and long so they can carry messages all over the body very quickly.
 They have branched connections at each end to allow electrical signals to pass to other
cells.
 They have a fatty (myelin) sheath that surrounds them and increases the speed at which
the electrical signal can travel.

3. What are the three main components of animal cells?

A nucleus, cell membrane and cytoplasm

4. How many animal cells could fit across the width of a full stop?

100