Article Novo

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/358595406
A NEW APPROACH FOR SOLVING THE GENERAL FIFTH DEGREE EQUATION
Preprint · February 2022

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.30824.14086
CITATIONS READS
0 346
1 author:
Abdeljalil Saghe
Centre Bts Essaouira, Maroc
5 PUBLICATIONS 7 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
nonstandard analysis View project
algebraic equations View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Abdeljalil Saghe on 14 February 2022.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

A NEW APPROACH FOR SOLVING THE GENERAL
FIFTH DEGREE EQUATION
SAGHE ABDELJALIL
Abstract. In this article, we propose a new way to solving the general

quintic equation. This method is very simple and we can determine the
set of roots without using the elliptic functions like that of Hermite.
Moreover, the new approach give us more technics for the solvability
of algebraic equations in general. To illustrate the importance of this
work, we suggest comparing this approach with the former methods by
studing the general properties of theta functions.
Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. Motivation 3
3. Galois theory 3
4. Commutator subgroup 5
5. Solvable group 6
6. Properties of Soluble Groups 6
7. Solvability of the equations by radicals 6
8. Impossibility of solving the quintic 9
8.1. Solvability of the symmetric groups 9
8.2. Insoluble quintics 11
9. Resultant 11
10. Tschirnhaus transformation 12
11. Determining the solvable quintics 14
11.1. The transitive solvable subgroups of Sp 14
11.2. The solvable quintic equation 16
12. solving solvable quintics 17
13. Characterization of Solvable Quintics 19
14. The properties of the theta functions 23
14.1. Definitions of Theta functions 23
14.2. Zeros of theta functions 24
14.3. The relation Θ43 = Θ42 + Θ40 26
14.4. Representation of theta functions by infinite products 27
14.5. The relation Θ01 (0) = πΘ0 (0)Θ2 (0)Θ3 (0) 30
14.6. Dedekind’s η−function and the functions f, f1 , f2 31
15. Theta functions and solutions of Quintic equations 32
Date: February 14, 2022.
1
2 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
15.1. Transformations of theta functions induced by transformations

of τ 32
15.2. Transformations of Dedekind’s η−function 33
15.3. The general scheme of solution of quintic equations 35
16. Functions invariant with respect to the changes of parameter
τ 7→ τ + 2, τ 7→ − τ1 and τ 7→ ττ −1
+1 40
17. Deduction of the modular equation 41
18. solving quintic equations 43
19. A new approach to solving the quintic equation 45
19.1. Principle of the method 46
19.2. Solving the equation x5 = x + α for all α ∈ D(0, β) 46
19.3. Solving the equation x5 = x + α for all α ∈ C 49
Conclusion 50
References 50
1. Introduction
The study of the algebraic equations has a great importance in all areas
of mathematical analysis and physics. It is known that the mathematicians
Babylonians (2000-600 B.C.), developed a sophisticated mathematical sys-
tem by which they could determine the set of the positive roots of the qua-
dratic equation[7, 9]. The Babylonians also studied some special equations
of the third degree.
Compared to the Babylonians, the Greeks (600 B.C.-300 A.D.) had a more
geometric viewpoint of mathematics. Thus, they proposed a new geometric
ideas and approaches for the solvability of the quadratic equation.
The arabs (500 B.C.-1000 A.D.) developed a set of formulas that worked
for positive solutions of the equation of second degree. Thanks to the works
of al-Khwarizmi we could able to solve quadratic equations by the method
we call today, completing the square. The mathematician arab Omar al
Khayam classified third degree equations and examined their roots in some
special cases. He also investigated equations of fourth degree.
Soon after the arabs, Europe began to participate in this course of the
solvability of the algebraic equations of higher degree. The mathematician
Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576) published the method of Niccolo Tartaglia
(1500-1557) in his book Ars Magna. His student Lodovico Ferrari (1522-
1565) succeed to solve the quartic equation by reducing it to a cubic. Car-
dano also published this new approach of Ferrari in Ars Magna.
Tschirnhaus transformations invented by the German mathematician Ehren-
fried von Tschirnhaus (1651-1708), are used to simplify any algebraic equa-
tion by transforming it into another which contains some coefficients that
are zero. Using the Tschirnhaus transformation, the Swedish algebraist Er-
land Bring (1736-1798) showed that any quintic equation can be rewritten
A NEW APPROACH FOR SOLVING THE GENERAL FIFTH DEGREE EQUATION 3
as the form:
x5 + c1 x + c0 = 0.
The English mathematician George Jerrard (1804-1863) generalized this re-
sult. He showed that one can always transform a general nth degree equation
and obtain a new equation as:
xn + cn−4 xn−4 + cn−5 xn−5 + · · · + c1 x + c0 = 0.
After solving the cubic and quartic by the Italians, several mathematicians
tried to solve the general quintic equation. Despite the attempts of many
talents, no one succeeded in finding a formula of the solution.
The Italian Paolo Ruffini was the first mathematician predicted the un-
solvability of the quintic by radicals. In 1977, Ruffini published a proof of
this result for the equations of degree five or higher. Unfortunately, the proof
was not complete, and Ruffini tried during the rest of his life to improve the
proof.
In 1825, Niels Henrik Abel (1802-1829) presented a proof of the unsolv-
ability of the general fifth degree equation. After one year, he corrected and
published his proof in the mathematical journal Crelle’s Journal. Despite all
the efforts made, Abel’s and Ruffini’s proofs did not present an equation not
solvable by radicals. The answer to this question was unknown until Evariste
Galois (1811-1832) answered it. Unfortunately, this young Frenchman was
killed in a duel in 1832.
In 1991, D.S. Dummit[3] proposes to give a criterion of the solubility of
the general quintic in terms of the existence of a rational root of an explicit
associated resolvent sextic polynomial. From this result, B.K. Spearman
and K.S. Williams[4] succeeded in determining the characterization of the
solvable quintics x5+ax+b. In 1994, they published their article concerned
this subject in The American Mathematical Monthly.
In 2017, I published the paper[6] ”Solving a quartic equation and certain
equations with degree n” in European Journal of Mathematical Sciences. In
this article, I propose a new method to solving the general fourth degree
equation. The new approach is different from that of Ferrari. Moreover,
we can also solve other algebraic equations of higher degree by using the
technics proposed from the new approach. For example, I prove in this
article that the beautiful equation:
x5 + tan(θ)x3 = cos(θ)x2 + sin(θ)

p
admits 3 cos(θ) as solution.
Almost all algebretians knows that Galois proved that it is impossible to
solve the quintic equation using only radicals[5]. Factually, it is possible to
solve the fifth degree equation and such equations in another way, namely
using techniques from the theory of elliptic functions. The first mathemati-
cian to use elliptic functions in the theory of the quintic were Charles Her-
mite (1822-1901), Leopold Kronecker (1823-1891), Francesco Brioschi (1824-
1897), and Paul Gordan (1837-1912). Hermite, Kronecker, and Brioschi used
4 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
the same techniques and had similar ideas. Hermite was the first to publish
these ideas.
2. Motivation
Finding the roots of the algebraic equations is very important for the
development of the modern analysis and physics. One can find many appli-
cations of this theory in all areas of science. In this context, I propose the
following examples:
• In physics: The simple pendulum.
• In thermodynamics: The Van der Waals equation.
• In astronomy: The Lagrangian points.
To solve the quintic equation by the method of Hermite, it is necessary
to understand the theory of the elliptic functions[1, 2]. In the other hand,
this field of mathematics is board, extensive and is not accessible for the
majority of young mathematical researchers. Our objective in this article
is to present a new way to solve the general quintic equation without us-
ing elliptic functions. This method is very simple, and we can solve other
equations of higher degree, using existing techniques in the new approach.
3. Galois theory
In this section we propose the following definitions:
Definitions 3.1. (i) A nonzero polynomial f (X) ∈ k[X] is called sep-
arable when it has distinct roots in a splitting field over k.
(ii) If α is algebraic over k, it is called separable over k when its minimal
polynomial in k[X] is separable.
(iii) An algebraic extension E/k is said to be separable if the minimal
polynomial of every element of E is separable.
(iv) An algebraic extension E/k is normal if the minimal polynomial of
every element of E splits in E[X].
(v) Let k be a field and E is an extension of the field k. A k-automorphism
of E is a field automorphism σ : E → E which fixes the elements of
k. Let Aut(E/k) denote the set of all k-automorphisms of E, that
is,
Aut(E/k) = σ ∈ Aut(E) : σ/k = idk .
Then Aut(E/k) is clearly a group, called the automorphism group
of E/k or the Galois group of E/k. We note Aut(E/k) = Gal(E/k).
(vi) Let G be the group of automorphisms of the field E.
The fixed field of G is defined by:
Inv(G) = {x ∈ E : σ(x) = x ∀σ ∈ G} .
Theorem 3.2. (Dedekind’s Lemma ) If σ1 , σ2 , · · · , σn , are different auto-
morphisms of a field L and the equality a1 σ1 (x)+a2 σ2 (x)+· · ·+an σn (x) = 0,
where ai ∈ L, holds for every x ∈ L. Then a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0.
Proof. We can prove this lemma by induction. In fact, if n = 1, the above

result is cleary true. Now, suppose that the lemma is true for some number
n, and we have:
(3.3) a1 σ1 (x) + a2 σ2 (x) + · · · + an+1 σn+1 (x) = 0,
for every x ∈ L. Then, for every (x, y) ∈ L2 , we have:
a1 σ1 (xy) + a2 σ2 (xy) + · · · + an+1 σn+1 (xy) = 0,
and; we obtain:
(3.4) a1 σ1 (x)σ1 (y) + a2 σ2 (x)σ2 (y) + · · · + an+1 σn+1 (x)σn+1 (y) = 0.
We multiply the equality (3.3) by σn+1 (y), we use the above equality and
we obtain:
Xn
(3.5) ai σi (x)(σi (y) − σn+1 (y)).
i=1
According to the recurrence hypothesis, we deduce that ai (σi (y)−σn+1 (y)) =
0 for every 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Since σi 6= σn+1 for every 1 ≤ i ≤, then we can choose
y such that σi (y) 6= σn+1 (y) and we deduce that a1 = a2 = · · · = an = 0.
Finally, we use the equality (3.3) to conclude that:
a1 = a2 = · · · = an = an+1 = 0.

Theorem 3.6. (The order of Galois group ) Let E/k be a finite extension.
Then
|Gal(E/k)| ≤ [E : k].
Proof. Conversely, assume that n = [E : k] satisfies |Gal(E/k)| > n.
Then there exists n+1 different automorphisms of Gal(E/k) noted σ1 , σ2 , · · · , σn+1 .
Let (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) be the basis of the vector k-space E and M the ma-
trix defined as M = (σj (xi )) ∈ Mn,n+1 (E). Since dimE E n = n, then the
columns (C1 , C2 , · · · , Cn+1 ) of the matrix M are linearly dependent over E.
For that, there exists a real numbers (λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn+1 ) ∈ E n+1 \ {0} such
that:
(3.7) λ1 C1 + λ2 C2 + · · · + λn+1 Cn+1 = 0
which implies that:
(3.8) λ1 σ1 (xi ) + λ2 σ2 (xi ) + · · · + λn+1 σn+1 (xi ) = 0, ∀1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Finally, we obtain:
(3.9) λ1 σ1 + λ2 σ2 + · · · + λn+1 σn+1 = 0.
From the Dedekind’s Lemma, we deduce that:
λ1 = λ2 = · · · = λn+1 = 0,
which is absurd.
6 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
Definitions 3.10. An extension E/F is said to be Galois extension if it is

finite and if F is the fixed field of some group of automorphisms of E.
Theorem 3.11. An extension E/F is Galois iff |Gal(E/F )| = [E : F ].
Theorem 3.12. A finite extension E/F is Galois iff it is the splitting field
of a separable polynomial p(x) over F .
Proposition 3.13. A finite extension E/F is Galois iff it is normal and
separable.
Proposition 3.14. Let k be a field of characteristic zero, and a ∈ k ∗ . Let
α be a root of the polynomial p(x) = xn − a in Dk (p), where Dk (p) is the
splitting field of p over k and n ∈ N∗ . The group Gal(k(α)/k) is cyclic of
order d which is a divisor of n.
Theorem 3.15. Let L be a separable normal extension of a field k, with
finite degree n and M is a subfield of L containing k. The subfield M is
a normal extension of k if and only if Gal(L/M ) is a normal subgroup of
Gal(L/k). In this case, we have:
Gal(M/k) =∼ Gal(L/k)/Gal(L/M ).
4. Commutator subgroup
Definition 4.1. Let G be a group. Consider the following definitions:
• An element a ∈ G is a commutator if there exist b, c ∈ G, such that
a = [b, c] = bcb−1 c−1 .
• Let D(G) = [G, G] denote the normal subgroup of G which is gener-
ated by commutators. D(G) is called the commutator subgroup of
G.
• The derived series of a group G is the series of subgroups
D(0) (G) ⊇ D(1) (G) ⊇ D(2) (G) ⊇ · · ·
defined by:
D(0) (G) = G,
D(m+1) (G) = [D(m) (G), D(m) (G)].
5. Solvable group
Definition 5.1. A finite group G is called soluble (solvable or soluable) if,
for some m ≥ 0, it has a finite series
{e} = G0 ⊆ G1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Gm = G
of subgroups such that, for i = 0, 1, . . . , m − 1,
• Gi C Gi+1 ,
• Gi+1 /Gi is Abelian.
We usually write
{e} = G0 C G1 C · · · C Gm = G.
Proposition 5.2. The following are equivalent for a group G:

(1) G is solvable.
(2) There exists a natural number n such that D(n) (G) = {e}.
(3) There exists a chain of subgroups {e} = G0 ⊆ G1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Gm = G
such that for i = 0, 1, . . . , m − 1, Gi is normal in Gi+1 , and Gi+1 /Gi
is cyclic.
(4) There exists a chain of subgroups {e} = G0 ⊆ G1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Gm = G
such that for i = 0, 1, . . . , m − 1, Gi is normal in Gi+1 , and Gi+1 /Gi
is cyclic of prime order.
6. Properties of Soluble Groups

Proposition 6.1. Let G be a group.
(1) If G is soluble, then every subgroup of G is soluble.
(2) If G is soluble and N is a normal subgroup of G, then G/N is soluble.
(3) Let N C G. Then G is soluble if and only if both N and G/N are
soluble.
7. Solvability of the equations by radicals

Definition 7.1. Let F be a field of characteristic zero.
• Let K/F be a finite extension. We will say that K/F is a radical
extension if there is a chain of subfields F = K0 ⊆ K1 ⊆ . . . ⊆ Kn =
√
K where for 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, we have Ki+1 = Ki ( ni ai ) for some
ai ∈ Ki and ni ∈ N.
• Let f (x) ∈ F [x]. We say that the equation f (x) = 0 is solvable by
radicals if the splitting field of f (x) over F is contained in a radical
extension of F .
Example 7.2. (1) Let p be the polynomial of Q[x] defined as: p(x) =
2
x + bx + c. The polynomial p is solvable by radicals. In fact, we
have: Q ⊆ Q(δ) = DQ (p), where DQ (p) is the splitting field of p over
Q and δ is a complex number that verify δ 2 = b2 − 4c.
p4
√ p
5
√
(2) Consider x = 1 + 7 − 2 + 5. Let α, β, γ and δ be four
positive real numbers such that: α2 = 7 ∈ Q, β 4 = 1 + α ∈ Q(α),
γ 2 = 5 ∈ Q(α, β) and δ 5 = 2 + γ ∈ Q(α, β, δ). Then, we have
x ∈ Q(α, β, γ, δ) and:
Q ⊆ Q(α) ⊆ Q(α, β) ⊆ Q(α, β, δ) ⊆ Q(α, β, γ, δ).
Q(α, β, γ, δ) is a radical extension of Q.
(3) If p(x) = x3 + px + q then the set of the roots is given by:
 v v 
 2kπi u r ! u r !
u1 ∆ 3 1 ∆
−2kπi u 
3
{x1 , x2 , x3 } = e 3 t −q + +e 3 t −q − | k = 0, 2 ,
 2 27 2 27 
8 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
where ∆ = 4p3 + 27q 2 . The polynomial p is solvable by radicals, in

fact, we have:
 v v
r u r ! u r !
πi ∆ t u 1 ∆ t u 1 ∆ 
DQ (p) ⊆ Q e 3 , , 3 −q + , 3 −q − .
27 2 27 2 27
Theorem 7.3. Let k be a field containing n distinct nth roots of unity

1, ε, ε2 , . . . , εn−1 ; suppose that k ⊂ K is a Galois field extension with cyclic
Galois group Gal(K/k) ∼ = Z/nZ. Write σ for a generator of Gal(K/k).
Then there exists y ∈ K such that σ(y n ) = y n , so that y n = a √∈ k and
K = k(y). That is, the extension k ⊂ K is obtained by adjoining n a to k.
Proposition 7.4. Let K be a field of characteristic 0, and a ∈ K ∗ . The
Galois group of f (X) = X n − a is solvable.
Proposition 7.5. Let k be a field of characteristic zero, and let K/k be
a Galois extension. Write L for the splitting field of xn − 1 over K, and
F ⊂ L for the splitting field over k, where n is a given integer.
Then
(1) L/k is Galois.
(2) The following assertions are equivalent:
(a) Gal(L/k) is soluble;
(b) Gal(K/k) is soluble;
(c) Gal(L/F ) is soluble.
Proof. (1) Since the characteristic of the field L is 0, then it is a separable
extension of k. Let ξ be a primitive nth root of unity, and L e be the
normal closure of L. For any k-homomorphism σ : L → L, e we have
n
(σ(ξ)) = 1. Then σ(ξ) is a primitive nth root of unity, and we
decuce that σ(ξ) ∈ F and σ(F ) ⊂ F . In addition, we know that the
field K is a normal extension of k, then σ(K) ⊂ K. Since L = K(F )
we obtain σ(L) ⊂ L. Finally, we conclude that the field L is a normal
and Galois extension of k.
(2) (a) Suppose that the group Gal(L/k) is soluble, we can prove that
Gal(K/k) is soluble. In fact, we have L = K(ξ) then L/K is
Galois. From the Theorem 3.15 Gal(L/K) is a normal subgroup
of Gal(L/k), and we have Gal(K/k) ∼ = Gal(L/k)/Gal(L/K).
The group Gal(L/K) is soluble as a subgroup of the soluble
group Gal(L/k). Finally, we conclude that Gal(K/k) is soluble
from the Proposition 6.1.
(b) Let ϕ be the homomorphism defined as:
ϕ : Gal(L/F ) 7→ Gal(K/k)
σ → σ/K .
We can verify easily that this homomorphism is injective, then
the group Gal(L/F ) is isomorphic to a subgroup of Gal(K/k)
which is soluble. From the Proposition 6.1, we deduce that the

group Gal(L/F ) is also soluble.
(c) Suppose that Gal(L/F ) is soluble. In the same way as be-
for, we prove that Gal(F/k) ∼= Gal(L/k)/Gal(L/F ). From the
Proposition 7.4 Gal(F/k) is soluble. Then, we conclude that
Gal(L/k) is soluble by using the Proposition 6.1.

Theorem 7.6. Let k be a field of characteristic zero, and let E/k be a
finite Galois extension of k. If E is radical extension of k then Gal(E/k) is
soluble.
Proof. The field E is a radical extension of k, then there exists a chain of
subfields k = k0 ⊆ k1 ⊆ . . . ⊆ kn = E where for 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1 we have
ki+1 = ki (ai ) for some ani i ∈ ki and ni ∈ N. Let p be the integer defined as
p = n1 n2 . . . n, and ξ be the pth root of unity. Let F be the field defined by
F = k(ξ). From the Proposition 7.5 it is sufficient to prove that the group
Gal(EF/F ) is soluble. For every 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, we put Fi = ki (ξ). We have
F = F0 ⊆ F1 ⊆ . . . ⊆ Fn = EF , and Fi+1 = Fi (ai ). We can verify easily
that the field Fi+1 is a finite Galois extension of Fi . From the Proposition
3.14 the group Gal(Fi+1 /Fi ) is cyclic. In the other hand, the field Fn = EF
is a Galois extension over F , then Fn /Fi is Galois for every 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1.
We denote by Gi = Gal(Fn /Fi ), by using the Theorem 3.15 we deduce that
Gn = {id} C · · · C G1 C G0 = Gal(EF/F ).
In addition, Gi+1 /Gi is isomorphic to the cyclic group Gal(Fi+1 /Fi ). Then,
we deduce that the group Gal(EF/F ) is soluble.
Theorem 7.7. A polynomial P with coefficients in a field k of characteristic
zero is soluble by radicals if and only if its Galois group is soluble.
Proof. Let D be the splitting field of P . Then, D is a Galois extension of k.
• Suppose that P is soluble by radicals. Then, there exists a radical
extension of k noted R such that D ⊆ R. Consider L the colsure
normale of R. L is a finite Galois extension of k. Since D is a
normal extension of k, then the group Gal(D/k) is isomorphic to
the quotient group Gal(L/k)/Gal(L/D). From the Theorem 7.6,
we deduce that Gal(L/k) is solvable. Then, the group Gal(D/k) is
solvable.
• Conversely, assume that the group Gal(D/k) is solvable. Let n =
[D : k] and let ξ be a primitive nth root of unity. We denote by
F = k(ξ). From the Proposition 7.5, DF is a finite Galois extension
of F and Gal(DF/F ) is solvable. Set m = [DF : F ] = |Gal(DF/F )|.
Since Gal(DF/F ) is isomorphic to a subgroup of Gal(D/k) (from
the proof of the Proposition 7.5). Then, the integer m is a divisor
of n. So, for every prime number p that divides m, F contains all
pth roots of unity. In the other hand, the group Gal(DF/F ) is
10 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
soluble. Then, there exist a finite series of subgroups (Gi ) such that
for i = 0, 1, . . . , r − 1, we have:
(i) {e} = Gr ⊆ Gr−1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ G0 = Gal(DF/F );
(ii) Gi+1 C Gi ;
(iii) Gi /Gi+1 is cyclic of order pi , where pi is a prime divisor of m.
For every i, we set
Fi = Inv(Gi ) = {x ∈ DF, σ(x) = x ∀σ ∈ Gi }.
Then, we have:
F = F0 ⊆ F1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ Fr = DF.
For every i ∈ {0, 1, . . . , r − 1}, Fi+1 is a Galois finite extension of
Fi . In addition, we have Gal(Fi+1 /Fi ) ∼ = Gi /Gi+1 . Then, the group
Gal(Fi+1 /Fi ) is cyclic of order pi . From the Theorem 7.3 we deduce
that Fi+1 = Fi (αi ), where αipi ∈ Fi . Then, the field DF is a radical
extension of F , and we deduce that DF/k is radical. Since D ⊆ DF ,
so, the polynomial P is solvable by radicals.

8. Impossibility of solving the quintic

8.1. Solvability of the symmetric groups.
Proposition 8.1. (1) The symmetric group Sn is generated by the two
cycles (1 2) and (1 2 . . . n).
(2) Let p be a primer number. If H is a subgroup of Sp that contains a
transposition and a p-cycle, then H = Sp .
Proof. (1) Let σ = (1 2 3 . . . n) and τ = (1 2) and G be the subgroup
of Sn generated by the two cycles (1 2) and (1 2 . . . n). For every
integer 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 2, we have (i + 1 i + 2) = σ i (1 2)σ −i ∈ G. Since
(k k + 1)(1 k)(k k + 1) = (1 k + 1) for every 2 ≤ k ≤ n − 1. Then, we
deduce by induction that (1 r) ∈ G for all 2 ≤ r ≤ n. In addition, we
have (i j) = (1 i)(1 j)(1 i). Finally, we conclude that the subgroup
G of Sn contains all transpositions (i j) and we obtain G = Sn .
(2) Let τ = (a b) be a transposition of H and σ ∈ H be a p-cycle. We
can find θ ∈ Sp such that θ(1) = a and θ(2) = b. Then, we have
θ−1 τ θ = (1 2) and θ−1 σθ is a p-cycle of Sp . We replace H by θ−1 Hθ,
and, we deduce that we can suppose that this subgroup contains the
transposition τ0 = (1 2). We denote by σ = (1 x2 . . . xp ), there
exists j such that xj = 2. If we change σ by σ j−1 . Then, we can
justify rewriting σ as σ = (1 2 x3 . . . xp ). Let v be a permutation
of Sp such that v(1) = 1, v(2) = 2 and v(i) = xi for all 3 ≤ i ≤ p.
Using the change H 0 = v −1 Hv, we deduce that τ0 = (1 2) ∈ H 0
and v −1 σv = (1 2 . . . p) is a p-cycle of H 0 . From the above result we
deduce that H 0 = H = Sp .

Lemma 8.2. For n ≥ 5, Sn is not solvable.

Proof. Let N be a normal subgroup of Sn with N 6= {id}. In the first
step, we can prove that N = An or N = Sn . For that, we notice that
N ∩ An is a normal subgroup of An . Because An is simple, N ∩ An ∈
{{id}, {An }}. Suppose for a contradiction that N ∩ An = {id}. Then all
nontrivial permutations in N are odd. Let σ ∈ N \{id}. Then σ 2 ∈ N must
be even. Any odd permutation is a composition of disjoint cycles. So the
square of each cycle in the representation of σ must be the identity. Then,
we deduce that the nontrivial elements of N are product of an odd number
of disjoint transpositions. In addition, we can prove that the odd number is
greater than 1. In fact, if we have τ = (a b) ∈ N . Using the normality of
N , we find τ0 = (1 2) ∈ N , and we deduce that (1 3) = (3 2)(1 2)(2 3) ∈ N .
Then, the even permutation (123) = (13)(12) is in N, which cannot be.
Next, assume that σ = (1 2)(3 4)δ ∈ N , where δ is a product of an odd
number of disjoint transpositions that do not contain any of the numbers
1,2,3, 4. Then, because N is normal, (1 3)(2 4)δ = (2 3)(1 2)(3 4)δ(2 3) ∈ N .
Because N is a subgroup, we have
(1 4)(2 3) = (1 2)(3 4)(2 4)(1 3)
= (1 2)(3 4)δδ −1 (2 4)(1 3) ∈ N.
But (14)(23) is an even permutation, which is a contradiction to N ∩ An =
{id}. Thus, N ∩ An 6= {id} and hence N ∩ An = An . Assume An N,
then, N contains an odd permutation σ. For all transposition τ , we have
στ ∈ An ⊆ N . Then, we deduce that τ ∈ N . Now, we distinguish two cases:
• For n odd, the n-cycle c = (1 2 · · · n) is even, then c is also element
of N . Since N contains all transpositions, then we have (1 2) ∈ N
and we deduce that N = Sn by using the Propostion 8.1.
• For n even, (1 2)(1 2 · · · n) is a positive permutation, then we have
(1 2)(1 2 · · · n) ∈ N . In the other hand, (1 2) is also an element of
N . Then, we find (1 2)(1 2)(1 2 · · · n) = (1 2 · · · n) ∈ N . Finally,
we use the Propostion 8.1 and we conclude that N = Sn . Thus, if
N 6= An , then N = Sn .
Now, we have shown that any normal subgroup N of Sn is one of {id},
An and Sn . But neither Sn /{id} ∼= Sn nor An /{id} ∼ = An is commutative.
Thus neither of the only two possible chains {id} C Sn and {id} C An C Sn of
nested normal subgroups from {id} to Sn satisfies the definition of solvability.
Then, the group Sn is not solvable.
Remark 8.3. The symmetric group S4 is solvable. In fact, the following
chain
{1} C H C A4 C S4 ,
where H = {1, (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3)}, checks the definition of solv-
ability.
12 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
8.2. Insoluble quintics.

Theorem 8.4. There exists a polynomial over Q of degree 5 which is not
solvable by radicals.
Proof. Let f be the polynomial function defined as:
f (x) = x5 − 8x + 2.
Let D be the splitting field of f . From the Eisenstein criterion, the polyno-
mial f is irreducible over Q. Let α be a real root of f , we have [Q(α) : Q] = 5.
Since
|Gal(D/Q)| = [D : Q]
= [D : Q(α)][Q(α) : Q],
and 5 divides |Gal(D/Q)|. Then, G = Gal(D/Q) contains a cycle of order
5. By graphing f (x) we observe that f (x) has three real zeroes, and thus
two complex roots. Thus the automorphism τ of D defined by complex
conjugation fixes the three real roots and interchanges the two complex
roots, so τ is a transposition in S5 and an element of Gal(D/Q). From the
Proposition 8.1, we deduce that the Galois group of f (x) is S5 , which is not
solvable, so f (x) is not solvable by radicals.
9. Resultant
Definition 9.1. Let f (x) = an xn + · · · + a0 and g(x) = bm xm + · · · + b0 be
two polynomials of degrees (at most) n and m, respectively, with coefficients
in an arbitrary field F. Their resultant R(f, g) = Rn,m( f, g) is the element
of F given by the determinant of the (m + n)(m + n) Sylvester matrix
Syl(f, g) = Syln,m (f, g) given by
··· ···
 
an 0 0 bm 0 0
.. .. .. .. .. 
. .

 an an . . bm . 
 .. .. .. ..

. an−1 . 0 . . 0 
 

 .. .. ..


. . . an b1 bm 

(9.2)

 .. .. .. 

 a0 an−1 b0 . . . 
 .. .. .. .. 

 0 . . 0 . b1 . 

 .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . a0 . . . b0 b1 
0 ··· 0 a0 0 ··· 0 b0
Let ϕ the map defined as
ϕ : Pm × Pn −→ Pm+n ,
(u, v) 7−→ uf + vg,
where Pi is the vector space of dimension i whose elements are the polyno-
mials of degree strictly less than i. We can verify easily that the map ϕ is
represented by the Sylvester matrix of f and g.
The main importance of the resultant lies in the following formula.
n
Y m
Y
Theorem 9.3. Let f (x) = an (x − αi ) and g(x) = bm (x − βj ) be two
i=1 j=1
polynomials of degrees n and m, respectively, with coefficients in an arbitrary
field F . Then
Yn Y m
m n
R(f, g) = an bm (αi − βj ).
i=1 j=1
Corollary 9.4. Let f and g be two non-zero polynomials with coefficients

in a field. Then f and g have a common non-trivial factor if and only if
R(f, g) = 0. Equivalently, f and g are coprime if and only if R(f, g) 6= 0.
10. Tschirnhaus transformation

Lemma 10.1. The general quintic equation
(10.2) x5 + αx4 + βx3 + γx2 + λx + µ = 0
may be reduced to the form (The Principal Quintic)
(10.3) y 5 + ay 2 + by + c = 0.
Proof. Given the quadratic Tschirnhausen transformation y = ax2 + bx + c.
Since the polynomials p1 (x) = x5 + αx4 + βx3 + γx2 + λx + µ and p2 (x) =
ax2 + bx + c − y have a common non-trivial factor, then R(p1 , p2 ) = 0. So, to
eliminate the variable x we use this resultant and we obtain a new quintic
as the form
y 5 + c1 y 4 + c2 y 3 + c3 y 2 + c4 y + c5 = 0,
where the ck are polynomials in terms of the coefficients α, β, γ, λ, µ, a, b and
c. After the calculations, we find
c1 = −5b + aα − α2 + 2β;

c2 = 10b2 + 4b(α2 − 2β) + a2 β + β 2 − 2αγ + a(−4bα − αβ + 3γ) + 2λ.
To obtain the principal quintic we need to choose the values of a and b such
aα − α2 + 2β
that c1 = c2 = 0. We get b = , and a is a root of the following
5
quadratic equation
(10.4)
a2 (5β − 2α2 ) + a(4α3 − 13αβ + 15γ) + 5β 2 − 10αγ − 2(α2 − 2β)2 + 10λ = 0.
We can distinguish two cases:
• If (5β − 2α2 6= 0) ∨ (4α3 − 13αβ + 15γ 6= 0) . Then, by solving the

above equation, we determine the values of a and b. Finally, we
conclude the desired result.
14 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
• If (5β − 2α2 = 0) ∧ (4α3 − 13αβ + 15γ = 0) . In this case, we find

2 3
β = 2α5 and γ = 2α α
25 . Set z = x + 5 , by using the quintic p1 (x) = 0,
we get a new equation as the form z 5 + λ0 z + µ0 = 0 and we deduce
that the desired result is also true.

Theorem 10.5. The general quintic equation
(10.6) x5 + αx4 + βx3 + γx2 + λx + µ = 0
may be reduced to the form (Bring’s form)
(10.7) y 5 + ay + b = 0.
Proof. To eliminate three terms from the general quintic, it is reasonable to
assume using a cubic Tschirnhausen transformation,
(10.8) y = x3 + rx2 + sx + t.
Unfortunately, this was noticed by the philosopher-mathematician Got-
tfried Liebniz (1646-1716), as a major difficulty of Tschirnhaus method.
Around 1786, Bring (and later Jerrard in 1836) found a simple way around
this problem by using the principal quintic form
(10.9) y 5 + ry 2 + sy + t = 0,
and the quartic Tschirnhausen transformation
(10.10) z = y 4 + my 3 + ny 2 + py + q.
We eliminate y by using the resultant, and we obtain
(10.11) z 5 + c1 z 4 + c2 z 3 + c3 z 2 + c4 z + c5 = 0,
where the ck are in the coefficients r, s, t and in the unknowns m, n, p, q.
Explicitly, c1 and c2 are

c1 = −5q + 3mr + 4s,
c2 = 10q 2 − 12mqr + 3m2 r2 − 3nr2 + 2n2 s − 16qs + 5mrs + 6s2 + 5mnt − 4rt + p(3nr + 4ms + 5t)
To choose c1 = 0, we take q = (3mr+4s)

5 . Next, to eliminate p in c2 , we
take 3nr + 4ms + 5t = 0. Then, we obtain n = − (4ms+5t)
3r .
Assume that c2 = 0, we replace q and n by their values, and we get the
following quadratic equation of m:
(10.12)
m2 (−27r4 +160s3 −300rst)+m(−27r3 s+400s2 t−375rt2 )+(−18r2 s2 +45r3 t+250st2 ) = 0.
By solving the above equation, we find the first unknown m. In addition,
for the coefficient c3 , we have:
c3 = v0 p3 + v1 p2 + v2 p + v3 ,
where vi are expressions in r,s,t, and m,n,q.
Now, in the order to simplify the form of the quintic equation and obtain
the Bring’s form. We set c3 = 0, then, we can determine the value of p by
solving the above equation.
Remark 10.13. To transform the equation y 5 + ay + b = 0 to the Bring-
Jerrard form x5 = x + α. We use the following change x = λy, where λ is a
root of the equation aλ4 = 1.
11. Determining the solvable quintics

11.1. The transitive solvable subgroups of Sp . Let p be a prime num-
ber, and E the set defined as E = {0, 1, . . . , p − 1}.
Definition 11.1. The group of bijective affine maps from Z/pZ to itself is
denoted by GA(p).
The elements of GA(p) are the maps fa,b : Z/pZ → Z/pZ defined by
fa,b (x) = ax + b, with a 6= 0, a, b ∈ Z/pZ.
Set τ = f1,1 and ma = fa,0 .
Lemma 11.2. We can prove the following assertions:
(i) |GA(p)| = p(p − 1).
(ii) hτ i is a normal subgroup of GA(p).
(iii) The group GA(p) is transitive and solvable.
Proof. (i) We can verify easily that any element of GA(p) can be written
uniquely in the form τ b ma , with 1 ≤ a ≤ p − 1, and 0 ≤ b ≤ p − 1.
Then, we deduce that |GA(p)| = p(p − 1).
(ii) By using the equality ma τ = τ a ma , we verify easily that hτ i is a
normal subgroup of GA(p).
(iii) The transitivity of GA(p) is clear. Now, we will try to show that
GA(p) is solvable. Since GA(p)/hτ i is isomorphic to the subgroup
hma i. Then, this quotient is commutative (then solvable). In addi-
tion, hτ i is a normal subgroup of GA(p). From the Proposition 6.1,
we deduce that the group GA(p) is solvable.

Lemma 11.3. Let G be a transitive subgroup of Sp . Every normal subgroup
H 6= {id} of G acts transitively on E.
Proof. Let x and y ∈ E. As G is transitive, there exists f ∈ G such that
y = f (x). For every h ∈ H, we have f −1 hf ∈ H, so f −1 (orbH (y)) ⊂
orbH (x). Consequently, |orbH (x)| = |orbH (y)|. On the other hand, we have
[r
E= orbH (xi ) for some integer 0 ≤ r ≤ p − 1. Then, we deduce that
i=1
X r
|E| = |orbH (xi )|. For every integer i, we set s = |orbH (xi )|. As s > 1
i=1
(because H 6= {id}), p = rs, so that we must have s = p and r = 1. This
implies that the subgroup H acts transitively on E.
16 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
Theorem 11.4. Let G be a solvable subgroup of Sp acting transitively on

E. The group G is conjugate to a subgroup of Sp containing τ .
Proof. As G is a solvable subgroup of Sp . Then, there exists a finite sequence
(Hi )0≤i≤r of subgroups of G such that:
• {e} = Hr ⊆ Hr−1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ H0 = G,
• Hi+1 C Hi ,
• Hi /Hi+1 is cyclic of prime order.
From the Lemma 11.3, the groups Hi for i = 0, . . . , r − 1 act transitively
on E. For a fixed x ∈ E, the stabilizer of x in Hi is denoted and given
by Hix = {σ ∈ Hi | σ(x) = x}. Consider the map Hr−1 → E given by
x
σ 7→ σ(x). This map induces a bijection from the set Hr−1 /Hr−1 of cosets
x
of Hr−1 in Hr−1 to the orbit Hr−1 · x. Since the action of Hr−1 on E is
transitive, then the orbit Hr−1 · x is equal to E. So, the only possibility for
Hr−1 is a cyclic group generated by a p-cycle c. If c = (x0 , . . . , xp−1 ), and if
we define ϕ : E → E by ϕ(xi ) = i, then ϕcϕ−1 = τ . We conclude that the
group ϕGϕ−1 is a subgroup of Sp that contains the p-cycle τ .
Lemma 11.5. Let σ ∈ Sp be such that στ σ −1 ∈ GA(p).
Then, we have σ ∈ GA(p).
Proof. If στ σ −1 = τ b ma , we see, by an easy computation, that στ k σ −1 =
k−1
X
τ n mak for k ≥ 1, with n = ai b. If k = p − 1 and a 6= 1, we find that
i=0
n = 0 mod p; hence, στ p−1 σ −1 = id. It follows that τ p−1 = id, which is
absurd. Thus, we have a = 1 and στ σ −1 = τ b , i.e. στ = τ b σ. For every
i ∈ E, we thus have σ(i + 1) = σ(i) + b, hence σ = τ σ(0) mb which indeed
lies in GA(p).
Theorem 11.6. Let G be a solvable transitive subgroup of Sp . The group
G is conjugate to a subgroup of GA(p).
Proof. Let G be a solvable transitive subgroup of Sp . From the Theo-
rem 11.4, there exists ϕ such that ϕGϕ−1 contains τ . On the other hand,
ϕHr−1 ϕ−1 = hτ i is a normal subgroup of ϕHr−2 ϕ−1 . By using the Lemma
11.5, we deduce that ϕHr−2 ϕ−1 ⊂ GA(p). For the same reasons, ϕHi ϕ−1 ⊂
GA(p) for 0 ≤ i ≤ r − 1, which gives the desired result.
Theorem 11.7. Let G be a solvable transitive subgroup of Sp . Then, G is
contained in the normalizer of a Sylow p-subgroup of Sp .
Proof. From the Theorem 11.6, we have
(11.8) hτ i = ϕHr−1 ϕ−1 ⊆ ϕGϕ−1 ⊆ GA(p).
.
• Firstly, we will prove that the Sylow p-subgroup Hr−1 of Sp is a
normal subgroup of G. Let g be an element of G. Since ϕGϕ−1 ⊆
GA(p), then, there exists σ ∈ GA(p) such that g = ϕ−1 σϕ. By the
Lemma 11.2, we have σhτ iσ −1 = hτ i. So, we obtain σϕHr−1 ϕ−1 σ −1 =
ϕHr−1 ϕ−1 . Finally, we find Hr−1 = ϕ−1 σϕHr−1 ϕ−1 σ −1 ϕ. As
ϕ−1 σϕ = g, then we obtain gHr−1 g −1 = Hr−1 , and we conclude
that Hr−1 is a normal subgroup of G.
• Consequently, from the normality of Hr−1 as a subgroup of G, we
deduce that G is contained in the normalizer of the Sylow p-subgroup
Hr−1 of the symmetric group Sp .

11.2. The solvable quintic equation.

Definition 11.9. The Frobenius group F20 of order 20 is the subgroup of
the symmetric group S5 with generators (1 2 3 4 5) and (2 3 5 4).
Theorem 11.10. An irreducible quintic with coefficients in the rational
numbers Q is solvable by radicals if and only if its Galois group is contained
in the Frobenius group.
Proof. • Let P be an irreducible quintic with coefficients in Q. If P
is solvable by radicals. Then, its Galois group G is transitive and
a solvable subgroup of S5 . From the Theorem 11.7, G is contained
in the normalizer of a Sylow 5-subgroup of S5 . In the other hand,
a Sylow 5-subgroup of S5 is given by a 5-cycle c. This 5-cycle c
is conjugate to a τ = (1 2 3 4 5). Since the normalizer of τ is the
Frobenius group F20 of order 20. Then, the Galois group G whose
order is divisible by 5 is conjugate to a subgroup of F20 . Finally, we
deduce that the Galois group is isomorphic to F20 , to the dihedral
group D10 of order 10, or to the cyclic group Z/5Z.
• Conversely, assume that the Galois group of P is contained in the
Frobenius group F20 . We can verify easily that the subgroup F20 of
the symmetric group S5 is equal to GA(5). From the Lemma 11.2,
F20 is transitive and solvable. So, the Galois group of P is solvable
as a subgroup of the solvable group F20 . Then, we deduce that the
polynomial P is solvable by radicals.

12. solving solvable quintics

Let x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 be the roots of the general quintic polynomial x5 −
s1 x4 + s2 x3 − s3 x2 + s4 x − s5 where the si are the elementary symmetric
functions in the roots. The symmetric group S5 acts on the set of left co-sets
S5 /F20 by the left multiplication
ϕ : S5 × S5 /F20 → S5 /F20
.
(σ, ρF20 ) 7→ σρF20
18 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
Then, there exists a finite set E 0 such that S5 =

S
σF20 is a disjoint
σ∈E 0
union. So, we deduce that |S5 | = |E 0 ||F20 |, and we find |E 0 | = 6. Some
example of the set E 0 is proposed by Dummit as follow:
E 0 = {id, (1 2 3), (1 3 2), (1 2), (2 3), (1 3)} .
Let θ be the element defined as:
θ = θ1 = x21 x2 x5 + x21 x3 x4 + x22 x1 x3 + x22 x4 x5 + x23 x1 x5 + x23 x2 x4 + x24 x1 x2
+ x24 x3 x5 + x25 x1 x4 + x25 x2 x3 .
Therefore, we can verify that the stabilizer in S5 of θ1 is precisely F20 . In
fact, the Frobenius group F20 is generated by (1 2 3 4 5) and (2 3 5 4). In
addition, we have (1 2 3 4 5)θ1 = θ1 and (2 3 5 4)θ1 = θ1 . Thus, we deduce
that the subgroup F20 is contained in the stabilizer of θ1 denoted by Sθ1 . In
the other hand, we have:
∀σ ∈ F20 , σ(θ1 ) = θ1 ,
then
[
S5 · θ1 = σF20 · θ1
σ∈E 0
= {σ(θ1 ) | σ ∈ E 0 }.
We verify easily that σ(θ1 ) 6= %(θ1 ) for all (σ, %) ∈ E 02 such that σ 6= %. So,
we obtain |S5 · θ1 | = 6. Since |S5 · θ1 | = [S5 : Sθ1 ] = |S5 |/|Sθ1 |. Then, we
find |Sθ1 | = |S5 |/|S5 · θ1 | = |F20 |. Finally, we conclude that Sθ1 = F20 .
Next, we define the resolvent sextic f20 (x) of θ1 as follow:
Y
f20 (x) = (x − σ(θ1 ))
σ∈E 0
6
Y
= (x − θi ),
i=1
where
θ2 = (1 2 3)θ1 = x21 x2 x5 + x21 x3 x4 + x22 x1 x4 + x22 x3 x5 + x23 x1 x2 + x23 x4 x5 + x24 x1 x5
+ x24 x2 x3 + x25 x1 x3 + x25 x2 x4
θ3 = (1 3 2)θ1 = x21 x2 x3 + x21 x4 x5 + x22 x1 x4 + x22 x3 x5 + x23 x1 x5 + x23 x2 x4 + x24 x1 x3

+ x24 x2 x5 + x25 x1 x2 + x25 x3 x4
θ4 = (1 2)θ1 = x21 x2 x3 + x21 x4 x5 + x22 x1 x5 + x22 x3 x4 + x23 x1 x4 + x23 x2 x5 + x24 x1 x2

+ x24 x3 x5 + x25 x1 x3 + x25 x2 x4

+ x24 x2 x5 + x25 x1 x4 + x25 x2 x3

+ x24 x2 x3 + x25 x1 x2 + x25 x3 x4 .
We have:
f20 (x) = x6 − se1 x5 + se2 x4 − se3 x3 + se4 x2 − se5 x + se6 ,
where sei are the elementary symmetric functions of the θi . We verify easily
that the functions sei are symmetric polynomials in x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 . From
the fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials, the polynomial sei can
be represented in terms of the elementary symmetric polynomials s1 , s2 ,
s3 , s4 , s5 . Thus, the element θ1 satisfies a polynomial of degree 6 over
Q(s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , s5 ). For the particular case when f (x) = x5 + ax + b, the
polynomial f20 is given by:
f20 (x) = x6 + 8ax5 + 40a2 x4 + 160a3 x3 + 400a4 x2
+ (512a5 − 3125b4 )x + (256a6 − 9375ab4 ).
Lemma 12.1. The following assertions are true:
(1) NS5 (F20 ) = F20 , where NS5 (F20 ) is the normalizer of F20 in S5 .
(2) The Frobenius group F20 admits six conjugates, and we have:
For any σ ∈ S5 , there exists σi ∈ E 0 such that σF20 σ −1 = σi F20 σi−1 .
Proof. (1) Let σ be an element of NS5 (F20 ), then σF20 σ −1 = F20 . In the
other hand, the permutation τ is an element of the Frobeinus group
F20 . Therefore, we obtain στ σ −1 ∈ F20 = GA(5). From the Lemma
11.5, we deduce that σ ∈ F20 , and we conclude that NS5 (F20 ) ⊆ F20 .
Since F20 ⊆ NS5 , we find
S finally NS5 (F20 ) = F20 .
(2) Let σ ∈ S5 . As S5 = σF20 , then there exists σi ∈ E 0 and ρ ∈ F20
σ∈E 0
such that σ = σi ρ. Therefore, we obtain σF20 σ −1 = σi F20 σi−1 . So,
the conjugates of F20 are the elements of the set {σi F20 σi−1 |σi ∈ E 0 }.
In addition, this set contains six elements. In fact, let σ and ρ
two elements of E 0 . Assume that σF20 σ −1 = ρF20 ρ−1 . Then, we
deduce that σρ−1S ∈ NS5 (F20 ) = F20 . Which implies that σ ∈ ρF20 .
As the union σF20 is disjoint, then σ = ρ and the Frobenius
σ∈E 0
group F20 admits six conjugates which are the elements of the set
{σF20 σ −1 | σ ∈ E 0 }.

Theorem 12.2. The irreducible quintic f (x) = x5 +px3 +qx2 +rx+s ∈ Q[x]
is solvable by radicals if and only if the polynomial f20 (x) has a rational root.
Proof. The polynomial f is solvable by radicals if and only if its Galois
group G is contained in σi F20 σi−1 for some σi ∈ E 0 . In the other hand, the
Frobeinus group F20 is the stabilizer of θ1 , and we can prove easily that the
stabilizer Sθi of θi is equal to σi F20 σi−1 for all 1 ≤ i ≤ 6. Since G ⊆ σi F20 σi−1
20 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
for some i, then σ(θi ) = θi for all σ in the Galois group G. Therefore, we
deduce that θi ∈ Q, which gives the desired result.
13. Characterization of Solvable Quintics

Consider the quintic equation
(13.1) x5 + ax + b = 0,
where a and b are nonzero rational numbers. We can prove that this quintic
polynomial as the form
4
Y
(13.2) (x − (ω j u1 + ω 2j u2 + ω 3j u3 + ω 4j u4 )),
j=0
where u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 are nonzero real numbers and ω is a complex fifth root

of unity. Replacing x by ω j u1 + ω 2j u2 + ω 3j u3 + ω 4j u4 in the expanded
product. By using MAPLE, we obtain the identity valid for j = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
(13.3) (ω j u1 + ω 2j u2 + ω 3j u3 + ω 4j u4 )4
− 5U (ω j u1 + ω 2j u2 + ω 3j u3 + ω 4j u4 )3
− 5V (ω j u1 + ω 2j u2 + ω 3j u3 + ω 4j u4 )2
+ 5W (ω j u1 + ω 2j u2 + ω 3j u3 + ω 4j u4 )
+ 5(X − Y ) − Z
= 0,
where
U = u1 u4 + u2 u3 ,
V = u1 u22 + u2 u24 + u3 u21 + u4 u23 ,
W = u21 u24 + u22 u23 − u31 u2 − u32 u4 − u33 u1 − u34 u3 − u1 u2 u3 u4 ,
X = u31 u3 u4 + u32 u1 u3 + u33 u2 u4 + u34 u2 u1 ,
Y = u1 u23 u24 + u2 u21 u23 + u3 u22 u24 + u4 u22 u21 ,
Z = u51 + u52 + u53 + u54 .
To solve the quintic equation x5 + ax + b = 0, we need to determine the

real algebraic numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 satisfying
(13.4) u1 u4 + u2 u3 = 0,
(13.5) u1 u22 + u2 u24 + u3 u21 + u4 u23 = 0,
(13.6) 5(u21 u24 + u22 u23 − u31 u2 − u32 u4 − u33 u1 − u34 u3 − u1 u2 u3 u4 ) = a,

(13.7) 5((u31 u3 u4 + u32 u1 u3 + u33 u2 u4 + u34 u2 u1 )

− (u1 u23 u24 + u2 u21 u23 + u3 u22 u24 + u4 u22 u21 ))
− (u51 + u52 + u53 + u54 ) = b.
Theorem 13.8. Let a and b be rational numbers such that the quintic trino-
mial x5 + ax + b is irreducible. Then, the equation x5 + ax + b = 0 is solvable
by radicals if and only if there exist rational numbers (= ±1), c(≥ 0) and
e(6= 0) such that
5e4 (3 − 4c) −4e5 (11 + 2c)
(13.9) a= , b= ,
c2 + 1 c2 + 1
in which case the roots of x5 + ax + b = 0 are
(13.10) xj = e(ω j u1 + ω 2j u2 + ω 3j u3 + ω 4j u4 ) (j = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4),
where ω = exp( 2πi
5 ) and
(13.11)
2 51 2 51 2 15 2 15
v1 v3 v3 v4 v2 v1 v4 v2
u1 = 2
, u2 = 2
, u3 = 2
, u4 = ,
D D D D2
( √ p √ √ p √
v1 = D + p D − D, v2 = − D − pD + D,
(13.12) √ √ √ √
v3 = − D + D + D, v4 = D − D − D,
(13.13) D = c2 + 1.
Proof. Since the irreducible quintic polynomial x5 + ax + b is solvable by
radicals. Thus the resolvent sextic
f20 (x) = x6 + 8ax5 + 40a2 x4 + 160a3 x3 + 400a4 x2
+ (512a5 − 3125b4 )x + (256a6 − 9375ab4 )
has a rational root r. Hence r satisfies
(13.14) (r + 2a)4 (r2 + 16a2 ) − 55 b4 (r + 3a) = 0,
which shows that r 6= −2a, −3a as a 6= 0. We define the rational numbers
c and e by
3r − 16a −5b
(13.15) c = , e= , where = ±1.
4(r + 3a) 2(r + 2a)
Then
25(r2 + 16a2 )
c2 + 1 = ,
16(r + 3a)2
25a
3 − 4c = ,
r + 3a
25(r + 2a)
11 + 2c = .
2(r + 3a)
22 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
Finally, we obtain
55 ab4 (r + 3a)
a=
(r + 2a)4 (r2 + 16a2 )
5e4 (3 − 4c)
= ,
c2 + 1
and
55 b5 (r + 3a)
b=
(r + 2a)4 (r2 + 16a2 )
−4e5 (11 + 2c)
= .
c2 + 1
In the other hand, we have
 √ p √
v1 = D + pD − D,
√ √



v2 = − D − pD + D,

√ √
 v 3 = − D + D + D,


 √ p √
v4 = D − D − D.
Thus, we find
√ √
v1 + v4 = 2√D, −2 D,
v 2 + v3 = √
(13.16)
v1 v4 = D, v2 v3 = − D.
Finally, we obtain

v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0,
(13.17)
v1 v4 + v2 v3 = 0.
The numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 proposed in this Theorem are given by:
v12 v3 v32 v4 v22 v1 v42 v2

(13.18) u51 = , u52 = , u53 = , u54 = .
D2 D2 D2 D2
We easily check that we have:

(13.19) u1 u4 = − √ , u2 u3 = √ ,
D D
v3 v2 v1 v4
(13.20) u1 u22 = , u23 u4 = , u21 u3 = , u24 u2 = ,
D D D D
and
(13.21)
v1 v3 v3 v4 v1 v2 v2 v4
u31 u2 = √ , u32 u4 = − √ , u33 u1 = − √ , u34 u3 = √ .
D D D D D D D D
By using these equalities, we find

(13.22) 5(u21 u24 + u22 u23 − u31 u2 − u32 u4 − u33 u1 − u34 u3 − u1 u2 u3 u4 )
√
5(3 − 4 D − 1)
=
D
5(3 − 4c)
= ,
c2 + 1
and
(13.23) 5((u31 u3 u4 + u32 u1 u3 + u33 u2 u4 + u34 u2 u1 )
− (u1 u23 u24 + u2 u21 u23 + u3 u22 u24 + u4 u22 u21 ))
− (u51 + u52 + u53 + u54 )
√
5(44 + 8 D − 1)
=−
D
4(11 + 2c)
=− .
c2 + 1
So, we deduce that the polynomial
5(3 − 4c) 4(11 + 2c)
x5 + 2
x−
c +1 c2 + 1
is solvable by radicals and has the roots given by
(13.24) xj = e(ω j u1 + ω 2j u2 + ω 3j u3 + ω 4j u4 ) (j = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4).

14. The properties of the theta functions

In the sense to solving the general quintic equation by using the Hermit’s
approach, we propose in this section to study the properties of the theta
functions.
14.1. Definitions of Theta functions. Let q = eiπτ be a complex number
such that τ is an element of the upper half plane H = {τ ∈ C | Imτ > 0}.
Fix τ ∈ H and consider the series
+∞
2
X
Θ3 (v|τ ) = e(m τ +2mv)iπ
m=−∞
(14.1) +∞
2
X
= q m e2mviπ .
m=−∞
2
q (m+1) e2(m+1)viπ
We have = q 2m+1 e2πiv ≤ |q|2m+1 e2π|v| . Since |q| < 1
q m2 e2mviπ
2
2m+1 q (m+1) e2(m+1)viπ
and lim |q| = 0, then limm→+∞ = 0. It follows
m→+∞ q m2 e2mviπ
24 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
that Θ3 (v|τ ) is a series of entire functions of v converging uniformly in the

domain |v| ≤ c, for all positive real number c. So, we deduce that the
function Θ3 (v|τ ) is an entire function of v.
For brevity, this function is denoted by Θ3 (v).
Consider the following functions:

1
Θ0 (v) = Θ3 v +
2
+∞
2
X
(14.2) = q m e2mviπ eiπm
m=−∞
+∞
2
X
= (−1)m q m e2mviπ ;
m=−∞
τ
−πi v− 1−τ
Θ1 (v) = ie 4 Θ3 v +
2
τ +∞
−πi v− X 2
(14.3) = ie 4 q m e2mviπ eiπm e−πimτ

m=−∞
!2
+∞
1
m−
2
X
=i (−1)m q eiπ(2m−1)v ;
m=−∞
and
τ
−πi v− τ
Θ2 (v) = e 4 Θ3 v −
2
τ +∞
−πi v− X 2
=e 4 q m e2mviπ e−πimτ
(14.4)
m=−∞
!2
+∞
1
m−
2
X
= q eiπ(2m−1)v .
m=−∞
The functions Θ0 , Θ1 , Θ2 and Θ3 are called theta functions.

We can verify easily that we have Θ3 (v + 1) = Θ3 (v), since e2πi(v+1)m =
e 2πimv . Moreover, Θ3 (v + τ ) = AΘ3 (v), where A = q −1 e−2πiv . In fact, we
have:
+∞
2
X
Θ3 (v + τ ) = q m e2πimv q 2m
m=−∞
+∞
2
X
(14.5) = q (m+1) q −1 e2(m+1)viπ e−2πiv
m=−∞
+∞
2
X
= q −1 e−2πiv q m e2mviπ .
m=−∞
In the same way, we can prove the following lemma:
Lemma 14.6. (1) Θk (v + 1) = Θk (v) for k = 0, 3 and Θk (v + 1) =

−Θk (v) for k = 1, 2.
(2) Θk (v + τ ) = AΘk (v) for k = 2, 3 and Θk (v + τ ) = −AΘk (v) for
k = 0, 1.
14.2. Zeros of theta functions. Let m and !k be two integers such that
1 2 1 2
!
m− k−
2m − 1 = 1 − 2k, i.e., k = 1 − m. Then q 2 =q 2 and (−1)m =
−(−1)k , which implies that Θ1 (−v) = −Θ1 (v). In particular, Θ1 (0) = 0.
Since Θ1 (v + 1) = −Θ1 (v) and Θ1 (v + τ ) = −AΘ1 (v). Then, we get
Θ1 (m + nτ ) = 0 for all integers m, n. Now, let us prove that the function
Θ1 has no other zeros. For that, we need to show that Θ1 has only one zero
±1 ± τ
inside the parallelogram Π with vertices .
2
We have:
Θ01 (v + 1) Θ0 (v)
= 1 ;
Θ1 (v + 1) Θ1 (v)
0
Θ1 (v + τ ) −A0 (v)Θ1 (v) − A(v)Θ01 (v)
=
Θ1 (v + τ ) −A(v)Θ1 (v)
(14.7)
A (v) Θ01 (v)
0
= +
A(v) Θ1 (v)
Θ0 (v)
= −2πi + 1 .
Θ1 (v)
Let Γ be the boundary of Π oriented counterclockwise, we have:
(14.8)
Θ01 (z) Θ01 (z) Θ01 (z) Θ01 (z) Θ01 (z)
Z Z Z Z Z
dz = dz + dz + dz + dz,
Γ Θ1 (z) γ1 Θ1 (z) γ2 Θ1 (z) γ3 Θ1 (z) γ4 Θ1 (z)
26 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
where

1+τ −1 − τ 1 − τ
 γ1 (t) = t − , for γ1 = , ;




 2 2 2

1−τ 1−τ 1+τ



 γ2 (t) = tτ + 2 , for γ2 = , ;


2 2
(14.9)
 1+τ 1 + τ −1 + τ

 γ3 (t) = −t + , for γ3 = , ;
2 2 2






 τ −1 −1 + τ −1 − τ
 γ4 (t) = −tτ + , for γ4 = , .


2 2 2
Notice that
(
γ3 (t) = γ1 (1 − t) + τ
(14.10)
γ4 (t) = γ2 (1 − t) − 1.
Then, we get:
Θ01 (z) 1
Θ01 (γ3 (t)) 0
Z Z
dz = γ (t)dt
γ3 Θ1 (z) 0 Θ1 (γ3 (t)) 3
1
Θ01 (γ1 (1 − t) + τ )
Z
=− dt
0 Θ1 (γ1 (1 − t) + τ )
1
Θ01 (γ1 (1 − t))
Z
(14.11) =− −2πi + dt
0 Θ1 (γ1 (1 − t))
1
Θ01 (γ1 (t)) 0
Z
= 2πi − γ (t)dt
0 Θ1 (γ1 (t)) 1
Θ01 (z)
Z
= 2πi − dz,
γ1 Θ1 (z)
and
Θ01 (z) Θ01 (γ4 (t)) 0
1
Z Z
dz = γ4 (t)dt
γ4 Θ1 (z) 0 Θ1 (γ4 (t))
Z 1 0
Θ1 (γ2 (1 − t) − 1)
= −τ dt
0 Θ1 (γ2 (1 − t) − 1)
Z 1 0
Θ1 (γ2 (1 − t))
= −τ dt
0 Θ1 (γ2 (1 − t))
(14.12) Z 1 0
Θ1 (γ2 (t))
= −τ dt
0 Θ1 (γ2 (t))
Z 1 0
Θ1 (γ2 (t)) 0
=− γ2 (t)dt
0 Θ 1 (γ2 (t))
Θ01 (z)
Z
=− dz.
γ2 Θ1 (z)
We get:
Θ01 (z)
Z
1
(14.13) dz = 1.
2πi Γ Θ1 (z)
Therefore, inside Π, the function Θ1 has exactly one zero.
By using the expressions for the functions Θ0 , Θ1 , Θ2 and Θ3 , we can
easily obtain the following table for the zeros of theta functions:
function Θ0 (v)
Θ1 (v) Θ2 (v) Θ3(v)
1 1 1 1
its zeros m + n + τ m + nτ m + + nτ m+ + n+ τ
2 2 2 2
14.3. The relation Θ43 = Θ42 + Θ40 . We denote by Θi = Θi (0) for i = 0, 2, 3

and Θ01 = Θ01 (0). Consider the following function
aΘ22 (v) + bΘ23 (v)
f (v) = ,
Θ20 (v)
where a, b ∈ C. Since the numbers 1 and τ are periods of f . Then, the
function f is a doubly periodic function with fundamental parallelogram Π.
Notice that the function Θ0 admits one zero equal to τ2 inside the fudamental
parralelogram Π. If we select the numbers a and b so that aΘ22 ( τ2 )+bΘ23 ( τ2 ) =
0, then, the elliptic function f has a pole not greater than 1 inside the
fundamental parallelogram Π. Therefore, this elliptic function f is constant.
Since the function Θ2 is defined as:
τ
−πi v− τ
Θ2 (v) = e 4 Θ3 v − .
2
Then, we get:
 τ −πiτ
 Θ 2 = e 4 Θ (0)
3



 2 τ
πiτ
Θ2 (0) = e 4 Θ3 − (14.14)



 πiτ
τ 2
 = e 4 Θ3 .
2
−πiτ
Hence, aΘ22 τ2 +bΘ23 τ2 = aB 2 Θ23 +bB 2 Θ22 , where B = e 4 . We select

a = −Θ22 and b = Θ23 . Then there exists c such that:

−Θ22 (v)Θ22 + Θ23 (v)Θ23 = cΘ20 (v).
To compute c, set v = 21 . The function Θ2 vanishes at this point, we
replace v by its value in the above formula, and we find Θ23 12 Θ23 = cΘ20 12 .

By substituting v = 0 and v = 12 in the relation Θ0 (v) = Θ3 v + 21 , we get

Θ0 = Θ3 12 and Θ0 21 = Θ3 (1) = Θ3 . Finally, we deduce that c = Θ20 .

Thus,
(14.15) Θ23 (v)Θ23 − Θ22 (v)Θ22 = Θ20 (v)Θ20 .
28 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
In particular, for v = 0 we get:

(14.16) Θ43 = Θ42 + Θ40 .
14.4. Representation of theta functions by infinite products. The

2
zeros of the theta funtion Θ3 (v) = k∈Z q k e2iπkv are given by
P

1 1
m+ + n+ τ.
2 2
Set s = e2iπv . This substitution sends the zeros of Θ3 (v) to the points
1 1
e2πi(m+ 2 ) e2πi(n+ 2 τ ) . = −q 2n+1 , where q = eπiτ .
Consider the following functions
∞
Y
f1 (s) = 1 + q 2k−1 s ,
k=1
∞
Y
f2 (s) = 1 + q 2k−1 s−1 ,
k=1
and
f (s) = f1 (s)f2 (s).
∞
X
From the convergence of the series |q|2k−1 , we deduce that the function
k=1
f1 is an entire function of s with zeros at the points −q −1 , −q −3 , −q −5 , ....
Similary the function f2 is an entire function of s−1 . It has a singularity at
the origin as a function of s. In addition, the zeros of the function f2 are
the points −q 1 , −q 3 , −q 5 ,....
The function g(v) = f (e2πiv ) = f (s) has the same zeros as the theta
function Θ3 (v). Notice that the value s = e2πiv does not change under the
change of variables v 7→ v + 1. Then, we get g(v + 1) = g(v). The change of
variables v 7→ v + τ replaces s with sq 2 . Therefore, we find:
1 + q −1 s−1
g(v + τ ) = g(v)
1 + qs
= q −1 e−2πiv g(v).
Thus, the ratio of the theta function Θ3 (v) by g(v) is an entire doubly
periodic function. Therefore,
∞
Y
(14.17) Θ3 (v) = c (1 + q 2k−1 e2πiv )(1 + q 2k−1 e−2πiv ),
k=1
where c is a constant.
The other theta funcions are defined as:


1

 Θ0 (v) = Θ3 v +
2





 τ

−πi v− 1−τ

Θ1 (v) = ie 4 Θ3 v +

 2
τ



 Θ2 (v) = e−πi v− 4 Θ3 v − τ .



2
By using the form of Θ3 as an infinite product, we find:
∞
Y
Θ0 (v) = c (1 − q 2k−1 e2πiv )(1 − q 2k−1 e−2πiv ),
k=1
∞
1 Y
(14.18) Θ1 (v) = 2 sin(πv)q c 4 (1 − q 2k e2πiv )(1 − q 2k e−2πiv ),
k=1
∞
1 Y
Θ2 (v) = 2 cos(πv)q 4 c (1 + q 2k e2πiv )(1 + q 2k e−2πiv ).
k=1
Now, let us prove that:

∞
Y
(14.19) c= (1 − q 2k ).
k=1
The sequence of functions defined as
n
Y
Fn (s) = 1 − q 2k−1 s 1 − q 2k−1 s−1
k=1
Xn
= ak (n)sk ,
k=−n
converges uniformly to the function

∞ ∞
Y 1 1 X 2
(1 − q 2k−1 s)(1 − q 2k−1 s−1 ) = Θ0 (v) = (−1)k q k sk .
c c
k=1 k=−∞
Comparing the coefficients of degree zero in s, we find 1c = lim a0 (n).

2
Since an (n) = (−1)n q 1+3+5+···+2n−1 = (−1)n q n . Then,
Fn (q 2 s) (1 − q 2n+1 s)(1 − q −1 s−1 )
=
Fn (s) (1 − qs)(1 − q 2n−1 s−1 )
1 − q 2n+1 s
=− .
qs − q 2n
30 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
Hence, we find:
n
X n
X
2n 2k k 2n+1
(qs − q ) ak (n)q s = −(1 − q s) ak (n)sk ,
k=−n k=−n
which implies that:

n
X n
X
ak (n) 1 − q 2(n+k) sk = ak (n) q 2n+1 − q 2k+1 sk+1 .
k=−n k=−n
Therefore,
1 − q 2(n+k)
ak−1 (n) = ak (n),
q 2n+1 − q 2k−1
and, we find:
1 − q 2(n+1)
a0 (n) = a1 (n)
q 2n+1 − q
1 − q 2(n+1) 1 − q 2(n+2)
= 2n+1 a2 (n)
q − q q 2n+1 − q 3
..
.
Qn
1 − q 2(n+k)
= Qn k=1 2n+1 an (n)
k=1 q − q 2k−1
Qn
1 − q 2(n+k) 2
= Qn k=1 2n+1 2k−1
(−1)n q n
k=1 q −q
Qn 2(n+k)
k=1 1 − q 2
= Qn 2k−1
Q n 2(n−k)+2
(−1)n q n
k=1 q k=1 q −1
Qn 2(n+k)
1−q
= Qnk=1 2(n−k)+2
k=1 1 − q
Qn 2(n+k)
k=1 1 − q
= Q n 2k
.
k=1 1 − q
Let |q|2 = α < 1. We have 1 − αn ≤ |1 − q 2(n+k) | ≤ 1 + αn . Moreover,

Yn
n
lim n ln(1 ± α ) = 0. Hence lim 1 − q 2(n+k) = 1 and
n→∞ n→∞
k=1
∞
1 Y
c = lim = (1 − q 2k ).
n→∞ a0 (n)
k=1
14.5. The relation Θ01 (0) = πΘ0 (0)Θ2 (0)Θ3 (0). From the representation
of theta functions by infinite products, we have:
∞
Y
(14.20) Θ0 (0) = c (1 − q 2k−1 )2 ;
k=1
∞
1 Y
(14.21) Θ2 (0) = 2q 4 c (1 + q 2k )2 ;
k=1
∞
Y
(14.22) Θ3 (0) = c (1 + q 2k−1 )2 ;
k=1
∞
1 Y
(14.23) Θ01 (0) = 2πq 4 c (1 − q 2k )2 .
k=1
Q∞ 1
By using the equality k=1 (1 − q 2k )2 = c2 , we get Θ01 (0) = 2πq 4 c3 . Thus,
to prove the relation Θ01 (0) = πΘ0 (0)Θ2 (0)Θ3 (0), it suffices to verify that
∞
Y
(14.24) (1 − q 2k−1 )(1 + q 2k )(1 + q 2k−1 ) = 1.
k=1
In fact, we have:
∞
Y ∞
Y
(1 + q k )(1 − q k ) = (1 − q 2k ).
k=1 k=1
Since
∞
Y ∞
Y ∞
Y
(1 + q k ) = (1 + q 2k ) (1 + q 2k−1 ),
k=1 k=1 k=1
then
∞
Y ∞
Y
(1 + q 2k )(1 + q 2k−1 )(1 − q k ) = (1 − q 2k ).
k=1 k=1
∞
Y ∞
Y
Replacing the product (1 − q k ) with (1 − q 2k )(1 − q 2k−1 ), we get:
k=1 k=1
∞
Y ∞
Y
(1 + q 2k )(1 + q 2k−1 )(1 − q 2k )(1 − q 2k−1 ) = (1 − q 2k ).
k=1 k=1
Finally, we find
∞
Y
(1 + q 2k )(1 + q 2k−1 )(1 − q 2k−1 ) = 1,
k=1
and the desired result

∞
1 Y
Θ01 (0) = 2πq 4 c (1 − q 2k )2
(14.25) k=1
= πΘ0 (0)Θ2 (0)Θ3 (0).
32 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
14.6. Dedekind’s η−function and the functions f, f1 , f2 . The η−function

is defined as:
∞
1 Y
Θ01 (0) = 2πη 3 (τ ), η(τ ) = q 12 (1 − q 2k ).
k=1
From the definition of the theta functions Θ3 , Θ0 , Θ2 , we have:

∞
−1 Y
Θ3 (0) = η(τ )f 2 (τ ), f (τ ) = q 24 (1 + q 2k−1 );
k=1
∞
−1 Y
Θ0 (0) = η(τ )f12 (τ ), f1 (τ ) = q 24 (1 − q 2k−1 );
k=1
∞
√ 1 Y
Θ2 (0) = η(τ )f22 (τ ), f2 (τ ) = 2q 12 (1 + q 2k ).
k=1
The relation Θ43 (0) = Θ42 (0) + Θ40 (0) implies that
(14.26) f 8 = f18 + f28 .
Now, by using the following equality

∞
Y
(1 − q 2k−1 )(1 + q 2k )(1 + q 2k−1 ) = 1,
k=1
we get
√
(14.27) f f1 f2 = 2.
We can verify easily that the functions f , f1 , f2 can be expressed as follows:

−πi
e 24 η( τ +1
2 )
(14.28) f (τ ) = ;
η(τ )
η( τ2 )
(14.29) f1 (τ ) = ;
η(τ )
√ η(2τ )
(14.30) f2 (τ ) = 2 .
η(τ )
15. Theta functions and solutions of Quintic equations

15.1. Transformations of theta functions induced by transforma-
tions of τ . As we know, the functions Θi are defined by:
∞

2
X
q m e2iπmv ;

 Θ3 (v|τ ) =



m=−∞





 ∞
2
X
(−1)m q m e2iπmv ;

Θ (v|τ ) =

0




m=−∞
∞
 X 1 2
(−1)m q (m− 2 ) eiπ(2m−1)v ;



 Θ1 (v|τ ) = i



 m=−∞
∞


1 2
 X
q (m− 2 ) eiπ(2m−1)v .

 Θ (v|τ ) =
 2


m=−∞
Therefore,
Θ0 (v|τ + 1) = Θ3 (v|τ ), Θ3 (v|τ + 1) = Θ0 (v|τ ),
πi
Θi (v|τ + 1) = e 4 Θi (v|τ ) for i = 1, 2.
Set τ0 = − τ1 and consider the following function:
0 v2 Θ3 (τ 0 v|τ 0 )
g(v) = eπiτ .
Θ3 (v|τ )
Simple calculations show that g(v + 1) = g(v) and g(v + τ ) = g(v). Then,
the function g is a doubly periodic function. Notice that the zeros of the
denominator are of the form v = (m + 21 )τ + (n + 12 ) and the zeros of the
numerator are determined by the relation τ 0 v = (m + 21 )τ 0 + (n + 12 ), i.e.,
v = m + 12 − n + 12 τ . So, the zeros of the numerator coincide with the

zeros of the numerator. Hence, g is an entire doubly periodic function.
Finally, we deduce that there exists a constant A such that g = A.
We get:
0 v2
(15.1) Θ3 (τ 0 v|τ 0 ) = Ae−πiτ Θ3 (v|τ ).
From the relationships between Θ3 and the theta functions Θ2 , Θ0 and
Θ1 . We find:
0 v2
(15.2) Θ2 (τ 0 v|τ 0 ) = Ae−πiτ Θ0 (v|τ ),
0 v2
(15.3) Θ0 (τ 0 v|τ 0 ) = Ae−πiτ Θ2 (v|τ ),
0 v2
(15.4) Θ1 (τ 0 v|τ 0 ) = iAe−πiτ Θ1 (v|τ ).
Taking the product of 15.1, 15.2 and 15.3 when v = 0. We get
(15.5) Θ2 (0|τ 0 )Θ3 (0|τ 0 )Θ0 (0|τ 0 ) = A3 Θ2 (0|τ )Θ3 (0|τ )Θ0 (0|τ ).
34 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
By using the derivative of Θ1 in 15.4 at v = 0, we find:

(15.6) τ 0 Θ01 (0|τ 0 ) = iAΘ01 .
√
Since Θ01 = πΘ0 Θ2 Θ3 , equations 15.5 and 15.6 imply that A = ± −iτ .
By replacing A by it value, we get:
√
Θ3 (0|τ 0 ) = ± −iτ Θ3 (0|τ ).
Notice that for a purely imaginary τ both Θ3 (0|τ ) and Θ3 (0|τ 0 ) are positive.
Therefore,
√

−1
(15.7) Θ3 0| = −iτ Θ3 (0|τ ).
τ
15.2. Transformations of Dedekind’s η−function. From the relation
2πη 3 (τ ) = Θ01 (0|τ ),
and πi
Θ1 (0|τ + 1) = e 4 Θ1 (0|τ ).
We get:
πi
(15.8) η(τ + 1) = e 12 η(τ ).
From 15.6, we find:
√

1
(15.9) Θ01 0| − = ( −iτ )3 Θ01 (0|τ ).
τ
Hence,
√

1
(15.10) η − = −iτ η(τ ).
τ
Now, by using the formulas 15.8 and 15.10 we can obtain the transfor-
mation laws for the functions f1 , f2 and f under the change of parameter
1
τ 7→ τ + 1 or τ 7→ − .
τ
We have:

πi
− 24 τ +2
e η
2
f (τ + 1) =
η(τ + 1)
τ
(15.11) πi
e− 24 η
= 2
η(τ )
πi
= e− 24 f1 (τ ).
Similarly, we get:
πi
(15.12) f1 (τ + 1) = e− 24 f (τ ),
πi
(15.13) f2 (τ + 1) = e 12 f2 (τ ).
πi
Notice that f (τ + 2) = e− 12 f (τ ). Therefore, f (τ + 48) = f (τ ).
In the other hand, we have:

1
1 η(− 2τ )
f1 − = 1
τ η(− )
√ τ
(15.14) −2iτ η(2τ )
= √
−iτ η(τ )
= f2 (τ ).
Replacing τ by − τ1 , we get:

1
(15.15) f2 − = f1 (τ ).
τ
By using the formula √
f (τ )f1 (τ )f2 (τ ) = 2.
We find:

1 1 1 1
f − f1 (τ )f2 (τ ) = f − f1 − f2 −
τ τ τ τ
√
= 2.
We get:

1
(15.16) −
f = f (τ ).
τ
√
From 14.29 and 14.30, we find f1 (2τ )f2 (τ ) = 2. Since
πi
f1 (2τ ) = e− 24 f (2τ − 1)
and
1 πi 1
f2 (τ ) = f1 − =e f 1−
24 ,
τ τ
then
√

1
f (2τ − 1)f 1 − = 2.
τ
By setting x = 2τ − 1, we find 1 − τ1 = x+1
x−1
.
Finally, we get:
√

τ −1
(15.17) f (τ )f = 2.
τ +1
15.3. The general scheme of solution of quintic equations. Let f (τ ),
f1 (τ ), f2 (τ ) the functions defined in the above section. Set

τ +c
u = f (τ ), vc = f and v∞ = f (5τ ),
5
where c ≡ 0(mod48). We study the behavior of the u and vc under the
changes of parameter τ 7→ τ + 2, τ 7→ − τ1 and τ 7→ ττ −1
+1 .
36 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
Let SL2 (Z) be the the group of integer 2 × 2 matrices with determinant
1. We can verify that the group SL2 (Z) is generated by

1 1 0 −1
T = and S = .
0 1 1 0

a b
Remark 15.18. For all A = ∈ SL2 (Z), we have:
c d
aτ + b Im(τ )
• Aτ = , and Im(Aτ ) = .
cτ + d |cτ + d|2
• Since τ ∈ H (i.e. Im(τ ) > 0), then Aτ ∈ H.
• For all τ ∈ H, we have:
−πi −πi
f (Sτ ) = f (τ ), f (T τ ) = e 24 f1 (τ ) and f (T 2 τ ) = e 12 f (τ ).
5πi
Set ε = e− 12 , and

τ ∓ 48 τ ± 96
v±2 = f , v±1 = f .
5 5
Notation 15.19. Since −1 ≡ 4(mod 5) and −2 ≡ 3(mod 5), we take v4 =
v−1 and v3 = v−2 .
15.3.1. The change of parameter τ 7→ τ + 2. Since f (τ + 2) = e −πi 12 f (τ ),
then the change of parameter τ 7→ τ + 2 sends v∞ = f (5τ ) into f (5τ + 10) =
−5πi
e 12 f (5τ ) and v0 = f ( τ5 ) into f ( τ +2
5 ).

τ +2 τ + 50 − 48
f =f
5 5

τ − 48
(15.20) =f + 10
5

5πi τ − 48
= e− 12 f .
5
So, we deduce that the change of parameter τ 7→ τ + 2 sends v∞ into εv∞
and v0 = f ( τ5 ) into εv2 .
In the same way, we have:

τ +2+c τ + 50 − 48 + c
f =f
5 5
(15.21)
τ + c0

− 5πi
= e 12 f ,
5
0
where c0 = c − 48 ≡ 0(mod 48). Thus, vc = f τ +c 5 is replaced with εvc+2
since c0 ≡ c + 2 (mod 5).
15.3.2. The change of parameter τ 7→ − τ1 . Since f − τ1 = f (τ ), then,

the change of parameter τ 7→ − τ1 replaces the function v∞ = f (5τ ) with

f − τ5 = f τ5 = v0 and v0 with v∞ . To study the behavior of vc for the

other values of c, we we will use the following equalities:

τ ∓ 48 τ ±2 ± 5πi τ ±2
v±2 = f =f ∓ 10 = e 12 f ,
5 5 5

τ ± 96 τ ∓4 ∓ 5πi τ ∓4
v±1 = f =f ± 20 = e 6 f .
5 5 5
5πi
We can verify that the change τ 7→ −1 sends v±2 into e± 12 f ±2τ −1

τ 5τ and
∓ 5πi ∓4τ −1

v±1 into e 6 f 5τ . From the following relation

2 1 −2 −1 1 −2
= ,
−5 −2 5 0 0 5
we deduce that:

−2τ − 1 −1 τ − 2
f =f A ,
5τ 5

2 1
where A = .
−5 −2
Notice that A−1 = −A, and A = ST 2 ST −2 S.
Then, we find:
−1
−1 2 1
A = = −ST 2 ST −2 S.
−5 −2
Hence,
−2τ − 1 2 −2 τ −2
f = f ST ST S .
5τ 5
τ −2
Set β = 5 . We have:
πi
f (ST 2 ST −2 Sβ) = f (T 2 ST −2 Sβ) = e− 12 f (ST −2 Sβ) = f (β).
Therefore, we conclude that the function f τ +48

5 is replaced with

− 5πi τ −2 − 5πi τ + 48 τ + 48
e 12 f =e 12 f − 10 = f .
5 5 5
τ −48

In the same way, we prove that the function f 5 is replaced with
τ −48 τ ±96

f 5 . Now, to study the function f 5 , we need the following equal-
ities:
4 3 −4 −1 −1 −4
= ,
5 4 5 0 0 −5
and −1
4 3
= ST ST −4 ST −1 .
5 4
38 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
Then, we get:

−4τ − 1 −4 −1 τ + 4
f = f ST ST ST .
5τ 5
πi
It is easy to verify that f ST ST −4 ST −1 β = e− 3 f (β), where β = τ +4

5 .
In fact, we have:
πi
f (ST ST −4 ST −1 β) = f (T ST −4 ST −1 β) = e− 24 f1 (ST −4 ST −1 β)
πi 9πi
= e− 24 f2 (T −4 ST −1 β) = e− 24 f2 (ST −1 β)
9πi πi
= e− 24 f1 (T −1 β) = e− 3 f (β).
Therefore, the function f τ +96

5 is replaced with

− 5πi − πi τ +4 − 7πi τ − 96 τ − 96
e 6 3 f =e 6 f + 20 = f .
5 5 5
We prove that v1 = f τ +96 turn into v−1 = f τ −96

5 5 . In the same way, we
show that v−1 becomes v1 .
15.3.3. The change of parameter τ 7→ ττ −1
+1 . From the formula
√

τ −1
f (τ )f = 2,
τ +1
and the following equalities

1 −1 1 −4 1 −4 5 0 1 −1
= ,
1 1 0 5 0 1 0 1 1 1
and
1 −1 1 4 1 0 1 0 1 −1
= ,
1 1 0 5 −4 1 0 5 1 1
we deduce that:
√ √
2 4πi τ −1 2 − 4πi 1τ −1
τ −4 = e
24 f 5 , =e 24 f .
τ +4

f 5 τ +1 f 5
5τ +1
So, we find:
√
τ −1 2
f 5 = 4πi
τ +1 e 24 f τ −4

5
√
2
= 4πi
e 24 f τ +96

5 − 20
√
2
= 20πi 4πi
e 24 e 24 f τ +96

5
√
− 2
= .
f τ +96
5
and
√
1τ −1 4πi 2
f =e 24
τ +4

5τ +1 f 5
√
4πi 2
=e 24
τ −96

f 5 + 20
√
2
= −20πi −4πi
τ −96

e 24 e 24 f 5
√
− 2
= τ −96
.
f 5
√
τ −1
Then, the change of parameter τ 7→ τ +1 sends v∞ = f (5τ ) into − v12 and
√
v0 = f ( τ5 ) into − v42 .
For v1 and v4 , we use the following relations:

1 −1 1 0 3 −1 1 1 1 −1
(15.22) = ,
1 1 0 5 −2 1 0 5 1 1
and

1 −1 5 0 3 1 1 −1 1 −1
(15.23) = .
1 1 0 1 2 1 0 5 1 1
τ −1 α+1
Set α = τ +1 and β = 5 . We have:

α + 96 α+1
f =f + 19
5 5

− 19πi α+1
= e 24 f1
5
19πi
= e− 24 f1 (β) .
From 15.22, we find:

√
2 3β − 1
τ
=f .
f 5
−2β + 1

3β − 1 πi β
f = e f1
24
−2β + 1 −2β + 1

πi 1
= e 24 f2 2 −
β
5πi
= e 24 f1 (β) .
40 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
Hence,
19πi 5πi
e− 24 f1 (β) = −e 24 f1 (β)
√
2
= − τ .
f 5
√
Then, we deduce that the function v1 turns into −v0 2 .
Next, we use 15.23 to prove that:
√
2 3β + 1
=f ,
f (5τ ) 2β + 1
τ −1 α−1
where α = τ +1 and β = 5 . We have:

3β + 1 πi β
f = e− 24 f1
2β + 1 2β + 1

πi
− 24 1
=e f2 −2 −
β
5πi
= e− 24 f1 (β) .
Since

α − 96 α−1
f =f − 19
5 5

19πi α−1
=e 24 f1
5
19πi
=e 24 f1 (β)
5πi
= −e− 24 f1 (β)

3β + 1
= −f
2β + 1
√
2
=− ,
f (5τ )
√
τ −1
then, the change of parameter τ 7→ τ +1 sends the function v4 into − v∞2 .
Remark 15.24. • For v2 , we use the following relation:

1 −1 −1 −2 −2 1 1 2 1 −1
= ,
1 1 0 −5 3 −2 0 5 1 1
√
to verify that v2 turns into − v22 .
√
• In the same way, we prove that v3 turns into − v32 .
5πi
Set ε = e− 12 . The results of the calculations can be arranged in the
following table:
u v∞ v0 v1 v2 v3 v4
πi
τ 7→ τ + 2 e− 12 u εv∞ εv2 εv3 εv4 εv0 εv1
(15.25)
τ 7→ − τ1 u
√
v√0 v∞√
v√4 v√2 v√3 v√1
τ −1 2
τ 7→ τ +1 u − v12 − v42 − v02 − v22 − v32 − v∞2
16. Functions invariant with respect to the changes of

−1
parameter τ 7→ τ + 2, τ 7→ − τ1 and τ 7→ ττ +1
To study the Hermite’s approach concerned the solvability of the general
quintic equation and based on the elliptic functions, we nedded to determine
the properties of the functions invariant under the transformations τ 7→ τ +2,
τ 7→ − τ1 and τ 7→ ττ −1
+1 .
Firstly, notice that the function f 24 (τ ) is fixed under the changes τ 7→ τ +2
and τ 7→ − τ1 , whereas under the change of parameter τ 7→ ττ −1 +1 it turns into
212
f 24 (τ )
. Then, the function F (τ ) defined as:
212
F (τ ) = f 24 (τ ) +
f 24 (τ )
(16.1) Y 24 Y −24
= q −1 1 + q 2k−1 + 212 q 1 + q 2k−1
= q −1 + 24 + · · ·
does not change under the transformations of parameter τ 7→ τ + 2, τ 7→ − τ1

−1
and τ 7→ ττ +1 . In the other hand, we can prove that if the function g(τ ) is
meromorphic in the upper half plane Imτ > 0 and does not change under
the transformations τ 7→ τ + 2, τ 7→ − τ1 and τ 7→ ττ −1
+1 , then, under a certain
condition, g(τ ) = R(F (τ )), where R is a rational function (see Prasoloov).
The condition in question is that the function g(q), for q = eiπτ , should be
meromorphic. For a meromorphic function g(τ ) the condition implies that
the point q = 0 is not essentially singular.
Moreover, the equation F (τ ) = c is solvable for all complex c 6= 0 (see
Pasoloov). If R(F (τ )) is finite for all τ such that F (τ ) 6= ∞, then R is a
polynomial. Indded, let R be a fraction with a nonconstant denominator.
Then, its denominator vanishes for some F (τ ) 6= ∞. If R(F ) is finite for
q = 0 as well, then R is constant.
17. Deduction of the modular equation

From 15.25, we get:
42 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
7 τ + 2 τ 7→ − τ1
τ→ 7 ττ −1
τ→ +1
uv∞ −iuv∞ uv0 − uv21
πi
u
v∞ e 3 vu∞ u
v0 − vu1
uv0 −iuv2 uv∞ − uv24
πi
u
v0 e 3
u
v2
u
v∞ − vu4
uv1 −iuv3 uv4 − uv20
πi
(17.1) u
v1 e 3
u
v3
u
v4 − vu0
πi
u
v2 e 3
u
v4
u
v2 − vu2
πi
u
v3 e 3
u
v0
u
v3 − vu3
uv4 −iuv1 uv1 − uv2∞
πi
u
v4 e 3
u
v1
u
v1 − vu∞
Consider the functions Ac = (u/vc )3 +(vc /u)3 and Bc = (uvc )2 −(4/(uvc )2 ),
where c = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ∞ . By using 17.1, we find:
−1
τ 7→ τ + 2 τ 7→ − τ1 τ 7→ ττ +1
A∞ − B ∞ B∞ − A∞ A0 − B0 B 1 − A1
A0 − B0 B 2 − A2 A∞ − B ∞ B 4 − A4
(17.2) A1 − B1 B 3 − A3 A4 − B4 B 0 − A0
A2 − B2 B 4 − A4 A2 − B2 B 2 − A2
A3 − B3 B 0 − A0 A3 − B3 B 3 − A3
A4 − B4 B 1 − A1 A1 − B1 B∞ − A∞
As a result we see that the function Πc (Ac − Bc )2 does not vary under
the transformations τ 7→ τ + 2, τ 7→ − τ1 and τ 7→ ττ −1
+1 .
Now, let us prove that the function Πc (Ac − Bc )2 vanishes at q = 0. We
can verify easily that we have:
1 1
A∞ = q − 2 (1 − 2q + · · · ), B∞ = q − 2 (1 − 2q + · · · ).
Therefore, A∞ − B∞ vanishes at q = 0, (while Imτ → ∞).
In addition, since c ≡ 0(mod48), then:

5τ − c + c
u(5τ − c) = f (5τ ) = v∞ (τ ), vc (5τ − c) = f = f (τ ) = u(τ ),
5
which implies that:
(17.3) Ac (5τ − c) = A∞ (τ ), Bc (5τ − c) = B∞ (τ ).
The conditions Im(τ ) → ∞ and Im(5τ − c) → ∞ are equivalent. So, we
deduce that Ac − Bc vanishes at q = 0 for all c.
In the other hand, the function Πc (Ac − Bc )2 is a constant that vanishes
at q = 0. Then, we get Πc (Ac − Bc )2 = 0.
Now, let us prove that Ac − Bc = 0 for all c. For all τ1 , there exists c1
such that (Ac1 −Bc1 )(τ1 ) = 0. From 17.3, we find (A∞ −B∞ )(τ 0 ) = 0, where
τ1 = 5τ 0 − c1 . Notice that τ = 5τ 0 − c, then we obtain (Ac − Bc )(τ ) = 0.
Finally, we concude that Ac − Bc = 0 for all c.
Therefore, we get:
u 3 v 3 4
+ = (uv)2 − ,
v u (uv)2
i.e.,
(17.4) v 6 − u5 v 5 + 4uv + u6 = 0.
The equation 17.4 is called the modular equation. The roots of 17.4 as
equation for v are v∞ = f (5τ ) and vc = f τ +c

5 for c ≡ 0(mod48). From
the Vieta theorem, we find:
Y
(17.5) vc = u6 .
18. solving quintic equations

Set
4
Y
P (w) = (w − wi ),
i=0
where
(v∞ − vi )(vi+1 − vi−1 )(vi+2 − vi−2 )
(18.1) wi = √ .
5u3
By using the transformation table of vc , we get:
w0 w1 w2 w3 w4
τ 7→ τ + 2 −w2 −w3 −w4 −w0 −w1
(18.2)
τ 7→ − τ1 w0 w2 w1 w4 w3
τ 7→ ττ −1
+1 −w 0 −w 3 −w 4 −w 2 −w 1
We can find five numbers A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 and A5 such that:

(18.3) P (w) = w5 + A1 w4 + A2 w3 + A3 w2 + A4 w + A5 .
The functions A21 , A2 , A23 ,A4 and A25 do not vary under the transformations
−1
τ 7→ τ + 2, τ 7→ − τ1 and τ 7→ ττ +1 . Then, they are polynomials of u24 +
212 u−24 = q −1 + 24 + · · · (see Prasoloov).
Notice that a polynomial of u24 + 212 u−24 is constant in the case where
its power series expansion in q begins with the terms λq r , where r > −1.
As we know, the function f is defined as:
∞
1 Y
f (τ ) = q − 24 (1 + q 2k−1 ), where q = eiπτ .
k=1
τ +c

Since vc = f 5 and v∞ = f (5τ ), where c ≡ 0(mod48). Then, the first
−1 πi(τ +c)
term in the expansion of vc is equal to (q 0 ) 24 , where q 0 = e 5 for c 6= ∞
44 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
4π
and q 0 = e5πiτ for c = ∞. For α = e− 5 i , we verify easily that we have
−iπc
e 120 = αc since c ≡ 0(mod48). Hence, the first term in the expansion of wi
is given by:
5 1 1
q − 24 q − 120 (αi+1 − αi−1 )q − 120 (αi+2 − αi−2 ) 1
√ −1 = λq − 10 ,
5q 8
where
α2i (α3 − α − α−1 + α−3 )
λ= √ .
5
√
by using α3 − α − α−1 + α−3 = 5, we find λ = α2i . Thus, we deduce
s
that the expansion of As begins with the term cq r , where r ≥ − 10 . So, we
2 2
deduce that the functions A1 , A2 , A3 and A4 are constants. The expansion
of A25 begins with µq −1 , where µ = (α2 α4 α6 α8 )2 = 1. We conclude that the
function A25 is linearly depends on u24 + 212 /u24 . Since µ = 1, we obtain
212
A25 = u24 + + C,
u24
where C ∈ C. To calculate the constants C, A1 , A2 , A3 and A4 , it suffices
to calculate the value of vc for τ = i. Since − 1i = i and by 15.15 we get:
(18.4) f1 (i) = f2 (i).
We remark that the functions f1 , f2 and f assume positive values for a purely
√
imaginary τ . From 18.4, 14.26 and 14.27, we deduce that u = f (i) = 4 2.
By using the equality (2 − i)(2 + i) = 5, we obtain:

i + 48 i−2 − 10πi i−2
v3 = f =f + 10 = e 24 f
5 5 5
− 10πi − πi √
4
= e 24 f (i + 2) = e 2 f (i) = −i 2.
√
In the same way, we prove that v4 = i 4 2.
For τ = i the modular equation takes the form
(18.5) v 6 − a5 v 5 + a9 v + a6 = 0,
√
where a = 4
2. Dividing the polynomial 18.5 by v 2 + a2 = (v − v3 )(v − v4 ),
we find:
(18.6) v 4 − a5 v 3 + a2 v 2 + a7 v + a4 = (v − α)2 (v − β)2 ,
√ √
where α = a(1+2 5) > 0, and β = a(1− 5)
2 < 0.
v∞ = f (5i) = f (−1/5i) = f (i/5) = v0 ,
and v∞ > 0 since f (τ ) > 0 for any purely imaginary τ .
Therefore,
√
4
√ √4
√
2(1 + 5) 2(1 − 5)
v0 = v∞ = , v1 = v4 = .
2 2
So, in the case of τ = i, by using the values of vi in the expressions of wi ,

we find: √ √
w0 = 0, w1 = w2 = i 5, w3 = w4 = −i 5.
Therefore, for τ = i the polynomial 18.3 is of the form
√ √
w(w − i 5)2 (w + i 5)2 = w(w2 + 5)2 .
Then, we deduce that A25 (i) = 0, and we have:
212

24
C = − u (i) + 24 = −(26 + 26 ) = −27 .
u (i)
Finally, we deduce that:
2
212 26

A25 = u24 + − 27 = u12 − 12 ,
u24 u
which implies that:
26

12
A5 = ± u − 12 .
u
We can can verify easily that the expansions of functions A5 = −w0 w1 w2 w3 w4
1 1
and u12 − 26 u−12 begin with −q − 2 and q − 2 , respectively. So, the equation
18.3 is of the form:
w(w2 + 5)2 = u12 − 64u−12 .
√
In the other hand, by using the relations f 8 = f18 + f28 and f f1 f2 = 2, we
find:
2
f 24 (τ ) − 64
8
12 64 f1 (τ ) − f28 (τ )
u − 12 = = .
u f 12 (τ ) f 2 (τ )
Then:
p f 8 (τ ) − f28 (τ )
w(τ ) = ± 2 1 .
f (τ )(w2 (τ ) + 5)
Set
f 8 (τ ) − f28 (τ )
(18.7) y(τ ) = 2 1 .
f (τ )(w2 (τ ) + 5)
Then, y 4 = w2 and we obtain:
f18 − f28
y 5 + 5y = y(w2 + 5) = .
f2
Now, to solve the equation
(18.8) y 5 + 5y = a,
f8 − f8
it suffices to determine f such that 1 2 2 = a. Since f 8 = f18 + f28 and
√ f
f f1 f2 = 2, we we need to solve the following the quadratic equation:
(18.9) f 24 − a2 f 12 − 64 = 0.
46 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
After, we find the values of vc (τ ), for c = ∞, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, we calculate wi (τ )

for i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and we deduce
p finally that the roots of the quintic equa-
tion 18.8 are given by yi (τ ) = wi (τ ) for i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
19. A new approach to solving the quintic equation

In this section, we propose a new simple approach to solving the general
fifth degree equation. This method is very simple, and we can determine
the set of the roots without using the elliptic functions.
19.1. Principle of the method. Thanks to the Tschirnhausen transfor-

mation, to achieve our goal, it suffices to solve the following quintic equation:
(19.1) x5 = x + α,
for all complex number α.
Let θ be a function such that θ(α) is a root of 19.1. Then, we have:
(19.2) θ5 (α) = θ(α) + α.
By deriving the function θ5 , we find:
5θ4 θ0 (α) = θ0 (α) + 1.
We multiply by θ(α), we get:
5θ5 θ0 (α) = θ0 θ(α) + θ(α).
We replace θ5 (α) by its value in 19.2, we obtain:
5(θ(α) + α)θ0 (α) = θ0 θ(α) + θ(α).
Finally, we get:
4θθ0 (α) + 5αθ0 (α) − θ(α) = 0.
So, to solving the quintic equation 19.1, we need to study the following
differential equation:
(19.3) 4yy 0 + 5xy 0 = y,
and y(0) = 1. Assume that the function y is holomorphic in a neighborhood
∞
X
of 0. Then, there exists a sequence (αn ) such that y = αn z n . From the
n=0
differential equation 19.3, we deduce that:
1


 α0 = 1, α1 = ;

 4
n−1 (19.4)
−1 X 6 − 5n
 αn = n (n − k)αk αn−k + αn−1 , for all n ≥ 1.


4n

k=1
4 1
1
Let β be the complex number defined by: β = 5 5
4
' 0.53499224398.
19.2. Solving the equation x5 = x + α for all α ∈ D(0, β).
+∞
X
Lemma 19.5. • The power series θ(z) = αn z n converges for all
n=0
z ∈ D(0, β).
• For all α ∈ D(0, β), θ(α) is a solution of the equation x5 = x + α.
Proof. • Let f be the holomorphic function defined as f (z) = z 5 − z.

There exists two functions u, v such that f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y).
We can verify easily that we have u(x, y) = x5 − 10x3 y 2 + 5xy 4 − x
and v(x, y) = y 5 − 10y 3 x2 + 5yx4 − y. The Jacobian matrix of f at
(x, y) is given by:
5x4 − 30x2 y 2 + 5y 4 − 1 −20x3 y + 20xy 3

Jf (x, y) = .
−20xy 3 + 20yx3 5y 4 − 30y 2 x2 + 5x4 − 1
In particular, the Jacobian matrix of f

at the point (1, 0) is given
4 0
by the invertible matrix Jf (1, 0) = . From the inverse func-
0 4
tion theorem[8], there is some open set V containing 1 = (1, 0) and
an open W containing f (1) = 0 such that f : V → W has a conti-
nous inverse θ : W → V which is differentiable for all z ∈ W . In the
other hand, the function θ is a solution of the differential equation
4θθ0 (α) + 5αθ0 (α) = θ(α) and θ(0) = 1. From what precedes, we
+∞
X
deduce that θ(z) = αn z n in a neighberhood of 0, where
n=0
1


 α0 = 1, α1 = ;

 4
n−1
−1 X 6 − 5n
 αn = n (n − k)αk αn−k + αn−1 , for all n ≥ 1.


4n

k=1
The above series is defined in the disk D(0, β). In fact, we have:
1 1
θ0 (z) = = 4 ,
f 0 (θ(z)) 5θ (z) − 1
48 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
for all z in a neighberhood O0 of 0. Next, we can prove that the

complex number 5θ4 (z) − 1 is nonzero in D(0, β). For that, we have:
1
5θ4 (z) − 1 = 0 ⇒ θ4 (z) =
5
1
⇒ θ5 (z) = θ(z)
5
4
⇒ θ5 (z) − θ(z) = − θ(z)
5
4
⇒ f (θ(z)) = − θ(z)
5
4
⇒ z = − θ(z).
5
For all complex number z solution of the equation θ4 (z) = 15 , we

1 1
have θ(z) = ± 15 4 , ±i 51 4 . By using the equality z = − 45 θ(z), we
1 1
get z = ± 45 15 4 , ±i 45 51 4 . In all cases, we find that 5θ4 (z) − 1
1
is zero implies that |z| = 45 51 4 = β. Thus, we conclude that
the term 5θ4 (z) − 1 is nonzero for all z ∈ D(0, β). Since θ is the
invese function of f and f 0 (θ)(z) = 5θ4 (z) − 1, then, we deduce that
the the function θ is holomorphic in D(0, β) and the power series
+∞
X
θ(z) = αn z n converges for all z ∈ D(0, β).
n=0
• Finally, we conclude easily that θ(α) is a solution of the equation:
x5 = x + α,
for all complex number α in D(0, β).

Now, using Maxima we will draw the graph of f as an approximation of

the solution θ of the above differential equation.
(% i1) u[n]:=if n=0 then 1 else(if n=1 then 1/4 else (-(1/n)*sum((n-k)*u[k]*u[n-
k],k,1,n-1)-((5*n-6)/(4*n))*u[n-1]));
(% o1)
n−1
1 1 X 5n − 6
un : = if n = 0 then 1 else if n = 1 then else − (n − k) uk un−k − un−1
4 n 4n
k=1
(% i2) makelist(u[k],k,0,10);
(% o2)
1 5 5 385 1 23205 2145 6705765 5 534734915
[1 , , − , ,− , ,− , ,− , ,− ]
4 32 32 2048 4 65536 4096 8388608 4 268435456
(% i5) f(x):=sum(u[k]*x**k,k,0,20);g(x):=x**5-x;expand(g(f(x)))$
20
X
(% o3) f(x) : = uk xk
k=0
(% o4) g(x) : = x5 − x
(% i6) wxplot2d([f(x),g(x),g(f(x))-x], [x,-1,1], [y,-5,5])$

plot2d : somevalueswereclipped.plot2d : somevalueswereclipped.
(% t6)
We can verify that we have:
2874128245669270554275 22
g(f (x)) = x − 2530x21 + x + ···
(19.6) 2305843009213693952
− Kx100 ,
where K is a positive real number.
19.3. Solving the equation x5 = x + α for all α ∈ C. Since the function

∞
X
θ(z) = αn z n is not defined in C \ D(0, β). Then, we need to generalise
n=0
this approach in the sense to solve the above quintic equation for all complex
number α. In the subsection, we propose to solve this equation for certain
α∈ / D(0, β). For instance, we take α = 2 and we try to solve the equation
x5 = x + 2. The solution is given by η(2) where η is a solution of the
differential equation:
(
4ηη 0 (z) + 5zη 0 (z) = η(z)
(19.7)
η is defined and holomorphic in a neighborhood of 2.
Let α be a complex number, we choose α close enough to 2 to guarantee
that η is defined on a neighborhood Vα which contains the two numbers α
and 2. For instance, if there is no problem, we take:
(
α = 1.9157969376
(19.8)
α0 = η(α) = 1.26 (since 1.265 − 1.26 = α)
The function ϕ defined by ϕ(z) = η(z + α) is holomorphic in a neighbor-
∞
X
hood of zero, we take ϕ(z) = αn z n . A solution of the quintic x5 = x + 5
n=0
is given by η(2) = ϕ(2 − α). From the differential equation:
4ηη 0 (z) + 5zη 0 (z) = η(z),
50 SAGHE ABDELJALIL
we get:
(19.9) 4ϕϕ0 (z) + 5zϕ0 (z) = ϕ(z) − 5αϕ0 (z).
By using the above differential equation, we obtain:


 α0 = 1.26, α1 = 0.0861892961;
Pn−2
(19.10) αn−1 (6 − 5n − 4α1 n) 4 k=2 (n − k)αk αn−k
 αn =
 − ∀n ≥ 2.
n(4α0 + 5α) n(4α0 + 5α)
Using Maxima, we find:
(% i1) v[n]:=if n=0 then 1.26 else (if n=1 then 0.0861892961 else-
(4/(14.61898468*n))*sum((n-k)*v[k]*v[n-k],k,2,n-2)-((5.3447571844*n-
6)/(14.61898468*n))*v[n-1]);
vn : = if n = 0 then 1.26 else if n = 1 then 0.0861892961
4
Pn−2 5.3447571844n−6
else − 14.61898468n k=2 (n − k) vk vn−k − 14.61898468n vn−1 (% o1)
(% i2) makelist(v[k],k,1,10);
[0.0861892961 , −0.01382400868955927 , 0.003162870294601841 , −8.57971671463150610−4 ,
2.552146073563481 10−4 , −8.0463551538729510−5 , 2.64078773875221810−5 ,
-8.925939532020811 10−6 , 3.0857447148908810−6 , −1.08592958826355310−6 ](% o2)
(% i8) h(x):=sum(v[k]*(x-1.9157969376)**k,k,0,10);g(x):=x**5-
x;l(x):=x;expand(g(h(x)))$g(h(2))-2;h(2);
10
X
(% o3) h(x) : = vk (x − 1.9157969376)k
k=0
(% o4) g(x) : = x5 − x
(% o5) l(x) : = x
(% o7) −8.4073183427291210−5
(% o8) 1.267161234499491
(% i9) wxplot2d([h(x),g(x),l(x),g(h(x))-x], [x,-6,10], [y,-5,10])$

plot2d : somevalueswereclipped.plot2d : somevalueswereclipped.plot2d : somevalueswereclipped.plot2
(% t9)
Conclusion
In this work, we have proposed a new simple approach to solve the quin-
tic equation without using the elliptic functions. We believe that the new
method becomes more usable for many researchers in all fields of mathe-
matics not only for the specialists in Galois theory and elliptic functions.
References
[1] J. V. Armitage and W. F. Eberlein, Elliptic Functions, Cambridge University Press,
2006.
[2] V. Prasolov and Y. Solovyev, Elliptic Functions and Elliptic Integrals, Providence,
R.I.: American Mathematical Society, 1997.
[3] D. S. Dummit, Solving Solvable Quintics, Mathematics of Computation, 57, 195
(1991), pp. 387-401.
[4] B. K. Spearman, K. Williams, Characterization of Solvable Quintics x5 + ax + b,
The American Mathematical Monthly, 101, 10 (1994), pp. 986-992.
[5] I. Gozard, Théorie de Galois, Ellipses-Edition Marketing, 1997.
[6] A. Saghe, Solving a quartic equation and certain equations with degree n, European
Journal of Mathematical Sciences, 3, 1 (2017), pp. 43-50.
[7] T. Johansson, Analytic Solutions to Algebraic Equations, 1998.
[8] X. Gourdon, Les maths en tête, Ellipses-Marketing, 1994.
[9] P. Güner, T. Uygun, Developmental process of quadratic equations from past to
present and reflections on teaching-learning, HAYEF Journal of Education, 13, 3
(2016), pp. 149-163.
View publication stats

Article Novo

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Article Novo

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

A NEW APPROACH FOR SOLVING THE GENERAL FIFTH DEGREE EQUATION

Preprint · February 2022

nonstandard analysis View project

algebraic equations View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Abstract. In this article, we propose a new way to solving the general

15.1. Transformations of theta functions induced by transformations

x5 + tan(θ)x3 = cos(θ)x2 + sin(θ)

Proof. We can prove this lemma by induction. In fact, if n = 1, the above

Definitions 3.10. An extension E/F is said to be Galois extension if it is

Proposition 5.2. The following are equivalent for a group G:

6. Properties of Soluble Groups

7. Solvability of the equations by radicals

where ∆ = 4p3 + 27q 2 . The polynomial p is solvable by radicals, in

Theorem 7.3. Let k be a field containing n distinct nth roots of unity

which is soluble. From the Proposition 6.1, we deduce that the

8. Impossibility of solving the quintic

Lemma 8.2. For n ≥ 5, Sn is not solvable.

8.2. Insoluble quintics.

Corollary 9.4. Let f and g be two non-zero polynomials with coefficients

10. Tschirnhaus transformation

• If (5β − 2α2 = 0) ∧ (4α3 − 13αβ + 15γ = 0) . In this case, we find

To choose c1 = 0, we take q = (3mr+4s)

11. Determining the solvable quintics

Theorem 11.4. Let G be a solvable subgroup of Sp acting transitively on

11.2. The solvable quintic equation.

12. solving solvable quintics

Then, there exists a finite set E 0 such that S5 =

θ3 = (1 3 2)θ1 = x21 x2 x3 + x21 x4 x5 + x22 x1 x4 + x22 x3 x5 + x23 x1 x5 + x23 x2 x4 + x24 x1 x3

θ4 = (1 2)θ1 = x21 x2 x3 + x21 x4 x5 + x22 x1 x5 + x22 x3 x4 + x23 x1 x4 + x23 x2 x5 + x24 x1 x2

θ5 = (2 3)θ1 = x21 x2 x4 + x21 x3 x5 + x22 x1 x5 + x22 x3 x4 + x23 x1 x2 + x23 x4 x5 + x24 x1 x3

θ6 = (1 3)θ1 = x21 x2 x4 + x21 x3 x5 + x22 x1 x3 + x22 x4 x5 + x23 x1 x4 + x23 x2 x5 + x24 x1 x5

13. Characterization of Solvable Quintics

where u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 are nonzero real numbers and ω is a complex fifth root

To solve the quintic equation x5 + ax + b = 0, we need to determine the

(13.5) u1 u22 + u2 u24 + u3 u21 + u4 u23 = 0,

(13.6) 5(u21 u24 + u22 u23 − u31 u2 − u32 u4 − u33 u1 − u34 u3 − u1 u2 u3 u4 ) = a,

(13.7) 5((u31 u3 u4 + u32 u1 u3 + u33 u2 u4 + u34 u2 u1 )

The numbers u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 proposed in this Theorem are given by:

v12 v3 v32 v4 v22 v1 v42 v2

By using these equalities, we find

14. The properties of the theta functions

that Θ3 (v|τ ) is a series of entire functions of v converging uniformly in the

(14.3) = ie 4 q m e2mviπ eiπm e−πimτ

The functions Θ0 , Θ1 , Θ2 and Θ3 are called theta functions.

In the same way, we can prove the following lemma:

Lemma 14.6. (1) Θk (v + 1) = Θk (v) for k = 0, 3 and Θk (v + 1) =

Let Γ be the boundary of Π oriented counterclockwise, we have:

14.3. The relation Θ43 = Θ42 + Θ40 . We denote by Θi = Θi (0) for i = 0, 2, 3

a = −Θ22 and b = Θ23 . Then there exists c such that:

By substituting v = 0 and v = 12 in the relation Θ0 (v) = Θ3 v + 21 , we get

In particular, for v = 0 we get:

14.4. Representation of theta functions by infinite products. The

The other theta funcions are defined as:

Now, let us prove that:

The sequence of functions defined as

converges uniformly to the function

Comparing the coefficients of degree zero in s, we find 1c = lim a0 (n).

which implies that:

Let |q|2 = α < 1. We have 1 − αn ≤ |1 − q 2(n+k) | ≤ 1 + αn . Moreover,

and the desired result

14.6. Dedekind’s η−function and the functions f, f1 , f2 . The η−function

From the definition of the theta functions Θ3 , Θ0 , Θ2 , we have:

In particular, the Jacobian matrix of f