Results in Chemistry 3 (2021) 100163

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Results in Chemistry
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Graphene synthesis, characterization and its applications: A review

Vestince B. Mbayachi a, *, Euphrem Ndayiragije b, Thirasara Sammani c, Sunaina Taj d,
Elice R. Mbuta d, Atta ullah khan e, *
a
Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics (DICP), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), 457 Zhongshan Road, Dalian 116023, China
b
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Burundi, Po Box 2700 Bujumbura, Burundi
c
School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259, Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohoma 226-8501, Japan
d
Department of Biotechnology, Bangalore City College Affiliated to Bengaluru University, Chellikere, Kalyan Nagara, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560043, India
e
Department of Biotechnology, University of Malakand, 18800, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Since 2004, graphene has attracted a lot of attention among scientists and engineers. In recent years, graphene, a
Growth mechanism two dimensional monolayer planar sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atom has witnessed a revolution in its applica­
Graphene properties tions because of its exemplary unique properties in terms of large specific surface area, physicochemical prop­
Graphene stacking
erties, mechanical strength, extraordinary thermal and electronic conductivity. There are several techniques used
Graphene structure
Fabrication
to synthesize high-quality graphene on a large scale. This review summarizes the fabrication of graphene by
Pristine graphene chemical, mechanical, thermal decomposition and chemical vapor deposition. In addition, the characterization
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) methods and applications of graphene in different research fields have been discussed. This article winds up by
giving a brief summary, illuminate the problems, and states the prospects of graphene.

1. Introduction
To understand the graphene history, some terms such as carbon,
graphite, and graphene are important to be discussed. Carbon, the most
abundantly element on earth, takes its name from the Latin word carbo
meaning charcoal [1–3]. Carbon forms many allotropes with many po­
tential applications. The major ones known since antiquity are graphite
and diamond [4]. Until the mid-1980, carbon was believed to exist in
two only physical forms which are diamond and graphite, and it were in
1985 that fullerene cluster, a new form of allotropes of carbon was
discovered [5]. It was believed that graphite was a lead ore and was
called “plumbago”. In 1779, Scheele demonstrated that plumbago is
actually carbon, not lead since people used it to write marks on their
sheep, Verner (1789) named it graphite (a Greek word for “writing”) [6].
During the Middle Ages, the weak dispersion forces in between the
adjacent sheets and layers were utilized to produce marking in­
struments, just in the similar way that we make pencils today from
graphite [7].
Ubbelohde and Lewis (1960) isolated a mono-atom plane of graphite
and pointed out that graphite consists of layers, which are a network of
hexagonal rings of carbon atoms [6]. Therefore, the single carbon
atomic layer of graphite may compactly arrange into a two dimensional
(2D) honeycomb lattice known as graphene. That name was introduced
by Boehm et al. in 1994 [8], however, according to Mouras et al. (1987),
the term “graphene” first appeared in 1987 to describe single sheet of
graphite, that is the main building block of graphitic materials such as
graphite, fullerene, and carbon nanotubes [6,9]. Even though graphene
came into existence in 1859 by Benjamin Collins Brodie, it has been
studied theoretically for many years by Wallace [10] and was originally
observed in an electron microscope in 1962 [11].
However , it is in 2004, when Novoselov and Geim successfully
isolated and studied a single-atom-thick crystallite (graphene) from bulk
graphite and transfer them onto thin silicon dioxide on a silicon wafer by
a famous Scotch Tape Technique [6,8] that the properties of graphene
material were achieved [12]. It is noted that, the first graphene was
extracted from graphite using a technique called micromechanical
cleavage [13] and the Nobel Prize in 2010 was awarded jointly to
Konstatntin Novoselov and Andre Geim in Physics “for groundbreaking
experiments on the two-dimensional material graphene” [1,14,15].
Currently, graphene is a trending nanomaterial which is replacing sili­
con in different applications across various research fields.
This is due to their nano-scale physical, thermal, mechanical, and
chemical characteristics. Considering graphene’s promising properties,
it is attracting sponsors and large grants [16]. According to the Chemical

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: mbayachivestince@yahoo.com (V.B. Mbayachi), armanbbt391@gmail.com (A. khan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2021.100163
Received 15 April 2021; Accepted 26 July 2021
Available online 3 August 2021
2211-7156/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
V.B. Mbayachi et al. Results in Chemistry 3 (2021) 100163

Abstracts Service (CAS) database and the National Science Foundation donates an extra electron to π bond, these pi electrons are delocalized at
(NSF), the number of publications on graphene has increased signifi­ room temperature yielding high conductivity [23].
cantly and millions of dollars are spent to fund graphene research. Besides, graphene is naturally a semimetal and its benzene ring-like
electronic structure comprises of six π-orbitals with three occupied
2. Structure and properties of graphene bonding and three unoccupied antibonding orbitals, separated by a
bandgap. Fusing of these benzene rings leads to a little overlap between
Graphene is a carbon nanomaterial made of two-dimensional layers the valence and conduction bands thus the electrons from the top
of a single atom thick planar sheet of sp2-bonded carbon atoms packed valence band can flow to the bottom conduction band without stimu­
tightly in a honeycomb lattice crystal [13,17]. Graphene’s structure is lating any heat (Fig. 2) [24,25]. Aggregation of the layers of graphene
similar to lots of benzene rings jointed where hydrogen atoms are determines the specific surface area. The modification of pristine gra­
replaced by the carbon atoms Fig. 1a and is considered as hydrophobic phene with other compounds decreases the aggregation and increases
because of the absence of oxygen groups [10]. Furthermore, it is a car­ the effective surface area [26]. In recent years, graphene has fascinated
bon allotrope in the structure of a plane of sp2 bonded atoms with a much attention of researchers, owing to its extraordinary electronic,
molecule bond length of 0.142 nm. Layers of graphene are piled together optical, magnetic, thermal, and mechanical properties as well as large
to form graphite, with an inter-planar spacing of 0.335 nm [11]. surface area [27].
This stacking makes a three-dimensional structure of graphite
(Fig. 1b), while graphene is a two-dimensional, one-atom-thick material 3. Growth mechanism of graphene
[6]. Graphene has a hybridized sp2 bonding. It displays a single π orbital
and three σ bonds perpendicular to the plane (Fig. 1c). The strong in- Recently, there are several methods used to synthesize graphene.
plane σ bonds act as the hexagonal rigid backbone structure, while the This synthesis process is known as extracting graphene depending on the
out-of plane π bonds control the interaction between different graphene purity and the desired product [28]. After the 2004 graphene’s discov­
layers. In any case, the changes in the structure of graphene are mainly ery, different techniques were developed to produce layers and thin
due to the absence of one or more sp2 carbon atoms or the presence of
one or more different atoms with sp3 hybridization [20]. Over the pre­
vious decades, single sp2 bonded carbon atom allotropes from 0 to 3
dimensionalities such as nanotube, fullerene, graphene, and graphite
have been integrated into diverse polymer matrices due to their excep­
tional thermal, mechanical, electrical properties and lightweight [21].
With the carbon atoms bonded covalently within the plane, forming
σ-bonds with three neighboring carbon atoms and one out-of-plane
π-bond, this network of sp2 carbon atoms gives graphene its unique
properties [12]. Graphene’s tensile strength is around 125 GPa and its
elastic modulus is 1.1 TPa, this makes the strength of graphene to be 100
times more than that of steel [22]. The thermal conductivity of graphene
is around (5 × 103 W/mK), henceforth 10 times higher than that of
copper (401 W/mK). Graphene’s electron mobility has a conductivity of
106 S/m, and resistance of 31 Ω/sq. which accounts for ultra-high
Fig. 2. Electronic band structure of single-layer graphene. Adapted from
mobility of (2 × 105 cm2/V.s) that is 140 more than that of silicon.
Ref. [25]. Copyright 2009 Royal Society of Chemistry.
The reason for this ultra-high mobility is sp2 hybridization which

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic presentation of the graphene’s hexagonal lattice structure [18]. (b) Three most typical graphite structures and stacking arrangements of
graphene and (c) Schematic of the out-plane π orbitals and in-plane σ bonds perpendicular to the plane of the graphene sheets [19].

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V.B. Mbayachi et al. Results in Chemistry 3 (2021) 100163

films of graphene [29]. As shown in Fig. 3, Chemical vapor deposition Table 1

(CVD) [30], chemical exfoliation [31], chemical synthesis [32], and A summary of top-down and bottom-up methods of graphene’s growth mecha­
mechanical cleaving [33] are some of the commonly used methods of nism [34].
graphene synthesis. Method Thickness Lateral Advantage Disadvantage
Top-down and bottom-up synthesis methods are determined by the Micromechanical Few µm to cm Unmodified Very small
number of layers, thickness, the nature and average size of the graphene exfoliation layers and large size scale
materials. In top-down growth mechanism process, graphene sheets are graphene production
produced by exfoliation/separation of graphite and its derivatives sheets
Electrochemical Single to 500–700 High electrical High cost of
including graphite oxide (GO). Table 1 summarizes both top-down and
exfoliation few nm conductivity of ionic liquids
bottom-up synthesis methods as well as their advantages and layers the
disadvantages. functionalized
graphene
Direct sonication Both µm Inexpensive Low yield
3.1. Micromechanical exfoliation/cleavage of graphene single and
and unmodified
Mechanical exfoliation is also known as Scotch tape or peel-off multiple graphene
method. It was the first method to be used by Novoselov and Geim for layers
Reduction of Multiple Sub-µm Un-oxidized Contamination
the production of graphene with the help of an adhesive tape to force the carbon layers sheets with α-Al2S and
graphene layers apart (Fig. 4) [28,35,36]. In this method, multiple monoxide (CO) α-Al2O3
layers of graphene remain on the tape after peeling off, but with Epitaxial growth Few Up to cm Very large area Very small
recurrent peeling, it splits open into a handful of graphene flakes. For on SiC layers size of pure scale
graphene
detachment, the tape is attached to a certain substrate (acetone) and a
Unzipping of Multiple few µm Size depend on Expensive and
final peeling by using a fresh tape is carried out to obtain flakes different carbon layers long the starting oxidized
in both size and thickness which can be observed under a light micro­ nanotubes nano nanotubes graphene
scope on SiO2/Si substrates [37]. This process is slow and imprecise, ribbons
hence the material produced is most often used to study the properties of CVD Few layer Very Large size; high Small
large quality production
graphene rather than actually using it commercially [35]. This method (cm) scale
can also be performed by using different agents such as electric field
[38], epoxy resin [39], and by transfer printing technique [40].
at the anode. The exfoliation process was carried on for 4 h to isolate the
3.2. Electrochemical exfoliation product from the cell. It was then centrifuged at 1000 rpm and then the
product was gradually poured out. The dispersion obtained was found to
Graphite exfoliation by electrochemical techniques has become a be extremely stable. Powdered dry graphene was achieved by washing
simple but yet high yielding method in recent times for the mass pro­ the dispersion with deionized water and alcohol followed by vacuum
duction of graphene [41]. This method involves the use of various forms drying. Then the yield was calculated by weighing the dry powder and
of graphite such as graphite foils, plates, rods and graphite powders as sediment [8].
electrodes in an aqueous or non-aqueous electrolyte and electric current
to bring about the expansion of electrodes. The electrodes could be of 3.3. Pyrolysis
two types based on the power applied, that is, Cathodic (Negative) and
Anodic (Positive) electrodes [42,43]. Wang et al. [44] in their study used The word pyrolysis originated from the Greek-derived element pyro
Pure Graphite as electrodes and PSS (Polysodium-4-styrenesulfonate) and lysis. Pyro means fire and lysis stand for separating. Synthesized
solubilized in deionized water to incarnate the electrolyte. They carbon atom on a metal surface is a simple procedure used to fabricate
accommodated the graphite rods in an electrochemical cell which was few-layer graphene [45]. One of the common techniques of graphene
filled with the electrolyte. A persistent current of 5 V was applied. Few synthesis is the thermal decomposition of silicon carbide (SiC). At high
minutes of electrolysis resulted in the accumulation of a black material temperature, Si is desorbed leaving behind C atom which forms few

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of different methods of graphene synthesis [18]. Copyright 2017 Elsevier Ltd.

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V.B. Mbayachi et al.
Fig. 4. ‘Scotch tape’ graphene synthesis procedure, first reported in 2004 by
Novoselov and Geim. Adapted from Ref. [36]. Copyright 2012 Nature.
graphene layers as shown in [46]. This technique has received a sig­
nificant improvement through the continuous production of graphene
films in mm scale at a temperature of 750 ℃ on a thin film of nickel
coated on SiC substrate [47]. The advantage of this method is the
continuous production of graphene films over the entire SiC coated
surface. However, this method cannot be used in the synthesis of gra­
phene in large scale. A similar approach is applied in the thermal
decomposition of ethylene at 1000 k. The advantage of this synthesis
method is the production of high purity graphene mono-layer [48].
3.4. Chemical vapor deposition
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a bottom-up synthesis technique
used for production of high-quality graphene on a large-scale basis [49].
This method involves combining a gas molecule with a surface substrate
inside a reaction chamber under temperature, pressure, and gas flow
rate conditions [50]. A typical CVD instrument includes a quartz reac­
tion chamber, a mass flow controller, a pump, thermocouples for tem­
perature measurement, a gas delivery system, a vacuum system, an
energy system and a computer for auto-control (Fig. 5) [51,52].
Different substrates are used in CVD for graphene film growth, they
include Nickel (Ni) [53], Copper (Cu) [54], Iron (Fe) [55], and Stainless
steel [56]. Methane (CH4) and acetylene (C2H2) are normally used as a
carbon source. Two CVD processes are used to activate the carbon source
and include; thermal CVD and plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD) [57].
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of a typical CVD equipment. Excerpted from Ref.[52]. Copyright 2021 Nature Reviews.
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Results in Chemistry 3 (2021) 100163
Thermal CVD consists of a vacuum tube, high-temperature heating
furnace, vacuum pump, vacuum gauge to control pressure and a mass
flow controller to regulate carbon and career gas used in the synthesis of
graphene. In PECVD, plasma leads to the decomposition of the gas
source and then reacts with metal substrate resulting in the growth of
graphene films [58]. Power sources such as direct current (DC) [59],
microwave [60], and radio frequency (RF) [61] have been used as a
plasma source. Advantage of PECVD over thermal CVD is that graphene
growth mechanism can occur under low pressure and temperatures
[62]. Carbon source decomposes at high temperature into hydrogen and
carbon atoms [63].
(i) CH4(g) —— greater than 2H2 (g) + C(S) (ii) C2H2(g)— –> H2(g) +
2C(s)
In this CVD method, hydrogen and argon gas are used as carrier gases
to remove and clean unwanted oxides on the metal catalyst surface.
Transition metal substrates such as Cu and Ni have typically been
utilized for the CVD growth of graphene [64]. This growth process fol­
lows two main steps: i) Formation of carbon by pyrolysis of the gas
precursor and ii) the formation of the carbon structure of graphene using
the segregated carbon on the surface of the metal catalyst [65]. For
instance, the production of graphene by using polycrystalline Ni is
achieved by first annealing Ni in an H2 atmosphere at the desired tem­
perature of 900–1000 ℃ with grain size [66]. The substrate is exposed to
H2/CH4 gas mixture, here CH4 is used as the source of carbon. The
decomposition of hydrocarbon makes the carbon atom to dissolve in the
Ni film where the solid solution is formed. Ni has high solubility at high
temperature and the solid solution of Ni is cooled down in argon gas to
form Ni-C precipitate which etches graphene (Fig. 6) [67]. Although Ni
is a good substrate for the production of graphene, the quality of Ni film
can affect the percentage and size of the monolayer graphene. The
cooling rate affects the thickness and quality of graphene, and the
microstructure of Ni also can affect the formation of graphene
morphology [68].
4. Characterization of graphene
Graphene’s characterization is an important aspect of the study and
research of graphene. Characterizations involve the investigation of
graphene morphology, properties, defects, and layers based on spec­
troscopic and microscopic measurements[69,70]. Raman Spectroscopy
[71], Scanning electron microscope (SEM), Transmission electron mi­
croscope (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), ultraviolet–visible
V.B. Mbayachi et al. Results in Chemistry 3 (2021) 100163

Fig. 6. A schematic diagram showing the growth mechanism for CVD Graphene growth on Ni substrate. (a) Graphene growth by dissolution-precipitation mech­
anism and (b) Graphene growth direct by deposition mechanism [67].

spectroscopy (UV–Vis), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) are used
characterization techniques [72].
By Raman Spectroscopy Graphene layers and the structural quality
can be studied by Raman spectroscopy [73]. Monochromatic radiation
of Raman spectroscopy interacts with the molecular vibration of gra­
phene resulting in a shift in radiation due to scattering [74]. Three main
peaks are observed in graphene and include; D, G and 2D peaks. D peak
is observed at 1350 cm− 1 indicating a disorder in sp2 hybridization [75].
G peak is located at 1580 cm− 1 representing lattice vibration and 2D is
located at 2700 cm− 1 originating from Raman scattering second order at
Dirac point (Fig. 7a) [76]. An increase in graphene disorder increases the
ratio ID/IG because of the elastic scattering due to the higher defect in­
tensity. However, when the carbon structure becomes more amorphous,
the ID/IG ratio decreases [77]. Jorio et al. [78] conducted a Raman study
on the ion-induced defects in N- layer graphene. Raman spectrum of
graphene also known as the G band, exhibits G mode due to the
stretching of the C–C bond [79]. It is marked by a strong peaks at 1580
cm− 1 which is the first-order of the Raman spectrum-allowed feature

Fig. 7. (a) Raman spectra of graphene deposited on alumina substrate with Ni electrode. (b) Graphene’s high-resolution TEM image in dimethyl sulfoxide. (c) SEM
images of graphene sheet structure encapsulated by PET and (d) XRD spectra of graphene, graphite oxide and pristine graphite. Adapted from Ref. [80]. Copyright ©
2010 Elsevier Ltd.

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V.B. Mbayachi et al.
originating from the zone centre (Photon wave vector q = 0).
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) is the most used technique
in the study of graphene’s structural quality and the number of layers.
TEM images are formed when the electron beam interacts with the
material under study [81]. Fig. 7b displays TEM image of graphene’s
number of layers in dimethyl sulfoxide. 3, 4, 5, and 6 dark fringes can be
observed which represent the layers of graphene. Graphene layers are
parallel to the beam of the electron.
SEM is used to study the morphology of graphene. SEM imaging
involves advantages such as detection of impurities, graphene folds, and
discontinuities during the synthesis process. However, it’s limited in the
resolution of ultrathin layers of graphene. Fig. 7c represents the struc­
ture of graphene sheets which are encapsulated by polyethylene tere­
phthalate (PET) at 2 nm. Due to the interaction of PET and graphene, the
thickness of the graphene sheets increased from 1.57 nm to 50 nm. Large
surface area of graphene nanosheets increased the interface area be­
tween PET and graphene thus providing many tunneling sites for elec­
tron transport [82].
X-Ray Diffraction technique is mainly used to identify the phase of
the material based on cell dimension units [81]. Fig. 7d exhibits the XRD
of graphene, graphite oxide and graphite. A sharp and high diffraction
peak of graphite occurs at 26.6 degrees. The peak then shifts to 13.3
degrees indicating the presence of oxygen molecule. After fabrication,
there is no peak hence indicating that graphene was synthesized [80].
UV–visible spectroscopy can be used to characterize the layers and
types of graphene (graphene oxide and pristine graphene). UV–visible
absorbance results from transition of electrons at carbon pi bonds (π-π*
transition) exhibits an absorption peak of monolayer graphene oxide at
around 230 nm, whereas pristine graphene exhibit its absorption peak
between 250 and 270 nm [83]. The number of layers and graphene
thickness can be studied by ultraviolet transmittance. Atomic force mi­
croscopy (AFM) is utilized in determining the surface structure and
thickness of graphene [84]. An AFM generates images by scanning a
small cantilever over the surface of a sample. The sharp nanoscale tip at
the end of the cantilever contacts the surface, thus bending the canti­
lever and changes the amount of laser light reflected into the photo­
diode. The cantilever height is then adjusted to restore the response
signal arising from the measured cantilever height tracing the surface.
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of (a) magnified view of the graphene supercapacitor structure (b) theoretical specific energy density of graphene supercapacitor at
different graphene’s density content [86].
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Results in Chemistry 3 (2021) 100163
5. Applications of graphene
Due to the exemplary properties of graphene such as lightweight,
electrical conductivity, strong mechanical, and thermal strength, gra­
phene is widely involved in different applications such as electro­
chemiluminescence (ECL) sensor [85], transistors, water filtration,
energy storage, biosensors and solar cells [18].
5.1. Energy storage
Graphene is applied in energy storage devices such as batteries and
supercapacitors because of its high surface area [86]. In Li-ion batteries,
graphene is widely used as anode and has a capacity of about 1000 mAh
g− 1 which is three times higher than that of graphite electrode. Gra­
phene also offers longer-lasting batteries and faster recharge time in
seconds. Also, due to its flexibility, graphene is used as solid-state
supercapacitor printed device in textiles for wearable electronics
(Fig. 8a) [87]. The theoretical specific energy density increases with
increase in graphene content in the supercapacitor as illustrated in
Fig. 8b. Wang et al. [88], synthesized pillared graphene using a chemical
vapor deposition method using hydrogen gas and ethylene as carbon
source on 20 μm copper foil at 750 degrees. They used the synthesized
graphene as the anode in Li-ion battery and demonstrated exemplary
cycling stability of more than 250 cycles.
5.2. Water filtration technology
Graphene nanoporous membranes can ideally be used for water
desalination and filtration with an efficiency of 33 % to 100 %
depending on the pore size and the applied pressure. Tanugi and
Grossman [89], first studied the classical molecular dynamics and re­
ported that water could flow through graphene membranes at a range of
up to 100L cm− 2 day -1 which is higher in magnitude than RO diffusive
membranes [89]. The desalination capacity of salt water depends on the
pore size of the membrane, quantity of chemical composition, and the
applied pressure. Graphene membranes have the capacity to reject 97 %
of NaCl from seawater. Abraham et al. [90] showed that the decrease in
the interlayer of graphene decreased the permeation rate, but the
transportation of water was least affected.
V.B. Mbayachi et al.
5.3. Transistors
At room temperature, the carrier mobility of graphene is very high,
this property makes graphene to be applied in transistors [91]. Lemme
et al. [92], initiated the graphene’s field-effect transistors. In their
experiment, the top gate modulated the drain current and one layer
graphene had better field-effect characteristics compared to silicon
transistors. Wu et al [93], illustrated how the fabrication of radio fre­
quency top-gate graphene transistors exhibited cut-off frequencies of
more than 155 GHz with reduced gate length to 40 nm. Vicarelli et al.
[94], used antenna-coupled field-effect graphene transistors to detect
radiation of terahertz and from then field-effect graphene transistors
have been applied in sensing proteins, biomolecules, cells, gas and DNA.
5.4. Solar cells
Recently, solar cells have played a vital role in the production of
electrical power. Solar cells efficiency is an important factor in con­
verting light energy into electricity [95]. Graphene, because of their
exemplary optical, mechanical, and electrical properties, have been
incorporated in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) and used as electrodes
to boost the efficiency of photovoltaic cells [96,97]. They were for the
first time used as transparent electrodes in 2008 to replace fluorine-
doped tin oxide (FTO) at the photo anode [98]. CdS/graphene nano­
composites exhibits superior photocatalytic activities. Introduction of
graphene in CdS semiconductor improves photostability, increases the
number of reaction sites, and enhances light absorption capacity in solar
cells [99–102]. Shin et al. [103], exfoliated porous silicon hetero­
junction photovoltaic cells by using graphene doped with Ag nanowires.
The exfoliated solar cells had an efficiency of 4.03%. Shi et al. [104],
improved the photovoltaic cells efficiency by adding carbon nanotubes
to graphene. During the absorption of light, a minor hole transfer along
carbon nanotubes impacted to increased efficiency to 15.2%.
5.5. Biomedicine
Graphene has a vast number of applications in biomedicine. Recently
Fig. 9. Scheme of a graphene-based sensor with its potential biomedical applications in detecting organic molecules, microbial cells and biomolecules. Adapted from
Ref. [107]. Copyright 2015 Royal Society of Chemistry.
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Results in Chemistry 3 (2021) 100163
nano-graphene has been developed for potential applications in imag­
ing, and photothermal therapy [105]. The sensing capacity of graphene-
based electrodes can be tuned by modifying the surface chemistry of
graphitic materials, resulting in biosensing applications such as detec­
tion of organic molecules, microbial cells and biomolecules (Fig. 9).
Nano graphene expresses ultra-high surface area convenient for effec­
tive binding to biomolecules and used as carriers for gene and drug
delivery [106].
5.5.1. Graphene based biosensors
Graphene sheets are altered by using electrodeposition and elec­
tronic doping methods to construct biosensors [108]. Its excellent
properties including optical properties, electrical thermal properties and
large surface-to-volume ratio leads to develop more accurate biosensors
[109]. Graphene on Polyethylenimine-functionalized ionic liquid (PFIL)
is used to develop glucose biosensors. It is an excellent candidate to
develop affordable biosensors which have good stability and sensitivity
towards enzymes [110]. Graphene electrodes are good electrocatalysis
to O2 and H2O2 and induces the kinetics of electron transfer of the re­
action. Liberated H2O2 can be used to quantify the amount of glucose
which recognize enzymatic hydrolysis of negatively charged glucose
oxidase [111]. Basically, graphene acts as a matrix to the enzyme.
Another example is real-time label-free optical biosensors which are
constructed by using graphene-based materials [112]. Surface plasmon
resonance biosensor (SPR) is an example for optical biosensors which
are used in medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, etc. Gra­
phene improves the sensitivity of SPR biosensors [113] and acts as a
good adsorbing layer for biomolecules due to graphene’s hexagonal and
carbon ring structure. Biomolecules are adsorbed to graphene by π-π
interactions and embedding gold metals enhances the sensitivity of SPR
biosensors [114]. Graphene materials are also used to develop protein
and DNA biosensors. Sensitivitys of the biosensors depend on interaction
between DNA and carbon nanomaterials [115].
5.5.2. Multi model imaging and photothermal therapy
In vivo imaging and photothermal therapy depend on the photo­
sensitivity of the material [116]. Graphene nanoplatelets have been used
V.B. Mbayachi et al.
in imaging techniques due to its strong near infrared (NIR) absorbance,
low toxicity, and efficient tumor targeting properties [117]. Pegylated
(polyethylene glycol) nano-graphene oxide (NGO) is used for cellular
imaging. NGO can act as a NIR fluorophore for specific biological
samples and imaging. How nano-graphene sheets with polyethylene
glycol (NGS-PEG) were injected into the mice and observed for the
tumor growth. There was no effect with only PEG-NGS or only laser.
However, NGS-PEG and NIR laser treatment together were able to
eliminate the tumor completely.
5.5.3. Drug delivery system and tissue engineering
Graphene has successfully been applied in drug delivery systems
because of its unique properties such as conductivity, mechanical sta­
bility, and biocompatibility [118]. The combination of graphene oxide
and polymers like polyethylene glycol (PEG), poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA)
are used as adsorbents for hydrophobic molecules [119]. Hydrogels are
used in drug delivery systems in biomedical applications. An example is
multiwalled carbon nanotubes (pMWNTs) used to enhance the electrical
response in hydrogels of methacrylic acid [120].
6. Conclusion
In this review, a brief history, the structure, properties, growth
mechanisms, characterizations, and applications of graphene are dis­
cussed. Graphene is considered as one of the most attractive functional
nanomaterials in the world due to its excellent unique properties such as
high tensile strength, high electrical conductivity, high carrier mobility,
high elasticity, high thermal conductivity and optical transparency of
about 97%. Since its discovery in 2004, graphene has enticed a wide
array of applications in different fields like transistors, solar cells, water
purification technologies, sensors, batteries and supercapacitors, which
have incredibly attracted a lot of attention among scientists and engi­
neers around the globe. Up to date, CVD is the synthesis technique of
high-quality graphene on large-scale basis. However, to explore the full
potential of graphene economically, some critical points such as toxicity,
long-term stability, and environmental effects need to be addressed.
7. Prospects
Commercialization progress of graphene-based nanomaterials is very
promising. There are a lot ongoing innovative researches in research
institutes around the world to modify the current growth mechanisms of
graphene to produce fine products at large scale. Further development
focuses on the application of graphene in electronic devices due to the
high demand. Future research directive is on the graphene-based
application in the production of ultra-thin flexible displays, smart­
phones with transparent touchscreens, biosensors in medical science,
nanorobots, and super light cables in aircraft and satellites.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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