GEDS 435 New Best Online NOTES

EGERTON UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING
THE E-CAMPUS
E-LEARNING COURSE
GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES
By
Elias Waweru Ngotho

elwangongotho027@gmail.com
+2547222958592

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ABOUT THE COURSE
This course has been designed for forth year bachelors students of Egerton
University pursuing a career in gender, women and development studies. In
this course, you will learn about the gender in relation to organizational
policies. The course will describe the role of organizational policies on gender
in the society, organizational structures, gender audit, gender differential
treatment at work place and gender mainstreaming. You are expected to
complete it in 45 hours. There are no prerequisite for you to study this
course.
Introduction to the course

This course is about gender and organizational policies family. It focuses on
understanding of gender issues in relation organizational policies. Upon
finishing the course, you will have a better understanding of the role of
organizations policies on gender.

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Course Study Skills
The learner is expected to set personal goals, take control of the learning
environment and manage time effectively. As a learner you will most of the
time depend on online material for learning.
Please see the following suggested links are to help you manage your
learning:http://www.how-to-study.com/. The "How to study” web site is
about study skills resources.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html is the web site of the Virginia

Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will find links on time scheduling
(including a "where does time go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic
concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note taking,
how to read essays for analysis, and memory skills ("remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php is another "How to study” web

site with useful links to time management, efficient reading,
questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing ("hands-
on” learning), memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a
learning plan.

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Course Content
There are TEN (10) topics in this course, namely:
Topic One: Introduction: Basic Gender Terms and Definitions

Topic Two: Gender and Organizational Structure
Topic Three: Gender Audit
Topic Four: Gender Analysis and gender analysis tools and framework
Topic Five: Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM)
Topic Six: Women’s equality and empowerment framework
Topic Seven: Division of Labour at work place
Topic Eight: Gender discrimination at work place
Topic Nine: Changing organizations, gender mainstreaming and
affirmative action
Topic Ten: Gender budgeting and Gender planning
Course Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this course, you should be able to:

1. Describe the organizational structures that perpetuate inequality
2. Describe the gender audit
3. Describe the change management in organizations.
4. Understand gender differential treatment at work place
Need Help?
This course was developed in 2020 by Mr. Elias Waweru Ngotho Phone:
+2547222958592; Email: elwangongotho027@gmail.com. Am a lecturer at
Egerton University in Gender Women and development studies department
For technical support e.g. lost passwords, broken links etc. Please contact
tech-support via e-mail elearning@egerton.ac.ke. You can also reach learner
support through elearnersupport@egerton.ac.ke.
Assignments/Activities
Assignments/Activities are provided at the end of each topic. Some

assignments/activities will require submission while others will be self-
assessments that do not require submission. Ensure you carefully check
which assignment require submission and those that do not.

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Course Learning Requirements
 Timely submission of the assignments

 2 CATs (30%) – CAT 1 marks are derived from assignments.
 Final Examination (70% of total score)
Self-assessment
Self-assessments are provided in order to aid your understanding of the

topic and course content. While they may not be graded, you are strongly
advised to attempt them whenever they are available in a topic.
For each Topic the time required is as follows:

Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice exercises [3
hours]
Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
Total student input [4.5 hours]

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Topic One: Basic Gender Terms and Definitions;
Introduction.
This topic will involve a discussion in various terms in relation to gender and
development, such terms are gender, gender roles, gender equality, sex
and gender relations. For learners, understanding the common concepts in
this study will make comprehension easy as we go along.
Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and
practice exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]
Topic Learning Requirements
 Have at least two contributions to the topic discussion

 Participation in one chat during the lecture (at least 5 entries)
 A learner can start a discussion thread.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
 Define the term gender.

 State the gender roles.
 Define the term gender equality
Topic Content
1.1 Gender definition of terms
a) Gender: The term describes the socially constructed

roles and responsibilities of women and men, and
includes expectations held about characteristics, and
likely behaviors of both men and women; the roles that
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we learn to fill from childhood onward. In short, gender
refers not to women or men parse, but to the relations
between them, both perceptual and material.
b) Sex: It refers to the genetic and physiological
characteristics and traits that indicate whether one is
male or female.
c) Gender equality: It is the result of the absence of
discrimination on the basis of a person’s sex in
opportunities and the allocation of resources or benefits
or in access to services.
d) Gender equity: It entails the provision of fairness and
justice in the distribution of benefits and
responsibilities between men and women. The concept
recognizes that men and women have different needs
and power that these differences should be identified
and addressed in a manner that rectifies the
imbalances between the sexes.
e) Gender relations: It refers to social relationships
between men and women within a specified time and
place. These social relationships explain the differences
in power relations between the sexes.
f) Gender roles: Gender roles are learned behaviors in a
given society/community that condition which
activities, tasks and responsibilities are perceived as
male and female. They are
reflectedinactivitiesascribedtomenandwomenonthebasis
ofperceiveddifferences which are reinforced through the
gender division of labour. They vary among different
societies and cultures, classes, ages and during
different periods in history. In general, gender roles
can be categorized as: productive, reproductive and
community roles.
 Productive roles. Productive roles
include all tasks which contribute to
the income and economic welfare of
the household and community. These
include the production of goods and
services for income or subsistence.
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Both women and men perform a
range of productive roles. For
example in agriculture, productive
activities include planting/cultivation
and livestock rearing.
 Reproductive role: Reproductive
activities are those activities carried
out to reproduce and care for the
household. Activities such as
childbearing, cooking, washing,
cleaning, nursing, and taking care of
the sick in a household are
reproductive roles. This work is
mostly done by women.
 Community role: Community roles
are those activities undertaken at the
community level to meet the
communities ’basic needs. They can
be seen as community managing role
which include: provision and
maintenance of scarce resources of
collective consumption such as water,
health care and education. These
activities are usually undertaken
primarily by women. Community
roles also include social and political
activities at the community and local
levels. This also includes social
events such as ceremonies and
celebrations where communities
participate in groups. Most of these
activities are dominated by men.
g) Empowerment: It refers to the process of increasing
the opportunity of people to take control of their own
lives. It is about people living according to their own
values and being able to express preferences, make
choices and influence–both individually and
collectively– the decisions that affect their lives.
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Empowerment of women or men includes developing
self-reliance, gaining skills or having their own skills
and knowledge recognized, and increasing their power
to make decisions and have their voices heard, and to
negotiate and challenge societal norms and customs
h) Gender needs: Gender needs arise because the needs
of men and women are different, i.e. men and women
have different gender roles, they do different types of
work, have different degrees of access to services and
resources, and they experience unequal relations. In
gender analysis a distinction is made between practical
gender needs and strategic gender needs.
i) Gender mainstreaming. Gender mainstreaming is
defined by the United Nations as the process of
assessing the implications for women and men of any
planned action in all are as and at all levels. It is a
strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns
and experiences an integral dimension of the design,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies
and programmes in all political, economic and societal
spheres so that women and men benefit equally and
inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal of
mainstreaming is to achieve gender equality.
j) Gender analysis: It is a systematic analytical process
used to identify, understand, and describe gender
differences and the relevance of gender roles and
power dynamics in a specific context. In general, it is a
basis of all tools of gender mainstreaming. Gender
analysis helps to understand the relationships between
men and women. Assessing the relationship makes it
possible to determine men’s and women’s constraints
and opportunities within the farming system. The
analysis answers the following questions: Division of
labour: who within the household carries out which
agricultural tasks (What do men and women do?)
a) Who has access to and control over
resources and services?

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b) How resources distribute and who makes
the decisions (what decisions do men and
women make in the family /community)?
Topic Summary
In this topic we have learnt the definition of terms, we have defined gender
roles and we have learnt about the three roles of women (tripartite roles).
Teaching/ learning activities

1. Mention societal gender roles in your locality
2. Which are the community roles men and women are involved in?
Self assessment (not to be submitted)

a) Describe the three gender roles in society
b) Explain the meaning of gender needs and gender
mainstreaming
FURTHER READING
http:tamarackcommunity.ca/downloads/gender/Tools.pdf
https://watsanmissionassistant.wikispaces.com/file/view/Module+3+
Mainstreaming+Gender+

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Topic Two: Gender and Organizational Structure
Introduction
Flow of communication and authority follow directions as stipulated by the

organizational chart ( organizational structure). Role of men and women are
explicit in an organization’s management structure. The organizational
structure should by all means should alleviate gender inequality in an
organisation. Learners in this topic will capture the advantages and
disadvantages of various organizational structures.
Topic Time

Learning Outcomes
 State various types organizational structures

 State the contribution of organizational structure in gender equality

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Topic Content
2.1 Definition of organizational structure
 Organizational Structure is mainly defined as the

pattern of relations among constituent parts of an
organization (Kast and Rosenzweig, 1985: 234).
 The organization structure is the basis for the
establishment of relations among positions in an
organization and also the basis for the determination of
power relations.
 Power belongs to a position and not to an individual.
 The structure of power is the basis for the distribution of
tasks among the departments in an organization and for
the development of control mechanisms.
 In these ways the organization structure defines the roles
performed by individuals in the organization.
 Organizational structure refers to the way that an
organization arranges people and jobs so that its work
can be performed and its goals can be met. When a work
group is very small and face-to-face communication is
frequent, formal structure may be unnecessary, but in a
larger organization decisions have to be made about the
delegation of various tasks. Thus, procedures are
established that assign responsibilities for various
functions. It is these decisions that determine the
organizational structure.
 The typically hierarchical arrangement of lines of
authority, communications, rights and duties of an
organization. Organizational structure determines how
the roles, power and responsibilities are assigned,
controlled, and coordinated, and how information flows
between the different levels of management.
 A structure depends on the organization's objectives and
strategy. In a centralized structure, the top layer of
management has most of the decision making power and
has tight control over departments and divisions. In a
decentralized structure, the decision making power is

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distributed and the departments and divisions may have
different degrees of independence. A company such as
Proctor & Gamble that sells multiple products may
organize their structure so that groups are divided
according to each product and depending on geographical
area as well. It also represents the network linking
organizational sub-systems with the environment.
Summarizing different viewpoints, the organization
structure is determined by the following factors:
 Organization strategy: defines the long-term
objectives of the organization;
 Technology used: defines the tasks to be performed by
organization members;
 Philosophy (value system) of management (organization
culture): defines the perception of roles and value of
workers (employees) in the organization;
 Environment: defines the complexity and flexibility of the
organization structure;
 Quality of workforce: defines the level of the capability
of the organization to perform;
 Size: defines the level of division of labor, complexity of
control, size of management.
2.2 Types of Organizational Structures
It is represented by a drawing known as an organizational chart. There are

different types of organizational structures that companies follow, depending
on a variety of factors like leadership style, type of organization,
geographical regions, work flow and hierarchy.
To put it simply, an organizational structure is the plan of the hierarchy and

arrangement of work.

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Here is a list of the different types of organizational structures.
1. Line Structure
This is the kind of structure that has a specific line of command. The
approvals and orders in this kind of structure come from top to bottom in
a line. Hence it is known as a line structure. This kind of structure is
suitable for smaller organizations like small accounting firms and law
offices. This structure allows easy decision-making and is informal in
nature.
Merits
✔ It is the simplest kind of organizational structure.
✔ Strict authority results in a stronger discipline.
✔ Prompt decisions result in quick and effective actions.
✔ There is clarity in the structures of authority and responsibility.
✔ As the control rests with one superior, it accords him the flexibility to
adjust the department.
✔ There are good career advancement prospects for individuals who
deliver quality work.
Demerits
✗ There are chances of the department head being biased.
✗ Lack of specialization is a persistent problem.
✗ The department head may be burdened with lots of work.
✗ Communication only happens from top to bottom.
✗ Superiors with authority can misuse it for their benefit.
✗ Decisions are taken by a single person and can go wrong.
2. Line and Staff Structure

Though a line structure is suitable for most organizations, especially the
small ones, it is not effective for larger companies. This is where the line
and staff organizational structure comes into play. Line and staff structure
combines the line structure where information and approvals come from
top to bottom, with staff departments for support and specialization. Line
and staff organizational structures are more centralized. Managers of line
and staff have authority over their subordinates, but staff managers have
no authority over line managers and their subordinates. The decision-

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making process becomes slower in this type of organizational structure
because of several layers and guidelines. Also, there is formality involved.
Merits
✔ It enables the employees to perform at a faster rate.
✔ It helps employees to accept responsible jobs and specialize in a
particular area.
✔ It helps line managers to concentrate on the task at hand.
✔ Little or no resistance is met when organizational changes take place.
✔ It results in less operational wastage and increases productivity.
✔ Employees feel that they are given the due credit for their contribution.
Demerits
✗ Confusion may be created among employees.
✗ Employees lack operational knowledge to give result-oriented
suggestions.
✗ There are too many levels of hierarchy.
✗ Employees may have differences of opinions and this may slow down
the work.
✗ As staff specialists exist, it is costlier than a simple line organization.
✗ Decision-making may be time-consuming.
3. Functional Structure
This kind of organizational structure classifies people according to the

function they perform in their professional life or according to the
functions performed by them in the organization. The organization chart
for a functional organization consists of a Vice President, a Sales
Department, a Customer Service Department, an Engineering or
Production Department, an Accounting Department, an Administration
Department, etc.
Merits
✔ It has high degrees of specialization.
✔ It has clear lines of authority.
✔ It facilitates easy accountability for the work.
✔ It accords a high level of speed and efficiency.
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✔ The need for duplication of work is eliminated.
✔ All the functions command equal importance.
Demerits
✗ Communication has several barriers which makes coordination difficult.
✗ More focus is laid on individuals rather than the organization.
✗ The decisions taken by a single person may not always work in favor of
the organization.
✗ As the organization expands, it gets difficult to exercise control on its
operations.
✗ There may be lack of teamwork between different departments or
units.
✗ As all the functions are separated, employees may not gain knowledge
about other specializations.
4. Divisional Structure
These are the kinds of structures that are based on different divisions in the
organization. They group together employees based on the products,
markets and geographical locations covered. Here is a detailed description of
a divisional structure.
 Product Structure: A product structure is based on
organizing employees and work on the basis of the different
products. If the company produces three different products,
they will have three different divisions for these products.
This type of structure can be best utilized for retail stores with
a number of products.
Merits
✔ Units which are not working can be closed down easily.
✔ Each unit can be operated and treated as a separate profit
center.
✔ It accords rapid and easy decision-making.
✔ It also gives a lot of independence to the decision makers.
✔ Individual products get separate attention as per the
problems they face.
✔ It enables the organization to have a high productivity and
efficiency quotient.
Demerits

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✗ As each unit operates on its own, organizational goals may
not be achieved.
✗ Unhealthy competition may exist among internal business
units.
✗ As it has too many managerial levels, it may hamper the
business.
✗ Accounting work and taxes may increase considerably.
✗ All the units may not be considered as equal.
✗ Marketing individual products may add up to the cost
significantly.
 Market Structure: Market structure is used to group
employees on the basis of the specific market the company
sells in. A company could have five different markets they use
and according to this structure, each would be a separate
division.
Merits
✔ Employees can communicate with customers in the local
language.
✔ They are available for the customers, if need is felt.
✔ The problems in a particular market can be isolated and
dealt with separately.
✔ As individuals are responsible for a particular market, tasks
are completed on time.
✔ Employees are specialized in catering to a particular
market.
✔ New products for niche markets can be introduced.
Demerits
✗ There can be intense competition among the employees.
✗ Decision-making can cause conflicts.
✗ It is difficult to determine the productivity and efficiency.
✗ All the markets may not be considered as equal.
✗ There may be lack of communication between the
superiors and the employees.
✗ Employees may misuse their authority.

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 Geographic Structure
Large organizations have offices at different places, for
example, there could be a north zone, south zone, west zone
and east zone. The organizational structure, in such a case,
follows a zonal structure.
Merits
✔ There is better communication among the employees at
the same location.
✔ Locals are familiar with the local business environment and
can cater to geographical and cultural differences.
✔ Customers feel a better connection with local managers
who can speak their language.
✔ A record of the work of individual markets and groups can
be maintained.
✔ Decisions are taken thoughtfully and work when
implemented.
✔ New products or product modifications catering to a
specific area can be introduced.
Demerits
✗ It may give rise to a feeling of division among the employees of the
organization.
✗ There may be unhealthy competition among different zones.
✗ Core company ethics, beliefs and practices may differ from location to
location.
✗ Tracing the performance and profits of each region may be time-
consuming and tedious.
✗ There may be poor communication among the employees at different
locations.
✗ Collaboration and cooperation between employees at different locations
may not work out.
5. Matrix Structure: This structure is a combination of function and

product structures. It combines the best of both worlds to make an
efficient organizational structure. This structure is the most complex

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structure. It uses teams of employees to accomplish work by
capitalizing on their strengths while creating weaknesses which are of
functional form. The different types of matrix structures are:
 Weak/Functional Matrix: In this type of matrix structure, a project
manager is assigned to look over the cross-functional aspects of the
project. However, he has a very limited authority and it is the
functional manager who actually controls the inventory, resources and
the project.
Merits
✔ Employees are not attached to temporary staff or temporary work.
✔ The functional manager controls the project.
✔ The functional manager is responsible in case anything goes wrong.
✔ The more the project manager communicates with the employees,
the better are the results.
✔ The project manager can make things happen without being in
control.
✔ The decision-making rests in the hands of the functional manager.
Demerits
✗ The project manager may face strong apathy from his workers.
✗ The project manager does not have complete authority.
✗ If not supervised, workers can reduce the productivity of the entire unit.
✗ The project manager is a weak authority who has no control over the
employees.
✗ He has no control over workload management and task prioritization.
✗ He cannot even give a performance review.
There are two more structures namely balanced/functional matrix and

strong/project matrix. In the balanced/functional matrix, the responsibility
and power is shared equally by both the project manager and the functional
head. This may create a power struggle between them. In the strong/project
matrix, the project manager is primarily responsible for the work while the
functional head gives technical advice and allocates resources.

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6. Bureaucratic Structure
This kind of structure can be seen in tall organizations where tasks,
processes and procedures are all standardized. This type of structure
is suitable for huge enterprises that involve complex operations and
require smooth administration of the same. It is highly recommended
for industries like food, beverage, etc. as they have to adhere to
stringent rules and regulations.
Merits
✔ As the complete control rests in the hands of one person, it is easy
to achieve organizational goals.
✔ Strict hierarchies ensure timely completion of tasks and quality.
✔ It helps in easy cooperation and coordination among the employees.
✔ Standardization and the best practices can be implemented easily.
✔ Employees have to adhere to policies and procedures.
✔ Production takes place efficiently and effectively.
Demerits
✗ A centralized authority can discourage employees.
✗ It does not encourage innovative ideas.
✗ It can lead to employee dissatisfaction and attrition.
✗ It cannot adapt to changes in the business environment.
✗ One person cannot be responsible for coming up with creative ideas
every time.
✗ It can trigger a power struggle in the organization.
7. Pre-bureaucratic Structure
This structural form is best-exemplified in organizations where
administration and control are centralized, and there is very little, if
any, standardization of tasks. This structure is highly recommended for
small-scale industries and start-ups.
Merits
✔ It has a centralized structure with only one decision maker.
✔ The founder has complete control on decisions and their
implementation.
✔ Communication mostly happens on a one-on-one basis.
✔ Decisions are made and implemented quickly.
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✔ Productivity and profits are closely monitored.
✔ If an employee works hard, he gets noticed.
Demerits
✗ Decisions taken by one person stand the risk of going wrong.
✗ It is only applicable to small businesses and cannot sustain once
they expand.
✗ Lack of standardization can lead to inconsistencies.
✗ Employees are not part of the decision-making process and this can
demoralize them.
✗ Effective communication may not take place as people do not open
up in front of the authority.
✗ Due to lack of flexibility, employees may feel frustrated.
8. Network Structure: In this structure, organization managers are

required to maintain and coordinate business/professional relations
with third parties such as clients, vendors and associates in order to
achieve a collective goal of profitability and growth. Most of the time,
these relations are maintained and tasks are coordinated via
telecommunication and electronic media and, hence this structure is
also known as a virtual structure.
Merits
✔ The employees can be closer to the location of the customer.
✔ It helps in optimizing the knowledge potential of the organization.
✔ Even if something like a natural disaster occurs, the work of
network employees can continue.
✔ It can be dynamic and easily adaptive to changes in the business
environment.
✔ There is a certain level of flexibility for the employees.
✔ There can be a collaborative relationship between the supervisor
and the employee.

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Demerits
✗ An employee may have to report to too many supervisors and this may
affect his work.
✗ As a formal hierarchy is missing, it can lead to conflicts.
✗ Too much dependence on technologies like the Internet, phone, etc. can
cause problems.
✗ As there is no physical place for employees, it affects communication.
✗ It can lead to increased work stress among the employees.
✗ An intense competition exists among the supervisors, to get a high-
performing employee.
9. Team Structure: Organizations with team structures can have both

vertical as well as horizontal process flows. The most distinct feature of such
an organizational structure is that different tasks and processes are allotted
to specialized teams of personnel in such a way that a harmonious
coordination is struck among the various teams.
Merits
✔ It facilitates practical decision-making and implementation.
✔ Decisions are taken unanimously and not by an individual.
✔ It eliminates traditional scalar chains of command for getting approvals.
✔ The relationships and communication between employees improve.
✔ If one employee in the team fails to work, the other can take his place.
✔ It enables the heads to staff resources which complement each other.
Demerits
✗ There is very less contact with teams of other functions.
✗ If teams undergo constant changes and alterations, it can affect work.
✗ Each team contributes on its own and may not be in alignment with the
organizational goals.
✗ Team members need to be proactive and incorporate better project
management.
✗ The need for an effective leader can be felt.
✗ As decisions are given by many people, they may take a long time.

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10. Entrepreneurial Structure
The authority of such organizations often times is heavily centralized and lies
with one person. It only comprises two to three vertical levels and the duties
of the employees overlap. It is suitable for small or new organizations where
the decision of one person matters the most. It also exhibits easy
responsiveness and adaptability to change in the business environment.
11. Horizontal Organization Structure

It is also known as a flat structure. In this type, there is absolutely nil or
very less interference from the senior management which allows the
employees to conduct their tasks smoothly. Employees are also involved in
the decision-making process. As it eliminates the need for middle
management, it contributes towards giving a quick response to customer
feedback. However, it may not be applicable and practical for big
organizations.
12. Vertical Organization Structure

It relies on the middle management to monitor and control the work of the
employees. These structures have well-defined roles and responsibilities for
the employees. Hence, delegating tasks to the employees becomes easier. It
requires a strong leader at the top of the hierarchy as he is the one to take
all the decisions. As a hierarchy exists, it ensures that the work is done in a
disciplined manner.
13. Mechanistic Structure

This is the most formal and the strictest kind of structure with a clear
distinction in the hierarchy and roles. Hence, these structures are vertically
oriented. The hierarchy of the authority is well-defined. Decision-making
rests in the hands of the senior management. As a lot of bureaucracy is
involved in these structures, the leaders find it difficult to deal with
competition. Also, innovation oftentimes is hampered due to red-tapeism.
Employees work separately and are specialists of a task.
14. Organic Structure
It is the exact opposite of a mechanistic organizational structure. In an
organization following the organic structure, the authority is delegated and is
decentralized. Hence, communication takes place laterally. There is a lot of
flexibility in this type of an organization. Employees generally work together

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and coordinate different tasks. They are highly flexible to adapt to the
changes in the external business environment.
Line and Staff Functions

The functions of a department can be as a line or a staff. The functions
which have a direct responsibility of achieving the targets for production or
sales are line functions. The staff functions are those which do not
participate directly in the activity but aid line functions to achieve the
targets. Production Planning, Marketing, Purchasing, etc., are staff functions.
The distinction is more clear and precise at higher levels. The staff function
is advisory but owns the responsibility for the results and in accountable for
non-performance.
a. Departmentalization: Departmentalization or
departmentalization refers to the process of grouping activities
into departments. Division of labour creates specialists who
need coordination. This coordination is facilitated by grouping
specialists together in departments.
b. Popular types of departmentalization
i. Functional departmentalization - Grouping activities by
functions performed. Activities can be grouped according
to function (work being done) to pursue economies of
scale by placing employees with shared skills and
knowledge into departments for example human
resources, IT, accounting, manufacturing, logistics, and
engineering. Functional departmentalization can be used in
all types of organizations.
ii. Product departmentalization - Grouping activities by
product line. Tasks can also be grouped according to a
specific product or service, thus placing all activities
related to the product or the service under one manager.
Each major product area in the corporation is under the
authority of a senior manager who is specialist in, and is
responsible for, everything related to the product line. LA
Gear is an example of company that uses product
departmentalization. Its structure is based on its varied
product lines which include women’s footwear etc.
iii. Customer departmentalization - Grouping activities on
the basis of common customers or types of customers.

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Jobs may be grouped according to the type of customer
served by the organization. The assumption is that
customers in each department have a common set of
problems and needs that can best be met by specialists.
The sales activities in an office supply firm can be broken
down into three departments that serve retail, wholesale
and government accounts.
iv. Geographic departmentalization - Grouping activities
on the basis of territory. If an organization's customers are
geographically dispersed, it can group jobs based on
geography. For example, the organization structure of
Coca-Cola has reflected the company’s operation in two
broad geographic areas – the North American sector and
the international sector, which includes the Pacific Rim, the
European Community, Northeast Europe, Africa and Latin
America groups.
v. Process departmentalization - Grouping activities on
the basis of product or service or customer flow. Because
each process requires different skills, process
departmentalization allows homogenous activities to be
categorized. For example, the applicants might need to go
through several departments namely validation, licensing
and treasury, before receiving the driver’s license.
vi. Divisional departmentalization - When the firm
develops independent lines of business that operate as
separate companies, all contributing to the corporation
profitability, the design is call divisional
departmentalization.
Topic Summary
In this topic we have learnt about organizational structure and their effect
on gender equality. We have also learnt about departmentalization. The
organizational structure and departmentalization make management simple
and effective. Departmentalization by process, on the other hand, seeks to
benefit from the advantages that are found in high specialization, and tends
to be very efficient in some instances. A high degree of specialization leads
to the development of proficiency and professional competence, as well as it
enables, and implies, the development of centralized control functions.
PAGE 25 of 127
Teaching/learning activities
1. Identify the type of organizational structures common
government organisations
a) Differentiate between market organizational structure and
product organizational structure
b) Describe the role of departmentalization in an organization
FURTHER READING
http:tamarackcommunity.ca/downloads/gender/Tools.pdf
https://watsanmissionassistant.wikispaces.com/file/view/Module+3+
Mainstreaming+Gender+

PAGE 26 of 127
Topic Three: Gender Audit
Introduction
Gender discrimination in organisations can be exposed by a gender audit.
This topic is on how gender audit is conducted, who is involved and the
advantages of the process. A gender audit is essentially a “social audit”, and
belongs to the category of “quality audits”. Gender discriminations in
organisations can be revealed by undertaking a gender audit. To get a clear
picture of gender equality, as a gender and development experts will be
required at various occasions to undertake genders audit.
Topic Time

Learning Outcomes
 Define the gender audit.

 Describe various methods of carrying out a gender audit
 State the advantages of gender auditin organisations

PAGE 27 of 127
Topic Content
3.1 Definition of Gender Audit and related terms

1. Gender audits are tools for evaluating the degree to which
gender issues are mainstreamed into a given office or
programme. Through a gender audit, external facilitators
work with a work unit to examine all facets of a given
subject – be it a policy, a programme or an institution – in
order to determine whether gender is incorporated
adequately and appropriately into objectives and targets,
project design and implementation and monitoring and
evaluation, in order to ensure outcomes and policies align
with higher-level objectives on gender.
2. What is a "Gender Budget Statement" or a"gender
audit"(also called a "gender budget")? A "gender audit" is
one aspect of what is referred to as "mainstreaming"-
analyzing mainstream public policy, including legislation,
regulations, allocations, taxation and social projects, from
the point of view of their effect on the status of women in
a given society. Gender audits analyze the income and
expenditures of the government from a gender
perspective.
3. Gender audit tools will vary across institutions, and there
is not a single set methodology applicable to every type of
situation. The tool should be adapted to the specific
context. However, gender audits typically include a
combination of document reviews, focus group
discussions, interviews and self-assessment
questionnaires.
4. Gender audits typically address some key issues,
which can be roughly divided into two groups: questions
about programme and policy objectives and
implementation, and more internally focused questions
regarding gender within the organization or office itself.
5. Gender audit considers whether internal practices and
related support systems for gender mainstreaming are
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effective and reinforce each other and whether they are
being followed.
6. It establishes a baseline; identifies critical gaps and
challenges; and recommends ways of addressing them,
suggesting possible improvements and innovations. It also
documents good practices towards the achievement of
gender equality.
7. A gender audit enhances the collective capacity of the
organization to examine its activities from a gender
perspective and identify strengths and weaknesses in
promoting gender equality issues.
8. Gender audit monitors and assesses the relative progress
made in gender mainstreaming and helps to build
organizational ownership for gender equality initiatives
and sharpens organizational learning on gender. In
summary, To do this, it:
a) Considers whether internal practices and

related support systems for gender
mainstreaming are effective and reinforce
each other and whether they are being
followed;
b) Monitors and assesses the relative progress
made in gender mainstreaming;
c) Establishes a baseline;
d) Identifies critical gaps and challenges;
e) Recommends ways of addressing them and -
suggests new and more effective strategies;
f) Documents good practices towards the
achievement of gender equality.
9. Gender audit examine the extent to which human

resources policies are gender-sensitive;
10. Gender audit examines the staff sex balance at different
levels of an organization;
11. Gender audit Sets up the initial baseline of performance
on gender mainstreaming in an organization with a view

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to introducing an ongoing process of benchmarking to
measure progress in promoting gender equality.
12. The ILO (international Labour organization) has developed
a participatory gender audit methodology which has
generated great international interest among constituents,
donors agencies, training organizations and academic
institutions after more than ten years of implementation.
13. Ideally, a gender audit focuses on both the programme
and the organization but it could focus on one or the
other. If conducting all of the gender audit steps is not
feasible, an organization should at least conduct a gender
analysis of its programme through a document review.
14. Gender audits can and should be adapted to the specific
topic being audited, but key steps often include a
combination of the steps outlined in the box below. The
methodology for the gender audit, which can be modelled
on these steps, should include determining what methods
will be used in the audit, that is, document review, focus
group discussions, key informant interviews or self-
assessment staff surveys.
15. Gender audits should be implemented with the assistance
of a third party, such as a research institute or a non-
governmental organization (NGO). These gender audit
facilitators should have been trained in gender analysis.
16. Gender audit; Questions concerning objectives, policies
and programmes:
a. How well is gender included in project
objectives, policies and programmes?
b. Are there gender-specific objectives, or do
objectives include ensuring that men and
women are equally impacted?
The Objectives of the Gender Audit are to:

1. Identify and analyze the strengths, good
practices, weaknesses, gaps and challenges in
the institutional mechanisms and processes for
gender mainstreaming;
PAGE 30 of 127
2. Make practical recommendations on how to
strengthen FAO’s institutional capacity for gender
mainstreaming.
3.2 The participatory gender audits’ objectives are to:

1. \Assess the extent of gender mainstreaming in terms of
the development and delivery of gender-sensitive
products and services;
2. Identify and share information on mechanisms, practices
and attitudes that have made a positive contribution to
mainstreaming gender in an organization;
3. Assess the level of resources allocated and spent on
gender mainstreaming and gender activities;
4. A participatory gender audit is a tool and a process based
on a participatory methodology to promote organizational
learning on how to practically and effectively mainstream
gender in policies, programmes and structures and assess
the extent to which policies have been institutionalized at
the level of the:
a) Organization
b) Work unit
c) Individual
3.3 Gender audit in Women and Unemployment

1. If the unemployment rate of women is higher than
that of men, this should be taken into account when
preparing a program to reduce unemployment. In
such a case, if special efforts are not made to assist
women, the existing inequality in the area of
unemployment will be perpetuated rather than
reduced by the program.
2. Gender audits also take into account the differences
between women of various ethnic groups and income
levels. In Israel, for example, any program aimed at
creating new jobs for women needs to take into
account the fact that Arab women in Israel have very
limited employment opportunities, and this prevents
them from joining the labor market. The fact that Arab

PAGE 31 of 127
women do not usually work outside their own localities
needs to be taken into consideration as well.
3.4 Gender Audit in Relation to Women and the

Retirement Age
1. Recently, changing the retirement age
(presently60forwomen and 65 for men) has been
discussed, the recommendation being to fix a uniform
age for women and men --67. The purpose of the
change is to save on national old- age pensions (social
security) as well as work place pensions. The idea
sounds logical. However, the fact that the
employments situation of women is different from that
of men needs to be taken into account. After age
54,the workplace participation of women decreases by
about fifty percent, from an average of 69% for the
25-54 age group toanaverageofonly35% inthe 55-64
age group.
2. Only 5% of women over the age of 65 are still to be
found in the labor force. (Formen, the decrease in work
place participation is more moderate: after age 54,
the rate declinesfrom84% to65%. After age 65,15% of
men are still in the workforce.)This being the case,
changing the retirement age from 60 to 67will have an
adverse effect on many women, who will have to wait
longer (after they have ceased working)to be eligible
for old-age pensions. Some will have to apply for
income support.
3.5 Gender Audit in Relation to National and County Budgets

1. A gender audit of the national budget points to the areas
in which efforts need to be made and allocations
earmarked to promote the status of women in general
and the status of women from disadvantaged groups in
particular.
2. A gender audit of the national budget is not limited to
examining the allocations earmarked specifically for
women, since such allocations constitute a very small
PAGE 32 of 127
part of the total budget. In Australia, for example, it was
found that the total cost of such allocations amounted to
less than one percent of the national budget.
3.6 Who Conducts Gender Audits

1. Gender audits can be performed by governmental
agencies, as was the case in Australia;
2. They can be performed by non-governmental
associations; and they can be done by a cooperative effort
of governmental and non-governmental bodies.
Conclusion
1. A gender audit also examines the payments of the National
Insurance Institute (Social Security). Such an analysis involves
examining the conditions of entitlement for each type of payment, as
well as the effect of the conditions of entitlement on the number of
women and men benefiting from the various programs.
2. For example, a gender analysis reveals that the conditions for
entitlement to a general disability pension are more severe for
housewives than for other persons with disabilities. For this reason,
relatively few housewives receive such pensions
3. A gender analysis of the budget also needs to examine service
providers, that is, those employed by the government. Among other
things, one has to check whether most of the persons employed are
women or men, whether or not women and men receive comparable
wages, and what their respective opportunities for advancement are.
Topic Summary
In this topic we have learnt about gender audit and their role in ensuring gender
equality in organisations. Now you are an expert and can conduct a gender audit.
i) Enumerate areas which require gender audit in your
university

ii) Explain the importance of gender audit in an
organization
iii) What is the role of national budget gender audit

PAGE 33 of 127
Further Reading
Longwe,S.(1991)“Gender Awareness: The Missing Element in
theThirdWorld DevelopmentProject’’I Wallace, T. and March,
C.(eds)

PAGE 34 of 127
Topic Four: Gender Analysis and gender analysis tools and
framework
Introduction
After a gender audit is gender analysis. Gender analysis is a sub-set of
socio-economic analysis. The aim of a gender audit is to be certain that
there is no discrimination in an organisation. From this topic, gender and
development experts will gain skills of undertaking a genders analysis
process.
Secondly, the purpose of gender analysis is to reveal the connections
between gender relations and the development problem to be solved. Its
purpose may be two-fold:
(i) to “surface” the fact that gender relations are likely
to have an impact on the solution to the problem,
(some decision-makers may still need to be
persuaded of this) and
(ii) o indicate exactly what that impact is likely to be,
and alternative courses of action. In some cases
gender issues may be significant to the policy area,
and play a determining role in policy outcomes. In
other cases, they may be less significant, and
constitute rather a set of factors to be weighed with
others.
Topic Time


PAGE 35 of 127
Learning Outcomes
 Define the gender analysis.

 Describe the seven steps in gender analysis
 State the objectives of gender analysis.

PAGE 36 of 127
Topic Content
4.1 Explaining gender analysis analysis

1) Gender analysis is a type of socio-economic analysis that
uncovers how gender relations affect a development
problem. The aim may just be to show that gender relations
will probably affect the solution, or to show how they will
affect the solution and what could be done.
2) Gender analysis frameworks provide a step-by-step
methodology for conducting gender analysis. It is extremely
important to perceive that we live in societies that are
permeated by gender differences and gender inequalities.
Here is no country in which the outcomes of public policy are
equal for men and women, but the dimensions of these
inequalities are often so deeply embedded that they are
difficult to perceive.
3) Gender analysis reveals these differences, and the fact that
in such a social context any gender interventions that
profess to be gender-neutral will in fact reflect and probably
reinforce the imbalances that exist. Gender analysis of
various kinds is therefore required to bring these inequalities
to the surface and to the attention of people who can make a
difference, so that their decisions are taken in a manner that
is sensitive to and reflects the outcome of gender analysis.
4) It is important to be familiar with the main gender analysis
frameworks in use by the development community, the main
tools and concepts associated with each, and the core words,
terms and phrases that are the building blocks of conceptual
clarity on gender issues.
5) It is advantageous to know when and where the various
frameworks are most likely to be useful in supporting gender
mainstreaming, given the specific socio-economic context
and programme priorities (strategic areas of support). In
addition, the ability to interpret the data and findings yielded
by the various gender analysis frameworks in ways that are
relevant to the desired outcomes of the intervention is
central.

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6)To be able to use, and help others to use, the outcomes of gender
analysis in relevant ways, and especially by ensuring that findings
are fully reflected in all decision-making processes. For this solid
communications skills, in addition to analytic capacity, are valuable.
Staff members must be capable of combining strategic and
situational analytic skills with gender analysis to create and expand
opportunities for managers and other staff to ensure that the daily
decisions that they make about their work are infused with gender
equality considerations.
7)In many developing societies, although not in all, women have
traditionally been disadvantaged compared to men.
8)Until recently, studies of these societies for the purpose of planning
development covered women narrowly in terms of population, health
and family planning. Relatively little was known about other concerns
such as domestic violence or involvement in economic activities.
Gender analysis provides more information, bringing benefits to
women and to society as a whole.
9)The Women in Development (WID) approach emerged in the 1970s,
calling for treatment of "women's issues" in development projects.
Later, the Gender and Development (GAD) approach proposed more
emphasis on gender relations rather than seeing women's issues in
isolation.
10) An example of the effect of skipping gender analysis is
provided by a project that introduced handcarts to a village for use in
collecting firewood. It was thought that the men would use the carts
to collect the wood, freeing up the women for other activities. In
fact, the men collected the wood for sale, keeping the money. As
they depleted supplies near the village, the women had to travel
further to collect wood.
11) Gender analysis has commonly been used as a tool for
development and emergency relief projects. The socially constructed
roles of men and women must be understood in project or program
design, as must roles related to class, caste, ethnicity and age. The
techniques are also important in understanding management of
natural resources.

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4.2 Objectives of Gender Analysis study
1) Assess the different roles and activities that women and

men perform in agricultural production or in an
organization
2) Analyze the gender differences indecision-making and
benefit sharing of agricultural activities
3) Identify potential constraints that affect both farmers in the
production activities
4.3 A gender analysis of an organization involves looking at several

aspects:
1) The institution’s mandate and area of work: It is important

that the relationship between the primary area of
work/mandate of the organization and equality between
women and men is clearly understood. For example, if the
institution is concerned with promoting environmental
sustainability, are the linkages between gender inequality
and differences and the environment understood and
recognized throughout the organization?
2) Organizational history and culture: Both the informal and
formal rules that guide an organization can have gender
implications.
3) More on Gender Analysis. An example of an agricultural
project
a) Agriculture is central to the livelihoods of the rural
poor. Women, especially in many developing
countries, comprise the largest percentage of the
work force in the agricultural sector.
b) Women play a predominant role and have an
important economic contribution to agricultural
production. Yet these roles are often unrecognized.
c) Failure to recognize the roles of women in
agriculture, differences, and inequalities has an
implication on the effectiveness of the agricultural
development.

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d) Agricultural intervention that aims to support
beneficiaries has gender implications i.e.it will
impact men and women differently. Thus, closing
the gender gap in agriculture is important so as to
ensure productivity and food security.

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4.4 Steps to a Gender Analysis
Introduction The key steps to a gender analysis are described in detail in
the charts below. The gender Analysis Toolkit focuses principally on Steps 4
and 5 below—the identification of critical information gaps and the
development and implementation of a data collection plan. The Toolkit uses
the GAF (gender analysis framework) to organize questions for collecting
information on gender relations and roles in the context of health
programming. The steps are as follows:
1) A Secondary Data Collection Plan: Develop a data
collection plan linked to project objectives to answer the
questions:
a) How will anticipated results of the work affect women

and men differently?
b) How will the different roles and status of women and
men affect the work to be undertaken?
NB/ The plan should include a data collection matrix, which

includes the gender-related research questions to be asked, the
data to be gathered, source of the data, who will collect it,
methods for data collection and analysis, and how the
information will be used.
2) Review of Secondary Data Sources: Conduct a search for

gender-focused published and unpublished studies and sex-
disaggregated databases related to the objectives of the
project.
3) Analysis of Secondary Data: Use the GAF, which is
composed of four domains (access to assets, beliefs and
perceptions, practices and participation, and institutions,
laws, and policies, with power cross-cutting the four
domains), to organize information about gender differences
from existing sources. Assess whether the existing
information is adequate for the project context to understand
how health program objectives may be affected by gender
difference and inequalities in the following areas:
a) Differences in women and mens’ access to assets, resources,

and health services.

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b) Differences and inequities in women and men’s use of time
between paid, unpaid, and volunteer labor and care-taking
responsibilities in the household and community.
c) Differences and inequalities in leadership roles, decision-
making, and legal status.
And, assess how potential differential effects of health policies and

programs on women and men, including those that are unintended,
may negatively or positively impact women and men’s opportunities,
health, socioeconomic status, and wellbeing.
4) Identification of Critical Information Gaps and

Contradictions: If the initial review does not satisfy the
criteria in Step 3, identify what information is lacking and
develop a data collection plan. In addition to gaps in the
available information on gender issues related to the project,
there may be contradictory findings that require further
investigation. The choice of methods and the number of
topics explored may be constrained by the available budget.
It will require prioritization of topics based on an assessment
of their relevance and potential impact on the projects’
objectives.
5) Development of a Primary Data Collection Plan and
Instrument: The current toolkit provides a guide for
developing research questions and selecting research
methods. The illustrative questions by domain indicate the
type of that needs to be collected, although the project
objectives and focus will determine which of the illustrative
questions are most pertinent. Some of the questions are more
appropriate to investigate through quantitative methods and
others through qualitative methods. The annotations of
different quantitative and qualitative methods are included to
provide assistance with the selection of methods appropriate
to the task. Gender focused questions can be incorporated
into existing instruments (see Yemen Quality of Care and
Knowledge, Practices & Coverage (KPC) examples in Annex
III ) or applied in complementary qualitative or quantitative
research.

PAGE 42 of 127
6) Data Analysis: Gender-focused data can be analyzed using
standard quantitative and qualitative analytical methods.
What distinguishes the analysis is the focus on data linked to
the GAF domains. The analysis should be designed to
compare information about men and women, about different
categories of women and men (e.g., by ethnicity, sexual
orientation, age, class, caste, residence, and race). These
comparisons should reveal where there are gaps and
inequalities that are likely to affect women’s or men’s
participation rates, leadership, access to services, uptake of
healthy behaviors or treatments, or that subject men or
women to differential risks and vulnerabilities affecting their
health. The analysis should also provide understanding of why
these gaps and disparities exist and how they affect men’s
and women’s opportunities and aspirations.
7) Constraints Analysis: The final step in the gender analysis
examines how the identified gender differences limit or
facilitate desired changes in health knowledge, practices, and
access to care from the user’s perspective. The analysis
serves to identify gender-based constraints and opportunities
that have the potential to either impede or facilitate (also
referred to as gender determinants of health) achievement of
health objectives. For example, in many places, women are
constrained in receiving skilled care in delivery because they
do not have power to make autonomous or joint decisions
about their health care.

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4.5 A gender analysis should provide the following broad types of
information:
1) Gender Awareness: What in general is the relative
situation of women and men in the context under
review?
2) Activities, Access and Control: What are the
principal and/or most relevant features of the sexual
division of labour (taking account of both productive
and socially reproduction activities), and their
implications for the productivity and economic
sustainability of the context under review?
3) Women’s Priorities: Restraining and Driving
Forces: How can this information best be applied to
the development problem to be addressed, and/orto
the better attainment of specific outputs and
outcomes? What are the trends and changes emerging
in the sexual division of labour which could be
leveraged for greater equality between women and
men? Would it be feasible to support and strengthen
driving forces(preferable) or minimize restraining
forces?
4) Practical Needs and Strategic Interests. Would it
be more appropriate in the given circumstances to
address women’s (and men’s) practical gender needs,
or to take a more transformatory approach and
address the underlying causes oftheir situation, hereby
responding to their strategic interests, and why?How
would these approaches impact upon likely project
outcomes, and on men and women in the situation
under review. How would they impact on the overall
social context.
NB/ The purpose of a gender analysis is to identify the specific
dimensions of each of these issues, in a given socio-economic context.
A good gender analysis will provide precise information in all ormost
of these categories, in such a way as to be easily incorporated into
programming and other decision-making processes.

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Therefore a Good Analysis Should Provide the following;
1) Gender Awareness - Understanding

of Gender Relations and their
Implications for Development Policy
and Implementation
2) Analysis of the Division of Labour -
Activities, Access and Control
3) A Review of Women’s Priorities:
Restraining and Driving Forces
4) Recommendations to Address Women’s
5) Practical Needs and/or Strategic Interests.
4.6 Practical Gender Needs and strategic gender needs analyzed in

gender analysis :
1) Related to peoples basic needs for their day-to-day

survival.
2) Concerned with improving the condition of women and
men through promoting the efficiency of resource use,
rather than addressing issue of empowerment.
3) In development programmes these needs may include the
provision of services such as clean water, shelter and
health care, as well as income generating opportunities.
Meeting practical needs means giving response to
immediate perceived necessities.
`
Strategic Gender Needs
1) Referstotherelativestatus/positionofwomen/meninpursuito
fempowerment andequity.
2) Strategic interests may include legal rights, increased
decision making, protection from domestic violence,etc.
3) Practicalandstrategicinterestsarecomplementary(projectst
hatonlytarget
practicalneedsmaynotbesustainableunlessstrategicinterest
sare alsotaken into account).
Long-term

PAGE 45 of 127
4) Common to all women (e.g. vulnerability to
physicalviolence, legal limitations on rights to hold or
inherit property, difficulty of gaining access tohigher
education)
5) Women are not always in a position to
recognize the sources or basis of their
strategic disadvantages or limitations
6) Solutions must involve women as active agents
7) Must be addressed through consciousness raising,
education and political mobilizationat all levels of
society
8) Improves the position of all women in a society
9) Has the potential to transform or fundamentally change
one or more aspects of women's lives. This is called
'transformatory potential'of the project/policy.
10) Increased acceptance by women and men of women
as community decision-makers.
11) Greater personal and economic independence and
self-confidence for women.
12) Increased women’s involvement inpersonal, family or
community development
13) New, more visible, and more effective women’s
organizations.
14) More women in education and training programmes.
15) Improved health of women and children
Practical needs
1. Short-term, immediate (e.g. clean water, food,

housing, income)
2. Unique to particular women (i.e. site specific)
3. When asked, women can identify their basic needs.
4. Involves women as beneficiaries/participants
5. Problems can be met by concrete and specific inputs,
usually economic inputs (e.g. water pumps, seeds,
credit, employment)
6. Benefits the condition of some women

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7. Is potentially successful in ameliorating the
circumstances of some women
Practical and Strategic Gender Needs
Practical needs Strategic needs

Tend to be immediate& short-term End to be long-term
Related to daily needs: food, Related to a subordinate position:
housing, income, health, etc. lack of resources and of education
and training, vulnerability to poverty
and violence, etc.
Can be satisfied by specific inputs Can be satisfied by confidence
building,
(provision of food, technologies,

health facilities, etc.) Improved self-
confidence,education, political
Can improve women’s living Can improve the situation the
mobilization,strengthening of women
conditions has in theorganizations,etc.
women’s society
Generally, does not change the Can give more power to women and
traditional roles and social relations
transform the social relations
5) Taking an example of Ethiopia approach towards

Gender analysis (CASCAPE) manual,
1. The manuals could be considered as a practical wayof
incorporating and interpreting gender issues in
agriculture. In light of this, CASCAPE prepared this manual
with the purpose of improving the knowledge and skills of
those who work on gender in CASCAPE and related
projects and provide them with basic gender analysis tools
so that they create gender-sensitive interventions.

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2. In the first section of this manual an overview of
definitions related to gender are provided. The main
sections exclusively focus on gender analysis frameworks
and their respective tools that are essential for designing
and implementing gender-sensitive activities in
agricultural development projects. It gives emphasis on
the following issues: which tools to use, how and when to
use, its interpretation, and what to do with the result
3. In general, the manual will assist to understand how
important it is to consider gender in project activities and,
how to go about it. We trust that those who work on
gender in CASCAPE and related projects will find it useful
and applicable in their day-to-day work.

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Why gender analysis is done?
1) To better understand the opportunities/problems in the
community and plan interventions which are beneficial to
both women and men.
2) To expose the barriers to women’s fullparticipation
andeconomic development
3) To make decisions & implement the project/programme
that promotes gender equity.
4) It helps to find the best strategies and solutions to
address the different needs and dynamics of men and
women living in poverty.
4.7 Gender analysis can be done using:

1. Formal interviews and surveys, mapping: One of
the approaches to conduct gender analysis is using
household interview. By conducting a household
interview a lot of information(qualitative/quantitative)
can be obtained that can give better understanding
about the issue. For example, in semi-structured
interviews general questions or topics are initially
identified and become
basisformorespecificquestionsduringtheinterviewallowin
gboththeinterviewer and the personbeing interviewed
discussontheissues.
2. Householdinterviews and focus group discussions
(FGDs).The other approach is focus group discussion.
In this case small groups (usually5-10 people) are
formed for an open discussion assisted by a
facilitator/moderator. Unlike individual interviews focus
group discussion provides an added dimension of the
interactions among members.
Gender Analysis Tools/Frameworks. Gender analysis tools/frameworks
are approaches used to generate data & information during gender analysis.
They answer questions such as: who does what, who has what, who needs
what and what should be done to close the gaps between what women and

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men need. In order to conduct gender analysis various tools have been
developed among
Topic Summary
In this topic we have learnt about gender analysis and their role in ensuring
gender equality in organisations. We have also learnt about practical and strategic
needs. The study has exposed us to the various gender needs in the society Now
you are an expert and can conduct a gender anlysis.
1. List the strategic and practical needs in a self help group
2. Is there an organisation you know which requires gender audit
Assignment (not to be submitted)
1. Describe the difference between practical and strategic needs in

relation to women projects.
2. Using an example describe the term gender analysis
FURTHER READING
FAO(2004).HelpingFarmersmakebetterdecisionsin
farmingandmarketing,areference guide.
http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/192862/Module2/ppt/PPTsfor
ModukeII.ppt.

PAGE 50 of 127
Topic Five: Harvard gender analysis framework and Gender Analysis
Matrix (GAM)
Introductions
To conduct gender analysis various tools are used, this study will describe
two tools in use; Harvard gender analysis framework and Gender Analysis
Matrix (GAM). These are the tools which the gender and development
experts will make use of to analyse gender equity in an organisation.
Topic Time

Learning Outcomes
 State the components of Harvard gender analysis framework.

 State the components of GAM

PAGE 51 of 127
Topic Content
5.1 Harvard Gender Analysis Framework
The Harvard Analytical Framework, also called the Gender Roles Framework,
was developed by the Harvard Institute for International Development in
collaboration with the Women In Development office of USAID, and was first
described in 1984 by Catherine Over holt and others. It was one of the
earliest of such frameworks. The starting point for the framework was the
assumption that it makes economic sense for development aid projects to
allocate resources to women as well as men, which will make development
more efficient – a position named the “efficiency approach".
Harvard Analytical Framework
1) It is one of the most commonly used gender analysis

frameworks.
2) It is developed based on the understanding that women and
men are affected by development activities differently.
3) The framework uses tools such as: Activity profile, Daily
activity clock (24-hour day activity), Seasonal calendar and
access & control profile.
Activity profile: This tool examines the gender-based division of labor. It
categorizes different activities (productive and reproductive activities of
men and women) and shows who does what, when (seasonally or daily) and
where (at home or in the farm).

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Activity profile
Who does the work?
Women Men
Activities tasks
Household
Cleaning
Fetching firewood
Fetching water
Preparing food X
Take care of children
Washing clothes X X
Productive activities
Land preparation X
Cultivation and maintenance
Harvest/Post-harvest X XX

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Example of gender activity analysis for maize crop
Who does the work?
Women Men
Activities Land
preparation
Landclearance X X
X
Ploughing X
Cultivation& maintenance
Seed selection X
Sowing/ planting X X
X
Weeding X X
X
Daily maintenance X X
X
Harvest/Post-harvest
Harvesting X X
X
Threshing X X
X
Storage X X
X
Processing X X
X
How to conduct this tool (activity profile)?
1) Interviews have to be conducted separately for men and women.

2) In case translators are needed they assist the translation process.
Make sure they understand the topic and only translate (instead of
interpretation and putting the words in the mouth of the respondent).
3) Majortasks/activitiesarelistedontheleft-handcolumnwhilewhoperforms
that particular task is noted on the right-hand column.

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4) Symbol(X)can be used to represent who does that particular activity.
An extra symbol (i.e. XX) is used to reflect the relative contribution
of a person performing that activity i.e. who is spending more time
on that particular task. In case both men and women share the task
equally each of them get similar (i.e. each of them get X or
XX),whereas if only one of them is entirely responsible for that
particular activity the symbol will be noted only for that person.
5) While conducting this tool, it is important to probe. Often,
respondents provide socially desirable answers, responding “we are
both involved”. However, in practice, it might be that one of the
persons is spending twice as much time as the other. These
expressions need to be captured to be able to fully understand the
gender dimensions of the particular activity.

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1) Daily activity clock (24– hour daily calendar)
The purpose of this gender analysis tool is to analyze the roles of women
and men during24hour. It explains how women and men spend a typical
day from the time they wake up until they go to bed.
Daily activity clock
Time Daily Activities

Women Men
05:00
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
24:00

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How to conduct this tool?
1) The discussion has to be conducted with separate

groups of women and men farmers, because they might
have different interests. Because of cultural norms, men
tend to speak in public, while women tend to be more
timid. If we take men and women together, the views
and interests of men might dominate the discussions.
2) The group (approximately 8-15 persons) should
be composed of a representation of the
community,i.e.model andnon-model farmers.
3) The facilitator of the Focus Group Discussion should
encourage the respondents to discuss thoroughly about
their engagement on the daily activities. Incase
translators are needed they assist the translation
process. Make sure they understand the topic and only
translate (instead of interpretation and putting the
words in the mouth of the respondent).
4) Ask the group members to list the activities that they
undertake in their daily routines.
5) Each participant should be given a chance to express
his/her own experience followed by others explaining
weather they agree or not on those activities and their
time management. In order to prevent a situation that
one person dominates the discussion, it would be wise
to ask each person turn by turn so that a person
provides his/her reflection on the question,
6) Record the activities on flip chart paper. Once this is
completed let the group discuss on activities that are
most tedious/time-taking/labour-intensive. Moreover,
as a facilitator let them discussion the mechanisms they
follow to cope up the situation and their suggestions for
future improvement.

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Example of women’s daily activity clock in Mekelle during the peak
season
(Source: Assefaetal,2014)
2) Seasonal Calendar
A seasonal calendar is another participatory tool used to
explore the seasonal changes of agricultural activities (in
terms of months) that are conducted throughout the year
for a given crop. It gives an idea about workload that both
women and men have and in what specific time of the year.

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Seasonal Calendar
Activ Who Jan Feb Mar Apr Ma Jun Jul Au Se Oct Nov Dec
ity Men y e y g p
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women

1) Interviews have to be conducted separately for men and
women groups.
2) Draw a matrix and list major activities associated with
production of a given crop. Activities can be recorded in
the left-hand column (e.g. land clearance/ preparation,
sowing/planting, fertilizer application, weeding,
harvesting). Likewise, on the right-hand side, each
month can be indicated along one axis. Activities are
recorded corresponding to respective month using a
symbol X. The matrix can be prepared separately for
rain-fed as well as irrigation periods.
3) It is important to stress that the questions are not
about “what is the most appropriate time to conduct
this task”, but rather “when did you conduct this task in
the past year(the reality)”.Also, it is important to let the
respondents discuss on what is most common, not what
is advised by extension agents.
4) Record the activities on flipchart paper.
The interpretation: data gathered from the group members can be
summarized and interpreted in a descriptive way. This includes: which
tasks for women and men, what are the busiest months (peak
seasons),less busy time (slack season),etc.

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3.Access and Control Profile
Gender is a determinative fact or in both access to and control over
resources. The allocation of resources between women and men is better
understood by differentiating access to resources and control over them.
Access refers to the opportunity to make use of a resource while control is
the power to decide how a resource is used and who has access to it. Access
and control profile is a tool that helps in determining power relations and
interests. It is used for analyzing the resources available and what benefits
given to the people involved. In general, it is about who has access and who
has the final decision making power (control over resources and to have the
opportunity to impose the choice on others).
Access and Control Profile
Resources Access Control Remarks
women men women Men
Land
Fertilizer
Seed
Oxen
Sheep/goat
Chicken
Dairy cows
Agricultural
equipment
Training
Credit
Water
Fuel wood
Others
Benefits from X
………

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How to conduct Access and Control
Profile
1) Interviews have to be conducted separately for men and
women groups.
2) Draw a matrix and list major resources including land,
agricultural input and others in the left-hand column. Like
wise, on the right-hand side, indicate who has access to, and
control over each resource. Use a symbol X to indicate who
has the access/control over the resource.
3) An extra symbol (i.e. XX) is used to reflect the relative
access/control of a person over that particular resource. In
case both men and women have equal access or equal
control, each of them get similar numbers (i.e. each of them
get X), whereas if only one of them is entirely in control of
that particular resource, the symbol will be noted only for
that person.
4) While conducting this tool, it is important to probe. Often,
respondents provide socially desirable answers, responding
“we are both in control”. However, in practice, it might be
that one of the persons is spending twice as much time as
the other. These nuances need to be captured to be able to
fully understand the gender dimensions of the particular
activity.
5) To be able to capture the differentiated access and control,
it is advised to use an excel file. E.g. one can
decidetotake10 points as maximum.(See Gender activity
profile, page 24)
6) Recordthe activities on flipchart paper.

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5.2 Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM) Worksheet
Gender Analysis Matrix ( GAM)
1) Rani Parker developed the Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM) in

collaboration with other development practitioners to support their
grassroots work for a Middle Eastern NGO.
2) Participatory planning is a basic theme of the framework, which is
flexible enough to handle situations where data collection is severely
handicapped.
The Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM) is an analytical tool that is used to

determine the differentiated impact that an intervention might have on
women and men (Parker, 1993). It assesses the impact with respect to the
positive and negative changes that a given intervention has brought in terms
of labor, resources, time and socio-cultural factors.
1. It comprehends the impact in terms of labor (whether the new

technology is more (or less) labor-demanding(if it is an additional
burden to them or not),resource (whether the new technology is
more (or less)resource intensive (e.g. seed, fertilizer, pesticide) as
compared to the conventional) time (whether the new technology is
time taking or time saving) and cultural perspective (the changes in
social aspects of the peoples ’life as a result of the intervention).For
instance, the gender analysis study conducted by

PAGE 62 of 127
Project Objectives:
Labour Time Resources Culture

Women
Men
Household
Community
Source: March, C, Smyth, I. Mukhopadhyay, M. (1999) A Guide to Gender-

Analysis
Frameworks,Oxfam,Oxford

PAGE 63 of 127
1) Individual interviews have to be conducted separately.

2) Each block is filled out to determine the impact of an
intervention on respondents ’life. Based on their answer
increase (↑) and decrease(↓)signs are used to describe the
effect. The signs indicate whether there the intervention has
impact on men and women in terms of labour, resource and
cultural aspect. Besides signs, it is wise to document the
stories and examples that respondents mention, to
substantiate the analysis.
The interpretation: information gathered can be summarized and
interpreted in a descriptive way.
NB/ Empowerment is essential at each of these levels.
1) Welfare addresses basic needs,

2) and access addresses ability to use resources such as
credit, land and education.
3) "Conscientization" is a key element of the framework:
recognition that discrimination creates gender-related
problems and women may themselves contribute to
this discrimination.
4) With participation, women are equal to men in making
decisions, and with control the balance of powers
between the genders is equal.
Analysis of the Sexual Division of Labour
1. Definition of the different but linked activities and responsibilities

of women and men.
2. The ways in which men’s and women’s activities, in
both the productive and socially reproductive spheres,
are both separate and linked, cooperative and
conflictual
3. Discussion of fluidities, change and variation in the
relationships between men and women, within their specific
social context.Thisdiscussion will indicate possible
opportunities for change.

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4. How are men and women positionedin relation tothe
resources, constraints and benefits available in society at
large.
What competencies are required to undertake gender analysis?
1. Familiarity with main Gender Analysis Frameworks

2. Ability to select the Framework most likely to yield
solutions to the development problem to be
addressed
3. Able to interpret data
4. Able to use strategic decision-making skills
What a Good Analysis Should Provide
i. Gender Awareness - Understanding of Gender Relations and their

Implications for Development Policy and Implementation
ii. Analysisofthe Division of Labour - Activities, Access and Control
iii. A Review of Women’s Priorities: Restraining and Driving Forces
iv. Recommendations to Address Women’s Practical Needs and/or
Strategic Interests
Topic Summary
In this topic we have learnt about GAM and a tool of conducting gender audit
and analysis. Due to its simplicity we can now apply the tool in organisation
with the objective of curtailing gender discrimination in organisations.
1. Taking an example of a rural farming are enumerate the activities
under by men and the ones undertaken by women.
Assignment (To be submitted within two weeks)

1. Describe the use of Gender analysis Matrix (GAM) at Egerton University.
2. Explain the various forms of differential treatments at work place in
universities in East Africa.
3. Describe the forms of gender related affirmative action.
4. Giving examples, Illustrate the various types of organizational
structures in public institutions.
5. Using a university of your choice, describe the term Gender Analysis
Matrix (GAM)
6. Using the GWDS department as an example, describe what a gender
audit should constitute.
PAGE 65 of 127
7. Describe FIVE theories of organizational change.
8. Giving relevant examples, describe TEN reasons why workers resist
change.
9. Describe TEN indications of gender mainstreaming in the ministry of
education in Kenya.
10. Illustrate the procedure of policy formulation and implementation
in Kenya
11. Suggest ways of increasing gender equality in the national
leadership
12. Describe the constitutional content that enhance gender equity.
13. Explain the forms of inequalities in public and private
organizations.
14. Describe the gender analysis tools used for diagnosis of
organizations.
References
AssefaB, deRooN,AhmedA,TsegayeA, BokaB, Zelleke B, TekieH,

TarikuJ.(2014).Gender AnalysisinCASCAPEInterventions:Gender-
basedrolesand constraintsinagricultural production.CASCAPEWorking
Paper.

PAGE 66 of 127
Topic Six: Women’s equality and empowerment framework
Introduction
Women have been discriminated from time immemorial; development

projects should ensure gender equality. Empowerment of women is the
channel commonly used to bring about gender equality. The topic describes
how empowerment framework is used to achieve gender equality in an
organisations.
Topic Time

Learning Outcomes
 Define the term women empowerement.

 State the five levels of equality.

PAGE 67 of 127
Topic Content
6.1 Women’s Empowerment Tool 1: Levels of Equality

1. Welfare
2. Access
3. Conscientisation
4. Participation
5. Control
These levels of equality are hierarchical, suggesting that a
development intervention that focuses on the higher levels are more
likely to increase women’s empowerment, than one focusing on the
lower levels. Equal control over resources such as land is on a higher
level (control), than access to the land, a lower level (welfare).This
approach takes the view that if equality is intrinsic to the definition of
women’s development, this brings with it the necessary corollary of
women’s empowerment as the means to overcoming obstacles to the
achievement of equality between men and women. The Framework
suggests that women’s advancement can be understood in terms of a
concern with the five levels of equality shown below.
Empowerment is a necessary part of the development process at each

level for women to advance to the next level, and for them to advance
progressively through all the levels towards equal status with men.
1) Welfare: This is defined as the level of women’s

material welfare (income, food supply, health care)
relative to men
2) Access: This is understood in the framework as
women’s equality of access with men to the factors of
production such as land, credit, labour, training,
marketing facilities, and all public services and
benefits. Equality of access is linked to equality of
opportunity, which usually needs reform of the law to
remove all forms of discrimination against women.
3) Conscientization: This concept relates to being
aware of the difference between sex and gender, and
to recognise that gender roles are cultural and can
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change. The sexual division of labour should be fair
to both women and men and both should agree with
it. Neither women nor men should dominate the
other, economically or politically. The basis of gender
awareness is a belief in sexual equality.
4) Participation: This is defined as women’s equal
participation with men at all levels of decision making,
policy development, planning and administration. It
relates particularly to development projects where
participation at all stages of the project cycle is
essential.
5) Control: Women’s conscientisation and mobilisation
can contribute to achieving control over the decision-
making process, in order toachieve a balance of cont
6.2 Women’s Empowerment Tool 2: Level of recognition of

“women’s issues’’
 As well as assessing the level of women’s empowerment that
a development wishes to address, it is also necessary to
establish to what extent women’s issues are being recognized
or ignored in the project objectives. A “women’s issue’’ is
defined by Longwe as all issues which relate to equality with
men, and includes any social or economic roles , and all levels
of equality (welfare, access, conscientisation, participation
and control).
 Three levels of recognition of women’s issues inproject design
are identified:
a) Negative level: There is no reference to
women’s issues inthe project objectives. Itis
likely that the project will have a negative
impact on women.
b) Neutral Level: Women’s issues are included
but there isdoubt as to whether the outcomes
will be positive for women.
c) Positive Level: Project objects are positively
concerned with women’s issues and with
improving women’s position relative to men.

PAGE 69 of 127
6.3 Women’s Empowerment Framework: Comments on uses
and potential limitations:
1) The framework can be used for planning, monitoring and
evaluation. Itcan be useful in questioning whether or not
development interventions have transformatory potential or
not and to translate a commitment to women’s empowerment
into policy and plans. It canalso be used for training. It
encourages users ofthe framework to examine what is meant
by empowerment.
2) The Longwe Framework shares some common ground with
the Moser Framework’s concept of practical and strategic
gender needs(see speakers notes, p33). However, Longwe
moves beyond the notion of separate needsshowing in the
framework that development intervention can contain both.
3) Potentiallimitations:The framework is not complete as
itdoes not take into account a number of aspects. It does not
track how situationschange over time. Therelationship
between men andwomen is examined only froman equality
perspective, failing to take account ofthe complex systemof
rights, claims, and responsibilities that exist betweenthem.
By not taking into account other formsof inequality,
womenmay be seen as a homogenous group. Using a
hierarchy of levels may give the impression that
empowerment is a linear process.
6.4 Gender Equality as a Development Objective: “At the

United Nation Fourth World Conference for Women held in
Beijing, both DAC members and their partner countries
made commitments to gender equality and women’s
empowerment. The Beijing Declaration adopted at the
Conference builds on the perspectives and strategies
outlined at the previous United Nations conferences on
education – Jomtien, (1990), environment- Rio(1992),
human rights- Vienna (1993), population – Cairo (1994),
and social development – Copenhagen (1995),including the
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination
against Women (CEDAW, 1979). It is based on the
principles of human rights and social justice. It clearly
PAGE 70 of 127
recognises that gender equality and women’s empowerment
are essential for addressing the central concerns of poverty
and insecurity, and for achieving sustainable, people
centred- development.’’
Discrimination:The Convention on the Elimination of all

Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), approved
by the United Nations in 1979, states that “Discrimination
against women shall mean distinction, exclusion, or
restriction made on the basis of sex which has the purpose
of
impairingornullifyingtherecognition,enjoymentorexercisebyw
omen,irrespectiveoftheir marital status, on a basis of
equality of men and women, of human rights and
fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social,
cultural, civil or any other field’’
Systemic Discrimination: Systemic discrimination is

caused by policies and practices that are built into the ways
that institutions operate, and that have the effect of
excluding women and minorities. For example, in societies
where the belief is strong that whatever happens within the
household is the concern of household member only, the
police force and judiciary, organizations within the institution
of the state are likely routinely to avoid addressing
questions of domestic violence, leading to systemic
discrimination against all the women who experience
violence within the home

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6.5 Gender Inequalities in the Work place
1. Gender inequality in organizations is a complex
phenomenon that can be seen in organizational
structures, processes, and practices.
2. For women, some of the most harmful gender inequalities
are enacted within human resources (HRs) practices. This
is because HR practices (i.e., policies, decision-making,
and their enactment) affect the hiring, training, pay, and
promotion of women.
3. The workplace has sometimes been referred to as an
inhospitable place for women due to the multiple forms of
gender inequalities present (e.g., Abrams, 1991).
4. Some examples of how workplace discrimination
negatively aﬀects women’s earnings and opportunities are
the gender wage gap (e.g., Peterson and Morgan, 1995),
the dearth of women in leadership (Eagly and Carli,
2007), and the longer time required for women (vs. men)
to advance in their careers (Blau and DeVaro, 2007).
5. In other words, workplace discrimination contributes to
women’s lower socio- economic status. Importantly, such
discrimination against women largely can be attributed to
human resources (HR) policies and HR-related decision-
making. Furthermore, when employees interact with
organizational decision makers during HR practices, or
when they are told the outcomes of HR-related decisions,
they may experience personal discrimination in the form
of Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org
1September 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 1400
Gender Equality
1) The term gender equality has been defined in a variety of ways

in the context of development, which means gender equality in
terms of equality under the law, equality of opportunity
(including equality of rewards for work and equality in access to
human capital and other productive resources that enable
opportunity), and equality of voice (the ability to influence and
contribute to the development process). It stops short of
defining gender equality as equality of outcomes for two
PAGE 72 of 127
reasons. First, different cultures and societies can follow
different paths in their pursuit of gender equality. Second,
equality implies that women and men are free to choose
different (or similar) roles and different (or similar) outcomes in
accordance with their preferences and goals.
2) Gender inequalities exert high human costs and constrain the
development of countries. These consequences provide a
compelling case for public and private action to promote gender
equality. The state has a critical role in improving the well-
being of both women and men and, by so doing, in capturing
the substantial social benefits associated with improving the
absolute and relative status of women and girls. Public action is
particularly important, because social and legal institutions that
perpetuate and are responsible for gender inequalities are
extremely difficult, if not impossible, for individuals alone to
change. Market failures, too, mean insufficient information
about women's productivity in the labor market (because they
spend a greater part of their work hours in non-market
activities or because labor markets are absent or undeveloped)
and are clear obstacles.
3) Improving the effectiveness of societal institutions and
achieving economic growth are widely accepted as key
elements of any long term development strategy. However
successful implementation of this strategy does not guarantee
gender equality. To promote gender equality, policies for
institutional change and economic development need to
consider and address prevailing gender inequalities in rights,
resources, and voice. And active policies and programs are
needed to redress longstanding disparities between women and
men. The evidence argues for a three-part strategy for
promoting gender equality
NB/
1) Gender equality is not just a fundamental human right: achieving

gender equality also brings tremendous socioeconomic benefits.
Several studies have shown that reducing gender inequality has many
positive effects and leads to higher growth rates, healthier children,

PAGE 73 of 127
improved labour productivity and a more responsive government. [7]
Thus, gender responsive budgets, and related policies, will contribute
towards achieving gender equality and will simultaneously improve the
population’s welfare and lead to more sustainable and inclusive growth
and employment.
2) The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) has researched how
improvements in gender equality can contribute to sustainable,
inclusive and smart economic growth in the European Union. EIGE’s e-
study on the economic benefits of gender equality is unique in the EU
context. It is the first of its kind to use a robust econometric model to
estimate a broad range of macroeconomic benefits of gender equality
in several broad areas such as education, labour market activity and
wages. It also considers the demographic impact of such
improvements.
3) Gender equality means that structures and decision-making processes
neither privilege nor discriminate women or men, in all their diversity,
4) Gender equality means the full participation of women and men in all
spheres of public and private life. Gender equality means more than
just ensuring equal treatment and opportunities; it must be visible in a
balanced distribution of power and resources and shared
responsibilities between women and men within society.
Topic Summary
In this topic we have learnt about women empowerment in order to attain gender
equality in organisations. It is through women empowerement women potential is
utilized for the benefit of the society.
1. Which are the common interventions of women empowerment in your
locality
2. Do men require empowerment
Assignment (Not to be submitted)
1. Explain the role of empowerment in women equality
2. State the common inequalities at the working place
Further reading

PAGE 74 of 127
Goonesekere, S. (2005) ‘A Rights-Based Approach to Realizing Gender
Equality’, available at
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/news/savitri.htm
March,C,Smyth,I. Mukhopadhyay rol between women and men over
resources and benefits.

PAGE 75 of 127
Topic Seven: Division of Labor at work place
Introduction
Normally work is divided between men and women according to their gender
roles, this is referred to as the 'gender division of labour'. Division of labor
is immensely important in our economic system because it enables work to
be done much more quickly and efficiently than it would be without the
division of labor. Division of labor is when tasks are split up into specialized
separate tasks. For example, instead of having one skilled person make an
entire shoe by themselves, we have an assembly line of people, each of
whom does one part of the shoe-making task. Men and women in work
place are in many cases assigned jobs related to their gender roles.
Topic Time

Learning Outcomes
 Define the division of labour.

 State the gender discrimination associated with division of labour.

PAGE 76 of 127
Topic Content
7.1 Advantages of Division of Labor in an economy

1) Division of labour is essential to an economy because it
allows for the highly specialized, assembly line production
systems that allow us to have such inexpensive goods
available to us- low cost of goods and services and hence
high demand.
2) This allows each person to get good at doing one thing
over and over. – improves ones skills
3) Division of labor is important in any economic system
because it allows for the maximization of efficiency in a
manufacturing process, as well as in other economic
sectors.
4) By breaking a process down into components, with each
component assigned to the individual(s) best suited to that
task, the entirety of the process is rendered to be faster
and more efficient. As Adam Smith postulated in Wealth of
Nations:"The division of labour, however, so far as it can be
introduced, occasions, in every art, a proportionable
increase of the productive powers of labour. . .First, the
improvement of the dexterity ( skill to perform a task)of
the workman necessarily increases the quantity of the work
he can perform; and the division of labour, by reducing
every man's business to some one simple operation, and by
making this operation the sole employment of his life,
necessarily increases very much the dexterity of the
workman."
5) Leads to improved economic growth
6) It encourages team work
7) It leads to equitable employment
8) It results in to a reduced work load
9) Lead to high quality goods and services --- effectiveness
10) Diversification of ideas and setting up standards in specific
fields.
11) Harmonious coexistence in the family and community

PAGE 77 of 127
12) Less time spent in the task
7.2 The Gender Division of Labor

1) The way work is divided between men and women
according to their gender roles is usually referred to as the
‘gender division of labour’. This does not necessarily
concern only paid employment, but more generally the
work, tasks and responsibilities that are assigned to
women and men in their daily lives, and which may, on
their turn, also determine certain patterns in the labour
market.
2) It is often argued that the gender division of labour is a
result of biological traits; however, if we notice that in
some societies women perform tasks and jobs that in
some other societies are traditionally considered as men’s
jobs, and vice versa, we see the division of labour has
much to do with what each society perceives as
appropriate for both sexes.
3) In most countries, house chores– like cleaning, cooking,
washing clothes–and everything that relates to sustaining
the house hold –like fetching water, small scale agriculture
for self-sustainment –are typically women’s or girls’ tasks,
even when they have a paid job outside the home. On the
other hand, more technical house tasks, like dealing with
electrical or mechanic equipment, is traditionally a man’s
job.
Gender Occupational Segregation
1) The labour market (as well as education and training) is
heavily segregated along gender lines, with differences
between regions and cultures. Also some generalizations
about gender divisions in the labour force are quite
truthful, as men dominate certain sectors and
occupations and women others. For example, there is a
concentration of women in services and of men in
manufacturing. By sub-sector there is also a gender
division: in manufacturing, for instance, there are more
women concentrated in the electronics and garments
industries, and men in the car industry. This is called
PAGE 78 of 127
‘occupational segregation’, which is commonly split into
a horizontal and a vertical dimension.
2) In the context of gender, horizontal segregation refers to
the extent to which men and women are located
indifferent occupational sectors. Women are usually
highly concentrated in the sectors that require lesser
skills (e.g. agriculture), that promise little chance for
career advancements (e.g. services) and that are related
to care-giving (e.g.: nursing),which often coincide also
with low wages.
3) Vertical segregation refers to the extent to which men
and women occupy different hierarchical positions within
the same occupational sector. Within the same sector,
women tend to occupy the lower ranks of the
hierarchical ladder (and consequently the lower salary
ranges).Statistics show that the higher the position the
wider the gender gap, so that on average women hold
less than 5% of the top jobs in corporations.
7.3 Women are associated to some inferior roles
Other traditional views of women relegate them to certain
occupations. The view of women as caretakers of the family
extends beyond the familial unit to others.
1) Women have traditionally been seen as caretakers, of both
people and other beings and things However, this caretaker
occupation has most often been a subordinate one, under the
direction of a superior, usually a man. The example of the
vastly female-dominated nurse occupation, 95% women as of
the 2000s, reflects this, as it is the doctors that ultimately are
in charge and have the power in the nurse-doctor
relationship.
ii) Traditional stereotypes of women make them out to be
much more emotional and irrational than men, and thus less
suited for many important jobs. Studies show that “it is
common for stereotypical ideas about women’s abilities to
perform well in leadership positions to inform people’s
perceptions about women leaders”.

PAGE 79 of 127
2) Most countries in Africa leave women without easy avenues
to powerful positions in any area. However, there are some
exceptions, such as Rwanda. Rwanda, with their new
constitution after the conclusion of the Rwandan Civil War, it
was written in that 30% of policy-making positions must be
allocated to women. In 2003 with the first election of the
new constitution, Rwanda surpassed Sweden to be the
country with the highest percentage of women in its
parliament with 48.8%.
3) International bodies such as the UN have established goals
for female representation in governing bodies. Thirty percent
of elected position seats was recommended as the critical
mass necessary to gain effective policy from female
representation.
B/
1) However, even these international bodies that promote female
empowerment on many scales themselves lack proportional gender
representation. On Wikipedia’s List of current Permanent
Representatives to the United Nations, of the 192 representatives, only
32 are women, which is only 16.67% female, barely over half of what
they recommend for governing bodies. Additionally, of these 32
countries represented by women, only three, the United States,
Singapore, and Luxembourg, are considered core countries, making
women-represented core countries only an even smaller percentage.
2) In the workplace, both in the public and private sector, the
opportunities available to women are trumped by a glass ceiling. The
glass ceiling is a phenomenon in which women in the workplace, climb
the corporate ladder through with qualifications equal to those of their
male counterparts only to find that they cannot proceed past a certain
point due to gender stereotypes and their implications.
3) The gender stereotypes create barriers for women trying to reach
positions of power which is responsible for creating and influencing the
glass ceiling effect. The glass ceiling most directly affects those women
who spend many years working in an industry to build up
achievements and a status of credibility in order to be considered for
positions of power within the company or industry.

PAGE 80 of 127
4) Despite their competence, women are not offered top CEO positions
because of their sex and existing stereotypes that say that women are
not cut out to head such big responsibilities. However, when these
women’s achievements are ignored and their success halted because
of ignorant stereotypes, they are not the only ones affected. Many
young women entering the workforce often look up to these driven
women and aspire to achieve many of the same dreams.
5) When young women witness their mentors failing to achieve their
dreams because of gender inequality, a culture begins to develop
amongst women where they do not feel worthy of power and struggle
with self empowerment. This is an immense reason why a lot of
women do not chase after positions of power because of a lack of self-
worth brought on by gender stereotypes and inequalities.
6) The glass ceiling is continuing to effect women today, but with forced
attention on gender equality, women will be able to break though this
invisible ceiling and effect change in the corporate world.
Topic Summary
In this topic we have learnt about empowerment framework. The study has also
exposed the fact that women are associated with inferior roles in society and in
organisation. With this knowledge you are expected to mitigate and reduce the
suffering that women go through in organisations.
Teaching/ learning activities

1. Learners to discuss about inferior roles associated with women
2. As a lady or a man which activities are you involved in as a man.
Self assessment (Not to be submitted)

a) Explain how Women’s equality and empowerment framework is applied
in gender audit and gender analysis.
b) Discuss the statement “ Women are associated with inferior roles in
organizations”
Further reading
World Bank (2011) ‘Mainstreaming Gender Equality in Infrastructure
Projects: Asia and Pacific Regional Meeting’, available at:
http://go.worldbank.org/AUI0MGROG0

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Topic Eight: Gender discrimination at work place
Introduction
Women and men should be treated equally, however, in many
organisations they are treated differently are treated differently. Gender
experts should understand gender discriminations so that they can use their
expertise to mitigate it. This topic will describe the various forms of gender
discrimination at work place.
Topic Time

Learning Outcomes
 Define the terms gender discrimination at work place

 State areas in which women are discriminated at work place

PAGE 82 of 127
Topic Content
8.1 Disparity in work place and job promotion by Gender

What is involved in a promotion? Are the qualitative characteristics
of a promotion the same for the young men and young women?
Table below presents detailed information about a tentative
promotion process for workers who were promoted
Male Females
Workers promoted
Characteristic 1,192
Men 938
Women
(number).....................
...
84.4 82.7
Increase in job
responsibilities: 30.2 31.5
Promoted
workers.......................
.................. Workers 89.9 89.4
who were not
promoted...................
Increase in wage as a
result of promotion
5.3 4.8
..................................
................. 8.8 8.0
Category of
promotion:
12.2 16.7
Re-organization
...................
section........................ 8.7 11.6

................................
2.1 1.9
Newlycreatedpositionwit
hincreased 3.3 3.7
responsibilities..............
33.2 28.9
..............................
Lateralmove................. 26.5 24.4
................................ PAGE 83 of 127
Other...........................
..................................
Samejobduties..............
Gender disparity in Retrenchment
1) Retrenchment of employees is a process undertaken by an
organization to reduce the workforce of an organization to
improve the operational efficiency. It is usually designed to
improve
efficiency productivity and/or competitiveness. Retrenchment
represents a strategy implemented by managers that affects the
size of the firm’s workforce and its processes. The purpose of this
study was to investigate the process of implementation of staff
retrenchment program in Rift Valley Railways Western region,
Kisumu. The researcher used a content analysis to analyze the
views of the respondent by extracting the themes and subthemes
from the response.
2) In carrying out the retrenchment, the organization set up a
retrenchment committee to undertake the retrenchment process.
The retrenchment committee had a representative from all the
departments in the organization, the management of the
organization and a representative from the trade union. The task
of the committee was to establish the severance fee for the
retrenched workers, the communication protocol of the
retrenchment process, the selection of the employees to be
retrenched and the procedures for selecting the employees.
3) The criterion that was used to select the employees for
retrenchment was age, experience, discipline of the employees,
experience and the excess employees in the departments.
Voluntary retirement was also sought to get employees for
retrenchment. The retrenched employees were paid a one month
salary for every year worked, ten thousand shillings for transport
of belongings, a golden handshake of 120,000 shillings. The
retrenchment process led to loss of staff.
4) Retrenchment of old employees also led to a work force of young
and inexperienced employees. In the case of the dissatisfied
employees, the employees were given a chance to report their
displeasure in a Complaints Committee. The appeal goes through
the complaints department through the legal advisor and then to
the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) for deliberation. Once the CEO
has studied the complaint it is passed to the Appeals Committee
which comprises of the CEO, the department head and the legal

PAGE 84 of 127
advisor. The Appeal Committee investigates the complaints of the
complainant. If an appeal is effective the right decision is followed
considering the rights of the employee. The study recommends
that future researcher should include the views of victims of
retrenchment, members of trade union and the surviving
employees as well as the human resource department. The study
also recommends that future researchers should investigate the
contribution of the retrenchment on the performance of the
organizations
8.2 Gender stereotypes

1) Gender stereotypes are simplistic generalizations about the
gender attributes, differences, and roles of individuals and/or
groups. Stereotypes can be positive or negative, but they rarely
communicate accurate information about others
2) Gender stereotypes are simplistic generalizations about the
gender attributes, differences, and roles of individuals and/or
groups. Stereotypes can be positive or negative, but they rarely
communicate accurate information about others. When people
automatically apply gender assumptions to others regardless of
evidence to the contrary, they are perpetuating gender
stereotyping. Many people recognize the dangers of gender
stereotyping; yet continue to make these types of
generalizations.
3) Traditionally, the female stereotypic role is to marry and have
children. She is also to put her family's welfare before her own;
be loving, compassionate, caring, nurturing, and sympathetic;
and find time to be sexy and feel beautiful. The male stereotypic
role is to be the financial provider. He is also to be assertive,
competitive, independent, courageous, and career‐focused; hold
his emotions in check; and always initiate sex. These sorts of
stereotypes can prove harmful; they can stifle individual
expression and creativity, as well as hinder personal and
professional growth.
4) The weight of scientific evidence demonstrates that children learn
gender stereotypes from adults. As with gender roles, socializing
agents—parents, teachers, peers, religious leaders, and the

PAGE 85 of 127
media—pass along gender stereotypes from one generation to
the next.
5) One approach to reexamining conventional gender roles and
stereotypes is androgyny, which is the blending of feminine and
masculine attributes in the same individual. The androgyne, or
androgynous person, does not neatly fit into a female or male
gender role; she or he can comfortably express the qualities of
both genders. Parents and other socializing agents can teach
their children to be androgynous, just as they can teach them to
be gender‐biased.
6) Emerging as a powerful sociopolitical force beginning in the
1960s, the feminist movement, or women's liberation movement,
has lobbied for the rights of women and minorities. Feminists
have fought hard to challenge and redefine traditional stereotypic
gender roles
7) Gender stereotypes appear to have an effect at an early age. In
one study, the effects of gender stereotypes on children's
mathematical abilities were tested. In this study of American
children between the ages of six and ten, it was found that the
children, as early as the second grade, demonstrated the gender
stereotype that mathematics is a 'boy's subject'. This may show
that the mathematical self-belief is influenced before the age in
which there are discernible differences in mathematical
achievement
8) In another study of gender stereotypes it was found that parents'
stereotypes interact with the sex of their child to directly
influence the parents' beliefs about the child's abilities. In turn,
parents' beliefs about their child directly influence their child's
self-perceptions, and both the parents' stereotypes and the
child's self-perceptions influence the child's performance.
9) Gender stereotypes are frequently brought up as one
disadvantage to women during the hiring process, and as one
explanation of the lack of women in key organizational positions.
10) Management and similar leader positions are often
perceived to be "masculine" in type, meaning they are assumed
to require aggressiveness, competitiveness, strength and
independence. These traits do not line up with the perceived
traditional female gender role stereotype. (This is often referred
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to as the "lack of fit" model which describes the dynamics of the
gender bias.
11) Therefore, the perception that women do not possess
these "masculine" qualities, limits their ability to be hired or
promoted into managerial positions.
12) One's performance at work is also evaluated based on
one's gender. If a female and a male worker show the same
performance, the implications of that performance vary
depending on the person's gender and on who observes the
performance; if a man performs exceedingly well he is perceived
as driven or goal-oriented and generally seen in a positive light
while a woman showing a similar performance is often described
using adjectives with negative connotations.
13) Female performance is therefore not evaluated neutrally or
unbiased and stereotyped in ways to deem their equivalent levels
and quality of work as instead of lesser value.
14) Consequently, that gender stereotype filter leads to a lack
of fair evaluation and, in turn, to fewer women occupying higher
paying positions. Gender stereotypes contain women at certain,
lower levels; getting trapped within the glass ceiling.
15) While the number of women in the workforce occupying
management positions is slowly increasing, women currently fill
only 2.5% of the higher managerial positions in the United
States. The fact that most women are being allocated to
occupations that pay less, is often cited as a contributor to the
existing gender pay gap.
16) If a woman does act according to female stereotypes, she
is likely to receive backlash for not being competent enough; if
she does not act according to the stereotypes connected to her
gender and behaves more androgynous, or even masculine, it is
likely to cause backlash through third-party punishment or
further job discrimination.
17) Therefore, women are expected to behave in a way that
aligns with female gender stereotypes while these stereotypes
are simultaneously used to justify their lack of success in an
economic context, putting women in the workforce in a
precarious, "double bind" situation. A proposed step to relieve
women from this issue is the above-mentioned ratification of the
PAGE 87 of 127
Equal Rights Amendment, as it would legally further gender
equality and prohibit gender-based discrimination regardless if a
woman is acting according to female gender stereotypes or in
defiance of them.
18) Rosabeth Moss Kanter identified four types of stereotypes
given to professional women via the media. The four stereotypes
are, iron maiden, pet, mother, and seductress/sex object. Iron
maiden refers to women who are deemed to display too many
masculine traits and not enough feminine traits according to her
audience. This leads audiences toquestion the trustworthiness of
an iron maiden, because she is seen as strategically playing the
field to appease voters.
19) The pet stereotype is given to women who are identified as
helpmates, cheerleaders, or mascots, which then leads the
audience to see these women as naive or weak and unable to
lead without a man's help. If a professional woman is seen as a
mother, she is more likely to be seen as compassionate and
caring, but also has the capacity to be shrew, punishing, and
scolding. Additionally, it is possible for her leadership abilities to
be called into question due to perceived conflicts with her
maternal responsibilities. The fourth stereotype, seductress, is
assigned to women who speak and act rather femininely, or have
been victims of sexual harassment. The media tends to focus on
the seductress woman's sex appeal and physical appearance in
opposition to her policy stances and rhetoric.

PAGE 88 of 127
Common Gender Stereotypes
The common female and male stereo types are;
Women men
Women are dependent 1.Independent
Weak 2. Powerful
Cooperative 3. Competitive
Caretakers 4. Achievers
Cheerful 5.Forceful
Gentle 6. Strong
Soft spoken 7.Out spoken
Followers 8. Leaders
Fragile 9. Protectors
Incompetent 10. Competent
Secretaries 11. Bosses
Flexible 12. Focused
Housekeepers 13. Broad winners
NB/
1) However, it has been found that while there is some basis to the
stereotype, it does not hold true universally under statistical scrutiny.
One survey based in South Africa found that “over 30 per cent … are of
the opinion that women are too emotional to be able to handle high
level leadership positions”; evidently, stereotypes persist and still take
effect.
2) In today's community so many stereotypes happen daily. People judge
others based on the visual representation they see and at times even
make allegations based on these evaluations. It's immoral and
shouldn't be supported. This assertion is true no concern how some in
community wants to see it as wrong. It happens and people should
not be judged based on their characteristics.
3) Stereotypes, racism stereotypes, and sometimes prejudice stereotypes
towards people have been acknowledged, they have attempted to be
dealt with and attempted to be controlled but it's unavoidable. Sure
PAGE 89 of 127
some might feel we live in a community where this doesn't occur, but
the fact of the matter is its not, and it wants to be understood. Some
feel you can accept people despite of race or sex. Accepting an
individual who just selects to dress or look different shouldn't be that
difficult. Nevertheless, some have found, this is not the situation.
Stereotypical bias towards anybody, particularly the ones who select to
look differently, is a main problem. It is a main issue that goes most of
the time un-addressed and.
Some Work place discriminations

1) Age Discrimination
2) Disability / Handicap Discrimination
3) Sex Discrimination
4) Medical & Workplace Leave Discrimination
5) Pregnancy Discrimination
6) Race Discrimination
7) Religious Discrimination
8) Sexual Harassment/ Sexual Orientation Discrimination
9) Unequal Pay
10) Wage & Hour discrimination
8.3 Gender Gap-Challenges of Gender equality

From a gender equality perspective, there are at least two challenges
regarding institutions:
1. How can an organization promote more equitable relations between

women and men through the implementation of its mandate?
a. Organizations have a profound impact on gender relations and

inequalities. Given their mandates and resources, organizations
decide (implicitly or overtly)who gets what resources, who benefits
from a specific programme and who participates in decisions. For
example, there are gender equality implications in the actions of
both the Ministry of Finance setting tax policy and a community-
based organization developing a water-users’ committee.
b. Most organizations pay little attention to the relevance of
differences and inequalities between women and men to their area
of work. Many people assume that organizations operate in ‘gender

PAGE 90 of 127
neutral’ ways, that their actions will have the same impact on
women and men. Yet, it is rarely the case.
c. Organizations can perpetuate inequality between women and men
through implementing policies that widen economic disparities (in
the case of a Ministry of Finance) or that fail to support women’s
involvement indecision-making processes (in the case of a
development cooperation agency).
d. Institutions also have the potential to act in other ways. They can
seek to ensure that policies and programmes narrow gender
disparities, recognize domestic work, promote more equal
decision- making authority and eliminate discrimination on the
basis of sex.
Gender diversity
Gender diversity in the workplace is the equal treatment and acceptance of

both males and females in an organization. Diversity adds value to a
company's bottom line due to the different viewpoints and backgrounds of
diverse individuals.
Gender diversity is when a company is represented by a more equal

proportion of men and women. More companies are realizing the value of
having a diverse workforce. The law firm partners in our story heard that
their biggest competitor was reaping huge successes and benefiting from
having different perspectives on staff after hiring female attorneys.
Gender Diversity Trends and Examples
1) In 2010, 70 percent of the new entrants into the workforce consisted

of women. Unfortunately, even though women's presence in the
business world is increasing, the compensation, rewards and available
success is not. The female lawyers' grievance list reflects the very
trends that all women are currently facing in the marketplace.
2) The law firm hired Sara, Cindy, Becky and Linda around the same time
as Bob and Lou. All of the law graduates are equally trained and have
the same title. The female attorneys' grievance list contains the
following:
a) The women received 80 percent of the male lawyers' salary.
This matches up with nationwide trends. Sara wants all of
the women to have an immediate salary adjustment, as she
PAGE 91 of 127
makes $60,000 a year compared to her male counterpart's
salary of $80,000.
b) Women are easily passed over for promotions compared to
their male counterparts. Cindy has billed a record number
of hours and won national cases, yet she heard through the
grapevine that one of the lesser experienced male lawyers
will be promoted. Cindy wants an explanation as to why she
is not being considered.
c) All of the women feel that there is a glass ceiling that is
hampering their success. A glass ceiling is an invisible
barrier that keeps women from rising above a specific level
with a company. Cindy and Sara gave the partners many
examples to support their claim. Last year, a corner office
opened up, and none of the women were consulted. In
addition, none of the women were considered for partner
track.
d) The prejudiced partners explained that they felt that the
women would eventually marry and have kids, which would
make them poor partners. A recent nationwide study
showed that only 19 percent of women lawyers are
partners. The male lawyers are also given the criminal
defense cases, while the bulk of the women lawyers' cases
consist of municipal court cases that deal with drunk driving
and speeding issues.
A gender-blind (or unisex) person is someone who adheres to not

distinguishing people by gender. Gender blind people generally advocate
gender neutrality in society, such as activities undertaken and services
provided without regard to the gender of those who participate.
A gender role is a set of societal norms dictating the types of behaviors

which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for
people based on their actual or perceived sex or sexuality
The Gender Management System (GMS)
1) The Gender Management System (GMS) is the Commonwealth

Secretariat's approach to ensuring that gender equality is a guiding
principal in all government policies, plans and programmes. It calls for

PAGE 92 of 127
a broad-based partnership in society in which government consults
and acts co-operatively with other key stakeholders, including civil
society and the private sector. To this end, the Commonwealth
Secretariat produced a series of reference manuals presenting the
concepts and methodology of the GMS, with both general and sector-
specific guidelines and tools for analysis and planning.
2) These manuals focus on gender mainstreaming in such key sectors as
finance, development planning, the public service, legal and
constitutional affairs, as well as cross-cutting development issues such
as HIV/AIDS, poverty eradication and the Millennium Development
Goals, and gender-based violence. The GMS Toolkit is a learner-
centred and training-oriented package designed to help those who are
responsible for action on gender equality in government and other
stakeholder organizations to more easily use these GMS manuals.
Topic Summary
In this topic we have learnt about affirmative action. In addition we have looked
and the advantages and disadvantages of affirmative action. In simple terms we
have learnt that affirmative action is a tool of mitigating gender discrimination.
1. What is your view about affirmative action
2. Discuss negative effects of affirmative action
a) Illustrate the negative effects of affirmative action in organizations

b) Describe the forms of gender discrimination at work place
c) Giving examples, describe the contribution of stereotypes in gender discrimination
d) Describe the following terms in relation to gender and organizations
i) Gender diversity,
ii) Gender blind and
iii) Gender management systems (GMS)

PAGE 93 of 127
Are there gender stereotypes which affect promotion at work
place?

FURTHER READING
March, Candida; Smyth, Inés A.; Mukhopadhyay, Maitrayee (1999). A guide

to gender-analysis frameworks. Oxfam. p. 55ff. ISBN 0-85598-403-1.
"Moser's Gender Planning Framework". International Labour Organization:
South-East Asia and the Pacific Multidisciplinary Advisory Team.
Retrieved 2011-06-16.

PAGE 94 of 127
Topic Nine: Changing organizations, gender mainstreaming and
affirmative action
Introduction
Changes take place in organisation, change management is a tool for
organizational success. In addition the topic will handle gender
mainstreaming and affirmative action. Attention has recently begun
to focus on how development cooperation organizations can be
changed to better promote equality between women and men.
Topic Time

Learning Outcomes
 Define the term gender mainstreaming

 State the areas in government which require gender mainstreaming

PAGE 95 of 127
Topic Content
9.1 Models and responses in organizational

change processes
Models and responses in

organizational change processes
(Adaptedfrom:M.Macdonald,E.Sprenger&I.Dubel(1997).Genderand
Status of Responses Typical Situations Strategies
OrganizationalChange:BridgingtheGap
gender of Behaviours ofBetween
and rolesPolicyand
of used by
equality managem other change change
issues in the ent to a Practice.Amsterdam:Roy
employees agents agents
organization gender alTropical Institute.)
vis-à- vis
equality gender
agenda equality
issues
Gender-blind: Defensive;eas Passive;lackawa The lone Putting gender
no ily reness pioneer: on
recognition of accused;insul frequently the agenda by
gender atedby power stigmatized; explaining;
differentials; needs support giving facts and
assumptions base; primary figures;
include biases support formal/informal
in favor of often comes organizing
existing from outside
gender the
relations organization
The roots of the gender gap
1) During colonial rule, sexist gender stereotypes were imported by

British officials who were used to living in a society with a marked
gender gap. As a result, wage labour and other economic opportunities
were opened up to men, with the expectation that women would stay

PAGE 96 of 127
behind to look after the family. Similar attitudes held back women in a
variety of other ways. For example, one of my PhD students, Michelle
Sikes, has just written an excellent thesis that demonstrates that while
British officials opened up opportunities for male Kenyan runners, they
closed them for women. It was many decades before women were able
to catch up.
2) Of course, the problem can’t just be blamed on colonial rule. Most
variants of what is often called “traditional rule” in the pre-colonial
period vested power in the male lineage and women were often denied
the right political power. One of the reasons that colonial assumptions
regarding gender inequalities often went without challenge was that
they fitted so well with the way in which many Kenyan men viewed the
world. As a result, male political and economic dependence got worse,
rather than better, after Independence. The name “Big Men” was apt,
because women were rarely able to rise to the apex of customary or
economic authority. This meant that the networks of power and
patronage that would govern Kenya over the next 40 years had men
at their centre.
3) Taken together, these developments have held women back for over a
hundred years. One consequence of this is that women have often
been denied their right to inherit land. Given the emotional and
financial importance of land in Kenya, this has undermined gender
equality in both practical and symbolic terms. Moreover, one of the
knock-on effects of relatively low levels of female land tenure is that it
is harder for women to gain access to credit.
4) Consequently, Kenya no longer differentiates men and women’s access
to institutions or the use, ownership and inheritance of property.
Female business owners can now quickly resolve minor disputes in
small claims courts. Political parties are required to respect and
promote gender equality. And perhaps most critically, customary and
traditional laws which contradict new legislation, many of which
cemented gender inequality, are now considered invalid.
Pay Gap
Despite the fact that full income parity could add up to 26% to world GDP by
2025, women across the world are still vastly underpaid compared with their
male counterparts. In the United States, the average woman will earn 78

PAGE 97 of 127
cents for every dollar a man earns. Globally, that discrepancy is even worse,
at only 50 cents to the dollar.
9.2 Gender Mainstreaming

1) Gender mainstreaming is the public policy concept of assessing the
different implications for women and men of any planned policy action,
including legislation and programmes in all areas and levels.
2) Gender mainstreaming has been embraced internationally as a
strategy towards realizing gender equality. It involves the integration
of a gender perspective into the preparation, design, implementation,
monitoring and evaluation of policies, regulatory measures and
spending programmes, with a view to promoting equality between
women and men, and combating discrimination.
3) Gender mainstreaming requires both integrating a gender perspective
to the content of the different policies, and addressing the issue of
representation of women and men in the given policy area.
4) Gender Mainstreaming is a globally accepted strategy for promoting
gender equality. Mainstreaming is not an end in itself but a strategy,
an approach, a means to achieve the goal of gender equality.
Mainstreaming involves ensuring that gender perspectives and
attention to the goal of gender equality are central to all activities –
policy development, research, advocacy/dialogue, legislation, resource
allocation, and planning, implementation and monitoring and
evaluation of policies and programmes in all political economic and
social spheres. Its goals are gender equity through empowerment of
women as well as men.
5) Addressing the issue of representation means looking at the
representation of women and men as policy beneficiaries, as well as
their representation in the labour force and in the decision making
processes.
6) Integrating the gender perspective in a policy means that equality
between women and men, as the overarching principle, should be
taken into consideration in all decisions, in each phase of the policy-
making process, by all the actors involved.
7) The policy process is understood as a multi-stage cycle, including
defining, planning, implementing and checking (monitoring and
evaluating). In many cases, these stages are turned into a cycle, with

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each step being repeated as changes occur. For example, when a
policy is evaluated, it may reveal new problems that need to be
addressed for re-programming.
8) The concept of bringing issue s into the mainstream of society was
clearly established as a global strategy for promoting gender equality
in the platform for Action adopted at the United Nations Fourth World
conference on Women, held in Beijing (China) in 1995. It highlighted
the necessity to ensure that gender equality is a primary goal in all
areas of social and economic development.
9) Mainstreaming a gender perspective is the process of assessing the
implication for women and men of any planned action, including
legislation, policies or programmes, in any area and at all levels. It is
a strategy for making the concerns and experiences of women as well
as of men an integral part of the design, implementation, monitoring
and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic
and societal spheres, so that women and men benefit equally, and
inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal of mainstreaming is
to achieve gender equality.
10) Mainstreaming includes gender-specific activities and affirmative
action, whenever women or men are in a particularly disadvantageous
position. Gender-specific interventions can target women exclusively,
men and women together, or only men, to enable them to participate
in and benefit equally from development efforts. These are necessary
temporary measures designed to combat the direct and indirect
consequences of past discrimination.
Transformation by Mainstreaming
1) Mainstreaming is not about adding a “woman’s component” or
even a “gender equality component” into an existing activity. It
goes beyond increasing women’s participation; it means
bringing the experience, knowledge, and interests of women
and men to bear on the development agenda. It may entail
identifying the need for changes in that agenda. It may require
changes in goals, strategies, and actions so that both women
and men can influence, participate in, and benefit from
development processes. The goals of mainstreaming gender
equality is thus the transformation of unequal social and
institutional structures into equal and just structures for both
men and women.
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Gender Mainstreaming Cycle
1) The gender mainstreaming cycle presented here can be adjusted to
different public policy/programming processes. The chart below refers
to the specific stages of the cycle and the necessary elements that
need to be given attention within each stage.
2) Specific gender mainstreaming methods and tools that should be used
within each of the cycle stages are also included. Some methods and
tools, such as consulting with stakeholders or providing gender
equality training to the actors involved, can be useful in more than one
stage.
3) Moreover, it is important to remember that when dealing with data
they should be sex-disaggregated. EIGE’s Gender Statistics Database
is a useful tool that can be used to find reliable, comparable and up-
to-date information on equality between women and men.

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Principles of Gender Mainstreaming
Responsibility for implementing the mainstreaming strategy is system-wide,
and rests at the highest levels within agencies, according to Carolyn Hannan,
Director of the UN Division for the Advancement of women. Other principles
include:
1) Adequate accountability mechanisms for monitoring progress need to

be established.
2) The initial identification of issues and problems across all areas of
activity should be such that gender differences and disparities can be
diagnosed.
3) Assumptions that issues or problems are neutral from a gender-
equality perspective should never be made.
4) Gender analysis should always be carried out.
5) Clear political will and allocation of adequate resources for
mainstreaming including additional financial and human resources if
necessary, are important for translation of the concept into practice.
6) Gender mainstreaming requires that efforts be made to broaden
women’s equitable participation at all levels of decision-making.
7) Mainstreaming does not replace the need for targeted, women-
specific policies and programme, and positive legislation, nor does it
do away with the need for gender units or focal points.
NB/
1) Gender relations in India (as everywhere else) are patriarchal-that

is , they reflect and perpetuate a hierarchy where women are
subordinate to men. Women’s subordination is reflected in inequality
and differences between women and men within the family and
community, as well as in all social, economic, cultural and political
interactions and relationships between people.
2) Patriarchal social structures and institutions are sustained and
strengthened by value-system and cultural rules which propagate the
notion of women’s inferiority. Every culture has its example of
customs which reflect the low value placed women.
3) Patriarchal makes women powerless in many ways-by convincing
them of their own inferiority to men; by demanding that they
conform to certain stereotyped ‘appropriate’ roles and behavior; by
denying them control over their own bodies, lives and labor; by

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limiting their access to resources and by restricting their
opportunities to participate in decisions which affect their own lives.
4) These different forms of control often operate to strengthen each
other, and have resulted in the exclusion and marginalization of
women from social, economic, political processes. Women’s
subordination is reflected both in women’s social-economic condition
(like their level of health, income and education), as well as in their
position, or degree of autonomy and control of their own lives.
Gender Mainstreaming entails:

1) Prioritization of women’s empowerment because of the much greater
discrimination against women.
2) Not only increasing household incomes but also increasing women’s
economic, social and political empowerment.
3) Challenging the root causes of gender inequality not just basic needs
4) Linking a grassroots participatory process with macro-level advocacy
and lobbying.
The mainstreaming strategy has been adopted as an approach in order
to strengthen the effectiveness of development cooperation in
addressing the situation of women and achieving progress toward
gender equality.
Case study: For UNDP gender mainstreaming means:

1) Emphasis on reshaping the mainstream rather than adding
activities forwomen at the margin: a consistent approach to
incorporating gender perspectives in situation analyses, policy and
programme development, programme appraisal, and monitoring.
2) Focus on gender equality as an objective, rather than women
as a targetgroup. This means going beyond the question: “how
many women participated?” to ask: “how can this policy or initiative
reduce disparities between women and men?”.
3) Ensure that initiatives not only respond to gender differences
but seek to reduce gender inequality. Gender differences
relevant to initiative should be identified, not only to improve project
efficiency but also to identify the inequalities that constrain women
from benefiting on an equal basis within men.
4) More attention to women’s organizations and the momentum
for change in partner countries. In almost all programme

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countries, women’s organizations have been active in assessing
issues and seeking for solutions.
5) More attention to men and their role in creating a more equal
society. Gender equality is not a” women’s issue” but a societal
issue. It has implications for men as well as women-and more men
need to be engaged in the search for solutions.
9.3 Improvements in Kenya concerning Gender mainstreaming

1) Kenya implemented a wide range of structural and economic reforms
during the past decade. In recent years, the doing business
environment and some governance structures have been improved.
However, the economy has been hit by security issues as well as
weak political stability and control of corruption.
2) The government has set a draft called the Employment Act
(amendment) Bill in 2015. Yet the International Trade Union
Confederation (ITUC) recorded that legislation has restrictions with
regard to strike actions and there is a lack of protection against
discriminatory measures by employers. These gaps in the legislation
make systematic violations of worker rights possible in practice.
3) The real minimum wage has increased steadily, but remains far
below the real mean nominal wage. The latter has experienced a
negative growth, though. It is important to realize that roughly eight
out of ten (79 percent) workers in the work force operate in the
informal economy, which is not legally covered by the minimum
wages. A worrying trend is that the proportion of workers with a
formal job is decreasing while employment in the informal economy
is increasing.
4) Kenya had a rising middle-class during the 1990s, but there are
indications that the evolution was stalled during the 2000s.This could
be related to an economic down turn that was provoked by currency
depreciation and a rapid increasing inflation in consumer prices
during 2008-2012. Generally, the labor productivity was lower than
the employment increase, which suggests that the economic growth
does not keep attempt to reduce the working poor.
5) The unemployment rates are significantly higher than the Sub-
Saharan Africa’s averages.

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6) Employment in the Export Processing Zones (EPZ) has been
increasing. On balance, the collective bargaining has not improved
working conditions for the workers. Many are only hired on a casual
basis. In addition, the use of temporary employment has a negative
effect on workers’ ability to unionize.
NB/
1) The Kenya is representing the lowest employment rate in the East
African Community (EAC). Among others, the workers’ participation
rate went through a negative trend during the1990s and it has stayed
stable at 67 percent in recent years. In contrast, the in activity rate
increased correspondently, reaching 33 percent in 2013.
2) Youth are especially confronting massive challenges to enter the
labour market. Overall, due to structural deficiencies, the labour
market is unable to create sufficient jobs in the formal sector just as in
the informal economy.
3) The education system is experiencing a fast influx of students on all
levels. However, the vocational training sector is under-prioritized and
remains under- developed with weak linkages between education and
training institutions.
9.4 Women Empowerment
1. Defined as women's level of control in decision making positions,

for control over the allocation of resources, the determination of
policy, regulations and laws. At the level of the society or the
nation, women's empowerment is here measured in terms of the
level of women's representation in higher level decision making
positions in public institutions.
2. This is a rather rough measure of women's empowerment: firstly it

is concerned only with national level decision making, and secondly
it overlooks the problem that some women may occupy public office
without actually exercising power ('token women'). By the same
token it overlooks the likelihood that some women are actually in

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background positions which might actually be very important in
determining public policy.
3. These limitations are typical of the price paid by using simple

'surface' quantitative indicators of gender gaps, without looking
more deeply into the underlying structure.
We here also distinguish between women's empowerment and
women's self-reliance, where the latter may be defined in terms of
the individual woman's ability to gain access to resources, and to
take decisions affecting her own personal life. (This is often - but
unhelpfully – termed 'empowerment' or 'personal empowerment'. It
is here given the term 'self-reliance' so that it clearly is
distinguished from 'empowerment' as defined above). The level of
women's self-reliance, relative to men, may be measured by such
indicators as levels of literacy and education, skills training,
ownership of land and capital, and access to credit.
4. Women's level of self-reliance is a measure of the extent to which

women are in a position to maximize their well-being, and control
over their lives, within the existing structure of gender inequality.
By comparison, women's level of collective empowerment is a
measure of the extent to which women occupy higher levels of
decision making in society, so that they are in a position to
challenge and change present structures of gender inequality.
5. The common failure to distinguish between empowerment and self-

reliance, and the consequent inter-changeable use of these terms,
leads to a failure to distinguish between two quite different forms of
women's advancement.
9.5 Affirmative Action-Definition of Affirmative Action
1) Affirmative Action is a program or policy that seeks to addresses
post discrimination through active measure to ensure equal
opportunities as in education and employment.
2) Women Affirmative Action policies. Spearheads the history
background for Affirmative Action in Kenya. The Affirmative Action
policy in Kenya recognizes development initiatives do not benefit
men and women equally because these initiatives have been
based on assumption of roles of men and women.

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3) In Kenya the Affirmative Action policy is embedded in the national
gender and development policy of 2000. This started with Kenya
ratifying CEDAWS (convention of elimination of all discrimination
against women)
4) The world women conference in Beijing launched the Beijing
platform of action while there was a serious objective that ought
to address discrimination of women in politics, social, and cultural
spheres. However the Kenyan government has been lax reluctant
in the implementing either of those convention. Honorable
Charity Ngilu trying to advocate for the women right in 1996 but
failed, also by Phoebe Asiyo in 1997, Beth Mugo 2000 and had
been cases of lobbing by civil societies such as Fida, Kenya
women political causes among others but failed,
5. Affirmative action refers to concrete steps that are taken not only to
eliminate discrimination-Whether in employment, education, or
contracting-but also to attempt to redress the effects of past
discrimination. The underlying motive for affirmative action is the
Constitutional principle of equal opportunity, which holds that all persons
have the right to equal access to self-development. In other words,
persons with equal abilities should have equal opportunities.
6. Affirmative action policy is a deliberate attempt at reforming or
eradicating discrimination on the basis of color, gender, creed and
geographical location. The intention is to provide equal opportunities to
all competing groups in society, including women and other marginalized
groups. This concept has also been referred to as preferential policies.
The policy has been implemented in many areas including education,
employment and grass roots development.
7. The extent to which affirmative action programs attempt to overturn
discrimination differs widely. Some programs simply institute reviews of
the hiring process for women, minorities, and other affected groups.
Other affirmative action programs explicitly prefer members of affected
groups. In such programs, minimum job requirements are used to create
a pool of qualified applicants from which members of affected groups are
given preference.
NB/ The interpretation and implementation of affirmative action have been

contested since their origins in the 1960s. A central issue of contention was
the definition of discriminatory employment practices that were not
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intentionally discriminatory but that nevertheless had a “disparate impact”
on affected groups were considered a violation of affirmative action
regulations.
Economic effects of Affirmative Action

1) Affirmative Action and access to education: Affirmative Action policy
has allowed women to increase their representation in a higher
education. Sex discrimination in colleges and university admission
was reduced
2) Affirmative Action and government employment: Affirmative Action

policy has resulted in substantial gains in public sector employment
3) Affirmative action and employment in private sector: Affirmative

action has had sustained effect on the private sector
4) Affirmative action and human resources management practices
5) Affirmative action and small business opportunities
Criticism of Affirmative Action

1) Some opponents say affirmative action devalues the accomplishments
of people who are chosen because of the social group to which they
belong rather than their qualifications. Opponents also contend that
affirmative action devalues the accomplishment of all those who
belong to groups it is intended to help, therefore making affirmative
action counterproductive.
2) Some people also feel that affirmative action is discrimination in itself
since it judges people by their ethnicity.
3) Opponents who sometimes call affirmative action “reverse
discrimination”, further claim that affirmative action has undesirable
side –effects in addition to failing to achieve its goals. They argue that
it hinders reconciliation, replaces old wrongs with new wrongs,
undermines the achievements of minorities, and encourages groups to
identify themselves as disadvantaged, even if they are not. It may
increase racial tension and benefit the more privileged people within
minority groups at the expense of the least fortunate within majority
groups.

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Examples Of Affirmative Action In Kenya
1. The 2/3 Gender Rule; not more than two-thirds of the members of
elective or appointive bodies should be of the same gender.
2. Lower entry points for girls to university.
3. Readmission of school girls after giving birth.
4. Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation.
5. Economic empowerment programs e.g. Uwezo Fund.
6. Free basic education and subsidized secondary education and colleges
and university.
7. Free sanitary towels.
Challenges facing the implementation of affirmative action in

Kenya.
 The patriarchal structures that enhance continued dominance of men
in all spheres, that is, the political, economic and social spheres.
 Lack of more role models especially female role models in the political
sphere to attract more women into the political field.
 Ignorance by women especially those in the marginalized areas as a

result of increased literacy levels.
 Lack of more reporting on cases of violence hence encouraging

perpetrators to continue with the acts of violence. This makes it hard
to curb the increased cases of violence.
 Discriminatory stereotypes and cultural practices that limit effective

implementation of the affirmative actions since they lag people’s lives
behind.

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Effects of affirmative action
Positive effects
2. Prevention of women from unequal political competition as a
result of reservation of certain positions for women by the government
e.g. based on the 11th parliament women representation has increased
from 9.8% to 19%. For a long time women’s participation in politics
has been hindered by the competition they have been getting form
their male counter parts in terms of availability of resources for their
campaigns,
3. Creates diversity. Affirmative action ensures that a diverse
environment can be achieved. This adds perspectives and experiences
to the environment which would not be present if the program was not
in place. Although some may say that artificially encouraging diversity
does not follow societal norms, in most instances, humanity is better
when we can learn from our differences instead of being comfortable in
sameness i.e. different genders bring in different ideas for economic
growth for instance women’s representation in employment and
especially authoritative positions enables them to bring on table their
ideas and experiences that will be beneficial to the organization.
4. It breaks gender stereotypes e.g. the one on women are not good
leaders, so that women can participate comfortable in leadership and
decision making bodies.
5. Increased literacy levels among women and girls;
Traditionally women and girls had less access to education due to the
cultural beliefs that they will be married off and take the resources and
take their resources with them their resources to the other families
and communities but through the affirmative action on education, girls
and women’s literacy levels have increased i.e. are able to attend
schools, acquire knowledge and skills as well as boys through

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competition and hence increased literacy levels among girls and
women in general and this has promoted equal opportunity between
men and women.
6. Special references is given to minorities to make up for the years they
have been discriminated against.
7. Promotes economic empowerment;
Affirmative action eliminate socio-economic differences and helps in
balancing he scales of income for example through the ILO 100, both
men and women are required to receive equal pay for equal work done
and this has seen women’s economic empowerment in that they have
had access to well paid jobs as men unlike before where they could be
found in lower paid jobs and men on highly paid jobs. Also this has
enhanced women’s recruitment in jobs and career development
through their promotion.
8. Reduced poverty levels among women.
This is a result of the ease to access loans and credits from banks,
which has enabled most of them to engage in business activities hence
improving their economic status and in turn reducing their dependency
on men. The funds put in place by the government have also helped in
reducing the levels of poverty associated with women. For example the
Uwezo fund.
9. Reduced violence against women.
As a result of the affirmative actions, violence against women has
gone down compared to before. This is as a result of the measures put
in place by the government that hold heavy punishments for the
perpetrators of violence against women. Also, sensitization of people
on the harmful effects of violence against women has taken place
which has enlightened people on the importance of enhancing peaceful

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coexistence. Reporting on cases of violence has also encouraged the
drop in violent acts against women.
10. Enhances access to education.
Through the government’s interventions, there has been multiple
positive changes in the education sector, which have brought about
quality and accessible education for both boys and girls. This is
contrary to before since only boys’ education was valued. Today, girls’
who had dropped out of school due to pregnancy are readmitted to
continue with their studies. Also, there is the entry into higher learning
institutions with two points lower for girls than that of boys. All these
has played a major role in ensuring girls’ too have an opportunity to
access education.
11. Improved sexual reproductive health. Women and men are
guaranteed maternal and paternal leaves during pregnancy which
gives them time to child nurturing and also allows for improvement in
their health status especially women are able to fully recover from
birth pain which has improved their reproductive health.
12. Improved living standards of women. Increased
opportunities to jobs, income and wealth acquisition among women
has created access to resources which has improved their standards of
living in that women are presented in hence development of oneself
13. Reforms and eradicates discrimination on the basis of
gender, color and geographical location and hence this provides
equal opportunities to all competing groups in society including women
and other marginalized groups and this policy has been implemented
in many areas including education, employment and grass roots
development. For instance the obligation to grant protective laws such
as a ban on night work.

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14. It stops stereotypes because in its promotion of diversity,
affirmative action can help to stop stereotypes since it creates
interactions between groups that may not choose to interact with each
other in real life.
15. It allows people to chase dreams that is; affirmative action
allows people to pursue a career that they may never have considered
without help from the program. There are significant gaps for women
in minorities in certain fields still today such as technology, health
care, that could potentially benefit from the diversity that affirmative
action promotes.
16. It can help to break the glass ceiling. When people are put
into an environment and treated as an equal, then it can stop the
various gaps that we see on our current society. Wage gaps have the
potential to go away.
-gender gaps can be reduced in certain industries and minority gaps
can be reduced because there are more opportunities available to
receive a higher education. These efforts can help to finally break the
glass ceilings that have held so many people back for far too long.
17. It reverses societal loss. Minority groups are at a societal
disadvantages because of their historical treatment. Through slavery
and oppression, minority households over the course of generations
have not had the same opportunities to build wealth and a program
like affirmative action can help those minority households begin to
reverse the societal losses they have experienced.
18. Affirmative action provides role models since successful women
encourage and motivate other women to be confident in knowing that
excellence can be achieved.

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19. Affirmative action creates organizational harmony, is socially just
and morally desirable, improves productivity and assists the
understanding of greater customer needs.
Negative Effect of affirmative action

1. Stigmatization. Affirmative action policies can potentially create a
stigma that minorities and women obtain positions in a company based
on gender, race, or ethnicity rather than through achievement and
qualifications.
-In the workplace, this stigma can translate into questioning the
competence of minority and women employees to do their jobs. The
stigmatization may also lead minority and women employees to
question why an employer chose to hire them.
2. It promotes discrimination in reverse. This comes when giving one

person preference over another especially women and girls because of
their minority status instead of their qualifications which is the wrong
perspective, especially in quota-based systems and through this it
promotes discrimination of one gender who are the men and boys
which becomes favorism among one gender.
3. It reinforces stereotypes. Anytime a program exists that allows

someone to obtain a position in a school or a workplace, a foundation
of minority-based stereotypes can be built.
-Even if people are qualified, affirmative action comes from the
perspective that women or the minority groups are inferior which
promotes a superior attitude from the majority class.

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4. Can cause bad diversity. Diversity can be just as bad as it can be
good. Diversity for the sake of having it provides little benefit to a
school or business there must be a purpose to seeking out a diverse
environment for it to be beneficial.
-When a program like affirmative action exists, the goal of the
program tends to slide toward meeting expectations or regulations
instead of seeking out highly qualified people and if that slide occurs,
diversity can hurt more than it can help.
5. It changes accountability standards. Equality means giving

everyone the same fair chance and instead of focusing in socio-
economic issues, it shifts the focus towards creating better educational
opportunities in every neighborhood, provide a better law enforcement
presence, start mentoring programs and offer more assistance to
those who need it and since affirmative action is reactive, this means
accountability standards change.
6. It lessens the achievements that minority groups obtain. This

comes in if someone receives a position because of a program of
affirmative action because their achievements are viewed as a result of
policy instead of personal skill and talent. This means people in
minority groups typically must work harder to achieve the same level
of respect that people in majority groups receive as they must counter
the policy perspective.
7. Leads to existence of personal bias. Despite the civil rights

movement, programs like affirmative action are numerous diversity
plans and the cycles are dominated by stories of racism, classism and
political polarization and there will always be a personal bias in place.

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8. Embezzlement of funds. Affirmative action requires resources for
them to be implemented and some people especially political leaders
have taken advantage of that to create wealth for themselves. Funds
have been diverted from the intended purpose and this costs the
country’s financially and the intended development will not take place
making the country not to make any progress.
9. Affirmative actions that favor women undermine the democratic
concept of equality of opportunity. Women should be given a chance to
compete for opportunities equally with men, without any favor.
10. Affirmative action lowers the self-worth and self-esteem of
women. This is because one does not know whether they have sailed
through because of their abilities and expertise or because of the
preferential treatment accorded.
11. It leads to loss of valuable talent which is an inevitable effect of

affirmative action in that people are promoted based on gender and
they might very well be placed in positions which they don’t have the
necessary skills required for that position.
12. It still perpetuates marginalization that existed before from

those in political or high positions who have a better bargaining power.
13. It undermines the achievement of minorities for instance the

reserved seats for women limits them to achieve their performance as
they are left to compete for one seat e.g. the women representatives
are only reserved for women.

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14. Affirmative action lowers the standards of performance and
delivery because people who have less qualification are given the
positions in contention. Had the positions been occupied by the other
qualified individuals, the performance would have been better.
15. Affirmative action undermines the principle of compensatory

justice. Compensatory requires that compensation be provided to the
specific individuals who were wronged or harmed. It is unjust for a
society to compensate a class of people for harm done to specific
individuals amongst them.
Topic Summary
In conclusion affirmative action is useful and has played a key role in

promoting equal opportunities for men and women, boys and girls thus
there is need for all institutions and organizations to be committed to
maintaining an inclusive environment which recognizes and values the
inherent worth and dignity of every person, fosters tolerance,
sensitivity, understanding and mutual respect among people in order
to reach the policies and programs to ensure that all persons have
equal access to opportunities
Discussion of the positive and negative effects of affirmative
action on entry marks to university

a) Describe the forms of affirmative action
b) Explain the benefits of affirmative action in society

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Further reading
World Bank (2011) ‘Mainstreaming Gender Equality in Infrastructure
Projects: Asia and Pacific Regional Meeting’, available at:
http://go.worldbank.org/ AUI0MGROG0

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Topic Ten: Gender budgeting and Gender planning
Introduction
Gender budgeting is a strategy to achieve equality between women and men

by focusing on how public resources are collected and spent. ‘Gender
budgeting is an approach to budgeting that can improve it, when fiscal
policies and administrative procedures are structured to address gender
inequality … When properly done, one can say that gender budgeting is good
budgeting’ (Stotsky, 2016) .
Topic Time

Learning Outcomes
 Define the term gender planning.

 Define the term gender budgeting
 State the importance of gender budgeting in society.

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Topic Content
10.1 Purpose and legal framework in gender budgeting

The Council of Europe defines gender budgeting as a ‘gender based
assessment of budgets incorporating a gender perspective at all levels of the
budgetary process and restructuring revenues and expenditures in order to
promote gender equality’.
The purpose of Gender Budgeting is three fold:
1) To promote accountability and transparency in fiscal

planning;
2) To increase gender responsive participation in the budget
process, for example by undertaking steps to involve women
and men equally in budget preparation;
3) To advance gender equality and women’s rights.
The EU legal policy framework for gender budgeting
Gender budgeting has a firm basis in the EU commitment to gender

mainstreaming expressed in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European
Union . The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union
have repeatedly called on the Member States to develop and implement
gender budgeting.
Gender budgeting can be applied at different levels
1) Gender budgeting can be applied to any type of budget

system at all levels of government.
2) Gender budgeting at central government level. Introducing
gender budgeting at central government level is important
because budgetary decisions on both revenue and
expenditure are made at this level. For practical examples on
how gender budgeting has been integrated at central
government level, please see the Austrian example.
3) Gender budgeting at regional and local government levels.
Regional and local governments’ proximity to people’s
everyday lives means there is potential to respond more
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directly to women’s and men’s needs when it comes to public
policy and service delivery. At these levels, there is great
potential to use participatory gender budgeting approaches
involving the local population. For a practical example, please
see the approach applied in Andalusia, Spain.
10.2 Enabling factors for gender budgeting
1) Effective implementation of gender budgeting requires

political commitment matched with a technical capacity for
gender mainstreaming. Engaged leadership is of particular
importance to ensure that gender equality is integrated into
the planning and budgeting processes and that public budget
revenues and expenditures benefit women and men equally.
2) Key enabling factors for gender budgeting include:
a) Political will and political leadership;

b) High-level commitment of public administrative
institutions;
c) Improved technical capacity of civil servants;
d) Civil society involvement;
e) Sex-disaggregated data.
How does gender budgeting work?

1) In order to put in place an effective implementation of gender
budgeting, some common elements should be present:
a) Analysis of budgets and policies from a gender perspective;
b) Linking gender budgeting to overall gender equality objectives;
c) Restructuring budgets and amending policies;
d) Integrating gender perspectives throughout the budget cycle;
e) Monitoring and evaluation of achievements;
f) Transparency of the budget process;
g) Participation in the budget process.
10.3 Gender budgeting approaches

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1) International experience shows that there are many different
approaches to implementing gender budgeting. The most important
approaches used in different gender budgeting initiatives are:
a) Mainstreaming gender perspectives into the whole process
of public finance management;
b) Integrating gender perspectives into performance-based
and programme-based budgeting;
c) Categorizing budget programmes and gender analysis
requirements;
d) Linking gender budgeting and participatory budgeting;
e) Tracking financial allocations to promote women’s rights
and gender equality;
f) Applying standard gender budgeting tools such as gender
aware policy and budget appraisal, gender disaggregated
public expenditure and revenue incidence analysis, and
gender responsive beneficiary needs assessments;
g) Wellbeing gender budgeting;
h) Combining gender budgeting with impact assessments.
NB/ These different approaches are sometimes combined. The list is not
exhaustive, as many tailor-made variations exist in actual gender budgeting
practice.
Why is gender budgeting important?

1) ‘Gender budgeting is not a special approach to budgeting or even an
add-on to budgeting. Rather, gender budgeting is an approach to
budgeting that can improve it, when fiscal policies and administrative
procedures are structured to address gender inequality and women’s
development needs. When properly done, one can say that gender
budgeting is good budgeting’ (Stotsky, 2016).
2) There are several important principles underlying a high-quality
budget process. Modern standards of public financial management
include principles such as performance orientation, transparency,
accountability, participation, etc., that can only be applied if a gender
perspective is integrated.
3) Accountability. Since an important part of gender budgeting is
analysing the impact of budgets on women and men, it is also
considered to be an important part of monitoring how the budget is
PAGE 121 of 127
working towards meeting gender equality goals in a country.
Researchers therefore consider gender budgeting to be ‘a mechanism
for establishing whether a Government’s gender equality
commitments translate into budgetary commitments’. Applying
gender budgeting will therefore make governments accountable for
their gender policy commitments. Here civil society and the media
play a crucial role in monitoring and holding the government
accountable for their budgets. The Women’s Budget Group in the
United Kingdom is a good example of this.
4) Transparency. If applied in a systematic manner, gender budgeting
can contribute to increasing participation in the budget process and
thereby also increase transparency. Increased participation in the
budget process can be achieved by establishing a practice of public
consultation and participation in budget preparation, or of public
participation in monitoring the budget.
5) Performance and results orientation. Results-based budgeting brings
strategic planning and public finance management closer together by
linking policy targets and objectives more closely with budgets. This
is done by defining targets, objectives and activities and establishing
a functioning monitoring system based on performance indicators to
measure progress towards reaching the objectives. A true
performance-oriented approach only happens when gender budgeting
is integrated in performance budgeting. This is because gender
budgeting provides evidence on performance from gender
perspectives that will promote the most effective and efficient
allocation of resources and implementation of policies.
6) Effectiveness. Gender budget analysis contributes to improved
information on the potentially different situations and needs of
women and men, as well as on distributional effects and the impact
of resources on women and men. Thus, gender budgeting provides
the basis for better and more evidence-based decision-making. This
in turn contributes to ensuring that public funds are being used more
effectively.
10.4 Gender Budgeting is a condition for sustainable and inclusive

growth in the European Union

PAGE 122 of 127
1) Gender equality is not just a fundamental human right: achieving
gender equality also brings tremendous socioeconomic benefits.
Several studies have shown that reducing gender inequality has many
positive effects and leads to higher growth rates, healthier children,
improved labour productivity and a more responsive government. [7]
Thus, gender responsive budgets, and related policies, will contribute
towards achieving gender equality and will simultaneously improve the
population’s welfare and lead to more sustainable and inclusive growth
and employment.
2) The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) has researched how
improvements in gender equality can contribute to sustainable,
inclusive and smart economic growth in the European Union. EIGE’s e-
study on the economic benefits of gender equality is unique in the EU
context. It is the first of its kind to use a robust econometric model to
estimate a broad range of macroeconomic benefits of gender equality
in several broad areas such as education, labour market activity and
wages. It also considers the demographic impact of such
improvements.
3) The study shows that more gender equality would lead to the
following:
a) Between 6.3 million and 10.5 million additional jobs in 2050 due to
improvements in gender equality by addressing gender segregation in
educational choices and increasing the participation of women in
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), with about
70 % of these jobs taken by women.
b) An increase in employment productivity and in the potential productive
capacity of the economy as a result of addressing the
underrepresentation of women in sectors with skill shortages and good
employment prospects such as STEM.
c) Positive GDP per capita impact that increases over time. In the EU,
improving gender equality would contribute to an increase in GDP per
capita of up to 9.6 % by 2050.
d) Individual gains of up to 12 % in GDP per capita by 2050 in EU Member
States with lower gender equality [8] if gender equality measures were
implemented.

PAGE 123 of 127
10.5 Gender Planning
1) The Moser Gender Planning Framework is a tool for gender analysis
in development planning. It was developed by Caroline Moser. The
goal is to free women from subordination and allow them to achieve
equality, equity, and empowerment.
2) Moser developed the Framework for a Gender and Development (GAD)
approach to development planning in the 1980s while working at the
Development Planning Unit (DPU) of the University of London. Working
with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a methodology for gender policy
and planning. Moser and Levy published A Theory and Method of
Gender Planning – Meeting Women's Practical and Strategic Needs as
a DPU working paper in 1986.[2] The framework is based on Moser's
concepts of gender roles and gender needs, and her views on the ways
policies should approach gender and development planning
3) Gender planning is not an end in itself but a means by which women,
through a process of empowerment, can emancipate themselves.
Ultimately, its success depends on the capacity of women's
organizations to confront subordination and create successful alliances
which will provide constructive support in negotiating women's needs
at the level of household, civil society, the state and the global system.
Gender Planning and Development provides an introduction to an issue
of primary importance and constant debate. It will be essential reading
for academics, practitioners, undergraduates and trainees in
anthropology, development studies, women's studies and social policy.
Overview of Gender Planning
1) The Moser framework follows the Gender and Development approach

in emphasizing the importance of gender relations. As with the WID-
based Harvard Analytical Framework, it includes collection of
quantitative empirical facts. Going further, it investigates the reasons
and processes that lead to conventions of access and control. The
Moser Framework includes gender roles identification, gender needs
assessment, disaggregating control of resources and decision making
within the household, planning for balancing the triple role,
distinguishing between different aims in interventions and involving
women and gender-aware organizations in planning. The framework
acknowledges a political element to gender planning, and assumes
that the process will have to deal with conflicts.
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2) The framework rests on three basic concepts: the triple role of women,
practical and strategic gender needs and categories of WID/GAD policy
approaches. The triple role consists of reproductive, productive and
community-managing activities. Practical needs are ones that, if met,
help women in current activities. Strategic needs are needs that, if
met, transform the balance of power between men and women.
Different categories of WID/GAD policy approach, which may or may
not be appropriate, include welfare (top-down handouts), equity, anti-
poverty, efficiency and empowerment.
3) The framework provides six tools.
a) Tool 1 identifies gender roles: what women, men, boys

and girls do in various productive, reproductive and
community-managing activities.
b) Tool 2 identifies the practical and strategic needs of
women.
c) Tool 3 defines an access and control profile for resources
and benefits of economic activity.
d) Tool 4 examines the impact that a new policy, project or
program will have on the three roles. A change addressing
one area may affect others in a positive or negative
sense.
e) Tool 5 looks at how welfare, equity, anti-poverty,
efficiency or empowerment approaches will address
practical or strategic needs. The approaches are not
mutually exclusive.
f) Tool 6 looks at way women and gender-aware
organizations and individuals can be involved in the
process.
10. 6 Limitations of gender planning and budgeting
1) Although widely used, the framework has been subject to some

criticism. The concept of gender roles may tend to obscure the concept
of gender relationships. It may give a sense of a stable balance,
acceptance of each person's normal activities and rights, when in fact
there is ongoing negotiation, conflict and compromise. The framework
does not consider evolution of the socioeconomic structure over time.

PAGE 125 of 127
The framework only addresses gender inequality and does not consider
other types of inequality such as caste, class or race.
2) Naila Kabeer has argued that the triple role concept obscures the
distinction between activity and outcome. For example, the outcome of
child care could be achieved by the mother at home, by a communal
creche or through paid private or state facilities. These are very
different in terms of their effect on women.
Topic Summary
In this topic we have learnt about gender planning and gender budgeting.
Additionally we have learnt that gender discrimination start at the point of
resources distribution ( budgeting).
1. Was there a gender balance in the last budget in Kenya?.
2. Who should be involved in gender budgeting?

a) Describe the terms gender budgeting and gender planning
b) Explain the application of Moser framework in gender planning.
References
"Tool Name: Moser gender analysis framework and gender audit". World
Bank. Retrieved 2011-06-16.
March, Candida; Smyth, Inés A.; Mukhopadhyay, Maitrayee (1999). A guide
to gender-analysis frameworks. Oxfam. p. 55ff. ISBN 0-85598-403-1.
"Moser's Gender Planning Framework". International Labour Organization:
South-East Asia and the Pacific Multidisciplinary Advisory Team.
Retrieved 2011-06-16.
Some of the Reasons Why People Resist Change Include
1. People are comfortable with things the way they are – they don’t want to be pushed out of
their comfort zones.
2. People worry that any changes will lessen their levels of productivity – they feel judged by
what they do and how much they do, and don’t want to take the time out necessary to
change plans or ways of doing things.
3. People don’t like to rush into change – how do we know that something different will be
better? They spend so long thinking about it that it is too late for useful changes to be made.

PAGE 126 of 127
4. People don’t have a “big picture”. They know what they are doing and they can see it is
working, so they can’t see any reason to change anything at all.
5. People don’t have a long term commitment to the project or the organisation – they see it
as a stepping stone on their career path. They don’t want change because it will delay the
items they want to be able to tick off on their curriculum vitaes.
6. People feel they can’t cope – they have to keep doing what they are doing but also work at
bringing about change. It’s all too much.
7. Fear of the unknown
8. Disrupted habits
9. Loss of confidence
10. Loss of control
11. Poor timing
12. Work overload
13. Loss of face
14. Lack of purpose
How can you help people accept changes?
1. Make the reasons why change is needed very clear
2. Take people through the findings and conclusions of the monitoring and evaluation
processes and involve them in decision-making.
3. Help people see the whole picture – beyond their little bit to the overall impact on the
problem analyzed.
4. Focus on the key issues – we have to do something about this!
5. Recognize anger, fear, and resistance. Listen to people; give them the opportunity to
express frustration and other emotions.
6. Find common ground – things that they also want to see changed.
7. Encourage a feeling that change is exciting, that it frees people from doing things that are
not working so they can try new things that are likely to work, that it releases productive
energy.
8. Emphasize the importance of everyone being committed to making it work.
9. Create conditions for regular interaction – anything from a seminar to graffiti on a notice
board - to discuss what is happening and how it is going.

PAGE 127 of 127

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EGERTON UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

Elias Waweru Ngotho

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

Introduction to the course

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html is the web site of the Virginia

http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php is another "How to study” web

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

There are TEN (10) topics in this course, namely:

Topic One: Introduction: Basic Gender Terms and Definitions

Course Learning Outcomes

Upon successful completion of this course, you should be able to:

Assignments/Activities are provided at the end of each topic. Some

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

 Timely submission of the assignments

Self-assessments are provided in order to aid your understanding of the

For each Topic the time required is as follows:

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

 Have at least two contributions to the topic discussion

By the end of this topic you should be able to:

 Define the term gender.

1.1 Gender definition of terms

a) Gender: The term describes the socially constructed

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

Teaching/ learning activities

Self assessment (not to be submitted)

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

Flow of communication and authority follow directions as stipulated by the

 Have at least two contributions to the topic discussion

By the end of this topic you should be able to:

 State various types organizational structures

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

2.1 Definition of organizational structure

 Organizational Structure is mainly defined as the

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

It is represented by a drawing known as an organizational chart. There are

To put it simply, an organizational structure is the plan of the hierarchy and

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

2. Line and Staff Structure

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

This kind of organizational structure classifies people according to the

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

5. Matrix Structure: This structure is a combination of function and

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

There are two more structures namely balanced/functional matrix and

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

8. Network Structure: In this structure, organization managers are

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

9. Team Structure: Organizations with team structures can have both

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

11. Horizontal Organization Structure

12. Vertical Organization Structure

13. Mechanistic Structure

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

Line and Staff Functions

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

GEDS 435: GENDER AND ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

 Have at least two contributions to the topic discussion

By the end of this topic you should be able to:

 Define the gender audit.